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To cite this article: Vandick S. Batista , Nidia N. Fabr , Ana C. M. Malhado & Richard J. Ladle (2014) Tropical Artisanal
Coastal Fisheries: Challenges and Future Directions, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 22:1, 1-15
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2013.822463
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Institute of Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Alagoas, Maceio, Alagoas, Brazil
School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Artisanal fisheries occur all over the tropics and provide an important source of protein and income for many coastal
communities. However, varied types and magnitudes of anthropogenic impacts threaten the environmental, economic, and
socio-cultural sustainability of this poorly studied fishing practice. This article reviews the scattered literature on tropical
artisanal coastal fisheries, identifying key challenges to ensure future sustainability. Despite huge data shortfalls, there is
considerable evidence that artisanal fisheries have a significant influence on the distribution and abundance of target and
by-catch species, in addition to wider impacts on biodiversity, biomass, assemblage structure, community dynamics, and
ecosystem functioning. Despite these immediate and considerable threats, regulation and management of artisanal fisheries
are problematic. Local communities in the coastal tropics are frequently very poor, and families frequently rely on fishing
for food security and income. Ensuring social and environmental sustainability therefore entails models of governance that
are able to adaptively manage these complex socio-ecological systems. Such models are being developed, but it is unclear
whether there are sufficient resources and technical capacity to widely implement them before the widespread collapse of
fisheries with potentially serious consequences for the communities that rely on them.
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to discuss artisanal fisheries without first addressing the issue of definitions and, more specifically, the perceived differences between artisanal fishing and small-scale
fishing. Although these two terms are frequently used interchangeably in the literature, there is a subtle difference of emphasis: whereas artisanal fishing implies a degree of simplicity
or tradition (artisanality) in the chosen fishing method (e.g., simple traps, poisons, harpoons, lures and, at the most basic level,
hand collection), the term small-scale fisheries typically implies
nothing about gear or methods, focusing almost exclusively on
the size of the fishing unit/operationin practical terms, often
operationalized in terms of the size of the boat.
Many definitions combine both these elements (artisanality
and size of the fishing operation). For example, the FAO glos-
Address correspondence to Ana C. M. Malhado, Institute of Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Alagoas, Av. Lourival Melo
Mota, s/n, Tabuleiro do Martins, Maceio, AL, 57072-900, Brazil. E-mail:
anaclaudiamalhado@gmail.com
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V. S. BATISTA ET AL.
Figure 2 Relationship between yield and species diversity (after Regier and
Henderson, 1973).
investment (Carvalho et al., 2011). The close concordance in official definitions of artisanal/small-scale fisheries (Chuenpagdee
et al., 2006) also suggests that the commonalities are sufficient
to make a synthetic review of artisanal fishing meaningful. Ultimately, and in the absence of constraints on economic development, the scale of the fisheries may be closely related to type of
fisheries resource being exploited. Thus, industrial/large-scale
fisheries can only exist (in the long-term) where there is sufficient biomass of the target species and where the economics
of extraction are sufficiently favorable. Since yield is frequently
inversely related to species diversity (Regier and Henderson,
1973; Figure 2), industrial fishing tends to predominate in temperate latitudes and pelagic fisheries, while artisanal fisheries
predominate in the species-rich inshore waters of tropical coastlines.
In summary, artisanal fishing is typically defined in relation
to the focus of the fishing/economic units, type of fishing activity, level of use and cost of technology utilized, and eventual
market or uses of the catch. It should be noted that there are many
related terms such as subsistence or benefit-aimed fisheries
(Guillemot et al., 2009) that are often used interchangeably
with the more frequently used artisanal or small-scale fisheries.
Nevertheless (and despite the fuzziness of existing definitions),
the ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural consequences of
artisanal fishing (shaded area of Figure 1) have become a major focus of research over recent decades, resulting in a large
amount of literature scattered across a diverse array of disciplines and sub-disciplines. This review aims to draw upon these
disparate information sources to provide a synthetic review of
tropical artisanal coastal fisheries, highlighting important historical trends and identifying key challenges to ensure future
sustainability.
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ity of the worlds countries, this represents 80100% of the population. Moreover, between 1992 and 2002, the global coastal
population rose by 56% due to both population growth and
migration. If current demographic trends continueas seems
likelythe human pressure on coastal zones (and the natural
resources they provide) is predicted to increase dramatically
over the coming decades (Martnez et al., 2007). Even so, it is
important to distinguish between general trends in the demographics of coastal populations and changes in artisanal fishing
communities. Tietze et al. (2002) observed that the number of
coastal fishers was actually declining or stagnating in four out
of the six tropical developing countries they studied. Moreover,
many fishers within these communities were turning, in part or
in full, to other livelihood opportunities due to a combination of
declining resource quality, competition with industrial fishers,
and changes in the governance of fish stocks.
Finally, coastal artisanal fishing merits academic attention
because of its potential influence on fish populations (see below). Although the conservation and sustainable exploitation
literature has, understandably, focused on industrial-scale fishing, it is becoming increasingly clear that artisanal fishing can
also have profound consequences on fish populations, biomass,
and community structure (Coblentz, 1997; Ruttenberg, 2001;
Espino-Barr et al., 2002; Hawkins and Roberts, 2004; Campbell and Pardede, 2006; Goetze et al., 2011). Such evidence
goes against the view of many fisheries and marine protected
area (MPA) managers that artisanal fishing is somehow more
benign. Indeed, artisanal fishing is often permitted within the
boundaries of marine parks and other forms of MPAs (Grandcourt et al., 1999; Hawkins et al., 1999; Granek and Brown,
2005).
Even if the effect of artisanal fishing on fish population or
communities is relatively minor within a given area, the combined effects of artisanal fishing activities in the tropics are
enormous given the large proportion of the coastal population
involved in fishing (see above). Thus, it is in the context of
increasing pressures on coastal tropical environments and fisheries, demographic shifts in coastal populations, and the social
challenges of poverty alleviation and health in the developed
world that the diverse and often scattered literature on artisanal
fishing is reviewed, while acknowledging that one of the major
challenges of assessing artisanal fisheries is the paucity and low
quality of much data due to the illegal/unregulated/unreported
nature of some artisanal fisheries.
For the reasons given above, the present review is restricted
to tropical coastal fisheries, where fishing pressure is often most
intense and where enforcement of regulations is often weakest.
First, a brief synopsis of the main characteristics of fishing and
fishers in these regions is given, followed by a review of the
evidence for the ecological and social consequences of artisanal
fishing. Finally, the management options are assessed, highlighting successful strategies and identifying major challenges
and unifying themes for improving the governance of artisanal
tropical fisheries.
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V. S. BATISTA ET AL.
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Literature Survey
Nine hundred fifty-six articles that were retrieved from Web
of Science were analyzed on 26 February 2012 using the following search string: ((artisanal fishing OR artisanal fisheries)
OR (small-scale fishing OR small-scale fisheries)). From
this list, conference reports, temperate studies and articles that
were primarily concerned with freshwater fisheries were excluded, leaving a total of 235 journal papers with a focus on
tropical coastal artisanal fisheries. It should be noted that while
this sample is not exhaustive and should not be considered as an
estimate of the volume of research in this area, it should be relatively representative of research in this area. In this context, the
papers were categorized in order to identify broad geographic
and thematic trends in the literature.
From each paper, the geographic location of the study was
recorded (ranging from small reefs to archipelagos or group
of countries such as the Caribbean region). In total, 62.2% of
studies used continental study areas and 37.8% were from islands. Perhaps surprisingly, given its traditionally low research
capacity and infrastructure, Africa was the continent with the
most published studies (32.6%), followed by Asia (23.9%) and
South America (18.3%). Preliminary analysis suggests that the
high frequency of studies in Africa may be a consequence of
the large number of European and North American researchers
collecting data there. Likewise, tropical oceanic islands may
be particularly attractive research sites for scientists from the
northern hemisphere. At the country level, Brazil, Philippines,
Kenya, India, and Tanzania, respectively, were the most studied
countries (Table 1). The majority of studies were broadly characterized as relating to coastal ecosystems (56.7%), while reefs
were the focus of 21.7% of studies, and 11.1% of articles were
on artisanal fishing in pelagic ecosystems.
As anticipated the thematic focus of articles varied immensely, incorporating studies of ecology, social science, development, economics, history, and politics among others. Unsurprisingly, fisheries assessment and management were the major
thematic areas (18.4% and 14.2%, respectively). Other themes
that were well represented (39% of articles in the sample) were
socio-economic analysis of artisanal fisheries, socio-ecological
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Number of papers
Proportion (%)
75
55
33
8
17
42
32.6
23.9
14.3
3.5
7.4
18.3
24
15
12
10
9
8
7
7
7
6
6
10.3
6.4
5.1
4.3
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.6
2.6
102
39
20
5
4
3
7
56.7
21.7
11.1
2.8
2.2
1.7
3.9
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V. S. BATISTA ET AL.
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MANAGEMENT
Sustainability Objectives
Sustainability of fish stocks is the general, if elusive, objective of contemporary fisheries management (Pauly et al., 2002).
The origin of the concept of sustainability, or sustainable development, is relatively new. Sustainable development was first
described by the Brundtland Commission in 1987: as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World
Commission on Environment and Development [WCED], 1987,
p. 43). Many alternative definitions have subsequently been proposed, most of which are based on the idea of the triple bottom
line (TBL) conceptthe splitting of sustainability into environmental, social, and economic factors. It should be noted that
the TBL is also a simplification and that additional sustain-
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Interventions
As indicated above, there are numerous approaches to the
management of artisanal fisheries that incorporate elements of
both top-down and bottom-up approaches to management. Perhaps the most emblematic intervention is the creation of exclusion and sustainable use zones, normally created within the
context of an MPA (Roberts and Polunin, 1991). A good example is the development of marine extractive reserves (MERs) in
Brazil, defined as community-based, site-specific, multi-use,
land and sea resource management approach based on claims
of culturally distinct groups with longstanding livelihood ties
to artisan-scale production territories (Cordell, 2003). One
of the most innovative aspects of MERs is the requirement that
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10
V. S. BATISTA ET AL.
tored, and the governance structure should be sufficiently flexible to allow adaptive change and modifications to suit local
conditions.
Developing management models that successfully negotiate
social, cultural, economic, and environmental barriers is neither
simple nor rapid, and successful case studies in the tropics are
at a premium. One promising candidate is the sustainable open
system (SOS) approach (Figure 4) developed for rural Amazonian fishing communities (Ribeiro and Fabre, 2003; Fabre
et al., 2012). The SOS approach has five overlapping and integrated phases: (1) the community self-identifies the geographic
extent of the management; (2) long-term studies (several years)
are conducted to identify the temporal and spatial dynamics
of extractive practices and norms of use; (3) territories, microhabitats, frequencies of use, and other measures of exploitation
are mapped in order to identify key areas and periods of resource
use conflict; (4) observed norms of practice are reified and codified into an legally binding agreement of integrated use, tightly
linking the inhabitants of management units into a partnership
with governmental and non-governmental organizations; and (5)
monitoring and evaluation based on both self-assessment and
external assessment are performed. SOS appears to be working
and has the potential to be implemented in other artisanal fishing
communities. However, SOS and similar models are no quick
fix; researchers, governmental and non-governmental organizations, and community groups needed eight years to implement
the full program (Fabre et al., 2012).
Ultimately, the greatest challenge for the creation of socially
and environmentally sustainable artisanal fisheries in tropical
Figure 3 Hypothetical decision framework for developing management strategies for tropical artisanal fisheries stressing the importance of creating alternative
livelihood opportunities as an important precursor to species and ecosystem-based management approaches.
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11
Figure 4 Schematic representation of SOS methodology for the co-management of artisanal fisheries in Amazonia, including the major steps, activities, and
socio-economic drivers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the referees for their comments on the manuscript. This study was partially funded by
the Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq), the Alagoas
Research Foundation (FAPEAL), and the Coordination for Enhancement of Higher Education Personal (CAPES).
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