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On my first project as a combustion control engineer, I was responsible for loop checks and for
watching the experts tune the system controls. The first loop I tried to tune solo was the drum level
control. At that time the trend-tune program defaulted to a 2-minute window, and no one bothered to
mention to me that the proper time span to tune drum level control to is 20 to 30 minutes. I also
zoomed in on the drum level, which has a normal range of 15 inches, though my trend range was
3 inches. Finally, I did not know that drum level can be a very "noisy" signal, so the hours I spent
trying to tune out that noise were wasted.
Eventually, I got the bright idea to add a little derivative to the loop control. In the time it took to
program 0.01 as the derivative gain and then immediately remove it, the boiler tripped. Thus began
my career in boiler tuning.
In the 20-plus years since my inauspicious debut, Ive had the opportunity to successfully tune
hundreds of boilers, new and old, that needed either a control loop tweak or a complete overhaul.
Many inexperienced engineers and technicians approach boiler tuning with a heavy hand and little
insight into the inner workings of individual control loops, how highly interconnected they are with
other loops in the boiler system, or what change should be expected from the physical equipment the
loops are to control. My purpose in writing this article is to explore these fundamentals and share my
experiences. I trust these insights will be of value to the power industry and specifically to those who
want to tune boilers for rock-solid stability yet agility when responding to process changes.
Operator Controls
The operators window into the control system is referred to as a master or as a hand/auto station,
control station, or operator station. The station is the operator interface to a given control loop and is
typically a switch located on the control panel in older plants or accessible from the operators
keyboard in those equipped with all-digital controls. Typically, the control station allows the operator
to move between manual and automatic modes of operation. All of the control loops discussed in this
article combine to form the set of controls that manage the key boiler operating functions.
When a control loop is placed in manual mode, the operator will have direct control of the output. In
automatic mode the output is modulated by the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. In
automatic mode the operator usually has some control over the set point or operating point of the
process, either directly or through the use of a bias signal. Occasionally, as in primary airflow control,
the set point is displayed either on the controller located on the control panel or on the computer
screen graphic display. Cascade mode is a subset of the automatic mode in which the operator turns
over control of the set point to the master, whose internal logic generates the set point. Usually, there
is some digital logic that requires the station to be interlocked to manual, as well as control output
tracking and set point tracking.
1. Blowing hot air. Induced draft fans are used to control furnace pressure and primary combustion
airflow. In this test, induced draft fan and furnace pressure respond to a step increase in furnace
pressure set point. Source: Tim Leopold
2. Favorite trend. I typically monitor airflow, O 2 content in the flue gas, and furnace pressure control
when I tune airflow. The particular response of those variables was observed after a 20% load
increase in coordinated control mode. Source: Tim Leopold
Air and, consequently, O2 control are critical to the safe and efficient operation of a boiler. The airflow
signal is normally measured in terms of a percentage and is usually not available in volumetric or
mass flow units. The obvious question is, "Percentage of what?" The answer is the percentage of
airflow that is available from a given fan or system of fans. The actual measured pounds per hour of
air does not matter, because air is free, and the final arbiter of proper airflow is the O 2 content in the
flue gas (gases leaving the furnace). Because of variations in coal heat content, air temperature, and
combustion conditions inside a boiler, we ensure proper burning by measuring the amount of oxygen
content in the flue gas, commonly referred to simply as O2.
Pulverized coal has an interesting property: Under certain conditions of heat in a low-oxygen
atmosphere, coal can self-ignite or even explode. Therefore, personnel safety and equipment
protection require boiler operators to maintain excess O2 in the flue gas. The amount of excess O 2 is
determined by the load on the plant and the type and design of boiler. Typically, the load signal used
is steam flow. In any coal-fired boiler, airflow demand is a function of the boiler firing rate or boiler
demand (Figure 3). Gas- and oil-fired boilers have lower O 2 requirements at higher loads.
3. Extra air is a good thing. A typical O2 set point curve for a coal-fired plant is a function of boiler
firing rate or boiler demand. Minimum levels of air are required so that reducing conditions in the
furnace never occur. Source: Tim Leopold
The term cross-limiting refers to the function of fuel flow that limits the decrease in air demand and
the function of airflow that limits the increase in fuel demand. When decreasing load, the air demand
follows its lag function and the fuel demand follows the boiler demand to ensure that there is always
more air than fuel going into a furnace so explosive conditions never develop inside the furnace.
When increasing load, the opposite is true. This is truly an elegant piece of logic.
The output from the boiler master is the boiler demand. Cross-limited air demand is developed by
choosing the highest of four calculated values: boiler demand function, the lag of the boiler demand
signal, a minimum value (per the boiler manufacturer under the NFPA codes), and a function of the
actual fuel flow. The cross-limited fuel demand is selected from the least of three signals: boiler
demand function, a lag of boiler demand, and a function of actual airflow. When load is increased, air
demand follows the function of the boiler demand and the fuel demand follows its lag of the boiler
demand.
To develop the air demand for your boiler, hold your O 2 trim controller in manual at 50% output. At a
low, medium, and high load, place your FD fan master, or secondary airflow dampers (if the boiler is
so equipped), and your fuel master in manual. Then manipulate the airflow until you find the amount
that satisfies your O2 set point requirement, using stack opacity as a reality check on the O 2 set point.
Next, manipulate the airflow characterization curve as required to allow the air demand to equal or
slightly exceed the fuel flow or boiler demand. Record the airflow required for that fuel flow and then
move on to another fuel flow setting. Three points should be sufficient for a good airflow curve.
Typically, the airflow measurement is a differential pressure taken in air ductwork and requires a
square root in order to make it linear. Ensure that your signal is also temperature-compensated. Each
boiler should have an airflow characterization curve that should be a virtual straight line. If it isnt, I
would be concerned about unexplained "correction factors" or "magic numbers" that should not be
necessary.
Next, the characterized airflow is multiplied against a function of the O 2 trim controller. The O2 trim
control loop uses the set point curve, discussed above, plus an operator bias to calculate an O 2 set
point for various loads. This set point is compared with the O 2 content of the flue gas used by the
Drum level control uses a cascaded controller scheme consisting of an outer and an inner controller.
Steam flow is an indication of the rate at which water is being removed from the drum. A function of
steam flow is used as a feedforward to the outer controller. The drum level error is then operated on
by the outer controller. The output of this controller is the feedwater flow set point. The difference
between this set point and the feedwater flow is then operated on by the inner controller. The output
from this controller is then used to modulate the feedwater flow control valve.
Three-element control is much more stable and robust than single-element control. The reason that
we use single-element control at all has to do with the nature of the instrumentation. Typically,
feedwater flow, and occasionally steam flow, is developed by using a flow-measuring device like an
orifice plate or a flow nozzle, where flow rate is proportional to differential pressure. However, a
problem occurs at low flow rates (low boiler load), where differential pressures are not as solidly
proportional as we would like and therefore untrustworthy for boiler control. Consequently, singleelement control is used at low loads.
A well-tuned drum level control can be placed in automatic as soon as a pump is started. By the time
steam flow has passed 25% of the total range, we can consider steam flow signals to be reliable. That
is a good point at which to switch to three-element control.
There really is not much in the way of manual interlocks or control tracking when it comes to the
drum level loop. If the drum level signal or the feedwater flow valve control output goes out of range,
or no pump is running, this station is normally locked to manual mode. Thats about it.
Normally, tuning for the single-element controller consists of big proportional and very small integral
gain settings. Tuning for the three-element controller has some additional requirements. As in any
cascaded loop, it is absolutely crucial that the inner controller be tuned as tightly as time will allow.
The inner controller, the feedwater controller in this case, must have an integral action that is faster
than that of the outer, or drum level, controller (Figure 4). This is true for all cascade loops.
4. Rapid responder. A typical coal-fire boiler with a properly tuned drum level control will respond
very quickly to a substantial load increase (top) or load decrease (bottom). The dynamic response of
other key variables in boiler drum level control system is also illustrated. Source: Tim Leopold
You may notice that as the load decreases, the drum level sags downward, and as the load increases,
the drum level is slightly elevated. This means that the steam flow feedforward is just a tad too
strong. A minute adjustment to the feedforward signal can add stability to the control loop (Figure 5).
5. Small is big. A small increase in the feedforward signal added more stability to the drum level
controls. Only very small incremental changes in feedforward should be made when tuning drum level
controls. Source: Tim Leopold
If the inlet temperature to the superheater is a measured variable, the preferred method of control is
a cascaded loop. In this case the outer controller uses the superheater outlet temperature as the
process variable. The output from the outer controller is the inlet temperature set point. The output
from the inner controller is spray water demand. If the superheater outlet temperature is the only
available measurement, then we are forced to use a single-element control loop. In either case, it is
important that the controls are equipped with a feedforward signal.
A variety of signals can be used for the superheater temperature control feedforward. Usually, the
boiler demand is a good starting point for the feedforward because this signal anticipates the
measured temperature signals. My experience is that the boiler demand usually has a well-defined
relationship with the superheater temperature.
Other measured variables are available to supply the feedforward signal. Throttle pressure is usually
used in tandem with the throttle pressure set point as an indication of over- or underfiring of the
boiler, but throttle pressure is transient in nature. Airflow versus fuel flow or steam flow may be used
in the same way. The ratio of fuel flow to the top mill versus the other mills is a good indicator of the
changing dynamics in the boiler, especially if the boiler is large and has many burner levels. In this
case it is a good rule of thumb to think of the top elevations as affecting temperature more than
pressure, and the lower elevations as affecting steam pressure more than temperature. Finally, the
reheater temperature control affects the superheater temperature to a greater or lesser degree,
depending on the type of boiler manufacturer and its method of control.
The feedforward signal development may include both static and dynamic functionality. The static
cases are basically a function of the variable that you are using. Dynamic feedforward refers to a
derivative kick based on the movement of the chosen variable. For example, the ratio of airflow to
steam flow might be used as an indicator of the boilers movement up or down, and the feedforward
then can be manipulated accordingly.
Patience is a virtue when tuning these feedforwards, because steam temperature processes may
have long time constants.
the spray controller. Usually, the spray set point is set higher than the primary reheat temperature
control set point before the sprays are enabled, to reduce the reheater spray flow.
Part II will look at fuel flow control, pulverizer air control, and overall plant control options such as
boiler- and turbine-following modes and plant coordinated control.
Tim Leopold (tim.leopold@hotmail.com) is a field service engineer with ABB and has more than 20
years experience tuning controls on power plants around the world. His book You Can Tune a Boiler
But You Cant Tuna Fish is slated for publication in March.
have any of your gains disproportionately high. We use the derivative because we are trying to
anticipate the steam pressure deviation.
The feedforward signal is an important part of this control loop and is often referred to as target
steam flow. Target steam flow is the measured steam flow multiplied by the ratio of throttle
pressure setpoint to throttle pressure. Typically, there is a function generator designed such that
0% to 100% of the input signal is proportional to a 0% to 100 % output signal. The nicely
dynamic nature of the ratio helps the boiler master move in the right direction. Additional
"kickers" may also be available. One option is a throttle pressure setpoint kicker that adds a little
to the feedforward signal if the setpoint is changed. The derivative action of the controller also
acts as a kicker.
Turbine-Following Mode. In many ways, this is my favorite plant operating mode, because it is
the easiest to tune. It also offers a good strong safety net to operators in times of crisis. In
turbine-following mode the boiler master is in manual and the turbine master is in automatic
mode. The turbine master controls throttle pressure by modulating the turbine governor valves.
Megawatts are then produced in the generator and pushed to the grid as a function of the boiler
load.
Compared to the slow and sometimes lumbering response of the boiler, turbine response is
usually fast and agile. Proportional gains are usually moderately large, and the integral action
can be quite fast. Although adaptive tuning is possible, there usually isnt the need for this; many
units use only one value for the proportional and/or the integral gain. Also, the need for a
feedforward is minimal. The turbine governor valves operate as one large pressure control valve
that can easily control throttle pressure when the control loops are well-tuned.
Turbine-following mode is also a favorite among operators. If the plant is in coordinated mode,
and the unit starts to go out of control for almost any reason, operators simply have to put the
boiler master into manual. Immediately, the controls will automatically default to turbinefollowing mode. The valves open or close, as necessary to control the main steam pressure.
Meanwhile, because the firing rate has steadied, the boiler controls will soon settle out.
Figure 2 plots the data taken during start-up of a 320-MW power plant. At the lower left corner
you can see where the valve transfer occurred. The valve transfer is a process in which the
turbine, upon start-up, transfers control from the stop valve to the governor valve. There are
actually two sets of valves in the main steam line before the turbine: the main stop valve and the
governor valves. The next interesting point on this figure is the area that I call the "disturbing
delta." There was a long period, during this load ramp, when the difference (delta), between the
throttle pressure and the throttle pressure setpoint was virtually constant (the purple and green
lines at the first vertical white dotted line). When we expect the controls to act one way, and
they do not, its time to investigate.
2. Under control. Taming a control loop that switched out the integral control on a load ramp.
Source: Tim Leopold
During a change in unit load demand, in coordinated control, it is common practice to decrease
the integral action of the boiler master controller to zero until the load ramp is finished. This
strategy was used in all of the turbine and boiler master controller modes. This is a case where
more is definitely not better; there was a touch of feedforward, based on boiler demand,
substantial proportional gain, and no integral gain when I looked at the logic. Tuned as it was, the
error signal between throttle pressure and throttle pressure setpoint will never go away.
I tried to tune out the error without success. Although the error decreased, as shown in Figure 2,
we soon discovered that the tuning was not robust under all operating conditions. We then
downloaded the necessary logic modifications (the second white vertical dotted line), causing the
unit to drop out of turbine-following and into base load mode, and then back again. When the
logic modifications were made, from that point on (the third white vertical dotted line) you can
see good control of the throttle pressure. This is how a well-tuned turbine-following mode should
operate.
If there is no coordination between the boiler and turbine controls, they will fight each other to
the death. The boiler really cannot do much more than control throttle pressure, and even then it
is slow because of its massive thermal capacitance.
The turbine valves are much faster and are capable of controlling both megawatts and pressure.
The valves tap into the boilers thermal capacitance when the plants load changes. These ratios
focus the turbine controls on megawatt production with the megawatt setpoint and throttle
pressure are near the setpoint. When deviations occur, the throttle pressure error becomes more
important and slows the turbine down, moving it in the opposite direction that a pure megawatt
controller would demand. Amazingly, for all boilers (drum or once-through, coal- or gas- or oilfired) this rule of thumb will give you a good solid starting point to begin tuning the front-end
coordinated mode controls.
Next comes the tuning of the controllers. In general, the turbine master is the easier of the two
components to tune, so that is the one to attack first. The gains will be less aggressive than were
used for the turbine-following mode, but it is good practice to have the turbine master control
the megawatts as tightly as possible at first. If that response is too much for the boiler to handle,
the tuning can be loosened up later. Note that this will only be proportional and integral tuning
with no derivative action.
The key to tuning the boiler master is balancing the proportional, integral, and derivative action
of the controller so that the pressure is maintained with good control, moves toward the setpoint
in a timely manner, and correctly anticipates the movement of the error signal. In general, the
proportional gain will be fairly large, the integral action slow, and the derivative gain in the
controller should be relatively small.
Finally, the controls that make up the coordinated front end may use some feedforward and the
various kickers that are part of it. The feedforward signals to both the turbine and the boiler
master controllers, in coordinated mode, is a function of unit load demand.
is for the turbine to provide megawatts and the less swing will occur when the load change is
finished. Some boilers are well behaved and very responsive, so this kick is minimal. Some
boilers are not well behaved, and their kickers can be pretty substantial. There can be other
kickers, possibly based on the throttle pressure or the throttle pressure setpoint kicker, as
described for the boiler-following mode.
3. Unresponsive. A load change on this 800-MW unit showed poor response and controls in
need of a good tuning. Source: Tim Leopold
By the third day, the coordinated controls were responding well after I slightly decreased the
integral and proportional gain and increased the derivative action of the controller by about 25%.
I also modified the feedforward signal slightly. Figure 4 illustrates the unit response to a 353-MW
load increase test. About halfway through, the operator was unable to start an induced-draft (ID)
fan, so he changed to base mode and then to boiler-following mode. When the ID fan was finally
started, he returned to coordinated control mode. As you can see in Figure 4, a request was
received by the front end to increase load just after the operator decided to raise his throttle
pressure. This well-tuned boiler sailed through each test with rock-solid performance.
4. New lease on life. The same 800-MW unit as in Figure 3 showed much better response to a
load change after tuning the proportional and integral gain and increasing the derivative action
of the controller by 25%. Source: Tim Leopold
it was a trip from a lower boiler load, rather than if we had otherwise simply tripped the boiler,
but it was a trip nonetheless.
As a result, what I like to call a kinder, gentler runback was developed. Some call it the turbinefollowing runback, where the boiler switches to manual on the loss of a piece of equipment. If
you are in coordinated mode, the boiler should go to manual control and turbine-following mode
for the steam turbine. At this time, the runback logic reduces the boiler demand to a
predetermined level at a preset rate. In the meantime, the turbine is free to control the main
steam pressure. The megawatt load is then gently reduced, and the plant experiences a soft
landing. Turbine-following is the best mode to select in an emergency.
A further goal of a runback is to recover automatically so the operators can figure out what
happened to the equipment and fix it while the unit is still online and avoid a master fuel trip.
The data shown in Figure 5 were collected during an actual runback test on a 95-MW plant
operated with three pulverizers. The runback occurred when an ID fan was tripped, which
the effect of tripping one of the FD fans. The runback of the boiler was set to a point that
below the three-mill minimum load for safe and stable operation. As a result, automatic
tripping on a runback was developed.
that
had
was
mill
5. Avoiding unit trips. A runback test is necessary when any changes are made to boiler gas
pass, fans, or mills. In this test of a 95-MW unit, the runback occurred when an ID fan was
tripped. Source: Tim Leopold
You can see the boiler demand dropping, and the fuel flow percentage dropping even further as
one of the three mills is shut down by the runback logic. The pulverizer master (coal master
demand) picks up momentarily as the mill is stopped, then ramps back down, eventually getting
the fuel percentage down to the boiler demand. Automatic mill tripping is generally a good idea,
especially on larger units with a lot of mill capacity. Also, notice how the turbine pushes the
throttle pressure back to the setpoint. Drum level also dropped slightly before it recovered. The
entire runback occurred in just over two minutes. Figure 6 is a longer view of the entire episode.
6. Many moving parts. The same runback test (Figure 5) of a 95-MW unit but with a longer
time-span is illustrated. Here you can see the pulverizer master ramping back and the lowering
of the turbine operating pressure setpoint. Source: Tim Leopold
In this test, as is true for most of the tests I have run over the years, the fan and fuel runbacks
are easily handled by the turbine-following runback logic. However, the boiler feedwater pump
runback can be another matter. The turbine valves are relatively slow to respond and tend to
suck steam from the drum. Though some boilers are able to survive this without tripping on low
drum level, many cannot.
As a result, new logic was developed. I like to call this special type of runback the separated
runback. On the loss of a boiler feed pump, the boiler master goes to manual, coal mills are
tripped, and the boiler demand is driven to minimum. The turbine master remains in auto to stay
in turbine-following mode. At this point, we add a special high-limit override enabled during this
runback that overrides the turbine-following controller and marches the governor valves to a
predetermined position. The rate at which the valves are closed is variable and depends on the
throttle pressure. Higher pressures tend to depress the drum level, which we do not want, and
really high pressures lift safeties, which started us on this runback logic journey in the first place.
If you plan to test your runback logic, its a good idea to elevate the drum level a few inches
before your test. At this same 95-MW plant, we tested the boiler feedwater pump runback using
separated runback logic from 75% load with the drum level rundown initiated when the runback
was complete. Figure 7 data illustrate this successful test from the feedwater perspective. Notice
the action of the feedwater control valve. The drum level dropped about 6.5 inches. The low
drum level trip was set at 7.7 inches. That was successful, but a little too close for comfort.
7. Different perspective. The same runback test (see Figure 5) of a 95-MW unit but from the
perspective of the feedwater system. Note the drum level response. Source: Tim Leopold