Solidification behaviour and mechanical

properties of ductile iron castings with varying

thickness
V. D. Shinde*1, B. Ravi2 and K. Narasimhan3
Achieving the desired mechanical properties in thin wall ductile iron castings poured in industrial
production foundries is a challenge. In this work, the effect of copper addition (up to 0?74%) and
melt processing (Ba based stream inoculation) on the matrix structure, mechanical properties and
fracture behaviour of ductile iron castings with varying section thickness (416 mm) were
investigated in a regular jobbing foundry. It was possible to obtain 80% pearlitic structure without
carbides in 4 mm sections, giving a tensile strength of 658 MPa with 2?5% ductility and 264 Brinell
hardness. The solidification behaviour represented by the cooling curves helped in checking the
effectiveness of the melt treatment by observing the amount of undercooling. Fractography
studies of tensile specimens showed the change in fracture mechanisms due to increase in
copper content on fracture paths. The increased amount of pearlite in the matrix exhibited brittle
fracture with river pattern.
Keywords: Thin wall casting, Ductile iron, Solidification, Inoculation, Microstructure

Introduction
The transportation industry faces three major challenges:
control of emissions, improvement in fuel efficiency and
reduction in manufacturing cost. One solution to all
these challenges is to reduce vehicle weight; a reduction
of 100 kg is commonly equated to a fuel efficiency
improvement of 0?4 km L21.1 Since castings constitute a
significant proportion of vehicle weight, manufacturers
are exploring weight reduction by redesigning the castings
with thinner walls. Many automotive components are
produced in ductile iron. It is however a challenge to
produce thin wall ductile iron castings with the desired
properties.2
Melt treatment, chemical composition and cooling
rate are important process parameters that determine the
final properties of ductile iron castings. Melt treatment
includes modification and inoculation. The melt is treated
with magnesium alloy (for changing graphite shape from
flake to spheroid) followed by inoculation to facilitate
heterogeneous nucleation (thereby increasing the nodule
count and suppressing carbide formation). Inoculation in
ductile iron reduces the chilling tendency by minimising
carbide formations, thereby promoting ductility and
reducing the possibility of cracks during knockout and
fettling. Graphite nodule count, nodularity (deviation
1

DKTES, Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji 416115, India

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
3
Department of Metallurgical Engineering & Materials Science, Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
2

*Corresponding author, email shinde@iitb.ac.in

2012 W. S. Maney & Son Ltd.

Received 6 August 2011; accepted 18 May 2012
DOI 10.1179/1743133612Y.0000000024

from spherical shape) and amount and proportion of

phases are important control parameters to achieve the
desired combination of properties.3 By appropriately
balancing alloying elements and processing sequence, the
desired properties can be achieved in ductile iron castings
without expensive heat treatments.4 Sufficient graphite
nucleation is required to avoid formation of carbides that
arise due to higher solidification rates in thin wall ductile
iron castings.5 The time after spheroidal treatment has a
significant effect on nodularity; inoculants having rare
earth elements fade slower than other inoculants.6 In thin
wall castings, the surface quality also greatly influences
the mechanical properties: a smoother surface finish
results in better properties such as tensile and impact
strength.7
Chemical composition plays a vital role in solidification
processing of ductile iron. Even small changes in the
amount of elements show significant increase or decrease
in mechanical properties of ductile iron.8 Silicon is a
strong solid solution strengthener; it reduces undercooling and avoids carbide formation by nucleating
graphite, and it segregates negatively.9 Copper is a strong
pearlite promoter; its addition up to 1% converts ferritic
structure into pearlitic. Manganese is a pearlite stabiliser
and segregates to grain boundaries and thus increases
hardenability.10 The inoculants having Ca, Ba or Sr along
with a ferrosilicon alloy can be used to improve the
nodularity and nodule count in ductile iron castings.11,12
As the nucleation of graphite starts at higher temperature
in the hypereutectic casting than in the eutectic and
hypoeutectic castings, the undercooling will be lower for
the hypereutectic castings.13 It is necessary to minimise
the levels of any carbide promoting elements, as carbides

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Behaviour and properties of iron castings with varying thickness

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1 Design of step casting with thermocouple tip location
in top view

will segregate.14 Variations in the matrix structure will

ultimately affect final impact properties due to transition
in the crack path mechanisms.15
The most commonly measured mechanical properties
for ductile iron are tensile strength, percentage elongation, impact strength and hardness. It is well recognised that the hardness of ductile iron castings depends
primarily upon the matrix structure. Interlamellar spacing in pearlite matrix also affects the overall hardness of
castings. This depends on the cooling rate of the casting in
the eutectoid transformation region. Because of the fairly
consistent influence of spheroidal graphite and structure
of its base matrix, the tensile properties and the hardness
of ductile iron are well related.16 The studies on thin wall
ductile iron castings show that mechanical properties of
as cast parts are higher than machined castings.17
The fracture energy of ductile irons is influenced
significantly by the constituent matrix phase present in
the microstructure. In ductile iron, the fracture path is
controlled initially by nodule decohesion and microcracking, which initiates at the interface of base matrix
and graphite nodules. The distribution of graphite
nodules decides the least energy propagation path for
the crack, which grows through the ferrite phase.18
To summarise, process parameters play an equally
important role along with material composition and part
geometry (mainly wall thickness) in determining the
microstructure and thereby the mechanical properties of
ductile iron castings. The microstructure is determined
partially during solidification (graphite shape, size and
distribution) and partially during solid state transformation (matrix). In this work, the effect of copper addition
on the matrix structure in castings of varying thickness,
produced using industrial practices, is investigated.
Further, the influence of the matrix structure on the
mechanical properties and fracture behaviour is studied
by mechanical testing, microstructure analysis (optical
and scanning electron microscopy) and thermal analysis
in a ductile iron production foundry.

Experimental
In this work, experiments were conducted to study the
solidification behaviour in ductile iron castings with
sections having different thickness. A step casting was
designed with four sections of thickness, 4, 8, 12 and
16 mm respectively, as shown in Fig. 1. Each step is
50 mm long, making the total length of casting 200 mm.
The width of the casting is 100 mm so as to avoid end
freezing effect in the middle of all sections. Multiple

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2 Actual step casting with gating system

gates were provided (one at the end of each section of

the casting) for rapid and uniform filling (Fig. 2).
A wooden pattern of the above design was fabricated
and used to prepare the moulds in green sand. A total of
16 moulds (with four compositions of varying copper
64 repetitions each) were prepared. Each mould
comprised two cavities with a common gating system.
In one cavity, four thermocouples were placed in the
middle of each section to capture thermal history during
solidification. The casting produced in the other cavity
(without thermocouple) was used for property studies.
The thermocouples (K type) were connected to a 16channel data logger (Ambetronics), which is capable of
storing 2995 readings for each port. The data were used
for plotting the cooling curves for each section thickness
using Smartlog 2000 software.
The melt charge consisted of 50 kg pig iron, 150 kg
cold rolled steel scrap and balance foundry returns with
suitable chemical composition. The chemical compositions of raw materials were tested and reported in
Table 1. The charge mix was melted in 300 kg capacity
coreless medium frequency induction furnace. The
molten metal was tapped into a preheated ladle of
150 kg capacity containing ferrosilicon magnesium alloy
granules of size 1015 mm at the bottom covered with
steel scrap. The treatment was performed by sandwich
method using steel punching to cover the magnesium
alloy in a 150 kg treatment ladle. The inoculant was
added while transferring the metal from a treatment
ladle to pouring ladle of 50 kg. A pouring ladle was used
to take 50 kg of treated metal and pour it into the first
mould at a temperature of 1400uC. To obtain effective
nucleation during subsequent inoculation and to promote a fine dispersion of microparticles in the molten
metal, it is advantageous to inhibit the reaction products
from agglomerating and floating. This was achieved by
adding fine sized (24 mm) inoculant in the melt stream
during pouring. A spectroscopy coin was also poured at
the same time. Then, a precalculated amount of copper
was quickly added in the remaining metal in the ladle,
stirred and poured into the second mould. In a similar
manner, the third and fourth moulds were filled with
molten metal with increasing amount of copper.
The spectroscopy analysis of the coins was carried out
(Bruker, model Q-4 Tasman), and the average values of
four castings of each composition are shown in Table 2.
The four melt compositions with increasing levels of

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3 Locations of microstructure (M) and tensile (T) specimen prepared from step castings

copper from 0?058 to 0?735% are labelled A, B, C and

D. In all these melts, C53?66% and Si52?45%, giving
a carbon equivalent of 4?48, so as to maintain a
hypereutectic range. Other elements present in the melt
were Al50?006, Cr50?016, Ti50?02, Mo,0?002,
Ni,0?002 and Pb,0?01.
The tensile test specimens were prepared from each of
the four sections of the castings (those without thermocouple) with compositions A, B, C and D as per ASTM
standard E-8M-04 (Fig. 3). The samples for microstructure analysis were taken from the middle portion of the
same castings, finely polished and analysed using image
analysis software (Pro-metal-11) for nodule count,
nodularity and percentage of ferrite and pearlite content.
These samples were further etched with 2% nital (2%
concentric nitric acid and 98% ethyl alcohol) for phase
analysis. Optical microphotographs of the midsection of
12 mm thick sections were taken using a Leitz microscope are shown in Fig. 4.

Results
The matrix microstructure in ductile iron is the product of
austenite decomposition. The as cast matrix consists of
ferritic and pearlitic phases, which are directly affected by
the alloy content and cooling rate. The cooling rate is
affected by the section modulus and rate of heat removal
(this in turn depends on mould geometry, material and
pouring parameters). Hence, mechanical properties,
which are influenced by the matrix microstructure, exhibit
a wide variation in different sections of the same casting.
The effect of composition (Cu content) on the microstructure is seen in the microphotographs (Fig. 4). The
corresponding microstructural image analysis of the
castings is given in Table 3. The results are shown for
the four thickness values (4, 8, 12 and 16 mm) for four

Behaviour and properties of iron castings with varying thickness

repetitive castings (1, 2, 3 and 4) for each composition

(A, B, C and D). The microstructure characterisation
revealed carbide free regions in all the sections. While
processing the microstructure images by image analysis
system, nodules ,5 mm were neglected. The highest
values were observed for castings with composition D
in sections with 4 mm wall thickness: nodule count, 323;
nodularity, 94%; and pearlite, 81?3%.
Statistical analysis was carried out to correlate the
effect of wall thickness t and copper content x on the
microstructure of ductile iron castings. The relationships
are given here
Pearlite (%)~20:80{0:67 tz95:99x, with R2 ~0:939
Nodularity (%)~100:15{0:33t{7:45x, with R2 ~0:751
Nodule count~485:66{10:46t{207:10x, with R2~0:963:
The tensile specimens were prepared from each step of
the castings and tested as per ASTM standard E-8M-04.
The hardness was measured on the middle portion of
each section. The mechanical properties obtained in
different sections of casting poured with different
compositions, for the four repetitive experiments, are
shown in Table 4. In the repetitive experiments, hardness and elongation values varied by 5%, whereas tensile
strength varied up to 25%. The average values of tensile
strength and hardness are plotted for each thickness and
composition value in Fig. 5. Similarly, the average
values of nodule count and percentage pearlite for each
thickness and composition values are plotted in Fig. 6a
and b.
Statistical analysis was carried out to correlate the
effect of wall thickness t and copper content x on the
mechanical properties of ductile iron castings. The
relationships are as follows
Tensile strength (MPa)~460:53{3:78tz292:05x,
with R2 ~0:975
Elongation (%)~13:18z0:07t{15:74x, with R2 ~0:909
Hardness (HB)~199:17{1:96tz105:96x, with R2 ~0:946:
A SEM study of tensile fractured specimens was carried
out using a Hitachi-S 3400N system. The fracture
studies indicate decreasing dimples and increasing river

Table 1 Details of furnace charge mix along with spectroscopic analysis

Charge materials

Amount

Size/shape

Si

Mn

Mg

Ca

Al

Ba

Pig iron
Foundry returns
Steel scrap
FeSiMg alloy
Inoculant

50 kg
100 kg
150 kg
400 g/ladle
3.5 kg

Briquettes

Punching
1015 mm
26 mm

4.27
3.68
0.038

1.56
2.21
0.037
47.50
73.52

0.125
0.18
0.135

0.050
0.010
0.005

0.035

0.028
0.026
0.015

0.004

5.82

1.23
0.19

0.92
1.06

2.01

Table 2 Spectroscopic analysis of the ductile iron melts labelled AD

Melt

Si

Mn

Cu

Mg

Al

Cr

A
B
C
D

3.64
3.66
3.67
3.66

2.43
2.47
2.48
2.45

0.198
0.194
0.191
0.199

0.0179
0.0183
0.0154
0.0138

0.0121
0.0123
0.0101
0.0085

0.058
0.147
0.377
0.735

0.042
0.034
0.045
0.032

0.0050
0.0054
0.0070
0.0068

0.0184
0.0194
0.0187
0.0163

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4 Microphotographs of 12 mm section of castings with composition A, B, C and D (AD are unetched, whereas A-E to
D-E are etched with 2% nital)

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Behaviour and properties of iron castings with varying thickness

Table 3 Microstructure analysis results

Property

Pearlite/%

Nodularity/%

Nodule count

Section thickness

4 mm

8 mm

12 mm

16 mm

4 mm

8 mm

12 mm

16 mm

4 mm

8 mm

12 mm

16 mm

A1
A2
A3
A4
Average
SD
B1
B2
B3
B4
Average
SD
C1
C2
C3
C4
Average
SD
D1
D2
D3
D4
Average
SD

19
23
20
21
20.8
1.7
34
29
31
33
31.8
2.2
64
67
62
66
64.8
2.2
81
83
80
81
81.3
1.3

17
19
18
15
17.3
1.7
27
29
29
30
28.8
1.3
60
67
61
60
62.0
3.4
79
80
82
82
80.8
1.5

13
12
13
11
12.3
1.0
24
26
27
24
25.3
1.5
61
63
58
59
60.3
2.2
81
78
80
78
79.3
1.5

12
10
9
9
10.0
1.4
24
23
21
20
22.0
1.8
56
59
56
56
56.8
1.5
77
80
78
76
77.8
1.7

99.5
99.8
99.6
99.4
99.6
0.2
98.6
97.3
98.6
97.6
98.0
0.7
94.2
94.8
95.3
93.6
94.5
0.7
94.2
93.4
94.3
93.7
93.9
0.4

98.8
97.4
98.2
98.3
98.2
0.6
95.7
94.9
95.9
96.3
95.7
0.6
92.6
92.8
92.4
91.8
92.4
0.4
92.4
93.2
93.8
92.4
93.0
0.7

97.3
96.7
96.9
97.4
97.1
0.3
96.3
95.5
96
94.1
95.5
1.0
90.6
90.9
91.4
91.7
91.2
0.5
93.6
91.6
91.8
92.8
92.5
0.9

94.6
93.8
95.9
95.4
94.9
0.9
94.9
94.2
95.7
94.6
94.9
0.6
90.2
88.8
89.4
89.2
89.4
0.6
90.2
89.6
90.9
91
90.4
0.7

458
442
431
452
445.8
11.8
403
399
386
384
393.0
9.4
368
358
376
389
372.8
13.1
328
311
326
328
323.3
8.2

382
379
394
392
386.8
7.4
374
367
358
354
363.3
9.0
304
338
307
319
317.0
15.4
246
238
222
229
233.8
10.5

336
349
352
328
341.3
11.2
332
344
326
318
330.0
11.0
261
276
282
252
267.8
13.7
194
189
218
204
201.3
12.8

326
317
309
312
316.0
7.4
324
318
304
307
313.3
9.4
243
225
247
221
234.0
12.9
159
184
157
169
167.3
12.3

brittle fracture with river pattern in pearlitic areas is

observed in Fig. 7d. Failure of ferrite matrix occurs
from intercrystalline cleavage over transcrystalline cleavage with river drawing on facets as seen in Fig. 7a and
b. Mixed mode of failure is observed in ferritepearlitic
matrix (Fig. 7c). Failure of pearlite was driven by transcrystalline continuous cleavage with river drawing on
facets along with crack path traverse (Fig. 7d).
The cooling curve from cup analysis has unique
features affected by melt processing. Thermal analysis is
an effective tool in controlling melt quality before

lines from samples AD (Fig. 7). In ferritic ductile iron,

dimple pattern of fractures is operative, as shown in
Fig. 7a. It indicates that ferrite deforms in large extent before the onset of fracture, which starts by the
formation and coalescence of voids. This result confirms the high ductility observed in these castings. Two
different fracture patterns are observed in a ferritic
pearlitic matrix structure as shown in Fig. 7b and c. In
the vicinity of the graphite nodules, the wider areas of
the ferrite phase are deformed considerably. Thus, the
fracture occurs in a ductile manner. On the other hand,
Table 4 Mechanical properties of step castings
Tensile strength/MPa

Section thickness

4 mm 8 mm 12 mm 16 mm 4 mm 8 mm 12 mm 16 mm 4 mm 8 mm 12 mm 16 mm 12 mm

A1
A2
A3
A4
Average
SD
B1
B2
B3
B4
Average
SD
C1
C2
C3
C4
Average
SD
D1
D2
D3
D4
Average
SD

456
482
490
439
466.8
23.5
502
479
483
483
486.8
10.3
583
594
565
574
579.0
12.4
669
669
647
648
658.3
12.4

418
458
448
413
434.3
22.1
473
459
465
454
462.8
8.2
546
561
542
548
549.3
8.2
643
634
651
621
637.3
12.9

428
398
424
402
413.0
15.2
458
472
442
455
456.8
12.3
536
541
536
514
531.8
12.1
609
627
602
623
615.3
11.7

Elongation/%

427
383
432
389
407.8
25.3
473
462
452
466
463.3
8.8
536
516
531
538
530.3
9.9
618
602
612
609
610.3
6.7

12.38
14.46
15.48
14.87
14.3
1.3
8.94
9.12
9.86
9.67
9.4
0.4
6.67
6.86
6.85
6.67
6.8
0.1
2.37
2.21
2.63
2.64
2.5
0.2

13.59
15.63
15.14
13.77
14.5
1.0
9.84
10.03
9.95
9.45
9.8
0.3
7.35
7.02
6.96
7.24
7.1
0.2
3.01
2.89
2.96
2.81
2.9
0.1

Hardness/HB

14.26
14.38
14.89
15.93
14.9
0.8
9.78
10.23
10.04
10.21
10.1
0.2
7.32
7.48
7.38
7.45
7.4
0.1
3.19
2.87
3.28
2.86
3.1
0.2

14.03
15.87
15.27
16.26
15.4
1.0
10.36
10.43
10.59
10.38
10.4
0.1
7.36
7.53
7.32
7.48
7.4
0.1
2.84
3.18
2.86
3.26
3.0
0.2

198
187
185
197
191.8
6.7
209
212
198
196
203.8
7.9
253
245
249
246
248.3
3.6
278
256
258
264
264.0
9.9

193
184
189
178
186.0
6.5
194
196
185
194
192.3
4.9
339
334
342
328
235.8
6.1
263
259
260
247
257.3
7.0

182
173
186
176
179.3
5.9
189
193
178
189
187.3
6.4
231
221
218
227
224.3
5.9
249
258
251
231
247.3
11.5

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Impact energy/J

Property

182
178
167
170
174.3
6.9
189
180
188
178
183.8
5.6
219
203
218
216
214.0
7.4
253
238
243
235
242.3
7.9

2012

11.4
10.1
9.7
10
10.3
0.8
11.2
12.1
11.4
11.9
11.7
0.4
7.1
8.2
7.9
7.3
7.6
0.5
4.4
4.1
4.8
3.7
4.3
0.5

VOL

16 mm
10.4
11.2
10.5
10.9
10.8
0.4
11.3
11.9
11.6
11.2
11.5
0.3
8.1
8.4
7.8
7.6
8.0
0.4
4.6
3.2
4.5
3.9
4.1
0.6

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5 Variations in a tensile strength and b hardness with

respect to casting section thickness in ductile iron step
castings with compositions AD

6 Variations in a amount of pearlite phase and b nodule

count with varying amount of copper additions in castings AD

pouring in ductile iron castings. Two types of thermal

analysis were carried out in this study. The first involved
pouring the melt at different stages of its treatment (base
iron, after Mg treatment, after Cu addition and after
inoculation) into a thermal analysis cups (Suyash, Pune)
equipped with a thermocouple and generating the
corresponding cooling curves (Fig. 8).
Five distinct points can be visualised: liquidus arrest
temperature Tliq, undercooling minima U1, undercooling
maxima U2, the eutectic temperature Teut and end of
freezing (EOF). The cooling curve analysis of the base
metal in tellurium cup (Fig. 8a) shows a flat wide region
without undercooling. Further cup analyses show effects
of magnesium treatment, copper addition and inoculation on cooling curves respectively (Fig. 8b, c and d).
With Cu additions in the ductile iron, widening of the
pre-eutectic range and undercooling of 5uC (U1 and U2)
were observed. The analysis of pearlitic ductile iron
(Fig. 8d) shows wider pre-eutectic region without undercooling (DT5U1U250), indicating appropriate balance
of inoculation treatment and copper addition in the
melt.
Figure 9 shows the cooling curves of cup castings
covering the eutectoid reaction in ductile irons with
varying copper additions. The increasing copper content
showed increase in the pre-eutectic graphite nucleation
whereas minimising the eutectic region (1143uC) and
widening the flat eutectoid region (within the temperature range of 712738uC) in cooling curves.

Figure 10ac shows the magnified view of solidification

region, and Fig. 10df zooms into the eutectoid reaction
with increase in copper content. The melt is depleted with
carbon as the graphite nodules grow in size. The EOF due
to presence of trace elements goes beyond the eutectic,
which must be controlled to avoid grain boundary
carbides. The undercooling (U1U2) tendency of the melt
decreases with increase in copper content for a set of
composition and inoculation conditions. The flat eutectic
region is wide apart (,135 s) in 0?147%Cu melt, whereas
it is compressed (,75 s) in 0?735%Cu, indicating a
decrease in the eutectic graphite nucleation. The eutectoid
reaction shows a reverse trend with increasing Cu
content. The flat eutectoid region is small (,150 s) in
0?147%Cu melt and wider (,240 s) in 0?735%Cu,
indicating increase in amount of pearlitic nucleation.
The second set of results was obtained from the
thermocouples inserted in each step of the castings. The
thermal data produced by K type thermocouples inserted
in the four-step castings were further processed to
generate the cooling curve for different sections, and the
cooling curve in the 4 mm section is shown in Fig. 11.
The thermocouples are placed at the centre of each
section in casting, give a stable reading of temperatures as
the metal cools and solidify. Initial perturbations in
temperature readings are on account of flow of molten
metal past the thermocouples. The graphs represent the
temperature values only after the mould is completely
filled and metal starts cooling. The downward shifting of

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Behaviour and properties of iron castings with varying thickness

7 Image (SEM) showing fractured surface of tensile specimen for melts AD

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8 Thermal analysis of cups poured during different stages of ductile iron melt processing

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Behaviour and properties of iron castings with varying thickness

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11 Cooling curves at centre of ductile iron castings with

416 mm thickness

9 Cooling curves of ductile iron cup castings with varying copper concentrations

To maintain consistency in inoculation, all melting

trials have been carried out in a single day with the same
set-up conditions. Still, small variations are observed in
the cooling curves of melts A to D. Proper inoculation is
found to be an effective way of controlling microstructure by minimising undercooling and increasing the
number of graphite nodules during ductile iron solidification (Fig. 8). Barium based stream inoculation (2
4 mm size) is used to provide sufficient nucleation
centres for proper graphite precipitation.
Higher cooling rates in thin walls result in a more
spheroidal nodule shape, compared to slower cooling
sections for the same magnesium residuals. Both nodule
count and nodularity are affected by the cooling rate
and are found to be on the higher side in thin sections as

the eutectic reaction is observed with decreasing casting

thickness, which is due to high cooling rates. The
eutectoid reaction is also observed at lower temperatures
within the same casting with decrease in wall thickness as
seen in Fig. 11.

Discussion
Copper and manganese both promote pearlite and need
to be closely controlled to achieve the desired mechanical properties in ductile iron castings. While the effect
of copper is to increase the amount of pearlite, manganese stabilises the pearlite but also promotes carbides
and is therefore restricted to ,0?2% in the current
investigation.

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10 ac variations in solidication and df eutectoid transformation regions in cooling curves of ductile iron castings with
varying copper concentrations

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compared to thicker sections (Table 3, Fig. 6).The preeutectic graphite nodules grow initially followed by
nucleation of the eutectic graphite, giving rise to
bimodal distribution of graphite nodules (Fig. 4bd).
The smooth and wider austenite to pearlite transformation at the eutectoid temperature shows an increase in
tensile strength and hardness (Fig. 5).
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) in the 4 mm thick
section increases from 467 to 658 MPa due to the
increase in pearlite level. The high ductility (14?9%) due
to ferritic matrix indicates the ability of this material to
allow considerable deformation to occur before fracture
takes place. On the other hand, fully pearlitic ductile
iron, a material with low ductility (2?5%), can exhibit
sudden failure with unexpected loading (Table 4).
Ductile iron with ferritic matrix showed 10?3 J
fracture energy, whereas 80% pearlite gave 4?2 J fracture
energy in 12 mm thick sections at room temperature. It
is worth mentioning here that the difference in the
impact toughness among the normal ductile iron having
thinner or no ferrite ring may be due to the capability of
thick ferrite ring to absorb energy through plastic
deformation. This indicates that a thick ferrite ring in
a pearlitic microstructure will produce a ductile iron
with optimum balance of strength and ductility, which is
responsible for peak toughness in ductile irons.
A significant observation is the unique behaviour of the
graphite nodules and its contribution to the fracture
process. Generally, the fracture path propagates around
the graphite spheroids, leaving them intact in their
cavities. In ductile irons with ferriticpearlitic matrix
structure (Fig. 7b and c), the fracture travels along a path
that connects as many graphite spheroids as possible by
avoiding the pearlitic structure. A complex pattern of
fracture reflecting a low energy is delineated in Fig. 7d.
The fracture surface consists of many cleaved facets
indicating the low ductility by this material. Cleavage
occurred along the planes of the pearlite lamellae.
The composition and process parameters can be
monitored by pouring sample cups before pouring the
metal actually into the moulds. The effectiveness of
additions into the melts is reflected in the cooling curves.
The flat regions at 1147uC in cooling curve indicate the
eutectic reaction. The solidification process will start by
nucleation of the pre-eutectic austenite in the hypoeutectic whereas graphite in case of the hypereutectic
compositions (TLiq.). However, some amount of undercooling is needed to nucleate the austenite dendrites and
graphite nodules, which will grow freely in the melt. The
amount and type of inoculation decide the actual degree
of undercooling for set of casting geometry and melting
practice. A zero undercooling value indicates adequate
processing of the melt with the desired combination of
nodule count and nodularity (Fig. 8d). The melt is
depleted with carbon as the graphite nodules grow in
size. The EOF due to presence of trace elements goes
beyond the eutectic, which must be controlled within
limits to avoid grain boundary carbides.
The cooling curves obtained by thermocouples in
different sections of experimental castings show compressed zones of solidification and the eutectoid region
with decreasing values of casting thickness (Fig. 9). The
increasing copper content showed a decrease in the
eutectic region (Fig. 10ac), and widening of the
eutectoid regions (Fig. 10df) is observed in zoomed

Behaviour and properties of iron castings with varying thickness

portions of the cooling curves. Copper content (from

0?147 to 0?735%) is reflected in the cooling curve in
terms of widening of the eutectoid transformation region
from 150 to 240 s and reduction in overall solidification
time from 135 to 75 s respectively. The decrease in the
graphite eutectic temperature is well correlated with a
reduction in nodule count. Undercooling correlates with
increase in copper content of the melt. The cooling curve
analysis showed increasing values of solidification time
with thickness, as expected. The cooling curves of ductile
iron cup castings showed compressed eutectic zones with
increasing copper concentrations, whereas the eutectoid
start and end points are extended (wide apart). Zero
undercooling indicates adequate inoculation for a given
composition and section thickness.

Conclusions
The properties of experimental ductile iron castings
poured in an industrial foundry as indicated by their
grades are largely determined by their microstructure,
which in turn is affected by section thickness of the
casting and chemical composition of the melt. The main
conclusions can be summarised as follows.
1. Ductile iron with ferritic matrix showed UTS5
467 MPa, ductility514?3% and hardness5192 HB. Increasing copper content up to 0?74% increased the pearlite
in the matrix to 80% with corresponding increase in UTS to
658 MPa and hardness to 264 HB, with ductility reduced
to 2?5% in 4 mm thin sections.
2. The thermal analysis was found to be an effective
tool for evaluating and controlling the melt quality
before pouring in ductile iron castings. Zero undercooling indicates adequate inoculation for a given
composition and section thickness.
3. Proper melt processing (barium based stream inoculation) with 0?74%Cu enabled achieving 80% pearlitic
matrix and 328 nodule count with 94% nodularity in
4 mm thin sections.
4. Nodule count decreases with increase in casting
thickness (416 mm) and increases with copper addition
up to 0?74%.
5. Addition of copper in ductile iron favours nucleation of adequate primary eutectic graphite nucleation
but decreases overall nodule count.
6. The fracture path in ductile irons is controlled by
nodule decohesion initially and microcracking at the
graphite/matrix interface. Distribution of graphite
nodules appears to be the deciding factor for the least
energy propagation path for crack propagation.
7. Ferritic ductile iron shows dimple pattern of
fracture, whereas brittle fracture with river pattern is
seen in pearlitic areas. Mixed mode of failure is observed
in ferritepearlitic matrix.

Acknowledgements
Authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Ganesh
Foundry, Ichalkaranji and S.S. Industries, Ichalkaranji
for supporting the melting trials. Suyash Enterprises,
Pune, helped in the thermal analysis. The feedback of the
reviewer(s) greatly helped in improving the paper.

References
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