JavaProgramming:BeginningBeginners’

Guide

ByKeshavPatel

LearnToProgramMedia

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AbouttheBeginningBeginners’GuideSeries

ThisBeginningBeginner’sseriesofbookswasbornoutofafrustration:MostBeginningbooksonwebandmobile

developmentwerenotdesignedfortruebeginners.

Ofteninbeginners’booksthelanguagewasovercomplicatedandladenwithjargonthatonlythosewithprogramming

experienceunderstand.Thebooksassumetoomuchpriorknowledgeorexperience.Intheend,manypeoplenewto

programminggnashedtheirteethinfrustrationandgaveup.

Thefactisthatprogrammingiscompletelyapproachableandevenfuntolearniftaughtcorrectly.

That’sexactlywhattheBeginningBeginners’Guideseriesaimstodo:Helptruebeginnerslearntocode.

Thisseriesofprogrammingbooksisforyouifyou’veneverwrittenalineofcodebefore—orifyou’vetriedtolearn

fromotherbooksunsuccessfully.YouCANlearntocodewell.Youdon’thavetobemathematicallyoriented,oruber-

intelligent.

Learningtocodewon’talwaysbeeasy—butitisdoable.IfyoucanmanipulateanExcelspreadsheet,youcanlearn

programming.

Here’shopingthattheprocessforyouisasrewardingasitisforustoteach.

Shouldyouhavequestionsorcomments,pleaseemailmedirectlyatmark@learntoprogram.tv.

-MarkLassoff,FounderLearnToProgramMedia

Page4

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABOUTTHEBEGINNINGBEGINNERS’GUIDESERIES………….4

CHAPTER1:WRITINGYOURFIRSTPROGRAM…………………….8

CHAPTER2:INPUTANDOUTPUT……………………………………… 22 CHAPTER3:VARIABLES…………………………………………………… 40 CHAPTER4:CONDITIONALSANDLOOPS………………………… 56 CHAPTER5:DEALINGWITHDATA…………………………………… 77

CHAPTER6:PUTTINGITALLTOGETHER………………………….103

ONLINECOURSESFROMLEARNTOPROGRAM…………………125

Chapter1:WritingYourFirstProgram

Welcome.Ifthisisyourfirsttimeprogramming,congratulations!You’reabouttostartan

adventurethatmostfindveryrewarding.Ifyouaretryingtolearnafteraprevious

abortiveattempt,youdeserverecognitionaswell.Tacklingprogrammingisn’talways

easy—butit’snotoutsidethegraspoftheaverageperson,either.

Overtheyears,I’vetaughtprogrammingtoover500,000peoplebothonlineandin

person.TheprogrammersI’vemetovertheyears—bothbeginnersandseasonedvets— havecomefromavarietyofbackgrounds.I’vefoundthatbothPhDsandhighschool

dropoutscanmakegoodprogrammers.I’vehadmathematicians,psychiatrists,and12

year-oldsinmyclassesovertheyearsandallhavebeenabletolearnsomeprogramming.

Youwilllearntoo.Inthisintroductorychapter—whichisspeciallydesignedforthe

slightlyapprehensivebeginner—Iamgoingtotakeyoustep-by-stepthroughtheprocess

ofwritingyourfirstprogram.Youdon’tneedanyspecialequipmentexceptalaptopor

desktopcomputer.

Sowithoutfurtherdelay,let’sgetstarted!

WhatYou’reGoingtoLearn

Thisfirstchapterwillserveasanintroductiononsettingupyourprogramming

environmentandgettingstarted.Eachchapterfollowingisdesignedtotakeyouthrough

thebasicsofacertainaspectofdevelopmentandgiveyouafoundationforgreater

learning.Justtogiveyousomecontext,here’swhat’scomingupintherestofthebook:

Chapter2:InputandOutput

Inputandoutputarekeytoanyprogram.Inthischapterwe’lllookathowtogetdatainto

andoutofaprogram.

Chapter3:UnderstandingVariables

Variablesarekeybuildingblocksinanyprogram.Thischaptertakesreadersthrough

declaringandutilizingvariablesinexpressions.Videotutorialincluded.

Chapter4:ConditionalsandLoops

ConditionalsandLoopsarestructureswhichallowprogramstomakedecisionsthatalter

theexecutionoftheprogramandresult.Thesewillbedemonstratedandexplainedinthis

chapter.

Chapter5:DealingwithData

Almosteveryusefulprogram,tosomeextent,dealswithdata.Inthischapteryou’lllearn

howtostorevariousformsofdatainaprogram.

Chapter6:PuttingitAllTogether

Inthisfinalchapter,readerswilllearnhowtocreateausefulprogramthatprocessesand

storesdata,usingtheskillsdevelopedinthepreviouschapters.

Beforewewriteanyprograms,wehavetogetyourdevelopmentenvironmentsetup.I won’tmakeyoubuyanythingandyou’llhaveafewoptionstochoosefrom.

Figure1.1:TheAuthor’sDevelopmentEnvironment.DoobieBrothers’musicnotincluded

SettingUpYourDevelopmentEnvironment

We’regoingtobeusingalanguagecalledJavainthisbook.InstallingJavaonyour

machineisrathersimpleandtheprocessisgenerallythesameformostmajoroperating

systems.Withyourbrowseryou’regoingtowanttonavigatetooracle.com.Oracleisthe

companythatmaintainsJava,andtheJDK(JavaDevelopmentKit)thatyouneedto

downloadtowritecodeinJava.

OnceatOracle.com,find“Downloads”onthetopmenubarandclickon“Javafor Developers”under“PopularDownloads”.

Figure1.2:Oracle.comwiththeDownloadsmenuopen.

Afterclickingthatlinkyouwillseeadownloadpage.Adialogboxwillappearthatreads JDK,withadownloadbuttonunderit.Whenyouclickit,itwillredirectyoutoapage whereyoucanselectyouroperatingsystem.Thewebsitewillprovideasetofinstructions

detailinghowtogoaboutinstallingtheJDKontoyourcomputer.Figure1.3:Theterminal

intheauthor’scomputer.Notethattheauthorchangedthedefaultcolorsthroughthe

terminal’spreferences

Intheeventthatyou’drathernotgothroughtheprocessofinstallingaJDKtoyour

machineIrecommendyouusethevirtualLinuxserverprovidedbymyfriendsat

Koding.com.Pointyourbrowsertowww.Koding.comandregisterfortheirfreeaccount.

ThefreeaccountgivesyouavirtualLinuxmachinethatyoucanaccessthroughyourweb

browser—anditcancompileandrunJavacoderightoutofthebox!Nodownloadsare

required.It’swhatIusedtowritethecodewe’llbeusinginthisbook.

Onceyouhaveyouraccount,clickthebuttontoturnonyourVirtualMachine(VM)and getcoding.You’llbeusingatexteditoronKodingtotypeJavafilesandtheterminalto runthem.

Figure1.4:CommandLine(orTerminal)inKoding.com.

WritingandRunningYourCode

Nowthatyouhaveyourenvironmentsetup,it’stimeto(finally)writesomecode.We’ll

writecodeinatexteditor.Atexteditorisdifferentthanawordprocessor.Aword

processorwillintroduceinvisibleformattingcodeintoafile.Ifyouweretoruncode

writteninawordprocessoritwouldlikelycauseanerrorduetotheembeddedformatting

code.

Atexteditor,ontheotherhand,savesthetextyouenteraspuretext—without introducinganyunnecessaryformatting.Thetextproducedbyatexteditorcanbeeasily processedbytheJavacompiler.Withinthecommandlineenvironmentsinthe Koding.comvirtualmachineandontheMactherearetwotexteditorsyoucanuse.They

areknownasnanoandvi.Thesetexteditorshaveaheritagethatgoesbacktothe1970s—

soasyouusethemyoucantrulyfeel“oldschool!”Theotheroptionistousethedefault

texteditoronKoding,TextEditonaMacorNotepadonWindows.They’reallratherself-

explanatory,althoughsomemayneedafewsettingschangedtohighlightJavacode.Asa

sidenote,makesurethatwheneveryoufirstsaveyourcodefiles,yousavethemas

“filename.java”.

nano

NanoisaneasytouseLinuxbasededitor.It’sprettyintuitive.Youcansimplystarttyping

yourcodewhenthenanoenvironmentloads.Nanohasanumberofcontrolcodeswhich

arelistedatthebottomofyourscreenforyourreference.Themostimportanttonoteare

CTRLOwhichsavesyourfileandCTRL-Xwhichexitsnanoandreturnsyoutothe

commandline.

Bydefault,nanowillsaveyourfileinthesamefolderyouwereinwhenyouopenednano

itself.

Figure1.5:Thenanotexteditor.

Youcanstartnanobytypingnanoandthenhitenteronthecommandline.

vi

viisaslightlymorecomplex(andevenmore“oldschool”)texteditor.Themost

importantthingtounderstandaboutviisthattherearetwomodes:commandmodeand

insertmode.Toenterinsertmode,press‘i’onyourkeyboard.Whenyouwanttomove

intocommandmodetoissuecommandslikewriteandquit,hittheESCkey.Ifyouscrew

upandfindyourselfinthewrongmode,pressESCalotandthatseemstogetyouback

intocommandmodefromwhereveryouareat.

There’sanoldjokeaboutvithatgoeslikethis:vihastwomodes,andyou’reinthewrong

one.(Ifyoudon’tthinkthat’sfunnyrightnow,youwillafteryouuseviforabit!)

Whenyouentervi,typeitomoveintoinsertmodeandyou’llbeabletotypeyourcode. Whenyou’redone,hitESCtomoveintocommandmode.Allcommandsmustbe precededbyacolon.Sotowriteyourfileyou’llenter:w.Toquityou’llenter:q.vialso letsyoucombinecommands.Forexample,thecombination:wqwillwriteyourfileand thenquitbacktothecommandline.

Figure1.6:viwantsyoutohelppoorchildreninUganda.Itofferslimitedhelpfornew

programmersworldwide.

Youcanstartvibytypingviandthenhittingreturnonthecommandline.

Sonowyoushouldhaveyourtexteditorstartedandbereadytoenteryourcode.Enterthe

followingcodeintoyourtexteditorexactlyasitappears:

publicclassHelloWorld{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

System.out.println(“Thisismyfirstprogram!”);System.out.println(“Programmersarerockstars!”);}

}

Itshouldbeatleastsomewhatevidentwhatthiscodedoes.Theprintln()functionprints

contenttothecommandline.Inthiscaseyouareprintingtwostrings.Stringsaresimply

linesofcharacters.Stringsarealwaysenclosedinquotes.

Onceyou’vetypedthecode,it’stimetorunit.Innano,saveyourfilebytypingCTRL-W.

Whenprompted,enterthefilename

HelloWorld.java.The“.java”extensionindicatesthatthisisaJavasourcecodefile.Next

enterCTRLXtoquitandyou’llreturntothecommandline.Invi,entercommandmode

andthensaveyourfilebytyping:wHelloWorld.java.Thiswritesyourfileunderthe

appropriatefilename.Finally,invi,hit:qtoquitandreturntothecommandline.Inany

othereditor,includingtheoneonKoding,generallyyoucanopenamenuandclick‘save

as’justlikeyouwouldinanyothercomputerprogram.

Noticethatthefilenamewegavethisprogrammatchesthenameoftheclass (HelloWorld).ThisistheJavastandard.Thisstandardmakesclassfileseasilyidentifiable inbuildwhenyouhavemultiplesourcefiles.Soforhousekeepingpurposes,whenever youmakeanew‘.java’filemakesurethatthenameoftheclassinthecode(whichis writtenafter‘publicclass’inthefirstlineofthecode.)matchesthenameofthefile.This wayanyonereadingyourcodewillknowwhich‘.class’fileisassociatedwithwhat‘.java’ file.

Figure1.7:SavingyourfileinKoding.

Nowthatyouhavetypedyourcodeintoaneditor,openyourterminal,andyourcursor

shouldappearattheprompt.Runtheprogrambyenteringthefollowingattheprompt

(don’ttypethe‘$’—thatjustrepresentsthepromptitself):

$javacHelloWorld.java$javaHelloWorld

ThefirstlineherecommandsJavatocompilethesourcecodethatyouwroteintowhat’s

knownasJavabytecodeandwriteittoa‘.class’file.Thisbytecodeisexecutedbythe

JavaVirtualMachine(orJVM)wheneveryourunyourprogram.JVMscanbeinstalledon

numerousdevices,fromcellphonestosupercomputers,andtheyalldothesamething:run

Javacode.TheresultofthisisJava’sabilitytorunonmultipleplatforms.Solongasa

JVMisinstalledonamachine,itcanrunthecompiledJavacodethatyouwrite.

ThesecondlineinstructsJavatoactuallyrunwhat’sinthe‘.class’file.Notethatthe‘.class’

isimplied.Youdon’thavetotypeitwhenyourunyourcode.Ifyouopenthefolderwhere

thefileissaved,youwillseeitasa‘.class’filethough.

Ifyou’vedoneeverythingcorrectlyyoushouldseetheresultofyourprogramprinted

beforethenextprompt.

Figure1.8:ExecutionoftheHelloWorld.javaprogram

Ifyouroutputdoesn’tlooksimilartofigure1.9,youneedtoloadyourtexteditorandcode

againandfindyourerror.Youcanreloadyourcodeatthecommandlinepromptwiththe

followingcommand:

vi:viHelloWorld.java

nano:nanoHelloWorld.java

Inanyothereditor,openthefileasyouwouldanyother.

Somecommonerrorsinclude:

-Notclosingbrackets

-Forgettingsemicolonsattheendoflines

-Mistyping“publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args)”(It’scasesensitive!)

Congratulations!Youhavesuccessfullywrittenyourfirstprogram.

Understandingtheprintln()function

Intheprecedingexampleweusedtheprintlnfunctiontooutputastring.Theprint

functionisalsocapableofprintingoutthefollowingtypesofdata:

Integers:Integersare“wholenumbers”anddon’thaveadecimalpoint.InJava,youcan

printanintegerlikethis:

System.out.println(2573);

FloatingPointNumbers:Floatsaremoreprecisenumbersthatincludeadecimalpoint.In

Javayoucanprintafloatingpointnumberlikethis:

System.out.println(3.45783);

Expressions:Expressionsmustbeevaluatedbeforearesultisdetermined.Expressionsare

usuallyarithmeticproblems.ToprintanexpressioninJava:

System.out.println(3.0/(6+4));

Intheexpressionabove,thepartoftheexpressioninparenthesiswillbeevaluatedfirst

duetotheorderofoperations.Theresultprintedis0.3.

We’lllookatexpressionsmorecloselyinournextchapter.

Asasidenote,it’sgoodtounderstandthattheprintlnfunctionisaversionofthe

print()function.The‘ln’attheendstandsforline.Thismeansafterprintingwhatyou

placeintheparenthesesthefunctionwillmakeanewlinetoprintthenextexpression.The

‘print’functionwillsimplyprintwhateveryouputintheparenthesiswithoutintroducing

itsownformatting.

Chapter2:InputandOutput

Inthischapterwe’regoingtolookmorecloselyatinputandoutput,whichareperhapsthe

twomostcriticalactivitiesinanyprogram.Inthepreviouschapterwelookedcloselyat

theoutputweproducedwiththeprintlncommand.Withprintlnwewereabletooutput

threetypesofdatatothecommandlinescreen:strings,integers,andfloatingpoint

numbers.Theprogramswewrote,however,hadnocapacitytotakeinputandprocess

data.

Inthischapterwe’regoingtolookcloselyattwotypesofinput.Firstinputstatementswill

allowustoprogrammaticallyrequestinputfromtheuser.We’llthenusecommandline

parameterstoprovideinputstoourprogram.

Aswelookatoutput,we’llalsolookatdirectingouroutputtoafileinsteadofbacktothe

commandline.

Sonowit’stimetoputonyourfavoriteprogrammingmusic(IsuggestTheCure),open

nano,vioryourfavoritetexteditorandstartcoding…

InputStatements

We’regoingtostartwithaprogramthatcalculatestheareaofarectanglebasedona

sideAinputandasideBinput.KeythefollowingJavacodeintoyourtexteditor:

importjava.util.Scanner;

publicclassSquare{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

System.out.println(“RECTANGLEAREACALCULATOR”);

Scannerinput=newScanner(System.in);

System.out.println(“What’sthelengthofsideA?“);floatsideA=input.nextFloat();

System.out.println(“What’sthelengthofsideB?“);floatsideB=input.nextFloat();

floatarea=sideA*sideB;

System.out.println(“Theareaofyourrectangleis:“+area); Onceyouaresureyouhavekeyedintheprogramcorrectlyandsavedit,goaheadandrun theprogramonthecommandline.IsavedmineasSquare.java.Youroutputshouldlook

similartofigure2.1:

Figure2.1:ExecutionoftheSquare.javaprogramwhichtakesinputfromtheuserviathe

Java.nextFloat()function.

Onthefirstlineofthisprogram,weencountertheimportstatement.Importsareusedin

manylanguagestoaddanadditionallibraryofcommandstothelanguagethatarenotin

thelanguagecore.Inthiscase,we’readdingtheScannerobjectfromtheutillibrary

whichcontainsanumberofutilitiesandusefulobjects.

Ifyouwanttoimporttheentirelibrary,allyouhavetodoisreplaceScannerwithan

asterisk(*).

Forexample:

importjava.util.*;

Whilethisisuseful,understandthatinmuchlargerprogramsimportinganentire

libraryjusttogetoneobjectlikewe’redoingheremakesyourprogramlessefficient.It’s

likegrabbingyourwholetoolboxwhenyoujustneedahammer.

Now,basedoncontextandtheprogramexecution,you’veprobablyalreadyguessedwhat

thenextInt()functiondoes.Let’sbreakitdown:

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ScannergrabAge=newScanner(System.in);

System.out.println(“Howoldareyou?”);

intage=grabAge.nextInt();

}

ThefirstlineofthisclasscreatesaScannerobject.Scannersaretheobjectweuseto

obtaininputfromthecommandline.

Intheexampleabove,whatevertheusertypesattheprompt“Howoldareyou?”isgoing

tobeassignedtothevariableageviatheScanner’snextIntmethod.We’regoingtotakea

closerlookatvariablesinthenextchapter—forrightnow,justconsidervariablesa

temporarystorageplaceforvalues.Thesevaluescanbestrings,floats,orintegers.You

mustdeclarevariablesbeforeusingthem.Generallythesyntaxisthedatatypefollowedby

anametoreferencethevariable.

Youmaybewonderingwhatadatatypeis.Datatypedetermineswhatavariablecan

contain,andwhatoperationscanbeperformedonit.Someexamplesofdatatypesinclude

integers,strings,andfloatingpointnumbers.

Here’sanexampleofthedeclarationofanintegervariable:

intname;

Note:Intindicatesthatthedatatypeforthisvariableisaninteger.

RemembertoimporttheScannerobjectortheutillibrarybeforedeclaringaScanner

object.Otherwise,yourprogramwillencounteranerror.

Let’stryanewexample.CreateanewfileinyourtexteditorcalledStringInput.java.You

candothisinvi,forexample,bytypingthefollowingcommandonthecommandline:vi

StringInput.java.

Keyinthefollowingcode:

importjava.util.Scanner;

publicclassStringInput{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

Scannerinput=newScanner(System.in);System.out.println(“What’syourname?“);

Stringname=input.nextFloat();

System.out.println(“Hello“+name);}

}

Exityourtexteditorandcompiletheprogramfromyourcommandlinewiththecommand

javacStringInput.java.

Figure2.2:Uhoh.Thiscan’tbegood.We’vemadeanerror.Howdowefixit?

Sowhathappened?Insteadofcompilingandallowingthecodetorun,theprogramexited withanerror.Luckilytheerroriseasytofix.ThenextFloat()functionisdesignedto acceptthefloatdatatypeandonlythatdatatype.Whenyouenteranythingthatisn’ta

floatingpointnumber,itcausestheerroryouseeinfigure2.2.Wehaveadifferent

functionthatisintendedforstringuse,callednextLine().

Edityourcodeasfollows:

importjava.util.Scanner;publicclassStringInput{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

Scannerinput=newScanner(System.in);System.out.println(“What’syourname?“);

Stringname=input.nextLine();

System.out.println(“Hello“+name);}

}

Note:Thescannerhasafunctiontoobtaineverykindofdatatype.

Herearesomeexamples:

nextLine():Strings

nextInt():Integers

nextFloat():FloatingpointnumbersnextDouble():Doubles

Youcanprobablyrecognizethepattern.Thedocumentationofthemethodsforthe

Scannerobjectisavailablehere:

http://docs.oracle.com/Javase/7/docs/api/Java/util/Scanner.html

LearninghowtoreadtheJavadocumentationisanimportantskillitself.

Figure2.3:

SomuchbetterwithnextLine()!

Whenyou’reworkingwithstrings,youshouldusethenextLine()functionwhichdoesnot

scanforadatatypeotherthanStrings.It’llalwaysreturnwhatevertheuserenterintothe

promptasastring,includingnumbersorsymbols.

Errors

Theprecedingexamplewasprobablyoneofthefirstexamplesofanerrorthatyou’ve

encountered.ThistypeoferrorisknownasaRuntimeerror.It’soneofthreetypesof

errorsthatcanoccurwhenwritingJavacode.

Thesethreetypesare:

Syntaxerrors:

Syntaxerrorsareissueswiththeformattingofyourcode.Examplesincludeforgetting

semicolons,notclosingyourbracketsormisspellingmethodnames.Texteditorsgenerally

doagreatjobofpointingtheseout,sofixingthemisrathersimple.

Runtimeerrors:

Runtimeerrorsareabittrickiertocatch.Syntactically,allruntimeerrorsarecorrect,so

yourtexteditorwon’tpointthemouttoyou.Theissueoccurswhensomething

unexpectedhappensandresultsintheprogramfailingtoexecuteatruntime.Theresultis

yourprogramfailstocompileorexecuteproperly.Examplesincludetryingtodivideby

zeroortryingtocallupafilethatdoesn’texist.Javawon’tencountertheerroruntilit

attemptstoexecutethecode.

Logicerrors:

Theseareerrorsintheactuallogicbehindtheprogram.Theyarethemostchallenging

errorstofix,becausethecodeisn’ttechnicallywrong,it’sjustnotgivingthecorrect

result.Somelogicalerrorsgoundetectedevenaftertheprogramisreleased.Examples

includethingslikedividingwhereyoushouldbemultiplying,printingthewrongoutput,

oropeningthewrongfile.Ifyouhavealogicerror,you’rehavingaPICNIC.(ProblemIn

Chair,NotInComputer.)

ParameterizedInput

Yourcurrentworkflowforcesyoutocompileandthenrunyourcodebeforepassinginput.

IncludingparameterswithyourJavacommandpassesinputandexecutesyourcodein

tandem.Theresultingcommandlookslikethis:

$javaClassNamearg1arg2arg3

Intheexampleabove,westillusetheJavacommandandtheclassnameoftheprogram

we’dliketorun.Wefollowtheclassnamewithargumentswhichgetsentasinputtothe

program.Thiscouldbeadvantageousinsituationswherewewantourprogramtorun

unattendedlikewhenwe’recrunchingnumbers.Forexample,ifwewantedaprogramto

receivetheusersnameandageasinput,theparametersmightlooksomethinglikethis:

$javamoreInputKeshav17Thevalues“Keshav”and“17”,whichareseparatedbya

singlespace,arepassedtotheprogram.Let’sseehow.Keyinthefollowingexampleand

saveitasMoreInput.java:

publicclassMoreInput{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

System.out.println(“Yournameis:“+args[0]);System.out.println(“Yourageis:“+

args[1]);

System.out.println(“Allthearguments:“);

System.out.println(args[0]+“,“+args[1]);}

}

Next,let’sruntheprogramandsupplycommandlineargumentsasinput:

$javaMoreInputKeshav17Youshouldgetaresultsimilartotheonepicturedinfigure

2.4:

Figure2.4:CommandlineparametersbeingprocessedasinputontheKodingcommand

line.

NOTE:Thetermsparameterandargumentcanbeusedinterchangeably.

TheargumentscomeintoJavanumberedsequentially,soinourcase,theuser’snameis

argumentnumberzeroandtheageisargumentnumberone.Incode,wecalltheseargs[0]

andargs[1],respectively.Ifyoustudythescreenshotcarefully,youmaynoticesomething

interesting-args[1]isnotthefirstparameter.

ThisisbecauseJavastartscountingat0,ratherthan1.Thismeansthatthefirstargument

weentered,whichinthiscasewasaname,isactuallyinslot0.AsaresultJavaisoften

referredtoasazero-indexedlanguage.

OutputtoaFilestream

Sofarthecode’soutputhasonlybeendirectedtothecommandline.Thisdoesn’talways

havetobethecase.Outputcanbedirectedtoafileformorepermanentstorage.Being

abletostoredata(moreorless)permanentlyisanimportantskillforprogrammersto

learn.Let’swriteaprograminwhichweasktheusertoenterseveralpiecesofdataand

wethenstorethoseinafile.

Keyinthefollowingcode:

importjava.io.*;

importjava.util.Scanner;publicclassStorage{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

Scannergrab=newScanner(System.in);

System.out.println(“What’syourname?”);Stringname=grab.nextLine();

System.out.println(“What’syouremail?”);Stringmail=grab.nextLine();

System.out.println(“What’syourfavoriteband?”);

Stringband=grab.nextLine();

Stringfname=name.replaceAll(”“,””)+“.txt”;

try{PrintWritersaver=newPrintWriter(fname);

saver.println(“Name:”+name);saver.println(“Email:”+mail);saver.println(“Band:”+band);saver.close();

}

catch(FileNotFoundExceptione){System.out.println(“Ohno,itdidn’twork!”);

}System.out.println(name+“|”+mail+“|”+band+”hasbeenstoredto“+name+“.txt.”);}

}

Thisisdefinitelythemostcomplexprogramwe’vewrittenyet.Goaheadandrunitonthe

commandlineandmakesureyoudon’tgetanyerrors.Ifyou’rehavingissuesrememberto

checktheimports.Ifeverythingrunscorrectly,yourcommandlineshouldlooksomething

likethis:

Figure2.5:TheprogramstoredthedatainafilecalledKeshav.txtwhichisnowavailable

inthedirectorylistingbyusingthelscommandonthecommandline.

Note:Iwroteandsavedthefileinaseparatefolder,andneededtonavigatetowherethe

filewasbeforehandusingthecd(changedirectory)command.

Whilethecodeforthisprogramissomewhatlongerthanwhatyouareusedtoatthis

point,itisstillfairlystraightforward.Whentheprogramrunsitpromptstheuserfortheir

name,email,andnameoftheirfavoriteband.Wethencreateanewvariablecalledsaver.

Savertakestheinformationtheusertypedandformatsittoincreasereadability.Itthen

printstheinformationtoafile.

TheobjectsweusetoprinttoafilearelocatedintheJava.iolibraryandwe’regoingto

needacoupleofobjects,soimportthewholething.

Thefnamevariable,whichstoresthefilenameforthefilewe’recreating,ispopulated

bythevariablethatholdstheuser’sfirstname.WhenwecreatethenewPrintWriterobject,

wepassinthefilename.ThisisrequiredsothePrintWriterknowswhattonamethefileit

creates.

Thenextpartoftheprogramiswheretheactionhappens:

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

try{PrintWritersaver=newPrintWriter(fname);

saver.println(“Name:”+name);

saver.println(“Email:”+mail);

saver.println(“Band:”+band);

saver.close();

}

catch(FileNotFoundExceptione){

System.out.println(“Ohno,itdidn’twork!”);

}

System.out.println(name+“|”+mail+“|”+band+”hasbeenstoredto“+name+

“.txt.”);

}

}

ThefirstthingwedointheprogramiscreateaPrintWriter.Thisisanobjectthatallows

ustocreateandthenprinttorawtext(.txt)files.Wenameditsaverandpassinthestring

fnameasaparameter.Whenthewritercreatedourfile,thisstringbecamethefile’sname.

NextweuseourPrintWriterobjectandbeganprintingstringstothetextfile.Finallywe

closedtheobjectandprintedtotheconsolethatwehavecreatedafilewiththe

informationthattheuserprovideduswith.

Notethatthisentireprocessisdonewithinatry-catchstatement.Atrycatchstatementis

usedtohandleexceptions,whichareeventsthatinterferewiththeexecutionofyour

program.Inthetryblockweputcodethatcouldpossiblycause(AKAthrow)an

exception.Inthecatchblock,weputcodethatexecutesifanexceptionisthrown.The

parenthesescontainthetypeofexceptionandthenamewegiveit.Inthiscasewejustprint

“Ohno,itdidn’twork!”intheeventthatwegetanexception.

Figure2.6Weopened“Keshav.txt”inthetexteditorandyoucanseethedatathathas

beenwrittentothedisk.

Congratulations!You’vewrittenaprogramthatstoresdatapermanently.Youarewellon

yourwaytobeingaprogrammer!

Chapter3:Variables

Inthepreviouschapter,welookedatinputandoutput,whichallowustogetdataintoand

outofourJavaprogram.Inthischapterwe’lltakeacloserlookatoneofthemost

importantaspectsofprogramming—variables.Youmaynotequatevariableswith

computerprogramming,butyou’velikelybeenusingvariablessincehighschoolifyou

tookcoursesinAlgebra,Chemistry,andPhysics.Inclassic“solveforx”problems,xisa

variable.

Let’sfirsttakealookathowtheJavaprogrammingenvironmenthandlesvariables.

DeclaringandInitializingVariables

Javaiswhatisknownasastrongly-typedlanguage.Thismeansthatvariablesneedtobe

declaredbeforetheycanbeused.InJava,variablesaredifferentiatedbythetypeofdata

theyhold.Thetypeofdataisreferredtothevariable’sdatatype.

TherearetwotypesofvariablesinJava:primitivetypeandclass(alsocalledreference)

type.

PrimitiveVariables

InJava,thereareeightprimitivedatatypes.Theyarethebyte,short,int,long,float,

double,booleanandchars.

Thedeclarationandinitializationstatementsaregenerallyveryshort,andreservea

specificamountofmemorydependingonwhattypethevariableis.Here’sanexampleof

adeclarationandinitializationforaninteger,doneinoneline:

intname=93;

ClassVariables

Classtypevariables,alsocalledreferencetypevariables,aregenerallymorecomplexthan

primitivetypes.Inmostcasesprimitivetypesarethebuildingblocksofclasstype

variables.Whenyoudeclareandinitializeaclasstypevariable,thenamedoesn’t

representtheobjectitself,ratheritpointstothememorylocationthathasalloftheparts

andinformationthatmakeuptheobject.

Therearehundredsofdifferentclasstypevariablesoutthere,andtheyalldodifferent

things.Oneyou’vealreadyencounteredisaScanner.

Here’sthedeclarationandinitialization,onemoretime:

Scannername=newScanner(<parameters>);

Strings

StringsinJavaareactuallyclassorreferencetypevariables.Theycan,however,be

declaredlikeprimitives.ThiswasasortofshortcutputinbytheJavadeveloperstomake

dealingwithstringsabiteasier,asthey’reoneofthemostcommondatatypesandareused

justasmuchastheprimitives.(Thinkabouthowmuchyou’veusedthemalready!)

Ifyoulike,youcandeclarestringslikeyouwouldclasstypevariables,butthere’sreally

noadvantageindoingso.

Itwouldlooklikethis:

StringblogName=newString(“Edukwest!”);

NOTE:Duetostringsbeingclasstype,theycannotbecomparedlikeprimitivetypes

usingthegeneralcomparisonoperatorslike<,>or==.

Here,we’vecreatedavariablecalledblogNameandinitializeditwiththestringvalue

“Edukwest!”Theequalssigninthiscontextistheassignmentoperator.Thestringvalue

“Edukwest!”isbeingassignedtothevariableblogName.

Onceavariablehasbeendeclared,generallyyoucandoquitealotwithit.Here’san

exampleofusingvariablestochangewhatisprintedinasentence.

Keyinthefollowingcode.(Feelfreetosubstituteyourownvaluesforthevariables.)

Noticethatcommentsareindicatedbytwoslashes(//).Multi-linecommentscanbemade

withaslashandanasteriskandclosedwithanasteriskandaslash.(/*comment!*/)

publicclassVariables{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

floatgpa=3.95f;intage=17;

Stringname=“Keshav”;

//Notethatthefirstwordofthevariabledeclarationisthetype.

System.out.println(name+”is“+age+”andwishedhehada“+gpa+”gpa.”);

}

}

SaveyourfileasVariables.javaandrunitwiththeJavacommand.Youroutputshould

appearsimilartofigure3.1

Figure3.1:Variables.javaexecutingintheKoding.comvirtualLinuxenvironment.

Thefirstwordinthedeclarationisthetypeofvariablebeingcreated.Toreview,thetypes

ofvariablesinthisprogramare:

String:Stringvariablesarecomprisedofaseriesofcharactersinaparticularorderthat

havenomathematicalvalue.

Integer:Integervariablescontainwholenumbervalueswithnodecimalpoint.

FloatingPointValues:Floatingpointvariablescontainmoreprecisenumbersthathavea

wholenumberandfractionalamountrepresentedbyadecimalpointvalue.

Variablesaredynamic,inthatthevaluecanbechangedorreassignedthroughthelifeof

theprogram.Imagine,forexample,thatinavideogameyouhaveavariablethattracks

theplayer’sscore.Astheplayer’sscorechanges,thatvaluewouldgoupuntilthegameis

over.Oncethegameends,thevalueinsidetheplayer’sscorevariablemightbereassigned

thevaluezero.

Considerthefollowingcode:

importjava.util.*;publicclassVar2{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){Scannernames=newScanner(System.in);

StringfirstName,lastName,middleName,fullName;

System.out.println(“What’syourfirstname?”);

firstName=names.nextLine();

System.out.println(“What’syourlastname?”);

lastName=names.nextLine();

fullName=firstName+”“+lastName;

System.out.println(fullName);

System.out.println(“What’syourmiddlename?”);

middleName=names.nextLine();

fullName=firstName+”“+middleName+”“+lastName;

System.out.println(fullName);

}

}

Enteringthecodeandrunningtheprogramyieldsthefollowingresult:

Figure3.2:DuringthelifetimeofthefullNamevariable,thevalueisreassigned

NotethatwhenwefirstdeclarethefullNamevariable,itisassignedthevaluesoffirst

andlastconcatenatedbythe+sign.Thatvalueisthenprintedtotheconsole.Asthe

programcontinuestoexecute,thevalueoffullNameisreassignedtoincludethevariable

middleaswell.Whenavariableisassignedanewvalue,itsoriginalvalueisclearedand

replacedwiththenewvalue.

Inthisprogram,wealsodeclaredfourStringsinoneline.Duetoallthevariablesbeingof

theStringtype,wewereabletoseparatethefourstring’snameswithcommas,andassign

themvalueslateron.Beingastaticallytypedlanguage,Javarequiresustodeclareour

variablesbeforeuse.Beingastaticallytypedlanguagedoesn’tnecessarilymeanwehave

toassigninitialvalues(orinitialize)thevariablesupondeclaration.Youcandothiswith

alltypesofvariables.

ArithmeticwithVariables

VariablesarefrequentlyusedaspartofarithmeticexpressionsinJava.ArithmeticinJava

isnodifferentthanthearithmeticyoulearnedingradeschool.Thefollowingsymbolsare

used:

+Addition

-Subtraction

*Multiplication

/Division

%Modulus

Ifyouarenewtoprogramming,modulusmaybeunfamiliartoyou,buttheconceptis

easy—modulusistheremainderafterdivision.Forexample:

10%3=1

11%3=212%3=0

Ifrequentlyusemoduluswhenprogramminginordertodetermineifanumberisevenor

odd.Anyevennumberusedwithmodulustwowillresultinzero.

TalktheTalk:Mostprogrammerswillsay‘mod’forshortwhentheyaretalkingabout

modulus.

Mathwithvariableslooksprettymuchasyou’dexpect.Thereareafewodditiesthatwe’ll

coverlaterthough.

Keyinthefollowingexampleprogram.You’refreetoforgocopyingthecomments:

publicclassMathDemo{ publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

intalpha=3;intbravo=13;

System.out.println(alpha+bravo);System.out.println(alphabravo);System.out.println(bravo*alpha);

System.out.println(bravo/alpha);//Note:

13/3isnotreallyawholenumber.

System.out.println(bravo%alpha);

System.out.println((double)bravo/(double)alpha);

/*Becausewe’vecastedthenumbersasdoubles,therealvalueisdisplayed.*/

}

}

Inthisprogram,twovariablesaredeclaredasalphaandbravo.Thentheoperandsareput

infiveexpressionsusingaddition,subtraction,multiplication,divisionandmodulus.

Bothofthesenumbers,however,areintegers.Integerscanonlybewholenumbers

between(2^31)-1or-2^31.Soexpressionsoftheintegerdatatypehaveanynumbersafter

thedecimalpointtruncated.

Thismeansthatifanexpressionresultsin3.9,butisprintedasanint,it’llsimplyprint3.

Wecanavoidthisissuebydoingwhat’sknownastypecasting.Thischangesthe

variable’stypejustbeforedoingthemathandprinting,meaningwe’llgettherealanswer

ratherthananapproximation.

Javarequiresyoutoidentifythetypesofyourvariables.Whenusing

variablesofdifferenttypestogether,youmayhavetoexplicitlystatewhat

typeofvariableyouwanttheanswertobe.Asaruleofthumb:small

variablestypesautomaticallytransferup,butlargevariablesmust

manuallybecasteddown.

Thisisthehierarchy:

byte<short<int<long<float<double

Usinganintwithafloatrequiresnotypecasting.Gettingananswerasan

intwithafloatandintDOESrequireyoutoexplicitlycastyourvariable.

Afinalprintstatementusesthemodulusstatementinanexpression.Whenyourunthe

programwiththeJavacommand,theresultshouldappearsimilartothis:

Figure3.3:Javaprogramevaluatingseveralmathematicalexpressionsandoutputtingthe

resulttotheconsole.

Whenworkingwitharithmeticinprogramming,it’simportanttokeepinmindtheorderof

operations.Javawillalwaysfollowtheorderofoperationswhendoingmath.Asaresult

it’sagoodideatomakesurethatanyexpressionsyouformulatetakeintoaccountthe

orderofoperationstopreventlogicerrors.

Figure3.4:DifferentexpressionsareevaluatedinaJavaprogramdemonstratingtheorder

ofoperations.

Wastheresultalwayswhatyouexpected?Theorderofoperationsdetermineswhatpartof

amathematicalexpressionisevaluatedfirst.Expressionsareevaluatedfromlefttoright

generally,butthespecificorderofoperationsis:

1)Parenthesis2)Exponents

3)Multiplication4)Division

5)Addition

6)Subtraction

NOTE:Despitemultiplicationcomingbeforedivisionandadditioncomingbefore

subtraction,Javatreatsthemasthoughtheyareonthesamelevelandevaluatesthemleft

toright.

Acommonerrormadebynewprogrammersistoincorrectlyinterprettheorderof

operationswithinamath-relatedproblem.Whenthishappens,aprogramwillstillrun,but

oftengiveanincorrectresult.

TherearemanymoreadvancedmathematicstoolsavailableinJavawithintheMathclass.

Utilizingthisclasswillallowyoutoroundnumbers,useexponents,squareroots,and

muchmore.Thedocumentationisavailablehere:

http://docs.oracle.com/Javase/7/docs/api/Java/lang/Math.html

WorkingwithStrings

Manipulatingstringsisacommontaskforprogrammers.Imagine,forexample,you’re

givenalistofdatawherefirstandlastnamesarecombinedintoasinglefield.Using

stringmanipulationtechniques,you’dhavetoseparatethemintoseparatefieldsby

extractingdatafromthestring.

Java’sStringMethodswillallowyoutomanipulatestringsineverywayimaginable.

YoucanseethedocumentationontheStringMethodshere:

http://docs.oracle.com/Javase/7/docs/api/Java/lang/String.html

Let’sworkwithafewStringMethods.Copythefollowingprogram.Thisprogram

demonstratesjustafewofthestringfunctions.Youdon’thavetotypetheembedded

commentsifyoudon’twantto.Theyarejustforyourreference.

publicclassStrings{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

Stringphrase=“Thequickbrownfoxjumpedoverthelazydogs.”;

//PrintsthenumberofcharactersintheStringSystem.out.println(phrase.length());

//Findstheindexofthewordfox.

System.out.println(phrase.indexOf(“fox”));

//Replacejumpedwithanewword.

System.out.println(phrase.replace(“jumped”,“hopped”));

//Changescase

System.out.println(phrase.toUpperCase());System.out.println(phrase.toLowerCase());

}}

Onceyouruntheprogram,youshouldseearesultsimilarfigure3.5:

Figure3.5:StringmanipulationresultinJava

Asyoucansee,Java’sstringmanipulationfeaturesarepowerful.

Chapter4:ConditionalsandLoops

Inthelastchapterwetookacloselookatvariables.Inthischapter,we’regoingtouse

variablesagain.First,we’llusevariablestomakedecisionsandexecutebranchingwithin

ourprogram.Thenwe’llusevariablestocreateloopsthatiteratethroughaportionofcode

anumberoftimes.Conditionalsandloops,thetwoconceptsthatwehaven’tcoveredupto

now,arefoundinjustabouteveryprogramminglanguage.Sofar,theprogramswe’ve

writtenareallserial—theygothroughthesamestepsinthesameordereachtime.With

theadditionofconditionalsandloopstoourprogrammingrepertoire,yourprogramswill

beabletovarytheirpathbasedonconditionsyouset.Soundslikefun,right?

SimpleConditionals

Let’sstartbywritingsomecode.Fireupyourdevelopmentenvironmentandenterthe

followingcode(Makesurethefileandclassnamesmatch):

importjava.util.*;

publicclassDrink{ publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){ ScannerageGetter=newScanner(System.in); System.out.println(“Howoldareyou?”); intage=ageGetter.nextInt();

if(age>=21){

System.out.println(“Youcanlegallydrink!”);}

}

}

Onceyou’veenteredtheprograminyourtexteditor,runitthreeseparatetimes.Thefirst

time,enteranageolderthan21.Thenexttimeyourunit,enteranageyoungerthan21.

Whenyourunitonefinaltime,enter21exactly.Tomakesuretheprogramrunscorrectly

wewanttotestallthepossiblescenariosforexecution.

Youroutputshouldappearsimilartofigure4.1:

Figure4.1:Programbeingtestedforthreedifferenttypesofuserresponses

Thisprogramisprettystraightforward.What’snewistheifstatement.Inthiscasewe’re

determiningifthevaluetheuserenteredisgreaterthanorequalto21.Theportionofthe

ifstatementwrittenlikethis:age>=21isknownasthecondition.Everyconditional

statementhasaconditionthatisevaluatedtobetrueorfalse.Ifit’strue,thecodeindented

underneathandinbracketstheconditionalstatementisexecuted.Ifit’sfalsegenerallyit’s

skipped.

Noteintheexampleshowninfigure4.1,theprogramresponds“Youarelegallyableto

drink”onlyiftheuserentersavalue21orgreater.Javausesbracketstocontainblocksof

code,soafteryouopenthebracketmakesureyoucloseitbackuporelseyourprogram

won’tcompileproperly.Makesurethatyouonlykeepthecodeyouwanttoexecute

withinthebracketsoftheconditional.

Ifthecodeblockthatrunsiftheconditionistrueextendsmorethanoneline,pleasenote

thateachlineshouldbewithinthebracketsoftheconditional.It’salsogoodpracticeto

havethesamelevelofindentationbelowtheconditionalstatement.Itwon’taffecthowthe

coderuns,butitmakesthecodelookmuchcleaner.Otherprogrammersreadingyourcode

willthankyou.

WhatElse?

Theprogramwewroterespondsonlyiftheconditionalisevaluatedastrue.Ifthe

conditionalisevaluatedasfalse,theuserreceivesnoresponse.Thisislikelyconfusingfor

theuser.We’regoingtoaddtotheprogramsothatitreactsonewayiftheconditionis

evaluatedastrueandanotherwayiftheconditionisevaluatedasfalse.Addtheindicated

codetoyourclass.

importjava.util.*;

publicclassDrink{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){ ScannerageGetter=newScanner(System.in); System.out.println(“Howoldareyou?”); intage=ageGetter.nextInt();

if(age>=21){

System.out.println(“Youcanlegallydrink!”);}

else{

System.out.println(“You’renotofdrinkingage.”);}

}

}

Aftermodifyingyourprogramcode,runthroughthethreepossiblescenariosasyoudid

before.Testacasewheretheuserisunder21,anotherwheretheuserisolderthan21,and

afinalscenariowheretheuserisexactly21.Youroutputshouldappearsimilartofigure

4.2:

Don’tforgettosaveandrecompile!

Figure4.2Resultwiththeelsestatementadded

Asyoucantell,theadditionoftheelsestatementgavearesultifavalueunder21was

entered.Whentheuserentersavalueunder21,theconditionisevaluatedasfalseandthe

elsestatementblockistriggered.Onceagain,onlythecodeinthebracketsisconsidered

partofthestatementblock.

Let’saddalittlebitmorecodetoourprogram:

importjava.util.*;

publicclassDrink{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ScannerageGetter=newScanner(System.in);

System.out.println(“Howoldareyou?”); intage=ageGetter.nextInt();

if(age>=21){

System.out.println(“Youcanlegallydrink!”);}

else{

System.out.println(“You’renotofdrinkingage.”);}

if(age==21){

System.out.println(“Congratulations,Here’safreedrink.”);

}

}

}Now,iftheusersaystheyareexactly21,theprogramwillprintthecongratulatory

message.Notethatthecomparisonoperator==wasusedtodenoteequality.Ifthevaluein

ageisexactly21,theconditionalisevaluatedastrue.

Hereareallthecomparisonoperatorsthatyoucanusewithifstatements:

==Equal

>GreaterThan

>=GreaterThanorEqual

<LessThan

<=LessThanorEqual

!=NotEqual

Note:theseoperatorscanonlybeusedforprimitivetypeslikeintsorfloats!Forreference

typesthereisgenerallyamethodthatcanbeusedtocompareelementsinstead.Usually

it’sthe.equals()method.

Whileyoucanalreadyseethepowerofconditionals,let’saddalayerofcomplexity:what

ifyouwantedtotesttwovaluesatonce?

CompoundConditionals

Let’spretendthatwe’rewritingsoftwareforacollegetodeterminewhetherornota specificstudentmadethehonorroll.Inourcollege,inordertobeeligibleforhonorsyou

mustbothhaveaGPAgreaterthan3.5andattemptmorethan12credithours.

CreateanewprograminyourtexteditorcalledHonors.javaandenterthecodebelowin

thefile:

importjava.util.*;

publicclassHonors{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ScannergpaGet=newScanner(System.in);

ScannerhoursGet=newScanner(System.in);

System.out.println(“WhatwasyourGPAthissemester?”);

doublegpa=gpaGet.nextDouble();

System.out.println(“Howmanycredithoursdidyouattemptthissemester?”);

inthours=hoursGet.nextInt();

if(gpa>3.5&&hours>12){

System.out.println(“Congratulations!

Youmadehonorroll!”);

}

else{

System.out.println(“Sorry,youdidn’tmakehonorroll.Betterlucknexttime.”);}

}

}

Testyourprogramandseewhatkindofresultyouget.Yourresultshouldbesimilarto

whatappearsinfigure4.3:

Figure4.3:Twoconditionsaretestedsimultaneously.

You’llnoticethatintheifstatementwejoinedtwoconditionsbytwoamperstamps(&&),

which,inthiscase,isactingasanoperator.Inthisifstatementbothconditionsjoinedby

&&mustbeevaluatedastrueinorderforthewholestatementtobeevaluatedastrue.You

canusetwoverticalbars(||)asanoperatorinothercircumstanceswhereoneconditionor

theothermustbetrue.Youcanjoinanyamountofconditionsinasingleifstatementwith

&&and||operators.

TalktheTalk:Generallywhenreadingcode,aprogrammerwillread‘&&’as“and”and

willread‘||’as“or”.Sothelineif(a>b&&c<d||d<c)willbereadas“ifaisgreaterthan

bandcislessthand,orifdislessthanc(theconditionis)true”.

ComplexConditionalswithelse-if

Sofartheconditionalswe’vecreatedcanmakedecisionsinaneither/orscenario—either

youareeligibletodrink,oryou’renot.However,lifeismorecomplexthanthis,whichis

whyifstatementscanbepairedwithelse-ifstatements.Thiscombinationwillletyou

choosefromseveraloptionsasintheprogrambelow.

PleasekeyinthisprogramandrunitwiththeJavacommandtoseetheresult:

importjava.util.*;

publicclassComplexConditionals{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ScannerageGet=newScanner(System.in);

System.out.println(“Howoldareyou?”);

intage=ageGet.nextInt();

if(age<18){

System.out.println(“You’reakid!”);System.out.println(“Gotoschool.”);

}

elseif(age<29){

System.out.println(“Timetoestablishyourself.”); System.out.println(“GoodLuck!”);}

elseif(age<39){

System.out.println(“Thesearetheyearstofocusonyourcareer.”);

System.out.println(“Getajob.”);

}

elseif(age<49){

System.out.println(“Timetostartthinkingaboutretirement.”);

System.out.println(“Ihopeyou’reputtingmoneyaway.”);

}

elseif(age<59){

System.out.println(“Maintainyourhealththroughexercise.”);

System.out.println(“Getatrainer.”);}

else{

System.out.println(“Youareold”);}

}}

Withapologiestothose59andolder,thisprogramprovidesfeedbackbasedontheagethe

userenters.Firsttheuserenterstheirageandthisvalueisassignedtothevariableage. Thevalueenteredbytheuseristhentestedinthefirstpartoftheifstatement.Iftheageis

lessthan18,theprogramrespondswith“You’reakid!Gotoschool.”

Ifthefirstconditionturnsouttobefalse,theelseifconditionisevaluated.Iftheageis

lessthan29theappropriateadviceisdispensed.Ifnot,thenextstatementisevaluated.If

noneoftheconditionsassociatedwiththeelseifstatementsarefoundtobetrue,thenthe

unfortunateelsestatementattheendoftheprogramruns.

Keepinmindthatelseifstatementsareonlyrunifallofthepreviousconditionsarefound

tobefalse.Notealsotheindentationusedthroughouttheelse/elseif/elseisconsistent.

Thisisforhousekeepingpurposes.Readabilityisaimportantpartofprogramming.

WhileLoops

Loopsallowyoutorunablockofcodeanumberoftimes.Eachtimethatblockofcodeis

executedisknownasaniteration.Loopsarecriticaltomanydifferenttypesofprograms.

Imagineacardgamewhereturnsaretakenandcardsaredealt—allwithloops.Ifyou

thinkaboutit,youcanprobablyidentifyloopsinmanydifferenttypesofsoftwarethat

youuseeveryday.Theprocessofwaitingfortheusertoinputsomething,processingthat

inputandthenwaitingfortheuseragainisoftencodedinaloopstructure.

Let’scodeasimpleloop:

publicclassLoop{ publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

inttracker=0;

while(tracker<100){

System.out.println(tracker);

tracker+=5;}

}

}

RuntheprogramwiththeJavacommandandtheresultshouldappearsomethinglikewhat

youseeinfigure4.4:

Figure4.4:Theresultofawhileloop

Inthefirstlineofthisprogramwedeclareandinitializeavariabletrackerwiththevalue

0.Nextcomesourwhilestatementwhichstatesthatwhilethevalueoftrackerislessthan

100,thecodeblockinsidethebracketsofthewhilestatementwillexecute.Inthiscase,

thecodeblockprintsthevalueoftrackertotheconsoleandthenincreasesthevalue

trackerby5.

Notethatthex+=5notationisshorthandforx=x+5.+=isknownasacombined

assignmentoperator.

TalktheTalk:Programmersgenerallycall“+=”“plusequals”.Sowhendescribingthis codeonewouldsay“xplusequalsfive”Here’sanotherloopexampleprogramforyouto

try.IsavedmineasLoop2.java.

importjava.util.*;

publicclassLoop2{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ScannerbandName=newScanner(System.in);Stringband=””;

while(!band.equals(“XXX”)){

System.out.println(“NameofabandyoulikeorXXXtostop.”);

band=bandName.nextLine();

if(!band.equals(“XXX”)){

System.out.println(band+”ROCKS!”);}

}

}Note:Duetostringsbeingareferencetype,youhavetousethe.equals()methodto

checkforequality.Thismethodreturnstrueifthestringsareequalandfalseifnot.

RuntheprogramwiththeJavacommandandyoushouldseearesultsimilartofigure4.5:

Figure4.5Theuserinputstextinsidealoop.

Whenthisprograminitiallyruns,thevariablebandissettoanemptystring.Thevalueof

bandiscomparedtothestring“XXX”eachtimethroughtheloop.Iftheloopisanything

otherthan“XXX”theloopiteratesagain.IfthevalueisnotXXX,thenameofthebandis

echoedbacktotheconsole.

Noticethatalloftheopeningbracketshaveacompanion.Ifyougetlostincodethathasa

numberofclosingbracketsinarow,here’satrick:Therealwaysmustbethesamenumber

ofopeningandclosingbracketsinaclass–Ifyouhavemoreopeningbracketstrypairing

eachoneoffuntilyouwherefindyou’remissingclosingbrackets.

Don’tTryThisatHome

Acommonerrorinprogrammingisanendlessloop.Theseendlessloopscanconsume

moreandmorecomputingresourcesandeventuallymaketheprogram,oryourcomputer

crash.Considerthefollowingcode:

publicclassLetsBreakTheComputer{ publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

doublex=1;

while(0<x){

System.out.println(x);

X*=300000;}

}

You’llnotethatthecontinuationconditionwillalwaysbetrueinthisexample—thevalue ofxwillalwaysbegreaterthanzero.Thevalueofxveryrapidlygetsoutofhandand,in fact,becomestoobigtostoreinmemory.IranthisintheKoding.comenvironment.It

tookmeabout10minutestostoptheexecutionoftheprogramaskoding’senvironment

waslaggingduetotheprogram.

Figure4.6:Atthispointtheenvironmentwasfrozenduetoanendlessloop.Everyso

oftenitwouldprint“Infinity”acouplehundredtimesandthenfreezerightbackup.

Youcantrythisexampleonyourown.I’mnotresponsibleforanydamagedone.

(Damagewon’tbepermanent…havefun!)

Forloops

Sowe’vedeterminedthatforgettingtoputaproperiteratorinyourwhileloopcanbebad

foryourprogram.Howcanweavoidhavinganendlesswhileloop?Theanswerisafor

loop.Forloopsdothesamethingaswhileloops,howevertheywillonlyexecuteaset

numberoftimesbecauseyouareforcedtoplaceaniteratorandvariableaspartofthe

loop’ssyntaxinadditiontoaconditional.Asaresultit’sextremelydifficulttocreateafor

loopthatexecutesendlessly.

Here’sanexampleofaverysimpleforloop.Itdoesthesamethingasourfirstloop:Prints

0to100,whilecountingbyfives.

ThisloopisinafilecalledLoop3:

publicclassLoop3{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

for(intx=0;x<100;x+=5){System.out.println(x);}

}

}

Thesyntaxoftheloopissimple.Firstwehavealocalvariablexthatisinitializedand

declared.Localvariablescannotbeaccessedorchangedoutsideoftheloop.Then,we

haveaconditional.Theconditionalfulfillsthesamepurposeasinthewhileloop.Whenit

isnolongertruetheloopwillstopiterating.Finallywehavewhat’sknownasaniterator.

Thisisareassignmentofthevariableyouinitiallydeclaredforthisloop.Theiteratoris

thereasonthatit’sgenerallyhardtoaccidentlymakeanendlessloop.Notethatthesethree

statementsareseparatedbysemicolonsasthoughtheyweretheendoflines.Here’sthe

resultofexecutingthiscode:

Figure4.7:Theresultoftheforloopisthesameastheresultofouroriginalwhileloop.

Chapter5:DealingwithData

Inthelastchapterweexaminedcontrolstructures,conditionals,andloops,whichare

criticalinmostprogramminglanguages.Theyallowyourprogramstomakedecisions

basedonthecriteriathatyousetasthedeveloper.Inthischapter,we’regoingtoswitch

gearsandexaminedataandhowit’sstored.We’lltakeacloselookatfourdatastructures:

Arrays,ArrayLists,Immutables,andHashTables.Youmaynothavegivenmuchthought

todatabefore.Theeasiestwaytoconceptualizedataisasorganizedinformation.

Differenttypesofinformationlenditselftobeingorganizedindifferentways.For

example,ifyourdataisagrocerylist,thenanArraywouldbetheoptimalwaytoorganize

yourdata.However,ifyouwantedtostorestudentgradesondifferentassignmentsovera

periodoftime,anArraywouldn’tworkwellatall.Therearemanydifferentdata

structuresusedbyprogrammersandeachisoptimizedforadifferenttypeofdata.

Let’sstartwithasimplegrocerylist.

Arrays

We’veallmadeagrocerylistbefore,butyoulikelyhaven’tstoreditinJavacode.Let’sdo

thatnowusingthefollowinglineofcode:(Remembertoputthisinyourmainmethod!)

String[]groceries={

“oranges”,“apples”,“milk”,“bread”,“butter”,“pepp

er”,“salt”,“sugar”,“pears”

};

Unlikevariableswhichstoreasingleunitofdata,we’vestoredmultipleelementsinour

array.I’msureyoucanimagineanumberofsituationswherethiscouldbeconvenient.In

thiscase,allofthemembersorelementsofourarrayarestrings.Thisisbecausewe

declaredourarrayasaStringarray.“String”isthedatatypeofthearray’smembers.

Hereisanotherarraytoaddtoyourcode.Thistimeit’scomprisedofdoublevalues:

double[]gpas={

3.25,2.26,1.99,3.55,4.0,3.21,2.56,3.06,

2.72

};

Now,here’swherearraysbecomeabitmoreinteresting.Arrayshaveanumberofbuilt-in

methodsthatyoucanusetomanipulatethem;Thereareincludedfunctionsthatdothings

likecountthemembersofthelistorsortthem.Youcouldwriteyourowncodetodoall

this,butitwouldbealotofwork.

Beforewestartwiththereallyfancystuff,let’stakealookathowweextractdatafrom

theArray.Goaheadandcopythecodebelow.You’refreetoskipoverthecommentsif

youlike.Remembertokeepthefilenameandtheclassnameconsistent!

publicclassArrays{ publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){ String[]groceries={ “oranges”,“apples”,“milk”,“bread”,“butter”,“pepper”,“salt”,“sugar”,“pears” }; double[]gpas={

3.25,2.26,1.99,3.55,4.0,3.21,2.56,3.06,2.72

};

System.out.println(groceries[0]);//returns‘oranges’

System.out.println(groceries[1]);//returns‘apples’

System.out.println(gpas[3]);//returns‘3.55’

}

}

Onceyou’resurethatthecodeistypedcorrectlyinyourtexteditor,executethecodewith

theJavacommand.Don’tforgettocompile!Youroutputshouldlooklikethis:

Figure5.1:JavaArraysprogramoutputusingtheKoding.comenvironment

Payspecialattentiontotheprintstatements.You’llnotethateachprintstatement

referencesoneofourarraysandaspecificindexwithinthatlistsurroundedbybrackets.

ListsinJava,likemostlanguages,areindexed,meaningthateachmemberofthelistis

assignedanumberusedtoreferenceit.Thefirstmemberofalistisalwaysindexzero.

Ourgrocerylistwouldhavethefollowingindexes:

IndexMember

0oranges1apples

2milk

3bread

4butter

5pepper

6salt

7sugar

8pears

Whencombinedwithprintmethod,thegeneralformofretrievingdatafromanarrayis:

ArrayName[#];

Where“#”istheindexyouarepointingto.

Onethingtokeepinmindisthatyourarrayisonlyaslongasyouinitiallymakeit.Ifyou

trytoaccessanon-existentarrayindex,yourprogramisgoingtoexitwithanerror.Let’s

addonelinetoourcurrentprogram:

System.out.println(gpas[9001]);

Whenyouruntheprogramyoushouldseeanoutputsimilartothefollowing:

Figure5.2:Usinganindexthatisoutofrangeresultsinanexception.

DeclaringEmptyArrays

Allofthearrayswe’vefilledsofar,havebeenfilledmanually.We’vethenprintedthem

bycallingindexesindividually.Wedon’thavetodothis.Thedeclarationandinstantiation

(fancywordforcreation)ofanarraycanbedonewithnovaluessolongasyouknowhow

manyelementsyouplanonputtinginsideofyourarray.

Hereisanexampleofhowtodoso:

int[]vals=newint[10];

Inthiscase,wearecreatinganintegerarraywith10slots.Theslotsarecurrentlyfilled

withintegerscontainingthevaluezero,aszeroisthedefaultvalueforanintegerwithout

anexplicitlyassignedvalue.

Ratherthanputtingaseriesofvaluesafterthedeclarationstatement,wecommandedthe

JVMtomakeanewemptyarraywithenoughspacefortenintegertypenumbers.

Remember,Javaiszero-indexedsothelastslotinthisarrayisn’tcalledbyputtingaten

inthebrackets.tenissimplythenumberofelementswithinthearray.Thelastelementis

referencedwithanine.

vals[9];

Theabovewillaccessthelastslotofthearray.Thefirstslotisaccessedbyplacinga0in

thebrackets.

Thetechnicaltermforthewayarrayscountis“zero-based”.(Javaiszero-indexed.Arrays

arezero-based).

EditingArrayMembers

Youcanalsousetheindexofanarraymembertochangethevaluesofdifferentmembers

inthelist.Thisisdonewithanassignmentstatementasinassigningavaluetoastandard

variable.ThefollowingstatementwillchangethezerothindexoftheGPAlist:

gpas[0]=4.0

Notethattheindexesoftheothermembersofthearrayarenotaffected.

Thisisalsoonewaythatwecanfillouremptyarrays.Wewouldsimplyreassignan

emptyslottoavaluewewouldlike.

SortingArrays

We’vemanipulatedandstoredalotofdatasofar.Wehavenot,however,organizedmuch

data.

Arraysareapowerfulorganizationaltool.Onereasonisbecauseofthesort()method.It

doesexactlywhatitsoundslike—itsortsthemembersofthearray.Thesortmethodis

calledabitdifferentlyfromnormalmethodsthough.Sort()iscalledasastaticmemberof

thearrayclasslikethis:

Arrays.sort(<Array>);

Makeanewfileandcopythiscode.MyfileiscalledArraySortDemo.java:

importjava.util.Arrays;

publicclassArraySortDemo{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

String[]groceries={

“oranges”,“apples”,“milk”,“bread”,“butter”,“pepper”,“salt”,“sugar”,“pears”

};

System.out.println(“

for(Stringa:groceries){

System.out.print(a+”“);

}

System.out.println();

System.out.println(“

Arrays.sort(groceries);

for(Stringa:groceries){System.out.print(a+”“);}

System.out.println();

UNSORTEDARRAY

”);

SORTEDARRAY

”);

}

}

Note:Don’tworryifyoudon’tunderstandtheforloops.They’reusedtoprintourarray.

We’llcovertheminthenextsection.

RunyourprogramwiththeJavacommand.Youroutputshouldlooksomethinglikethis:

Figure5.3:Afterthesort()functionruns,thegrocerieslistisreindexed.It’snowin

alphabeticalorder!

Thesortmethodwillalsoordernumbersfromsmallesttolargest,andorganizeother

primitivedata.

PrintingArrays

Sofartheonlywaywe’vebeenprintinginformationfromarraysisthroughreferencing

anindividualarrayelement.Butwhatifweneedtoprintoutawholearray?

Copythisfilebelow:

publicclassPrintingArrays{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

int[]oneToTen={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10

};

System.out.println(oneToTen);

}

}

Executingthecodeaboveresultsinnon-readabletext:

Figure5.4:

PassingthevariablenameprintedaninternalreferenceusedbytheJavacompiler.Odd.

Instead,wehavetousealoop.Thereareseveralwaystodothis;I’mgoingtoshowyou

thetwoeasiestandmostfrequentlyused.

Withaforloop

Thefirstmethodusesasimpleforlooptoprintoutthearray.Replacetheprintmethod

withthesefewofcodeinPrintingArrays:

for(intx=0;x<oneToTen.length;x++){System.out.println(oneToTen[x]);}

Nowifyourunyourprogramyou’llseethatthecontentsofyourarrayhavebeenprinted:

Figure5.5:Awesome!Weprintedthearray.

Thewaythisloopworksisverysimple.Thelocalvariablewecreatetotrackthenumber

oftimesourloophasiteratedisusedastheindexvaluewhenwecallanarrayelement.As

aresultafteriteration,thevalueofthevariableincreasesbyoneandtheslotwe’re

referencingchanges.

Inotherwords:xstartsaszero.Thenextiterationchangesx’svaluefromzerotoone.Due

tothesquarebracketscontainingthedynamicvariablexratherthanastaticnumberthe

indexthatwearecalling,whichwasoriginallyindexzero,switchestoindexone.

Thenumberofiterationsissetusingthe.lengthpropertywhichreturnsthetotalnumber

ofelementsinourarray.

Withafor-eachloop

Thesecondmethodofprintingisthroughtheuseofamodifiedforloopcalledafor-each

loop.Thesyntaxforthisloopissimplerthanthatoftheregularforloop.

AddthefollowingcodetotheendofyourPrintingArraysprogram:

System.out.println(“

for(intprint:oneToTen){System.out.println(print);}

Thefirstlineinthissnippetofcodeprintsaseparator,soweknowwhichloopis

generatingtheoutput.

Nextistheforeachloop.Thestatementwithintheforloop’sparenthesesisshorter,

consistingoftwocomponentsratherthanthree.Thisstatementalsofailstoconformto

whatwe’velearnedabouttraditionalforloops,asitlacksaniteratorandconditional.This

differentstatementiswhatmakesthisafor-eachloopratherthanaregularforloop.

Whatevercodeisputinsidetheloopwillbeperformedforeachmemberofthearray.

Inthiscasewe’reprintingthearray.

Thestatementwithintheparenthesesoftheloopconsistsofavariabledeclaration,whose

typemustmatchthetypeofthearrayyouintendedtocallthelooponandthenameofthe

arrayyouintendtousetheloopon.

Ifyou,forexample,wantedtoprintourgrocerylistarray,thefor-eachloopwouldlook

likethis:

for(Stringitem:groceries){

System.out.println(item);}

Becausegroceriesisanarrayofstrings,thevariable‘item’isastringaswell.

Thisneedstobetrueforallvariablesanddatatypesdeclaredforuseinafor-eachloop.If

youintendtoprintanarrayofintegers,theholdervariablethatisdeclaredwithinthe

parenthesesmusthaveatypeofinteger.

ArraysareobjectsandyoucanuseanumberofmethodsassociatedwiththeArrayobject. YoumightwanttotakealookattheofficialJavadocumentationandseethefunctionsthat youcanusewitharrays.Thedocumentationisavailableat

http://docs.oracle.com/Javase/7/docs/api/Java/util/Arrays.html.

Remember:Learninghowtoreaddocumentationisavaluableskill.

ArrayLists

Arraysareveryuseful,buttheyarealsoratherlimitedinwhattheycando.Anexampleis

thearray’sinabilitytobeexpandedafterinstantiation.IfIhaveanarraywithtenelements

Ican’taddaneleventhelementtotheendofthearray.WithArrayListswegainnew

functionalityandtheabilitytoadddifferenttypesofobjectsintoonedatastructure,but

thatisn’tdoneoften.

Atthispointyoumaybewonderingwhywebotherwitharraysatallifwehave

ArrayLists.Theanswerisefficiency.ArrayListstakeupmorememorythanarrays.In

Withaforeachloop

”);

biggerprogramsthismeanstheycancauseittorunslowerthanifwejustusedarrays.

ArrayLists,justlikeScanners,arereferenceorclasstypeobjects.Theirdeclarationlooks

likethis:

ArrayListname=newArrayList();

ItshouldbenotedthatArrayListscannotbefilleduponinitializationlikearrays.Theonly

waytofillthemisthroughthe.add()method.Youshouldalsobeawarethatunlessyou

putanintegerintheparenthesisoftheArrayList’sconstructoritwillbemadewitha

defaultsizeoftenslots.

IfyourArrayListisfullthe.add()methodwillsimplyaddanewmemberandappend

whatyouplacedintheparenthesistotheendofthelist.

Nowlet’stryanexample.IputmineinafilecalledArrayLists:

publicclassArrayLists{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ArrayListlanguages=newArrayList(3);languages.add(“Spanish”);

languages.add(“French”);

languages.add(“English”);

System.out.println(languages.size());

languages.add(“German”);

System.out.println(languages.size());}

}

ThefirstlineinthemainmethoddeclaresanewArrayListthatwenamedlanguagesand

gaveitasizeofthree.

TalktheTalk:Thereareseveralwaystosayyouusedamethod.Themostcommonterms

are‘call’or‘invoke’.WhenIprogrammersays‘Iinvokedthemethod’heorsheisreally

sayingtheyusedthemethod.

ThenextthreelinesofcodeinvoketheaddmethodtofilluptheArrayList.Thenthesize

methodiscalledtoseehowlargetheArrayListis.Afterthatonemoreelementis

appendedtotheendoftheArrayList,increasingthesizefromtheoriginalthreeslotsto

four.

Whenyourunthecode,youroutputshouldappearsomethinglikethis:

Figure5.6:

WecanseehowthesizeofourArrayListincreasedwhenweaddedanelementtotheend.

Javaprintedtwonotesinadditiontotheoutputoftheprogram.Thisoccuredbecausewe

areusinganunparameterizedArrayList.AnunperamiterizedArrayListisanArrayList

that’stypehasn’tbeenspecified.Asaresultvariablesofdifferenttypescanbestored

withinthesameArrayListandcauseexceptionsduetotypemismatches.

Toalleviatethisissue,wehavetotypeourlisttotakeonespecificobjectlikearraysdo.

Ratherthanastandarddeclarationandinstantiation,weaddaslightmodificationtoeach

partsoitlookslikethis:

ArrayList<DataType>name=newArrayList<DataType>();

TalktheTalk:AnunparamaterizedArrayListacceptswhat’sknownasagenerictype.A

generictypeisatypethatcanbespecifiedlaterbytheprogrammerinordertoimprove

functionality.Thetypecanbeanything,includingcustomclassesthatyouimplementand

designyourself.

Let’smodifythecodeinourArrayLists.javafiletofollowthispractice:

publicclassArrayLists{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

ArrayList<String>languages=newArrayList<String>(3);

languages.add(“Spanish”);

languages.add(“French”);

languages.add(“English”);

System.out.println(languages.size());

languages.add(“German”);

System.out.println(languages.size());}

}

Nowwhenwerecompileandrunourcode,there’snoproblem!

Figure5.7:Muchbetter.TypingourArrayListgotridofthatpeskywarning.

NowthefinalthingtoknowaboutArrayListsishowtoobtaindatafromthem.Unlike

arrays,wedon’treferencebyindexes.Instead,weuseamethodtoretrievethedata:The

.get(#)method.Thenumberintheparenthesesistheindexvalueoftheelementyouwant

toaccess.JustlikeArrays,ArrayListsarezero-based.

Addthefollowinglinetoyourcode,recompileandruntoseeitinaction:

System.out.println(languages.get(0));

Whenyourecompileandrun,theoutputshouldlooksomethinglikethis:

Figure5.8:

WegotthenprintedthefirstelementofourArrayList.

ThereareanumberofothermethodsforArrayListsthatareratheruseful.Themost

notablebeingthe.set()method,whichreplacesvaluesmuchlikereassigningwitharrays.

Theofficialdocumentationislocatedhere:

http://docs.oracle.com/Javase/7/docs/api/Java/util/ArrayList.html

Immutables

ImmutablesareverysimilartoArrayListswithoneimportantexception:Immutablesare

non-dynamic.ThismeansonceanImmutableisdefinedthevalueswithinitcannotbe

changed.Let’sstartanewprogramwherewewilldefineanImmutable.

CopythiscodeintoafilenamedImmutablesDemo.java:importjava.util.*;

publicclassImmutablesDemo{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

//Note:Arrayscannotbemadeimmutable.Soinstead,weuseLists.

String[]turn={“600”,“800”,“1024”,“1280”,“1366”,“1920”};

List<String>list=Java.util.Arrays.asList(turn);

List<String>unmodList=

Collections.unmodifiableList(list);

for(Stringp:unmodList){

System.out.println(p);

}

System.out.println();

System.out.print(unmodList.get(0));

unmodList.add(“464”);}

}

CompilethecodethenrunitusingtheJavacommandandcarefullyexaminetheoutput.

Figure5.9:Notethatwe’reabletoaccessthecompleteimmutable,asingleindexwithin

theimmutable,butwhenreassigningavaluewithinanimmutable,anerrorisgenerated.

Animmutableisnon-dynamicandonceinitiated,thevalueswithinitcannotbechanged.

Immutableareforstoringdatathatdoesnotchangeoverthelifeofaprogram.For

example,intheprogramabove,thescreenwidthsareunlikelytochange.

HashTables

HashTablesareyetanotherdatastructure.Theyareperfectforstoringpaireddata,

sometimesknownaskey:valuedata.Inthistypeofdata,insteadofanumericalindex,

eachdatapointisindexedbyakeywhichisdeterminedbytheprogrammer.Statenames

andstatecapitalsortownsandzipcodesarebothexamplesofwhereHashTablescanbe

usefulforstoringdata.

SeasonedprogrammersmayfindHashTablestobeverysimilartoDictionaries.Thisis

becauseHashTableswerederivedfromthem.(Dictionariesaretheparentclassof

Hashtables)

Considerthefollowingprogram:

importjava.util.*;

publicclassHashTabs{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

Hashtable<String,String>statesAndCapitols=newHashtable<String,String>();

statesAndCapitols.put(“Connecticut”,“Hartford”);statesAndCapitols.put(“New

York”,“Albany”);statesAndCapitols.put(“Mississippi”,“Jackson”);

statesAndCapitols.put(“Maine”,“Augusta”);statesAndCapitols.put(“Montana”,“Helena”);

statesAndCapitols.put(“Texas”,“Austin”);

StringConnCap=statesAndCapitols.get(“Connecticut”);

System.out.println(ConnCap);

}}

WhenyouruntheprogramwiththeJavacommandyou’llseetheoutput“Hartford”.This

istheresultofthekey(orindex)for“Hartford”being“Connecticut.”Notetheprint

commandandhowitisusedtoaccessthevalueintheHashTable.

Justlikearrays,Java’sHashTablesareanobjectandhavefunctionsthatcanbeassociated

withthem.Let’stakealookatoneofthesefunctions.Updateyourcodesoitappearslike

this:

portjava.util.*;

publicclassHashTabs{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

Hashtable<String,String>statesAndCapitols=newHashtable<String,String>();

statesAndCapitols.put(“Connecticut”,“Hartford”);statesAndCapitols.put(“New

York”,“Albany”);statesAndCapitols.put(“Mississippi”,“Jackson”);

statesAndCapitols.put(“Maine”,“Augusta”);statesAndCapitols.put(“Montana”,“Helena”);

statesAndCapitols.put(“Texas”,“Austin”);StringConnCap=

statesAndCapitols.get(“Connecticut”);

System.out.println(ConnCap);

System.out.println(“Values:“+statesAndCapitols.values());

System.out.println(“Keys:“+statesAndCapitols.keySet());

}

}

RunyourcodeonthecommandlineusingtheJavacommand.Yourresultshouldappear

similartofigure5.10:

Figure5.10:Outputdemonstratingtwoofthefunctionsusedwithdictionaries—values()

andkeySet()

You’llnotethatthevalues()functionreturnsallofthevaluesinthedictionary,whilethe

keySet()functionreturnsallofthekeys.Thisshortchaptercanonlygiveyouabroad

introductiontoworkingwithdatainprogramming.Almosteveryprogram,tosome

degree,workswithdata.Beingeffectiveatworkingwithdataisanimportantpartofany

programmer’stoolbox.

Chapter6:PuttingItAllTogether

Classesandobjectsrepresentnotjustaprogrammingconcept,butawayoflookingatthe

worldandsolvingproblems.Classesandobjects,atahighlevel,representaprocessof

classification—anactivitythatisasoldasscience.Whenwecreateaclass,wecreatea

modelofanobjectthatbreakstheobjectdowntoitscoreactivitiesandattributes.Javais

anObjectOrientedlanguage,meaningthatitiscompletelydependentontheClassand

Objectstructureandeverythingmustbecontainedinone.Javaisn’ttheonlylanguagethat

supportsobjects.It’sgoodtohaveanunderstandingofobjectsastheyareaverycommon

occurrenceinprogramming.

ClassVersusObjects

Ioftentellmystudentstothinkofaclassasablueprintofanobject.Fromthatblueprint,

manyinstancesoftheclass(objects)canbecreated.Thinkofplannedhousing

communities:asingleblueprintmaybeusedtobuildmanydifferenthomes.Thesehomes

mayvaryinsubstantialways—theymaybedifferentcolors,havedifferentkitchen

counters,anddifferentfixturesinthebathrooms—buttheyareallstillbasedonthesame

blueprint.

Inprogramming,aclassdefineshowanobjectoftheclassisdescribedandwhatitcando.

Itmightbeusefultothinkofclassesasasetofadjectivesandasetofverbs.The

adjectivesgiveusawaytodescribetheclass,whiletheverbstelluswhattheclasscando.

Thesetofadjectivesusedtodescribeaclassareknownasfields.Thesetofverbs

associatedwithaclassareknownasmethods.

Ifweweredescribingaclass“vehicle”wemightincludethefollowingmethodsand

properties:

Fields(Adjectives)Methods(Verbs)

coloraccelerate()

weightdecelerate()

heheightturnLeft()

topSpeedturnRight()

vehicleTypestartIgnition()

stopIgnition()

Obviouslythismodelisgreatlysimplified.Ifweweretrulytryingtorepresentavehiclein

code,we’dlikelyhavetouseseveralinterrelatedclasses.InJavawealsohavetodeclare

thetypeofdataeachpropertywouldhold.Forexample,thecolorpropertywouldholda

string,whileweight,heightandtopspeedcouldbeintegers.Whenwecreateaninstance

oftheVehicleClassthatwedefinedintheprevioustable,wemightassignavaluetoallof

theproperties,likethis:

Stringcolor=“blue”;doubleweight=5565.3;intheight=48;

inttopSpeed=90;

StringvehicleType=“car”;

Thisexampleassumesaninstance(object)createdcalledtheVehicle.

CodingaClassinJava

Let’swritethecodethatrepresentsanAnimalclassinJava.We’llalsocreateaninstance

ofthatclasscalledmyDoginanotherfile,abitlater.

publicclassAnimal{

privatestaticintnumberOfAnimals=0;publicintlength;

publicStringcolor;

publicdoubleweight;

publicbooleanhasFur;

publicAnimal(intLength,doubleWeight,StringColor,booleanFur){

color=Color;

weight=Weight;

hasFur=Fur;

length=Length;

numberOfAnimals++;

}

Therearedefinitelyafewnewthingshere.Thefirstisthatwedon’thaveapublicstatic

voidmain.Thisisbecausethisprogramdoesn’truninthewaythatwe’vebeenseeingso

far.ThemainmethodisgenerallytheentrancepointfortheJVMtostartexecutingour

code.Itwillbeinourdriverclass,whichwe’llwritelater.Westartourdefinitionofthe

classwiththepublicclasskeywordsandthenthenameoftheclass—inthiscase,

“Animal.”Thepublickeywordgivesinformationaboutvisibility.IttellstheJVMthatany

classisallowedtomakeobjectsfromthisclassandcallitsmethods.TheClasskeyword

informsJavaastowhatthisfileis.Next,you’llnoticeIdeclareavariablecalled

numOfAnimalsandinitializeitatzero.ThenumOfAnimalsvariableisdesignedtodo

someinternalhousekeepingintheclass.Itsjob,specifically,istotrackhowmany

instancesofAnimalwecreate.Thestatickeywordbetweenthedatatypeandthevisibility

level(whichinthiscaseisprivate)iswhatenablesustousethisvariableasatracker.

Staticmeansthatyoudon’thavetocreateaninstanceofaclassinordertoaccessor

modifythisinformation.Thismeansthateachobjectdoesn’thaveaninstanceof

“numOfAnimals”ratheritexistsintheclass.

AfternumOfAnimalsIsimplycreateanumberofvariablesdetailinginformationabout

ouranimal:thingssuchasweight,color,lengthandifithasfurornot.

Akeywordisareservedwordthatcannotbeusedforanythingotherthanitsintended functions.Examplesinclude:public,private,for,whileanddo.Generallykeywordswill behighlightedbyyourtexteditor.TheeditorI’musingonKodingcolorsthempurple,as

seenontheleftsideoffigure6.1.Keywordscannotbeusedasvariable,functionorclass

names,duetothefactthatthey’realreadyreserved.

WethendefinewiththepublickeywordintheAnimalfilewhat’sknownasa

“constructor”.Thismethodisveryimportant.Itdoesthreethings:detailstheinformation

thatweneedinordertomakeanobjectbasedonthisclass,preformsanyinternal

housekeepingandassignsinitialvaluestothefields.Itwillbeexecutedeverytimethatan

objectiscreatedbasedonofyourclass.

Theconstructoriscalledbythedriverclassbelow.

InamedmineAnimalDriver.java:

publicclassAnimalDriver{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

AnimalmyDog=newAnimal(19,12,“brown”,“true”);

}

}

TheparticularinstanceofAnimalthatwearecreating,calledmyDog,hasalengthof19,

weightof12,isbrownandhasfur.Thefirstfourlinesofconstructorassignthesevalues

thatarepassedintotheinstance.Youmaybewonderinghowwedeterminedtheorderof

theinformationtoputintotheclass.Theanswerisprettysimple;theconstructoraccepts

argumentsintheorderthattheclass’sconstructoriscoded.Inourclass,theorderofthe

datatypeswas:int,double,StringandBoolean.Thismeanswhenwecalltheconstructor,

that’stheorderthatargumentsmustfollow.

Figure6.1:Creatingtheclass(left)anddriverclass(right)inKoding

Examinethefollowingline:

numOfAnimals++;

ThislineisdesignedtoincrementthevalueofnumOfAnimals,theinternalhousekeeping

variablethatkeepstrackofhowmanyinstancesofAnimalthatwegenerate.Theactual

instanceisgeneratedwiththecodeinthedriverclasswhichcanbeseenhereinafile

calledAnimalDriver.java:

publicclassAnimalDriver{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

AnimalmyDog=newAnimal(19,12,“brown”,“true”);

}

}

AddingSomeMethods

Let’schangeupandaddtoourinitialcode:

publicclassAnimal{

privatestaticintnumberOfAnimals=0;publicintlength;

publicStringcolor;

publicdoubleweight;publicbooleanhasFur;publicbooleanisHungry;

publicAnimal(intLength,doubleWeight,StringColor,booleanFur,booleanHungry){

color=Color;

weight=Weight;

hasFur=Fur;

isHungry=Hungry;length=Length;

numberOfAnimals++;

}

publicStringwalk(){

return“Animaliswalking”;

}

publicStringeat(){

isHungry=false;

weight+=.1;

return“Animalhaseaten.\n”+“Animalnowweighs:“+

weight+”pounds”;

}

publicStringgetLength(){

return“Animal’slengthis“+length;

}

}Nowthatwe’veaddedtoouranimalclass,weneedtoaddtothedriverclassinorderto

continuetesting.

RewritethecodeinyourAnimalDriverfilesoitlookslikethis,thenrecompileandrunit. publicclassAnimalDriver{ publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

AnimalmyDog=newAnimal(19,12,“brown“,true);

System.out.println(myDog.walk());System.out.println(myDog.eat());

System.out.println(myDog.getLength());

}

}

WhenyourunthecodewiththeJavacommand,theresultshouldappearsomethinglike

this:

Figure6.2:Creatinganinstanceofaclassandmanipulatingit

You’llnoticethatI’veaddedanadditionalproperty,withthedatatypeBooleantothe

class:hungry.Thispropertyisdesignedsimplytotrackwhetherornottheinstanceof

Animalishungry.WhenwecreatetheinstanceofAnimalcalledmyDog,wesetthevalue

ofthehungrypropertytotrue.

We’vealsoaddedtwomethodstoourclass.Thefirstmethod,walk(),simplyprintsoutthe

message“Animaliswalking.”

Thesecondmethod,eat(),ismorecomplex.Itinteractswiththepropertiesoftheobject. First,theeat()methodsetsthevalueofthehungrypropertyto“false.”Ittheninformsthe userthattheAnimaliseatingviatheprintstatement.Finally,becausetheanimaliseating,

weaccesstheweightpropertyandadd.1toitsvalue.

AftertheclassdefinitionandtheinstantiationofthemyDoginstance,werunthewalk()

andeat()methods.

You’llnoticethatallofthesemethodsusethereturnkeyword.

Thedefinitionofthesemethodscontainswhat’sknownasa“returntype”.Itappearsinthe

declarationofthemethodafterthevisibilitylevel.ThisisthereasontheScannerobject

needsseveralmethodstotakeinputfromtheprompt;methodscanonlyreturnone

datatype&oneobject.Inallofourinstances,we’rereturningastring.Whenwecallthe

methodsinourAnimalDriverclass,whateverthemethodreturnstouswillbeastring.

ThismeanswecansetaStringtocapturethereturnvalueofourmethodinavariable:

publicStringwalkText=myDog.walk();

Notethatwhilewehavesofarreturnedprimitivetypeslikeint,floatorboolean,wecan

alsoreturnreferencetypessuchasArrayLists.

Thereturnkeyworditselfdoestwothings.

Thefirstthingissendbacktothemethodcallwhateveryouputontherestoftheline.If

youputanexpression,itsendsbacktheresult.Ifyouputastringitsendsbackthewhole

string.

Thenextthingthereturnkeyworddoesismarksthecompletionofthemethod.Assoonas

yourmethodreturnssomethingitwillexitregardlessofwhatisafterthereturninthe

code.Thisisusefulbecauseyoucouldplacethereturnstatementwithinanifstatement

andhaveitendpre-maturelyundersetcriteria.

Somemethodsdon’thavetoreturnanything.Anexamplethatwe’veencounteredisprint

method.Inthiscasethereturntypeis“void”,whichgoesinplaceofthedatatype.An

exampleofamethodwiththiskindofdeclarationisasfollows.

publicvoidname(<Datatype>Parameter){}

Itshouldbenotedthatthereturnkeywordcanbeusedtoforceavoidmethodtoexitas

well.Simplytype“return”,andasemicolontoendtheline,andstoptheexecutionofthe

method.

MultipleInstances

You’llrememberfromourinitialdiscussionthataclassismerelyablueprintandmultiple

objectscanbeconstructedfromthatclass.Enterthisrevisedcodeinyourtexteditor:

publicclassAnimal{

privatestaticintnumberOfAnimals=0;publicStringname;

publicintlength;

publicStringcolor;

publicdoubleweight;

publicbooleanhasFur;

publicbooleanisHungry;

publicAnimal(StringName,StringColor,intLength,doubleWeight,booleanFur,

booleanHungry){

color=Color;

weight=Weight;hasFur=Fur;

isHungry=Hungry;length=Length;name=Name;

}

publicStringwalk(){

returnname+”iswalking”;

}

publicStringeat(){

isHungry=false;

weight+=.1;

returnname+”haseaten.\n”+name+”nowweighs:“

+weight+”pounds”;

}

publicStringgetLength(){

returnname+“‘slengthis“+length;

}

}

I’veaddedyetanotherpropertytotheAnimalclass.Thenamepropertyisdesignedto

holdthenameoftheAnimalinstance.Keepinmind;thisisdistinctfromthenameofthe

codereferencetotheinstance.

Nowlet’supdateourAnimalDriverclasstoreflectthenewfunctionality.

Copythisrevisedcode:

publicclassAnimalDriver{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

AnimalmyDog=newAnimal(“Sparky”,“Grey”,17,56.4,true,true);

AnimalyourDog=newAnimal(“Rover”,“Brown”,19,41.8,true,true);

System.out.println(myDog.walk());System.out.println(myDog.eat());

System.out.println(yourDog.walk());System.out.println(yourDog.eat());

System.out.println(yourDog.getLength());

}

}

TheoriginalAnimalinstancemyDoghasavalueof“Sparky”inthenameproperty,while

thenewobjecthasavalueof“Rover”inthenameproperty.

Runningthenewcodeshouldresultinoutputsimilartothefollowing:

Figure6.3:TwoinstancesofAnimalobjectsarecreated—SparkyandRover.

ExtendingClasses

Theobjectorientedstructuredoesmorethanallowustosimplyrepresentobjectsascode

inonefile.Itallowsustobuildanentirehierarchyofobjectstorepresentourreallife

problemspace.Let’stakeanotherlookatVehicles.

Intheworldwehavenumeroustypesofvehicles.Someworkontheground,somework

inthewaterandothersintheair.Toproperlyrepresentavehicleinanobjectoriented

manner,weneedtodeterminewhattheyallhaveincommon.Allvehicleshaveatop

speed,aweightandacolor.Allvehiclesareeithermoving,orstill.

Asaresultwecancreateanewobjectthatcontainsallofthesecommonattributes,sowe

don’thavetocodethemeachtimewewanttocreateavariantofavehicle.

Copythefollowingcode,andsaveitasVehicle.java:

publicclassVehicle{

inttopSpeed;

Stringcolor;

doubleweight;booleanisMoving;

publicVehicle(intsetSpeed,StringsetColor,doublesetWeight,booleantellIfMoving){

topSpeed=setSpeed;color=setColor;

weight=setWeight;

isMoving=tellIfMoving;

}

publicbooleanstartMoving(){

isMoving=true;

return“Vehicleismoving.”;}

publicbooleanstopMoving(){

isMoving=false;

return“Vehicleisn’tmoving.”;}

}

Thecodeabovesummarizesthebasicattributeofvehicles.Butifweneedtorepresenta

car,thereisinformationweneedthatwouldn’tberelevantifwewererepresentingaboat.

ButwewouldstillneedalloftheattributesdescribedintheVehicleclass.Doesthismean

wecopyallofthiscodeintotwodifferentfilesinjusttorepresentthesetypesofvehicles?

Wecould,butthatwouldbeinefficient.Insteadweextendthevehicleclass.

Byextendingthevehicleclass,wecreatewhatisknownasachildclass.Thechildclass

inheritsthefields,methodsandeventheconstructoroftheparent(Vehicleinourcase)

class.

Openupanewfileinyourtexteditor,andsavethefollowingcodeas

GroundVehicle.java:

publicclassGroundVehicleextendsVehicle{

intnumWheels;StringvehicleType;

publicGroundVehicle(intsetSpeed,StringsetColor,doublesetWeight,boolean

tellIfMoving,intsetNumWheels,Stringtype){

super(setSpeed,setColor,setWeight,tellIfMoving);numWheels=setNumWheels;

vehicleType=type;

}

publicStringstartMoving(){

isMoving=true;

returnvehicleType+”isdriving”;

}

publicStringstopMoving(){

isMoving=false;

returnvehicleType+”isn’tdriving”;}

publicStringwhatColor(){

returncolor;

}

}

Thefirstlineofthiscodeisslightlydifferentfromwhatyou’reusedtofromthischapter.

Thereistheadditionofthe“extends”keywordfollowedbyVehicle.ThisnotifiesJavathat

GroundVehicleisachildofVehicle.InotherwordsGroundVehicleisderivedfrom

Vehicle.

InJava,allclasses,regardlessofiftheycontaintheextendskeyword,areanextensionof

theObjectclass.AsaresultatthetopofeveryhierarchaltreesitstheObjectclass.

Ourtreeappearsasfollows:

GroundVehicleisaVehiclewhichisanObject.

TalktheTalk:Inobjectorientedprogrammingwhenaprogrammerreferencestheparent

ofachildtheysaythechildclasssharesan“isa/an”relationshipwiththeparentclass.

Thenextlinesofthecodeaddtwonewfieldstoourobject.numWheelscontainsthe

numberofwheelsourGroundVehicleobjecthas.ThevehicleTypevariableallowsusto

passinastringlike“car”,“motorcycle”or“truck”.Bothofthesenewvariablesexistin

additiontoallofthevariablesintheVehicleclass.Vehicle’svariablescanbeaccessed

throughthe“super”keyword.SinceGroundVehicleisasubclassofVehicle,

GroundVehiclehasinheritedVehicle’sattributesandfunctionality.

Thesuperkeywordallowsyoutoreferencefields,constructorsandmethodsofthedirect

parent(classafterthe“extends”keyword)class.

Wealreadyreferencedtheconstructorbyusingthesuperkeywordintheconstructorof

ourGroundVehicleclass.Wetreatedthesuperkeywordliketheinstantiationstatementof

Vehicle.

Thenormalinstantiationwouldlooklikethis:

newVehicle(100,“Orange”,1034.2,false);

“newVehicle”hasbeenreplacedby“super”withintheconstructorandasaresultallof

thehiddenfieldswithinGroundVehiclewillbepopulateduponconstructionduetous

invokingtheparentclass’sconstructor.

Aftertheconstructorwehavethreemethods.Theychangeonevariablewithinthevehicle

classandthenreturnastringthatconfirmstheirchange.Readthenameofthefirsttwo

methodsinGroundVehicleandthenthefirsttwomethodsinVehicle.Whenmethodsina

childclasssharethesamenameasmethodsintheirsuperclass,theyoverridethe

superclassmethod.Wearechangingthefunctionalityofthemethodandnothingmore.If

wechangedanythingmore,suchasthereturntype,wewouldbeoverloadingthemethod.

Remember,weneedadriverclassinordertouseourobjects.

CopythefollowingcodeintoafilenamedVehicleDriver.java:

publicclassVehicleDriver{

publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){

VehicletransportationMachine=newVehicle(50,“Blue”,210,false);

System.out.println(transportationMachine.startMoving());

}

}Theresultingoutputofthiscodeis:

Figure6.4:TheoutputisthestringwetypedintheVehicleDriverclass,asthatiswhatwe

putafterthereturnstatement.

Let’saddsomeadditionalcodetoourVehicleDrivertogetabetterideaofwhat’sgoing

on.AddthiscodeintoyourVehicleDriverclass:

GroundVehiclehorseAndBuggy=newGroundVehicle(5,“Black”,300,false,4,“Horse

andBuggy”);

Stringresult=horseAndBuggy.startMoving();

System.out.println(result);

Oncewerecompileandruntheoutputlookssomethinglikethis:

Figure6.5:ThemorespecificmethodinourGroundVehicleclassresultedinamore

specificoutput.

ThefirstlineofthiscodesnippetistheinstantiationfortheGroundVehicleobjectwhich

weusetomakeahorseandbuggy.Thenextlinemakesastring,andsetsittotheoutput

ofthestartMovingmethod.Thefinallineprintsresult.

Finallylet’slookatonemorethingthatclassextensionsarecapableof.

Copytheselastfewlinesintothedriverclass:

VehiclegoKart=newGroundVehicle(25,“Yellow”,3,true,4,“GoKart”);

System.out.println(goKart.startMoving());

Lookatthedeclarationandinstantiationoftheobject.Theydonotmatch.Howeverwhen

wecompileandrunthiscode,therearenoissuesduetothefactthatGroundVehicleisa

typeofVehicle.SincetheGroundVehicleclassisderivedfromtheVehicleclass,aVehicle

typevariablecanbeusedtoholdaGroundVehicletypeobject,likewe’vedoneinour

code.

HoweveraGroundVehicletypevariablecannotbeusedtoholdaVehicletypeobject!A

GroundVehicleisaVehicle,butaVehicleisnotnecessarilyaGroundVehicle.

GroundVehiclehasparametersthatnotallVehicleshave,anexamplebeingnumberof

wheels.

Thisistrueinallprogrammingtrees.Thelessvagueobjectscanbecontainedwithinmore

vaguevariables.Vaguerobjectshowevercannotbecontainedwithinamorespecific

variable.

ThisalsomeansthatyoucanplaceaGroundVehicle,oraVehiclewithinanObjecttype

variable,asallreferencetypeobjectsarederivedfromtheObjectclass.(Everythingisan

object.)

Atthispointyoumaybewonderingwhathappenswhenyoucallthe“startMoving”

methodonthenextline.WillitusethemorespecificmethodwithintheGroundVehicle

classorthevaguemethodwithintheVehicleclass?

Wellifyoucompileandrunthecode,theresultlookslikethis:

Figure6.6:Itusedthemorespecificmethod!

DespitethevariablebeingoftheVehicletype,theobjectthatthevariablereferencedwas

ofthetypeGroundVehicle.DuetotheobjectbeingoftheGroundVehicletype,whenwe

calledthemethodontheobjectitdidwhatitwassupposedtodoandexecutedthecode

thatithadaccessto:Themorespecificmethod.

Iencourageyoutoaddcodeandexperimentwiththevehicleclass,ormakeyourown

classesandmethodstoseewhatyoucando.

Agoodprojectwouldbetorepresentsomeotherrealsystemincode.Thissectionwas

designedtogiveyouonlyabasicintroductiontoobject-orientedprogrammingwith

classesandobjects.However,youwillfindthatthesefoundationalconceptscanbe

appliedtomanymodernprogramminglanguages.

Theendofthissectionalsobringsustotheconclusionofthisbook.Younowknowthe

foundationsofprogrammingusingtheJavaprogramminglanguage.Youwillfindthis

informationusefulwhetheryoucontinueyourstudyinJava,ormovetootherareasof

development,suchaswebapplicationsormobile.

Whateverdirectionyougo,Iwishyouthebestofluck.

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