FME3 Ch08

Chapter 8: Lubrication, Friction and
Wear
...among all those who have wri>en
on the subject of moving forces,
probably not a single one has given
sucient a>ention to the eect of
friction in machines...

Guillaume Amontons
Greases are a necessary lubricant for many applications,

including rolling element bearings, for the reduction of
friction and wear. Source: Courtesy of SKF USA, Inc.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
2014 CRC Press
Surface Proles
Two common surface measures:
z
Mean reference
line
N
1
Ra =
|zi |
N i=1
Rq =
Figure 8.1: Surface prole
showing surface height variation
relative to mean reference line.

1
N
i=1
zi2
21
2014 CRC Press
Typical Surface Roughness

Roughness (Ra)
25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6
Mm 50
Min. 2000 1000 500 250 125 63
Casting
0.8
32
0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012

1
0.5
16
8
4
2
Sand casting
Permanent mold casting
Investment casting
Die casting
Forming
Average application
Less frequent application
Hot rolling
Forging
Extruding
Cold rolling, drawing
Roller burnishing
Machining
Planing, shaping
Milling
Broaching, reaming
Turning, boring
Drilling
Advanced machining
Chemical machining
Electrical-discharge machining
Laser, Electron beam machining
Finishing processes
Honing
Barrel finishing
Electrochemical grinding
Grinding
Electropolishing
Polishing
Lapping
Machine elements
Gears
Plain bearings - journal
Plain bearings - pad
Rolling elements
Rolling bearings - races

Figure 8.2: Typical arithmetic

average surface roughness
(Ra) for various
manufacturing processes and
machine components. Source:
Adapted from Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2010] and
Hamrock, et al. [2004].
2014 CRC Press
Conformal and Nonconformal

Journal
Sleeve
Figure 8.3: Conformal surfaces.

Figure 8.4: Nonconformal surfaces.
2014 CRC Press
W
Solid a
ray
rax
y
x
Eective radius:
1
1
1
=
+
R
Rx
Ry
where
rby
rbx
Nonconformal
Geometry
1
1
1
=
+
Rx
rax
rbx
Solid b
Figure 8.5: Geometry of contacting

elastic solids.

1
1
1
=
+
Ry
ray
rby
Radius ratio:
Ry
r =
Rx
2014 CRC Press
Sign Convention
Sphere
Cylinder
rax
Conic frustum
rax
Barrel shape
rax
Concave shape
rax
rax = ray = r > 0
ray
rax > 0, ray =
ray
rax > 0, ray =
Radial inner
Radial outer
ray
rax > 0, ray > 0
ray
rax > 0, ray < 0
(a)
Thrust
Ri
rby
rby
rby
rbx
rbx
rbx
rbx > 0, rby < 0
rbx > 0, rby < 0
rbx < 0, rby < 0
Cylindrical inner
Cylindrical outer
rby
(b)
Thrust
Ri
rby
_<`
rby
rbx
rbx
rbx
rbx > 0, rby < 0
rbx > 0, rby =
rbx < 0, rby =
(c)
Figure 8.6: Sign designations for radii of curvature. (a) Rolling elements; (b) ball
bearing races; (c) rolling bearing races.

2014 CRC Press
Her_ Pressure Distribution

Pressure distribution:
D
x
2
x
pmax
pH = pmax 1
p
Dy
2
y
Figure 8.7: Pressure distribution in

ellipsoidal contact.

2x
Dx
2y
Dy
2 12
where pmax is the central pressure:

pmax =
6W
Dx Dy
Note: no general solution, only

particular solutions for point and
line contacts.
2014 CRC Press
Simplied Contact Equations

Dene the ellipticity parameter as: ke = r2/
The contact diameters are:
Dy = 2
Dx = 2
The maximum deection is:

max = F
where
E =
6ke2 EW R
E
6EW R
ke E
9
2ER
13
13
W
ke E
2 13
(1 a2 ) (1 b2 )
+
E
Eb
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rdaed.
2014 CRC Press
Simplied Contact
4
10
Ellipticity parameter ke
Elliptic integral E
4
Elliptic integral F
1
0
12 16 20 24
Radius ratio, _r
28
Ellipticity parameter, ke
Elliptic integrals, E and F
32
Figure 8.8: Variation of ellipticity

parameter and elliptic integrals of
rst and second kinds as function of
radius ratio.

Property
Radius ratio range

0.01 _r 1.0
1 _r 100
y
Dy
Dy
2
x
Geometry
x
Dx
Dx
Ellipticity ratio
Elliptic integrals
2
k e = _r
=
+
< 1 ln _r
2
2
< 2
=1+
2_r
2
k e = _r
=
<
< 1 ln _r
2
2
=1+
< 1 _r
2
Table 8.1: Simplied elliptical

contact equations. Source: From
Hamrock and Brewe [1983].
2014 CRC Press
Rectangular (Line) Contacts

The Her_ solution for Rectangular contacts is as follows. The contact
semiwidth is:
1
2
8W
b = Rx
The dimensionless load is
w
W =
E Rx
The maximum deection is
2W Rx
2
max =
ln
1 .
W
The maximum contact pressure, or Her_ pressure, is:
12
W
pmax = E
.
2

2014 CRC Press
Metallic Bearing Materials

Alloy
number
1
2
3
7
8
Nominal composition, percent

Sn
91.0
89.0
84.0
10.0
5.0
Sb
4.5
7.5
8.0
15.0
15.0
Pb
74.55
79.55
Cu
4.5
3.5
8.0
As
0.45
0.45
6SHFLF
gravity
7.34
7.39
7.46
9.73
10.04
Yield
strength,
MPa
20 C
100 C
30.3
18.3
42.0
20.6
45.4
21.7
24.5
11.0
23.4
12.1
Compressive
strength,
MPa
20 C
100 C
88.6
47.9
102.7
60.0
121.3
68.3
107.9
42.4
107.6
42.4
Brinell
hardness
20 C
100 C
17.0
8.0
24.5
12.0
27.0
14.5
22.5
10.5
20.0
9.5
Table 8.2: Physical and mechanical properties of selected white metal bearing alloys.
Source: From Hamrock et al. [2004].
Material
Copper lead
High-lead tin bronze
Semiplastic bronze
Leaded red bronze
Bronze
Phosphor bronze
Gunmetal
Navy G
Leaded gunmetal
Aluminum bronze
Designation
SAE 480
AMS 4840
SAE 67
SAE 40
SAE 660
SAE 64
SAE 62
SAE 620
SAE 63
ASTM B148-52-9c
Brinell
hardness
25
48
55
60
60
63
65
68
70
195
Tensile
strength,
MPa
55.2
172.5
207
242
242
242
310
276
276
621
Maximum
temperature,
C
177
204
232
232
232
232
260
260
260
260
Allowable
stress,
MPa
13.8
20.7
20.7
24.2
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
31.1
Table 8.3: Mechanical properties of selected bronze and copper alloy bearing
materials. Source: Abstracted from Hamrock, et al.~[2004].

2014 CRC Press
Non-metallic Bearing Materials

Material
Carbon graphite
Phenolics
Nylon
PTFE (THRQ
Reinforced PTFE
PTFE fabric
Polycarbonate /H[DQ
Acetal resin 'HOULQ
Rubber
Wood
Allowable
stress,
MPa
4.1
41.4
6.9
3.4
17.2
414.0
6.9
6.9
0.34
13.8
Maximum
temperature,
C
399
93
93
260
260
260
104
82
66
66
Maximum
speed,
m/s
12.7
12.7
5.1
.51
5.1
.25
5.1
5.1
7.6
10.2
pu
limit,
N/m-s
525 10 3
525 10 3
105 10 3
35 10 3
350 10 3
875 10 3
105 10 3
105 10 3
525 10 3
525 10 3
Table 8.4: Limits of application of nonmetallic bearing materials.

2014 CRC Press
Bearing Materials and Forms

Bearing material
Backing material
Lining
material
(a)
(b)
(c)
Phenolic
staves
Phenolic
liner
(a)
Graphite filling
(b)
Bronze
Carbon-graphite filler
(d)
(e)
(c)
Figure 8.9: Phenolic laminate bearings.

(a) Tubular bearing; (b) circumferentially
laminated bearing; (c) axially laminated
bearing; (d) stave bearing; (e) molded
bearing. Source: From Hamrock, et al.
[2004].

(d)
Figure 8.10: Dierent forms of bearing

surfaces. (a) Solid bearing; (b) lined
bearing; (c) lled bearing; (d) shrink-t
bearing.
2014 CRC Press
Viscosity
Viscosity:
ub
Friction force
ub
F
u
Area A
F/A
Shear stress
=
ub /h
Shear strain rate
Figure 8.11: Slider bearing illustrating

absolute viscosity.

Viscosity depends on:

Pressure
Temperature
Shear strain rate
2014 CRC Press
Viscosity Conversion Factors

To convert
from
To
cP
cP
kgf-s/m2
N-s/m2
reyn, or lb-s/in.2
1
9.807 103
10 3
6.90 106
N-s/m2
kgf-s/m2
Multiply by
1.02 10-4
10-3
1
9.807
-1
1
1.02 10
2
7.03 10
6.9 103
lb-s/in.2
1.45 10-7
1.422 10-3
1.45 10-4
1
Table 8.5: Absolute viscosity conversion factors.

2014 CRC Press
Temperature, tm, F
40
100
200
400
600
800
Fluid
Viscosities
1000
LB 550 X
103
104
Polypropylene glycol
derivatives
LB 100 X
Polymethyl siloxanes
(silicones)
DC 500 A
102
10
Halocarbons
Fluorolube
FCD331
Mercury
107
101
DC 200 E
Crude oil
(specific gravity,
0.855)
Kerosene
106
Gasoline
(specific gravity,
0.748)
100
Water
plus 23%
NaCl
Octane
Gasoline
(specific gravity, 0.680)
Navy
Symbol
2135
Water
20.7 MPa
(3000 psi)
108
101
Superheated steam
(14.7 psig)
Air
6.9 MPa
(1000 psi)
Saturated steam
109
40
Hydrogen
0
Absolute viscosity, d, cP
Absolute viscosity, d, lbf-s/in.2
Fluorolube light grease
100
200
300
400
500
102
Figure 8.12: Absolute

viscosities of a number of
uids for a wide range of
temperatures.
Temperature, tm, C

2014 CRC Press
Viscosity of Fluids
Fluid
Advanced ester
Formulated advanced ester
Polyalkyl aromatic
Synthetic parafQLc oil
plus antiwear additive
C-ether
SuperrHQHd napthenic mineral oil
Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction XLG
Fluorinated polyether
Absolute viscosity
at p = 0 ,
, N-s/m 2
Temperature, C
38
99
149
0.0253
0.00475
0.00206
0.0276
0.00496
0.00215
0.0255
0.00408
0.00180
0.375
0.0347
0.0101
0.375
0.0347
0.0101
Kinematic viscosity at p = 0
,
2
m /s
Temperature, C
38
99
149
5
2.58 10
0.51 10
0.23 10 5
5
2.82 10
0.53 10
0.24 10 5
5
3.0 10
0.50 10
0.23 10 5
5
44.7 10
4.04 10
1.3 10 5
44.7 10 5
4.04 10 5
1.3 10 5
0.0295
0.0681
0.0343
0.181
2.5 10 5
7.8 10 5
3.72 10 5
9.66 10 5
0.00467
0.00686
0.00353
0.0202
0.00220
0.002.74
0.00162
0.00668
0.41
0.82
0.40
1.15
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
0.20 10 5
0.33 10 5
0.19 10 5
0.4 10 5
Table 8.6: Absolute and kinematic viscosities of various uids at atmospheric

pressure and dierent temperatures. Source: From Jones, et al. [1975].

2014 CRC Press
Pressure-Viscosity Coecients
Fluid
Advanced ester
Formulated advanced ester
Polyalkyl aromatic
plus antiwear additive
C-ether
SuperrHQHd napthenic mineral oil
Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction XLG
Fluorinated polyether
Temperature, C
38
99
149
Pressure-viscosity coefFLHQW
, m2 /N
1.28 10 8
0.987 10 8
0.851 10 8
1.37 10 8
1.00 10 8
0.874 10 8
8
1.58 10
1.25 10
1.01 10 8
1.99 10 8
1.51 10 8
1.29 10 8
1.96 10 8
1.55 10 8
1.25 10 8
1.80
2.51
3.12
4.17
10 8
10 8
10 8
10 8
0.980 10 8
1.54 10 8
1.71 10 8
3.24 10 8
0.795 10 8
1.27 10 8
0.939 10 8
3.02 10 8
Table 8.7: Pressure-viscosity coecients of various uids at dierent temperatures.

Source: From Jones, et al. [1975].

2014 CRC Press
Single Grade Oils

10
4
2
1
0.4
Absolute viscosity, d, N-s/m2
0.2
0.1
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
SAE 70
0.01
60
50
0.005
0.004
30
0.003
0.002
10
40
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature, C
90
100
110
120
130 140
(a)
Figure 8.13: Absolute viscosities of SAE lubricating oils at atmospheric pressure. (a)
Single grade oils;

2014 CRC Press
Multigrade Oils
10
4
2
1
0.4
Absolute viscosity, d, N-s/m2
0.2
0.1
0.06
0.04
0.03
20W-50
10W-30
0.02
20W-40
0.01
20W
5W-30
0.005
0.004
10W
0.003
0.002
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature, C
90
100
110
120
130 140
(b)
Figure 8.13: Absolute viscosities of SAE lubricating oils at atmospheric pressure. (b)
multigrade oils.

2014 CRC Press
Viscosity of Single Grade Oils
C1 exp
C1 exp
SAE Grade
10
20
30
40
50
60
C2
tF + 95
C2
1.8tC + 127
English units
S.I. units
Constant C 1
reyn
N-s/m2
1.58 10 8
1.09 10 4
1.36 10 8
9.38 10 5
1.41 10 8
9.73 10 5
1.21 10 8
8.35 10 5
1.70 10 8
1.17 10 4
1.87 10 8
1.29 10 4
Constant C 2
1157.5
1271.6
1360.0
1474.4
1509.6
1564.0
Table 8.8: Curve t data for SAE single grade oils for use in Eq. (8.26). Source: From
Seirig and Dandage [1982].

2014 CRC Press
Regimes of Lubrication
Film parameter:
Boundary film
Bulk lubricant
=
(a)
(b)
hmin
2 + R2
Rqa
qb
12
(c)
Figure 8.14: Regimes of lubrication. (a) Fluid lm

lubrication - surfaces completely separated by bulk
lubricant lm. This regime is sometimes further
classied as thick or thin lm lubrication; (b)
partial lubrication - both bulk lubricant and
boundary lm play a role; (c) boundary lubrication
- performance depends essentially on a boundary
lm.

Note:
Boundary lubrication, < 1
Partial lubrication, 1 < 3
Hydrodynamic lubrication,
3
Elastohydrodynamic
lubrication},
3 < 10
2014 CRC Press
Lubrication Eect
10
10 1
Boundary
Elastohydrodynamic
10 2
10 3
Seizure
Unlubricated
Hydrodynamic
Wear rate
Coefficient of friction, +
Severe wear
Hydrodynamic
Elastohydrodynamic
Unlubricated
Boundary
Relative load
10 4
Figure 8.15: Bar diagram showing

coecient of friction for various
lubrication conditions. Source: From

Figure 8.16: Wear rate for various

lubrication regimes. Source: From
Beerbower [1972].
2014 CRC Press
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
W
ub
wa
h min
pa
ub
ps
Conformal surfaces
pmax 5 MPa
h min = f (W, ub, d0, Rx , Ry) > 1 +m
No elastic effect
Figure 8.17: Characteristics of

hydrodynamic lubrication. Source:
From Hamrock, et al. [2004].

(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 8.18: Mechanisms of pressure

development for hydrodynamic lubrication.
(a) Slider bearing; (b) squeeze lm bearing; (c)
externally pressurized bearing. Source: From
2014 CRC Press
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
W
ub
h min
Nonconformal surfaces
High-elastic-modulus material.
(e.g., steel)
pmax 0.5 to 4 GPa
h min = f (W, ub, d0 , Rx , Ry , E, j)>0.1 +m
Elastic & viscous effects both important
Figure 8.19: Characteristics of hard

elastohydrodynamic lubrication.

h min
Nonconformal surfaces (e.g., rubber)
pmax 0.5 to 4 MPa
h min = f (W, ub, d0 , Rx , Ry , E) 1 +m
Elastic effects predominate
Figure 8.20: Characteristics of

softelastohydrodynamic lubrication.
2014 CRC Press
Material
Self-mated metals iQ air
Gold
Silver
Tin
Aluminum
Copper
Indium
Magnesium
Lead
Cadmium
Chromium
Pure metals DQd alloys VOLGLQJ
oQ steel (0.13% FDUERQ) iQ air
Silver
Aluminum
Cadmium
Copper
Chromium
Indium
Lead
Copper - 20% lead
Whitemetal (tin based)
Whitemetal (lead based)
_-brass (copper - 30% zinc)
Leaded _/` brass (copper - 40% zinc)
Gray cast iron
Mid steel (0.13% carbon)
CoefFLHQW
of IULFWLRQ
2.5
0.8-1
1
0.8-1.2
0.7-1.4
2
0.5
1.5
0.5
0.4

0.5
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.5
2
1.2
0.2
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.8
Friction
Values
Table 8.9: Typical coecients of

friction for combinations of
unlubricated metals in air.
2014 CRC Press
Sliding and Rolling Friction

W
W
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.21: Friction force in (a) sliding and (b) rolling.

2014 CRC Press
Adhesive and Abrasive Friction

Small spot welds
Transferred softer metal
Asperity
e
F
L
Figure 8.22: Conical asperity having

mean angle plowing through a
softer material. Also simulates
abrasive wear.

Intimate contact between metals

of two opposing surfaces
Figure 8.23: Adhesive wear model.
2014 CRC Press
Wear Coecients
Archard Wear Law: v = k1
RubbLQg materLals
Gold on gold
Copper on copper
Mild steel on mild steel
Brass on hard steel
Lead on steel
3RO\WHWUDXRroethylene WHRQ) on steel
Stainless steel on hard steel
TXQJVWHn carbide on WXQJVWHn carbide
Polyethylene on steel
WL
3H
CoefFLHQt of
frLFtLoQ,
2.5
1.2
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.35
0.5
$GKHVLYe wear
FRHfFLHQW k1
0.1-1
0.01-0.1
10-2
10-3
2 10-5
2 10-5
2 10-5
10-6
5 10-8
Table 8.10: Coecients of rubbing friction and adhesive wear constant for nine
rubbing materials.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Wear
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Figure 8.24: Fatigue wear

simulation. (a) Machine element
surface is subjected to cyclic
loading; (b) defects and cracks
develop near the surface; (c) the
cracks grow and coalesce,
eventually extending to the
surface until (d) a wear particle
is produced, leaving a fatigue
spall in the material.
2014 CRC Press
Orthopedic Implants
Femur
Femoral component
Acetabulum
Acetabular cup
Femoral head
Patella
Femoral stem
Liner (metal)
UHMWPE
articulating
surface
Tibial plate
Femur
Fibula
Tibia
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.25: Examples of common orthopedic implants. (a) Total hip replacement,
using a metal-on-metal interface Source: Courtesy DePuy, Inc.; (b) total knee
replacement using a metal-on-polymer interface. Source: Courtesy Zimmer, Inc.

2014 CRC Press

FME3 Ch08

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Chapter 8: Lubrication, Friction and

Greases are a necessary lubricant for many applications,

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Typical Surface Roughness

0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 8.2: Typical arithmetic

2014 CRC Press

Conformal and Nonconformal

Figure 8.3: Conformal surfaces.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 8.4: Nonconformal surfaces.

2014 CRC Press

Figure 8.5: Geometry of contacting

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

rax = ray = r > 0

rbx > 0, rby < 0

rbx < 0, rby < 0

rbx > 0, rby =

rbx < 0, rby =

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Her_ Pressure Distribution

Figure 8.7: Pressure distribution in

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

where pmax is the central pressure:

Note: no general solution, only

Simplied Contact Equations

The maximum deection is:

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Elliptic integrals, E and F

Figure 8.8: Variation of ellipticity

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Radius ratio range

Table 8.1: Simplied elliptical

2014 CRC Press

Rectangular (Line) Contacts

The dimensionless load is

The maximum deection is

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Metallic Bearing Materials

Nominal composition, percent

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Non-metallic Bearing Materials

Table 8.4: Limits of application of nonmetallic bearing materials.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Bearing Materials and Forms

Figure 8.9: Phenolic laminate bearings.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 8.10: Dierent forms of bearing

2014 CRC Press

Figure 8.11: Slider bearing illustrating

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Viscosity depends on:

2014 CRC Press

Viscosity Conversion Factors