MSM1Aa CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

1. Limits
Informal Definition 1.1. Let f be a real-valued function of a real variable.
(1) If f (x) tends to the value ` as x tends to a through values less than a, then
we say that the left hand limit of f (x) as x tends to a is `. We write
lim f (x) = `

xa

f (x) ` as x a .

or

(2) If f (x) tends to the value ` as x tends to a through values greater than a,
then we say that the right hand limit of f (x) as x tends to a is `. We write
lim+ f (x) = `

or

f (x) ` as x a+ .

xa

(3) If f (x) tends to the value ` as x tends to a, then we say that the limit of f (x)
as x tends to a is `. We write
lim f (x) = `

xa

f (x) ` as x a.

or

Informal Definition 1.2.

(1) If f (x) tends to the value ` as x tends to +,
then we say that the limit of f (x) as x tends to + is `. We write
lim f (x) = `

or

f (x) ` as x +.

(2) If f (x) tends to the value ` as x tends to , then we say that the limit of
f (x) as x tends to is `. We write
lim f (x) = `

or

f (x) ` as x .

Note that none of these limits need to exist.

Fact 1.3. f (x) ` as x a if and only if
(1) f has both a left hand limit and a right hand limit as x tends to a and
(2) the left hand limit and the right hand limit as x tends to a are equal.
Fact 1.4 (The Algebra of Limits). Suppose that f and g are functions and that
f (x) ` as x a and g(x) m as x a. Then
(1) f (x) + g(x) ` + m as x a;
(2) f (x) g(x) ` m as x a;
(3) f (x) ` as x a for any number ;
(4) f (x)g(x) `m as x a;
(5) if m 6= 0, then f (x)/g(x) `/m as x a.

MSM1AA CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

sin
= 1.

Proof. Consider the following diagram of a circle with radius 1.

We know that cos 1 as 0.

The area of sector OAD, AOAD =

cos2 .
2
1
The area of triangle OAC, AOAC = cos sin .
2

The area of sector OBC, AOBC =

.
2
Clearly AOAD 6 AOAC 6 AOBC .
Hence
sin
1
cos 6
6
,

cos
from which the result follows.
Theorem 1.5. lim0


2. Differentiation From First Principles
Definition 2.1. Let f be a real-valued function of the real variable x. The derivative
of f with respect to x at the point a, if it exists, is defined to be
df
f (a + h) f (a)
(a) = lim
.
h0
dx
h
If the derivative of f exists at the point a, then we say that f is differentiable at a.
The derivative of f with respect to x, if it exists, is defined to be
df
f (x + h) f (x)
(x) = lim
.
h0
dx
h
If f is differentiable at every x (a, b), then f is said to be differentiable on (a, b).
df
(a) is the gradient of the graph y = f (x) at the point a,
Fact 2.2. The derivative
dx
that is the rate of change of f with respect to x at a.
Definition 2.3. The function f is left-differentiable at a if the left-derivative
df
f (a + h) f (a)
(a) = lim
h0
dx
h
exists and f is right-differentiable at a if the right-derivative
df
f (a + h) f (a)
(a) = lim+
.
h0
dx
h

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

Definition 2.4.Thesecond derivative of f with respect to x, if it exists, is defined

d2 f
dn f
d df
th
to be
.
In
general,
given
the
n
derivative,
=
, of f , the (n + 1)th
2
n
dx
dx dx
dx


dn+1 f
d dn f
derivative of f with respect to x is
.
=
dxn+1
dx dxn
d
dy
df
or
f (x). If y = f (x), we may write
Notation. We often write f 0 , f 0 (x),
dx
dx
dx
df
for
. In the particular case when the variable is time t, instead of x, some people
dx
d2 f 000
df
d3 f
dn f
(n)
write f for . We often write f 00 for
,
f
for
and
f
for
.
dt
dx2
dx3
dxn
3. Techniques of Differentiation
For any functions u and v (whose derivatives exists)
(1) For any constants a and b,
du
dv
d
(au(x) + bv(x)) = a + b .
dx
dx
dx
(2) The Product Rule:
d
du
dv
(uv) = v
+u .
dx
dx
dx
(3) The Quotient Rule:
v du u dv
d
(u/v) = dx 2 dx .
dx
v
(4) The Chain Rule (derivative of a function of a function):
du(v) dv(x)
d
u(v(x)) =
.
dx
dv
dx
(5) Inverse functions: if y = f 1 (x), then x = f (y) and
dy
1
= 0 .
dx
f (y)
(6) Implicit differentiation: in cases where it is difficult or impossible to separate
x and y (for example y 2 + 3xy 3 = x2 ), differentiate treating y as a function of
dy 2
dy 2 dy
dy
x using the chain rule (for example
=
= 2y ).
dx
dy dx
dx
(7) Logarithmic differentiation: if y = f (x)g(x) , then
1 dy
f0
ln y = g(x) ln f (x)
so
= g + g 0 ln f.
y dx
f

MSM1AA CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

4. Derivatives of Common Functions

d k
x = kxk1
dx

for any k R

Trigonometric functions:
d
sin x = cos x
dx
d
cos x = sin x
dx
d
1
tan x = sec2 x =
dx
cos2 x

if x 6= n + /2, for any n Z

Inverse trigonometric functions:

1
d
sin1 x =
dx
1 x2
1
d
cos1 x =
dx
1 x2
d
1
tan1 x =
dx
1 + x2

if x [1, 1]
if x [1, 1]
if x (1, 1)

Exponential and logarithm:

d kx
e = kekx
dx
d
1
ln x =
dx
x
Hyperbolic functions:
d
sinh x = cosh x
dx
d
cosh x = sinh x
dx
d
1
tanh x = sech2 x =
dx
cosh2 x

for any k R
if x > 0

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

Inverse hyperbolic functions:

d
1
sinh1 x =
dx
1 + x2
1
d
cosh1 x =
dx
x2 1
d
1
tanh1 =
dx
1 x2

if x > 1
if |x| < 1

MSM1AA CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

5. Examples of Limits
Example (1). Let f (x) = 2x + 5. Then limx0 f (x) = 5 and limx3 f (x) = 11.
Example (2). Let

x + 1 if x < 3,
g(x) = 0
if x = 3,

2x + 5
if x > 3.
Then limx3 g(x) = 8, g(3) = 0 and limx3+ g(x) = 11.
3x
Example (3). Let h(x) =
, then limx h(x) = 1.
2+x
Let k(x) = sin x/x, then limx k(x) = 0.
Example (4). Comment on the following: (a) limx0 10x/x; (b) limt0 3t/7t;
(c) limx0 x2 /3x; (d) limx1 (x2 2x + 1)/(x2 1); (e) limz1 (z 1)/(z 2 2z + 1).

5x + 4 2x + 7
Example (5). Find limx1
.
(x 1)
sin 3x
sin 3
sin 3x
, (b) limx0
, (c) lim0
.
Example (6). Find (a) limx0
5x
sin 5x
2 cos sin
6. Examples of Differentiation from First Principles
Example (1). Differentiate f (x) = x2 3x + 5 from first principles.
df
(x)
Solution. We want to find
= limh0 f (x+h)f
. Now
h
dx

f (x + h) f (x)
1
=
((x + h)2 3(x + h) + 5) (x2 3x + 5)
h
h
1
= [(x2 + 2hx + h2 3x 3h + 5) (x2 3x + 5)]
h
1
= [2hx + h2 3h] = 2x + h 3.
h
df
(x) = limh0 (2x + h 3) = 2x 3.
Hence
dx
Example (2). Differentiate f (x) = 1/(1 + x) from first principles.
df
(x)
Solution. We want to find
= limh0 f (x+h)f
. But
h
dx




f (x + h) f (x)
1
1
1
1 (1 + x) (1 + x + h)
=

=
h
h 1 + (x + h) 1 + x
h
(1 + x + h)(1 + x)
1
=
(1 + x + h)(1 + x)

so

df
1
= limh0
= 1 2 .
dx
(1 + x + h)(1 + x)
(1 + x)

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

Example (3). Differentiate f (x) = sin x from first principles.

df
Solution. We want to find
= limh0 (f (x + h) f (x))/h.
dx
Recall that
(1) sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
(2) cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B,
(3) sin2 A + cos2 A = 1,
(4) limt0 sint t = 1.
Consider
f (x + h) f (x)
1
= [sin(x + h) sin x] .
h
h
Since sin(x + h) = sin x cos h + cos x sin h,
f (x + h) f (x)
1
1
= [sin(x + h) sin x] = [sin x cos h + sin h cos x sin x]
h
h
h
1
= [sin x(cos h 1) + sin h cos x]
h
cos h 1
sin h
= sin x
+ cos x
.
h
h
But cos h 1 = cos2 (h/2) sin2 (h/2) 1 = 2 sin2 (h/2), so that
f (x + h) f (x)
cos h 1
sin h
= sin x
+ cos x
h
h
h
2
sin h
2 sin (h/2)
+ cos x
= sin x
h
h
sin h
sin(h/2)
+ cos x
.
= sin x sin(h/2)
(h/2)
h
As h 0, sin(h/2) 0, sin h/h 1 and sin(h/2)/(h/2) 1, so
d
f (x + h) f (x)
sin x = lim
h0
dx
h
sin(h/2)
sin h
= lim sin x sin(h/2)
+ cos x
h0
(h/2)
h
= cos x.
7. Examples of Techniques of Differentiation
Example (4). Differentiate the following functions: (i) ex cos x, (ii) ex / cos x, (iii)
ecos x .
d x
d
Solution. We know that
e = ex and that
cos x = sin x. So, putting u(x) = ex
dx
dx
and v(x) = cos x:
(i) by the Product Rule,
d x
e cos x = ex cos x ex sin x;
dx

MSM1AA CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

(ii) by the Quotient Rule,

d ex
cos x + sin x
cos xex ex ( sin x)
=
= ex
;
2
dx cos x
cos x
cos2 x
(iii) by the Chain Rule,
d cos x dev dv
e
=
= ecos x ( sin x) = sin xecos x .
dx
dv dx
Example (5). Suppose that y 2 + 3xy 3 = x3 . Find dy/dx by differentiating implicitly.
Solution. We assume, implicitly, that y is a function of x. Then y 2 and y 3 are functions
of functions of x and by the Chain Rule
dy
d 2 dy 2 dy
dy
d 3 dy 3 dy
y =
= 2y
and
y =
= 3y 2 .
dx
dy dx
dx
dx
dy dx
dx
But then, by the Product Rule,
d 3
dy 3
dx
dy
xy = y 3
+x
= y 3 + 3xy 2 .
dx
dx
dx
dx
2
3
3
Differentiating both sides of y + 3xy = x , we get
dx3
d 2
3
(y + 3xy ) =
,
dx
dx
or


dy
3
2 dy
2y
+ 3 y + 3xy
= 3x2 .
dx
dx
Solving for dy/dx, we obtain
3(x2 y 3 )
dy
=
.
dx
y(2 + 9xy)

MSM1Aa CALCULUS: DIFFERENTIATION

Example (6). Differentiate y = sin1 x.

Solution. We know that if y = f 1 (x), then x = f (y) and
dy
1
= 0 .
dx
f (y)
dx
In this case, x = sin y, so that
= cos y.
dy
Now cos2 y + sin2 y = 1, so that
q

cos y = 1 sin2 y = 1 x2 .
Hence,
1
1
dy
=
=
.
dx
cos y
1 x2
By definition sin1 : [1, 1] [/2, /2] has positive gradient, so that we take
the positive square root and
1
dy
=
.
dx
1 x2
Example (7). Differentiate y = xx .
Solution. Taking logs of both sides we see that
ln y = x ln x.

()

By the Chain Rule, if y is a function of x then

d ln y dy
1 dy
d
ln y =
=
.
dx
dy dx
y dx
Hence, differentiating both sides of () (implicitly on the left hand side, by the Product
and Chain Rules on the right), we get
 
1 dy
dx
d ln x
= ln(x)
+x
= ln x + 1
y dx
dx
dx
so, on multiplying by y = xx and re-arranging, we get
dy
= xx + xx ln x.
dx

Chris Good, Oct. 07