Use the principal of electromagnetism as

the basis for conducting examinations.

Several other methods such as Remote Field
Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen
Noise also use this principle.
Eddy currents are created through a process
called electromagnetic induction

When alternating current is applied to the

conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field
develops in and around the conductor.
This magnetic field expands as the alternating
current rises to maximum and collapses as the
current is reduced to zero.
If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor.
Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that
flow in a circular path. They get their name from
eddies that are formed when a liquid or gas
flows in a circular path around obstacles when
conditions are right.

Figure 1: Primary field of test coil enters the test part generates
eddy currents that generate second field. Strength of the eddy
currents decreases with depth of penetration

Larger eddy currents are produced near the

test surface. As the penetration of the
induced field increases, the eddy currents
become weaker.
The induced eddy currents produce an
opposing (secondary) magnetic field. This
opposing magnetic field, coming from the
material, has a weakening effect on the
primary magnetic field and the test coil can
sense this change.
In effect, the impedance of the test coil is
reduced proportionally as eddy currents are
increased in the test piece.

A crack in the test material obstructs the eddy

current flow, lengthens the eddy current path,
reduces the secondary magnetic field, and
increases the coil impedance.
If a test coil is moved over a crack or defect in
the metal, at a constant clearance and constant
rate of speed, a momentary change will occur in
the coil reactance and coil current
This change can be detected, amplified, and
displayed by an eddy current flaw detector.
Changes in magnetic flux density may also be
detected by Hall effect devices, amplified, and
displayed on PCs and laptop computers.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of basic eddy

current instrument.

As shown in the figure 2, an AC generator is

used to drive the test coil. As the test coil
passes over various defects, the coil
impedance and AC voltage changes.
The AC voltage is converted to DC voltage by
a diode rectifier and compared to a stable DC
voltage of opposite polarity produced by a
battery.
With the meter properly zeroed at the start,
changes in coil voltage can be measured.

Impedance (Z) in an eddy current coil is

the total opposition to current flow. In a
coil, Z is made up of resistance (R) and
inductive reactance (XL).

Definitions:

Resistance - The opposition of current

flow, resulting in a change of electrical
energy into heat or another form of
energy.

Inductive Reactance (XL) - Resistance to

AC current flow resulting from
electromagnetic induction in the coil.

Impedance (Z) - The combined

opposition to current flow resulting from
inductive reactance and resistance.

In an AC coil, induction from

the magnetic field of one loop
of the coil causes a secondary
current in all other loops. The
secondary current opposes the
primary current.

Figure shows an eddy current test

coil located at distance A above a
conductive material.
The coil is considered to be an
"ideal" coil with no resistive losses.
The impedance of the coil in the
complex plane shown is a function
of the conductivity of the material
at distance "A".
If the material in figure was an
insulator, its conductivity (the
reciprocal of resistivity) would be
infinite. The coil's reactance would
remain unchanged at point "PI".
However, if the material is a
conductor, eddy current losses will
occur. The coil will signal this
change by increases in resistive
losses
with
a
simultaneous
decrease in reactance, and the
operating point of the system will
shift to "P2".

When the conductivity of the

material approaches infinity (a
superconductor), the resistive
losses will again approach zero.
With very highly conductive
materials, eddy current flow will
be very high and the strong
secondary field will reduce the
reactance of the coil to point
"P3".
Since
the
complex
plane
approaches a semicircle as
conductivity varies from zero to
infinity, it can be concluded that

the conductivity of a material has

the greatest effect on coil
impedance.
Coil impedance is dependent on
the vector sum of the coil's
inductive reactance and the test
part's resistance to the eddy
current field.

Another important influence on coil

impedance is the clearance or lift-off
between the coil and the conductive
material surface.
At great distances above the surface, the
field of the coil does not reach the
surface of the test piece or induce eddy
currents in it.
In this case, coil impedance remains
unchanged regardless of any conductivity
changes in the material.
However, as the coil approaches the
surface in the stepwise fashion illustrated
in Figure, stronger eddy currents are
induced in the material, producing the
family of impedance plane curves shown.
If A is held constant and conductivity
varies, a circular curve is produced. As
"A" approaches zero, the diameter of the
circle increases. Due to the need for a
wear surface, geometry, and finiteness of
coil, "A" cannot be actually zero

If the conductivity of the material is

held constant and "A" is changed, the
straight line from point "PI" to "A0" is
generated.
When attempting to measure
changes in conductivity, changes in
spacing or lift-off are highly
undesirable. In order to minimize
variations in lift-off, eddy current
coils may be recessed a short
distance into the eddy current probe
head, and the probe head may be
spring loaded to maintain surface
contact.
However, since the lift-off effect is
linear over a limited probe clearance
range, eddy current probes can be
designed to measure nonconductive
coating thickness over uniformly
conductive materials. Coil impedance
can be calculated for any known
combination of conductivity and
probe clearance.

So far, we have described how

eddy current resistance
(heating) losses, conductivity,
probe spacing, and defects
affect coil impedance; no
mention has been made of the
effect of frequency on coil
impedance.
We know that conductive
reactance and impedance of
the coil are affected by test
coil frequency in accordance
with Eq. (1):

XL=2fL ......(1)
where XL = the inductive reactance of the coil in ohms
, = 3.1416, f =
frequency in Hertz (Hz) and L = inductance in Henrys (H)

Equation (1) shows that both inductance and frequency directly affect coil
impedance. Thus, conductivity and frequency have exactly the same effect on
coil impedance.
Figure above shows the effect of holding frequency constant and varying
conductivity and vice versa. Assuming that material conductivity is reasonably
constant, we can use the frequency relationship to our advantage.

For a particular material

conductivity,
a
test
coil
frequency may be selected
that will create a favorable
operating point for detecting
flaws
while
differentiating
against
non-relevant
indications.

The frequency "fg" is the limiting frequency or the point where further
increases in frequency will not increase the ohmic losses in the test
material.
When material conductivity is known, optimum test coil operating
frequency can be calculated or determined experimentally.

In theory, the maximum eddy current testing speed is

determined by test coil frequency.
In turn, the test frequency selected determines the initial
impedance of the eddy current test coil; as operating
frequency increases, empty coil impedance increases.
If test frequency strength is held constant, the surface eddy
current density increases. Small discontinuities are classified
as high-frequency variables because they are isolating at high
frequencies. The relationship between coil impedance and
frequency is given by Eq. (13):
XL=2fL

where XL = inductive reactance of the coil in ohms

= 3.1416
f = test frequency in Hertz (Hz)
L = inductance in Henrys (H)

XL=2fL

As shown in Eq. (13), test frequency affects the inductance of the coil.
Lowering the test frequency increases the depth of eddy current
penetration. Lower test frequencies are typically used with
ferromagnetic materials because of their low permeability.

Frequency, temperature, material hardness, and permeability affect the formation

of the skin effect that limits the depth of eddy current penetration. At a fixed
frequency, eddy current penetration will be the greatest in a metal with the lowestpercentage International Annealed Copper Standard (% I ACS) conductivity.

For any given set of test conditions, there is a range of suitable frequencies
centered on the optimum test frequency. In modulation analysis, conductivity, part
dimensions, and defects modify frequency.
Chemical composition, alloy, and heat treatment changes produce low-frequency
modulation.

The oscillator section of the eddy current instrument controls the test frequency.
Proper selection of frequency, centering, and adjustment of phase obtain the
optimum sensitivity to a known defect.

The ratio of test frequency (f) to limit frequency (fg) provides a useful number for
evaluating the effects of various variables based on their impedance diagram.

The limit frequency, limit frequency equations, and impedance diagrams are
different for solid rods and thin-walled tubing. A change in f/fg ratio will cause a
change in both the phase and magnitude of voltage developed across the test coil.
The limit frequency is the frequency at which additional frequency which increases
eddy current losses. Limit frequency is defined when the mathematical function
describing the electromagnetic field within a part is set equal to one.
The limit frequency is also known as the "characteristic" frequency of the material.
If the characteristic frequency is 100Hz, the test frequency that is required for an
f/fg ratio of 10 is 1.0 kHz.

The characteristic frequency for a solid magnetic rod is calculated by

fg = 5060/d2
where = conductivity
= permeability
d = diameter of the rod

Aluminum tube having 30mm outer diameter

and 26mm inner diameter was inspected
using eddy current encircling coil of 0.9
filling ratio at frequency test ratio of f/fg =
10.
1-What is the actual frequency of test coil?
2- What is the eddy current depth of
penetration

Resistivity for Aluminum = 2.9x10-8

ohm-m, susceptibility (Xm)=2.07x10-5 and
uo= 4x10-7 H/m

In many cases, we do not

want to measure the effect of
probe
clearance
or
conductivity
on
coil
impedance. Instead we want
to locate and measure the
effect of discontinuities on
coil impedance and probe
output.
Figure shows the effect that
cracks and defects have on
coil impedance. When the coil
passes over a crack, the
impedance of the coil varies
by the value shown by the
vector point "PI".

A significant change in vector

direction occurs and the vector
points toward "P0" when probe
clearance changes. This change in
vector
direction
is
used
to
advantage by modern instruments
as will be described later.
The relationship shown at point
"P1" applies to a specific value of
conductivity. If the conductivity
value decreases to point "P2",
vector direction differences are less
significant and it is harder to
differentiate
between
the
impedance caused by the crack and
the impedance change that caused
by probe clearance.
The planar diagram shows that it is
more
difficult
to
distinguish
between defect indications and liftoff indications with low conductivity
materials.

Encircling coils are used more

frequently
than
surfacemounted coils.
With encircling coils, the
degree of filling has a similar
effect to clearance with
surface-mounted coils.
The degree of filling is the
ratio of the test material
cross-sectional area to the
coil cross-sectional area.
Figure shows the effect of
degree of filling on the
impedance plane of the
encircling coil.

For tubes, the limiting frequency (point where ohmic losses of

the material are the greatest) can be calculated precisely from
Eq. (2):

For most applications, two coils are employed where the primary (field) coil
generates the eddy currents and the secondary (pickup) coil detects the
change in coil impedance caused by the changes in conductivity and
permeability.
As previously discussed, the magnitude of the eddy current depends on
frequency of the field current, conductivity and permeability of the test
material, and geometry of the test part. Because of the skin effect (eddy
current heating), the depth of penetration of eddy currents is relatively small
and can be calculated from Eq. 3:

Depth of Penetration of eddy

currents

Eddy currents are strongest at the surface of the material and decrease in strength
below the surface. The depth that the eddy currents are only 37% as strong as they
are on the surface is known as the standard depth of penetration or skin depth. This
depth changes with probe frequency, material conductivity and permeability.

The Hall voltage produced is given in Eq. (4):

Tesla

Equation (4) holds true only when the semiconductor has an infinite length towidth ratio. For practical purposes, Eq. (4) reduces to eq. (5):

where k is a constant that combines the Hall coefficient, temperature, and

semiconductor geometry

Some hypothetical metal is known to have an

electrical resistivity of 4 X 10-8 (ohm-m).
Through a specimen of this metal that is 25
mm thick is passed a current of 30 A; when a
magnetic field of 0.75 tesla is simultaneously
imposed in a direction perpendicular to that
of the current, a Hall voltage of -1.26 X 10-7
V is measured. Compute the electron mobility
for this metal.

 For reliable flaw detection with eddy currents, various

forms of interference, such as coil clearance, must be
reduced and suppressed. The signal-to-noise ratio of
the eddy current system can be favorably enhanced
through the use of:

Probe design
Vector analysis equipment
Filtering techniques
Elimination of permeability variations in ferromagnetic
materials

The externally applied magnetic field, sometimes called the magnetic field strength,
is designated by H. If the magnetic field is generated by means of a cylindrical coil
(or solenoid) consisting of N closely spaced turns, having a length l, and carrying a
current of magnitude I, then
H=NI/l .......(6)
The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density, denoted by B, represents the
magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance that is subjected to an
H field. The units for B are teslas [or webers per square meter (Wb/m2)]. Both B
and H are field vectors, being characterized not only by magnitude, but also by
direction in space.

 The magnetic field strength and flux density are related

according to
B=uH........(7)
The parameter u, is called the permeability, which is a property of the specific
medium through which the H field passes and in which B is measured. The
permeability has dimensions of webers per ampere-meter (Wb/A-m) or henries
per meter (H/m).
In a vacuum,

Bo=uoH.......(8)

where uo is the permeability of a vacuum, a universal

constant, which has a value of 1.257 X 10-6 H/m.

The parameter Bo represents the flux density within a

vacuum.

Several parameters may be used to describe the magnetic properties of solids.

One of these is the ratio of the permeability in a material to the permeability in a
vacuum, or

Ur = u / uo....... (9)

where ur is called the relative permeability, which is unitless. The permeability

or relative permeability of a material is a measure of the degree to which the
material can be magnetized, or the ease with which a B field can be induced in
the presence of an external H field.
Another field quantity, M, called the magnetization of the solid, is
defined by the expression ,

B = uoH + uoM ........(10)

In the presence of an H field, the magnetic moments within a material tend to

become aligned with the field and to reinforce it by virtue of their magnetic fields;
the term uoM in above Equation (10) is a measure of this contribution.

The magnitude of M is proportional to the applied field as follows:

M=XmH ...... (11)

and Xm is called the magnetic susceptibility, which is unitless.The magnetic

susceptibility and the relative permeability are related as follows:
Xm=ur-1 ........(12)

A coil of wire 0.25 m long and having 400

turns carries a current of 15 A.
(a) What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field strength H?
(b) Compute the flux density B if the coil is in
a vacuum.
(c) Compute the flux density inside a bar
of chromium that is positioned within the
coil.

The susceptibility for chromium is 3.13 X 104. Take the permeability 1.257x10-6H/m

Coil

Eddy
currents

Coil's
magnetic field
Eddy current's
magnetic field

Conductive
material

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface

cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and
coating thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is
scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.