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TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING
Table 13-10
LOCATION

(Incandescent
Filament)

Same as Wind Tee

10-Watt, 115- volt,


S-14 bulb, medium-screw base

MENT AND USE

Tetrahedron

(Concluded)

TYPE OF LAMP

TYPE OF EQUIP-

Used to indicate
direction of landing or take-off
where traffic control is exercised.

13-53

COLOR
INDICATION
Red on
side,

left

green

on right side,
top edge,

and

SPAC-

MOUNTING

ING

Mounted on low
friction bearings
vertical shaft
for free rotation

on

with wind when


not controlled
from tower

tip

When swinging
free indicates true
direction

ground wind

Ceiling projector
Used to determine
cloud strata height

Runway

light (ele-

vated) Strip light


(elevated)

Used on runways
and strips to indicate the area
available for landing or take-off.

Threshold light

(ele-

At a known

dis-

tance from observation point,


usually 1,000 ft
10 ft out from edge
of runway paving
or strip, parallel
to strip or run-

way, opposite
each other and so
circuited that a

420-Watt, 12-volt,
G-25 bulb, mogul prefocus base

Across each end of

runway

in conjunction with and in


the same circuit
as the elevated
strip or runway
light to indicate
usable limits of
runway or strip

symmetrically
spaced in two
groups, one
group on each

Used

side of
strip,

or strip

runway or
perpendic-

30- or 45-watt, 6.6-

ampere,T-10bulb,

medium

prefocus
base; or 40-watt,

T-10
bulb, medium
prefocus base
115- volt,

mounted
beam

to direct

upward, usually
White on

full

length of runor strip,


except one-

way

Mounted on ground
with breakable

which

joint

will

yellow with-

give way if light


is struck
accidentally by an

in 1,500 ft of

airplane)]

half

white

and one-half

200 ft

or on a low base

each end of

runway
30- or 45-watt, 6.6-

Green

Mounted on

(see lo-

ampere, T-10
bulb medium

ground or on a
low base with

prefocus base; or
40-watt, 115volt, T-10 bulb,
medium prefocus base

way

ular to runway
or strip leaving

an 80-ft clearance
gap at center of

runway

Projector

90 degrees

single runway or
strip may be delineated as a unit

vated)

White

cation)

breakable joint
which will give
if

light

is

struck accidentally

by an

air-

plane. Maxiextension
30 in.abovesurface

mum

or strip \

a 500-watt lamp is used with a 24-inch beacon, an auxiliary reflector is required.


t Can be used only in special spherical or cylindrical beacon.
I Six are used with runway lights not more than 220 feet apart opposite each other, eight are used with
runway lights over 220 feet apart opposite each other. With strip lights, only six elevated lights necessary.
The landing path prescribed for low wind conditions (less than 5 knots) shall have the greatest number
of lights, or, in the absence of such a prescription, the longest landing path shall have the greatest number
* If

of lights.

As new installation: lights shall be located 10 feet out from edge of runway paving opposite each other.
As replacements: lights shall be mounted on top of flush runway light housings. Maximum extension 30
||

inches above surface for

all installations.

As reT[ As new installation, lights shall be located 10-feet out from edge of taxiway opposite each other.
placements, lights shall be mounted on top of flush taxiway light housings. Maximum extension 30" above
installation.
surface for any

ILLUMINATED RAILROAD SIGNALS


Illuminated signals provide one means whereby railroad operating personnel can "see" conditions affecting traffic and convey messages beyond
the range of ordinary unaided vision. The engineer perceives the lighted
signal by the same visual attentiveness with which he w atches the track.
7

Functions Performed by Light Signals

The information to be conveyed with the aid of light signals may be


considered in two general categories
1. Instructions covering a forthcoming movement or sequence of moves.
2. Identification and location of trains, switches, and other fixed installations or obstructions.

13-54

LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Representative
of
the function of con-

veying

and

identification

location informa-

tion, the switch light,

or a reflex device (such


as

shown

13-43),

in

enables

Fig.

the

trainman to locate a
switch at night, and

FIG. 13-43
switch marker

a.
c.

switch
amp.
Kerosene switch lamp
Electric

Reflex

tells

him by

its

color

whether the switch

reversed or normal.
certain territory

and

its

is

wayside signal locates for him the entrance to a


aspect indicates whether the way is clear to pro-

The

display of a red light in a signal indicates that a train occupies


the next block, or that a switch may be improperly lined, or that a rail
may be broken so as to interrupt automatic operation. The appearance
ceed.

of the light is similar to that of the red

FIG.
motive

13-44. a. Lococlassification

light,
b. Kerosene
marker lamp.

tail-

hand lantern or markers that must

every train. Two white classification


lights, such as shown in Fig. 13-44, displayed on
the front of an engine at night identify the train
as an extra.
Two green lights displayed in the
same location are used on all sections of a train
except the last, when a scheduled train is operated
with more than one section. Lighted marker
lamps, such as shown in Fig. 13-44, are used to
indicate the rear of a train at night.
Blue lan-

be lighted at night on the rear

terns

of

commonly serve to mark the

location of men

working under or about cars or locomotives and


warn against moving or coupling such equipment.

Wayside Signal Equipment


Wayside

had

nonilluminated mechanical
from a rope (from which the term
The modernized version
"highball," meaning "go ahead," had its origin).
of the old semaphore signal, has permitted continued use for daytime
indication of the long standard nonilluminated blade to which is added a
light which can be changed in color in synchronism with the blade position.
The kerosene lamps with which the early lighted semaphore signals were
equipped were satisfactory for night signals, but not bright enough, however,
In lighted semaphores the change
for daytime color-light indications.
of color is accomplished by mounting colored glass roundels in a spectacle
near the fulcrum of the semaphore arm so that different colored glasses
swing into position to intercept the white beam projected by the lamp
and optical system, with change of position of the semaphore blade.
signals

their beginnings in

devices, such as the ball suspended

TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING

13-55

*4

FIG. 13-45. a. Position-light signal, b. Color-light signal,


d. Searchlight -type of color-light signals.
light signal,

c.

Color-position-

With increased candlepoAver available in modern signal units utilizing


and improved lens design, it has become possible to depend upon visibility of the light for both day and night operation. To

electric sources

ensure contrast of the light with its surroundings in the daytime, a black
target or background surrounds the light wherever a signal must be viewed
There are three types of signals currently recognized by
at long range.
the Association of American Railroads (A.A.R.) which depend entirely

upon

lights.

These are: color-light

color-position-light signals.

signals,

position-light signals,

and

(See Fig. 13-45.)

In the searchlight type of color-light signal the change of color is accomplished by an electrically-controlled mechanism completely enclosed
The rays from an incandescent filament are colinside the signal unit.
At
lected by an ellipsoidal reflector which focuses them to a small spot.
this spot the rays pass through any one of three, colored, 1-inch diameter
glass disks mounted in a delicately balanced, pendulum-like spectacle.
An accurate lens system directs the light to cover the angle of approach.
The position-light signal is a type of wayside signal which does not depend upon color discrimination by the engineer. In this type, a number of
lamps (maximum nine) are mounted on a circular target: eight lights
arranged in a circle, one in the center. By operating three lamps at a
time, the aspect of the signal may be a vertical row, a horizontal row, or a
diagonal.
Each of the target lamps is focused by its own projector system
in the direction of the approaching train.
The color -position-light signal is a type which utilizes a combination of

Here
the principles of the color-light and the position-light systems.
on a target. These may be lighted in pairs:
vertical pair (green) horizontal pair (red) right and left diagonal pairs

also there are several lights


;

(yellow

and lunar white,

respectively).

13-56

E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

Locomotive Cab Signals

By suitable track circuits and electrical receiving equipment on locomotives, automatic signal lights inside the locomotive cab can be made
to show signal aspects corresponding to those of the wayside signals governing the train movement. This is useful in times of poor visibility
caused by atmospheric conditions or other obstructions.
Power Sources

for Lights

Complete dependability required of wayside signals has made necessary


operation on the most reliable independent-power sources possible. Therefore, primary or storage batteries are used most frequently alone, or as
standby for a-c service. However, many switch lamps at isolated wayside
locations and markers on the rear of trains are operated by kerosene
burners.
Oil Burning Signal

Lamps and Lanterns

The kerosene burner light source has an intensity of from about 1 to 3


candlepower, depending upon the size of the wick, flame, and draft conditions.
When used with a clear 5f inch diameter by 3| inch focal length
Fresnel (step) lens, such as
shown in Fig. 13-46, a kerosene burner produces an axial
beam of approximately 60
candlepower. The beam width
in this case is established

FIG.

Optical-type Fresnel (step)


Spreading-type lens. c. Fresnel-lenstype, hand-lantern globe.
lens.

13-46. b.

a.

tained with spreading lenses with vertical

by

the width of the flame and


may range from about 7 to
20 degrees for various types
of burners.

Additional spread

and lower candlepower is obfluted patterns on the outside

surface.

The Fresnel type of prismatic globe concentrates the light in a


beam with a maximum candlepower approximately seven
times that of the same lantern equipped with a plain globe. The vertical
horizontal

beam

divergence for the Fres-

nel

about 6 to 9 degrees.

is

tail-marker
Oil-burning
lamps, switch lamps, and semaphore lamps are equipped
with lenses. Electric hand
lanterns equipped with dry

,,^
b.

Electric

hand lantern.

.,

,.

lantern,

cells are in extensive use where


white light is required; however, kerosene lanterns are
standard where a colored indi(See Fig.
cation is needed.

13-47.)

TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING

FIG.

13-48. Centralized traffic control panel

13-57

with illuminated track model and

lever lights.

Signal-System Control Panels


In addition to the use of signal lights on trains and along the right of
way, there is another important category of light indications in a signal
system. These are the indicator lights on the panel from which an operaOn such
tor handles an interlocking, or centralized traffic control, system.
a panel the operator has before him levers that operate electrical relays
and signals along a portion of the rail line or yard. (See
Associated lever lights indicate the response of switches
Fig. 13-48.)
and signals to the positions of the control levers. Accompanying the
levers is a track diagram for the territory involved which is studded with
indicator lights that show when a train occupies certain sections of track
along the line.
for switches

Range of Light Signals

The range

of a railroad light signal is determined by its daytime visithan by its night visibility. The formula which is in general
use for relating the beam candlepower to the maximum range of a red or
bility rather

green signal

Range

is

in feet

where bcp

\/2,000 bcp
candlepower of the signal equipped with colorless

= beam

glass.

Yellow

will

have somewhat longer range.

The formula does not apply

to purple or blue.

By

use of this formula and the candlepower distribution curve of a


beam, it is possible to lay out a chart or plan that shows the ground
area over which this particular signal will be within visible range. This
signal range plan can be superimposed over a track plan to see whether
the signal would have visibility over the desired track approach to the
signal

13-58

E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

2000

RANGE

FEET

IN

Range chart for searchlight-type signal-unit with part


plan superimposed to show range of useful coverage.
FIG.

13-49.

of

a track

For convenience in using this method, signal manufacturing


companies have presented range charts on their various signal units with
a celluloid transparency on which is ruled a large number of representative
track curves which can be laid readily on top of the signal range charts.
signal.

(See Fig. 13-49.)

Lamps and

Relation of Voltage to

Beam Candlepower

Table 13-11 gives the 1,000-hour ratings, service ratings, and other
information relative to lamps used with searchlight-type color-light sigThe lamps are the precision, two-pin, candelabra-bayonet-base
nals.
The higher wattage lamps produce beams of high candlepower
type.
even when burned at the recommended reduced voltage, thereby obtaining average life well in excess of 1,000 hours.
The table shows the average axial

beam candlepower obtained with

lamp when burned at

its

recommended

lens combinations for each

voltage.

Light Control and Optical Considerations


It is important that signal-unit optical
systems be carefully selected and that each
signal unit be properly aligned so as to make

the most efficient use of the light available.


This is particularly important in daylight
signal indications but applies also to kerosene
burners and battery-operated lamps that give
night indications only.
A large variety of spreading and deflecting
types of lenses and auxiliary cover glasses are
in use for directing the rays toward the zone

FIG. 13-50. Dwarf searchlight signal unit with up-

ward deflecting roundels.

where a signal must be seen. A deflecting


element is necessary to enable an engineer
at very close range to see a signal which is
mounted very high overhead, as in Fig. 13-45,
or to see a dwarf signal which is close to the
ground, as in Fig. 13-50. A deflecting or spread~ e i emen t is necessary to provide visibility
,
,
,
i
along a curved track approach.

TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING
Table 13-11.

Essential Data on

Lamps

13-59

for Railroad Searchlight -Type,

Color-Light Signals
AXIAL BEAM CANDLE POWER

LAMPS

VOLTS

WATTS
8i-inch
Fresnel lens

81-inch

Compound

lens

1000-hr rating
Service rating

11.3
10.0

14.4
11.9

17,500

37,500

1000-hr rating
Service rating

9.0
8.0

15.3
12.8

16,000

34,000

1000-hr rating
Service rating

4.0
4.0

3.0
3.0

Not recommended

11,000

1000-hr rating
Service rating

10.0
10.0

5.0
5.0

Not recommended

19,000

By making the front surface of lenses and semaphore signal roundels


convex rather than flat, it is possible to scatter most of the external light
reflected from the front surface of the lens so that it w ill give negligible
interference with the function of the signal.
Frequently flat auxiliary
T

roundels inclined at specific angles, or other special means are used. The
incorporation of reflectors in the optics of a signal unit involves particularly careful analysis to guard against reflected external light.
Thus, a
light-directing system that may be entirely satisfactory for ordinary spotlight or other special illuminating purposes may be extremely dangerous
in a railroad signal since it can flash spurious indications.
Hoods or visors
projecting forward from light-signal units are always employed as an aid
in reducing reflection from the sky and as a protection against snow and
sleet interference.

Signal Colors

The colored elements in lights used in signaling systems in the United


States are with a very few exceptions covered by Association of American
Railroads specifications 59 and 69. The A.A.R. color specfications are
both as to the color of resulting signals and as to the color limit
samples that are to be used for inspecting colored glassware. These
specifications are defined in terms of the I.C.I, color diagram and in terms
of a set of primary glass color standards maintained in the National Bureau of Standards at Washington, D. C. That Bureau certifies and issues
duplicate w orking standards representing the permissible tolerance on

explicit

color variation of signal glassware.

(See Fig. 13-51.)

In color-light signaling, six distinguishable colors are considered posThe use of blue
sible
red, yellow, green, blue, purple, and lunar white.
and purple is very limited, because incandescent and kerosene light
sources are very low in output in the blue part of the spectrum; hence,
when the colored lens or roundel is put over the light, the resulting candle:

13-60
1

I'

E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

1
1

i
1

i~i

it

'i

1T1

1
|

iVi

i.

0.80

0.60
op.57
T3

0.50

0.50
'p J

&
,& n ?

*<t)0.58

"\

(LJ

=0.864 -0.783X)

2,360"

0.40

(y = 0.400)

(X

l,500*
^p. 60
s60^^>(y (X=0.44)
= 0.5.X +0 ,72)

0.330?-3^^

6,500X "EQUAL ENERGY

^^f

(y= 0.384)

O 0.49

0.20

0.10

47 ^

An?

0.46^'
Zlj

'

'

'

'

I
'

"'

Q?
0.80

FTG.

13-51.

Railway signal color specifications plotted on

I.C.I,

chromaticity

diagram.

power

is

Lunar white is the name assigned


by using a lens of light blue glass

low and the signal range short.

to the colorless indication obtained

which makes the

light appear a high color-temperature white instead of


the usual yellowish kerosene or incandescent filament color. Lunar white
thus provides assistance in distinguishing a white signal from ordinary
nonsignal lights along the wayside.
As is commonly understood, red is associated with the most restrictive
signal aspects, green with the least restrictive, and yellow with intermediate indications.
For the specific meanings of the many signal aspects
made possible by displaying two or more lights simultaneously, see the
Manual of the Signal Section of the A.A.R. (Association of American Rail-

roads).

The yellow used in position-light signals is a hue somewhat paler than


that covered by A.A.R. specification for yellow color-light signals or

TRANSPORTATION LIGHTING

13-61

This light yellow is distinctly different from nonsignal


Railroad-grade-crossing red warning lights are mainthe railroads and the color governed by A.A.R. specification.

lantern purposes.

wayside
tained

by

lights.

AIRPLANE HANGAR LIGHTING


To
sider

design an adequate hangar-lighting system, it is necessary to conboth the quality and the quantity of illumination required for the

various seeing tasks involved. Therefore, it is necessary to know first


the ultimate usage of the hangar, i.e., whether it is for storage or for
maintenance and repair. The values in Table 13-12 are considered to be

minimum

for efficient, safe,

and accurate work.

Equipment Selection
Direct lighting equipment generally is considered to be most practical
hangar areas. This class of equipment may be used with incandescentfilament, mercury- vapor-discharge, or fluorescent lamps.
When using filament- or mercury-lamp equipment, care must be taken
to avoid direct or reflected glare as these sources have a very high brightTo minimize direct glare, reflectors should shield the lamp as
ness.
indicated in Table 13-13.
To prevent reflected glare, open-type filament
or mercury units should not be used where the work surfaces have shiny
or specular surfaces.
Low-brightness luminaires are suitable where specular surfaces must be worked upon.
To obtain the best results from an installation Easy access to all lighting units should be provided by installing lowering hangers, catwalks,
or traveling monorail cranes.
Luminaires should be accessible even when
a hangar is full of airplanes.
A regular cleaning and lamp replacement schedule should be established.

for

Recommended Minimum Average Maintained

Table 13-12.

for Aircraft

PRINCIPAL OPERATION

Engine repair

FOOTCANDLES*

Radio repair
Recovering area

50
30
50
20
30
50
30

Storage

10

Frame

repair
Instrument repair

Paint shop
Plane maintenance (general)

Illumination

Hangars

The footcandle

(live)

values represent order of magnitude rather than exact levels of illumination.

Wherever possible and practical, the general lighting system should be


designed to provide adequate illumination.
When internal work or shadowed parts around the planes cannot be
satisfactorily lighted by the general lighting installation, supplementary
luminaires should be used.

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