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Mechanical Eng. Dep., Tech and Eng. Faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
Mechanical Eng. Dep., Amir Kabir University of Technology, Iran
c
Material Eng. Dep., Tech and Eng. Faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 15 September 2012
Accepted 10 November 2012
Available online 29 November 2012
Keywords:
Ultrasonic stress relief
Vibration amplitude
Acoustic softening
Thermal stress relief
a b s t r a c t
In conventional stress relieving by vibration, the residual stress reduces by induction of low frequency,
high amplitude dynamic stress into an object. This method is conned to large pieces since the high
amplitude of vibration deforms the thin or small objects. In this paper, a new stress relieving method
based on ultrasonic vibrations is introduced which is applicable on the small or thin parts. The effectiveness of the method was veried by comparing it with thermal stress reliving. The stainless steel 316 was
selected for residual stress reduction. The effects of ultrasonic vibration amplitude, relief time and preload parameters are evaluated. Acoustic softening of the metal is also evaluated since this phenomenon
and dislocation activation by means of the acoustic waves are the main mechanisms behind this process.
Experiments show that the residual stress of the small Almen strips can be reduced about 40% by thermal
stress relief, while the ultrasonic stress relief is about 36%. It means the amount of stress reduction by
ultrasonic method is comparable with thermal stress relieving. Statistical analyses of the experimental
results show that the amount of stress reduction is directly proportional to the vibration amplitude
and the stress relief time. The vibration frequency and the amplitude of the experiments were
24,500 Hz and 2346 lm, respectively. Acoustic softening results showed that the tensile strength of
the metal strongly decreases by superimposing of ultrasonic vibration in universal tensile test. The
amount of this reduction is proportional to the ultrasonic intensity. Metallographic tests showed that
there are no changes in grain size during the ultrasonic stress relieving process, and the only effect
may be the dislocations movement.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Tensile and compressive residual stress can be induced by
mechanical operations such as welding, casting, rolling and shot
peening. Residual stresses may shorten the life of the part by
increasing the fatigue crack growth rate [1,2]. To maintain the expected lifetime, the residual stresses must be eliminated as much
as possible. Vibratory stress relief at resonant frequencies is a
well-known technology for reduction of the residual stresses
caused by welding or other manufacturing processes. The vibratory
stress relief in resonant frequencies was introduced by McGoldrick
and Saunders [3]. They applied mechanical vibrations with the frequency of 1030 Hz and amplitude 0.3750.4 in. to a ship structure. They claimed the possibility of applying mechanical
vibration to the structures but the measurement of the residual
stresses was not reported. The most related work was done by
Wozney and Crawmer [4]. They used shot-peened Almen strip
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 21 82883364; fax: +98 21 82883364.
E-mail address: yhojjat@modares.ac.ir (Y. Hojjat).
0261-3069/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.11.023
714
3. Experimental steps
3.1. Preparatory works for experimental samples
Three types of Almen strip with the same length and width but
different thicknesses are selected. They are called N, A, and C types
with a thickness of 0.772, 1.283 and 2.372 mm, respectively. Fig. 2
shows dimensional tolerances and rolling direction of Almen strips
[14,15].
Almen strips were waterjet cut from a stainless steel sheet with
a thickness of 1.3 mm and sized by milling. Table 1 shows the composition and mechanical properties of the sheet [ASTM A193/
A193M-12b].
To remove the initial curvature of Almen specimen and fulll
the required straightness and atness mentioned in ASM Standard,
heat stress relieving was performed. Before heat treatment, the
strips were xed inside the die and fastened by four standard
screws using a manual torquemeter in order to apply equal torque
to all of the screws. According to the ASM handbook [16], the furnace heating rate was 5 C/min, holding temperature 900 C, and
cooling rate 1 C/min [17]. The furnace was purged and lled with
Argon inert gas to prevent the oxidation of strips. Fig. 3 shows the
relation between the heat treating temperature and stress relieving
rate.
3.2. Shot peening process
Shot peening of specimens was carried out by Reymehr Co., machine, according to the standard instructions [14]. The air pressure
was 8 MPa, nozzle distance to the strip was set at 100 mm, angle of
impact was set to be 83, nozzle diameter was 5 mm and the average measured shot diameter was 0.45 mm. Fig. 4a shows the prepared setup on the shot peening machine. The achieved Almen
arc height is shown in Fig. 4b. For measuring the Almen arc height,
Almen gage was made with respect to the shot peening standard
(Fig. 4c).
3.3. Ultrasonic stress relieving
After shot peening of the specimens and measuring the obtained Almen arc height, ultrasonic stress relief operation was performed on the specimens. High power MPI Ultrasonic generator
was used to create vibration in the transducer. The resonant frequency of the transducer was about 24,500 Hz. Hence modal analyses were carried out by ANSYS, and a horn with the same resonant
frequency of the transducer was designed for this purpose which
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M r E
I
c R
AA13
1
A1 5:76 A3
Am3 5:76 Am1
where A is the cross section area of the sample and Am the vibration
amplitude at specied points. Fig. 7 shows the sample which is designed according to ANSYS output, and the standard tension test
dimensions [based on ASTM E8/E8M-11]. To prevent the vibration
of other components, the sample is xed at vibration anti-nodes
(points 2 and 4).
To study the acoustic softening effect, a high power ultrasonic
transducer was connected directly to the tensile sample and vibrated it with approximate power amplitude of 300 and 600 W
during the tensile test (Fig. 8).
Measurements with Eddy current sensor showed that the vibration amplitude at point 1 with 300 and 600 W is equal to 4 and
8 lm, respectively. Thus, according to the Eq. (1), the vibration
amplitude at the point 3 is equal to 23 and 46 lm, respectively.
3.5. Thermal stress relieving process
bt
12
where b and t are the length and width of the rectangle cross section, respectively. Neutral axis is parallel to the length of the rectangle and c is the distance from the neutral axis. In symmetrical
sections this is the distance from the midpoint or center of gravity
of the section. E is the Youngs modulus. R is the radius of curvature
of the beam when it bends under load. The stress in a simple beam
can be calculated as:
Mc
I
t
;
2
rmax
6M
bt
Although the distribution of residual stress through the thickness is unlikely linear, it is assumed to be linear. As the sheet is
shtailed or cut in a central planar direction or shot peened, the
bending moment created by the residual stress will released
(Fig. 9c). The bending moment may be expressed as:
EI
R
rmax
Et
4R
L2
2d
Eq. (8) is derived from Fig. 10, where isosceles triangles RLK and
mdn are similar, and therefore R/L = m/d or R = Lm/d. For small angles, L is equal to the arc 12 and m is about half of arc 12 (Fig. 9c).
Substituting Eq (8) in Eq. (7) gives:
1.4401
X5CrNiMo17122
Stainless steel 316
C
Cr
Max 0.08
Max 18
Mn
Max 2.0
Density (kg/m3)
800
Ni
Max 14
P
Max 0.045
Si
Max 1.0
S
Max 0.03
Fe
61.872.0
Hardness (RB)
79
Elongation in 2 in or 50 mm (Min %)
50
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ble 2 shows the results of shot peening tests and the amount of
residual stress.
5.2. Thermal stress relief results
Fig. 3. The effect of duration and temperature on thermal stress relief, according to
ASM [17].
rres
Etd
2L2
rres
2Etd0
L
10
where d0 is the Almen curvature and is measured by an accurate Almen gage at the middle of the Almen strip.
5. Results and discussion
Fig. 4. Almen test procedure. (a) Shot peening of Almen strip, (b) Alemn arc height and (c) Almen gage.
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Fig. 6. Modal simulation of tension specimen designed for acoustic softening evaluation.
Fig. 7. Tension specimen dimension and ultrasonic vibration amplitude [based on ASTM E8/E8M-11].
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Fig. 9. Schematic of (a) simple beam theory, (b) distribution of longitudinal residual stress and (c) compressive and tensional residual stress at the surface of specimen [19].
SS1
0.246
109.40
SS8
0.195
86.72
SS2
0.415
184.56
SS9
0.250
111.18
SS3
0.273
121.40
SS10
0.41
182.33
SS4
0.420
186.78
SS11
0.396
176.10
SS5
0.435
193.45
SS12
0.22
97.83
SS6
SS7
0.535 0.315
237.92 140.08
SS13
0.234
104.06
according to the ASM directions [20]. After mounting the specimens, mechanical grinding and polishing processes were used to
prepare the samples. Etching process was carried out with
(50 mL HCl, 10 g CuSO4, and 50 mL H2O). Specimens were etched
with this etchant for 45 s then metallography photos were taken
and analyzed. Figs. 18 and 19 show the microstructure of austenitic
stainless steel 316 before and after ultrasonic stress relieving,
respectively.
The austenitic base stainless steel grain boundaries are clear in
Fig. 18. Fig. 19 shows no considerable changes in the grain size of
the specimen. It may be resulted that the stress relieving process
has not changed the grain size.
To explain the stress relief mechanism, it is necessary to study
the special effects of high power ultrasonic treatment. This treat-
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m
sa
c_ a ca0 sgnsa a
g
11
where ca0 is the reference strain rate, m is the rate sensitivity exponent (material properties) and ga is the strength of a slip system.
Ultrasonic process causes some internal changes in the material
that leads to decrease the tensile strength so the plastic strain rate
increases. When applying the high power ultrasonic, ga is smaller.
Fig. 12. The amount of Almen strip residual stresses before and after ultrasonic stress relief process.
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Fig. 13. The effect of ultrasonic amplitude on stress reduction rate (stress relief time: 5 min and pre-load: 4.8 kN).
Hence the modied formula for plastic slip with acoustic softening
is given by
hardening, and it is independent of ultrasonic frequency and is directly proportional to the applied ultrasonic intensity (IU).
a m
s
c_ a ca0 sgnsa a
g Us
12
where US is a coefcient showing the effect of the ultrasonic softening and its value is less than 1. According to the other investigations,
ultrasonic energy is absorbed in some regions such as grain boundaries, dislocations and voids. It means that by increasing the ultrasonic intensity, US, is getting close to zero, and c_ a increases
extremely.
Eq. (12) explains the effect of ultrasonic in plastic range. Some
investigations show that the ultrasonic effect takes place just in
plastic range [25], while the others claim in both elastic and plastic
rang [22]. This research shows that the ultrasonic softening effects
take place in both elastic and plastic range which realizes the ultrasonic stress relieving. The prospect is that, when the ultrasonic
vibrations are removed, the tensile strength returns to its initial value, but this does not happen and tensile strength reaches a value
higher than its initial value. Acoustic hardening is similar to work
da qmc
r
2IU E
13
Fig. 14. The effect of stress relief time on stress reduction rate (vibration amplitude: 6 lm and pre-load: 4.8 kN).
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Fig. 15. The inuence of pre-loading force on stress reduction rate (vibration amplitude: 6 lm and relief time: 5 min).
6. Conclusion
Table 3
Coefcients of ANOVA analyses.
Model
Unstandardized
coefcients
Standardized Coefcients t
Std. error
Beta
30.509
2.882
3.858
2.572
.028
.143
.083
1 (constant)
24.818
Preload
.202
Vibration amplitude 1.375
Relief time
.533
.813
.070
.356
.207
Fig. 16. Strainstress curves of typical tensile specimen with and without ultrasonic vibration.
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Fig. 17. Strainstress curves of typical tensile specimen with and without ultrasonic vibration.
The results of acoustic softening showed that ultrasonic intensity directly affects the material characteristics. Applying ultrasonic vibration with 300 W (IU = 42W/cm2), decreases the yield
strength from 263 to 178 MPa and reduces the tensile strength
from 543 to 388.3 MPa. Applying ultrasonic vibration with 600 W
(IU = 84W/cm2), causes the sharp drop of yield strength and tensile
strength from 263 to 146.4 MPa and from 543 to 304.4 MPa,
respectively. These results prove that by increasing the ultrasonic
intensity from 42 to 84 W/cm2, ultrasonic softening coefcient decreases sharply, weakens the slip strength between the grains, and
causes the material to be softened.
In the tensile test, when the ultrasonic generator switches off,
the stress goes slightly higher than the initial value (without ultrasonic), this effect is acoustic hardening, and the amount of this
increment depends on ultrasonic intensity (IU) applied during the
tensile testing.
Fig. 18. Light micrograph of austenitic stainless steel 316 before ultrasonic stress
relieving (500X).
Fig. 19. Light micrograph of austenitic stainless steel 316 after ultrasonic stress
relieving (500X).
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