Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and the

Development of Diabetes
A Review
1.
2.

Heather P. Harding and

David Ron
+ Author Affiliations
1. Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York

Abstract
The early steps of insulin biosynthesis occur in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and the -cell
has a highly developed and active ER. All cells regulate the capacity of their ER to fold and
process client proteins and they adapt to an imbalance between client protein load and folding
capacity (so-called ER stress). Mutations affecting the ER stress-activated pancreatic ER kinase
(PERK) and its downstream effector, the translation initiation complex eukaryotic initiation factor
2 (eIF2), have a profound impact on islet cell development, function, and survival. PERK
mutations are associated with the Wolcott-Rallison syndrome of infantile diabetes and mutations
that prevent the -subunit of eIF2 from being phosphorylated by PERK, block -cell
development, and impair gluconeogenesis. We will review this and other rare forms of clinical
and experimental diabetes and consider the role of ER stress in the development of more
common forms of the disease.

Footnotes
http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/51/suppl_3/S455.short

Stress and Diabetes

Stress, both physical and mental, can send your blood
sugar out of whack. If you have diabetes, try these tips
to keep stress under control.
WebMD Feature
Reviewed by Louise Chang, MD
WebMD Feature Archive

It's hard to dispute that most of us live life at breakneck speed. It's the nature of a fastpaced society, where numerous family, social, and work obligations can easily
overpower your precious time and resources. But for people with diabetes, both
physical and emotional stress can take a greater toll on health.
When you're stressed, your blood sugar levels rise. Stress hormones
like epinephrine and cortisol kick in since one of their major functions is to raise blood
sugar to help boost energy when it's needed most. Think of the fight-or-flight response.
You can't fight danger when your blood sugar is low, so it rises to help meet the
challenge. Both physical and emotional stress can prompt an increase in these
hormones, resulting in an increase in blood sugars.
People who aren't diabetic have compensatory mechanisms to keep blood sugar from
swinging out of control. But in people with diabetes, those mechanisms are either
lacking or blunted, so they can't keep a lid on blood sugar, says David Sledge, MD,
medical director of diabetes management at The Ochsner Clinic Foundation in Baton
Rouge, La. When blood sugar levels aren't controlled well through diet
and/ormedication, you're at higher risk for many health complications, including
blindness, kidney problems, and nerve damage leading to foot numbness, which can
lead to serious injury and hard-to-heal infections. Prolonged elevated blood sugar is
also a predecessor to cardiovascular disease, which increase the risk of heart
attacks and strokes
http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/features/stress-diabetes

Abstract
Send to:

Sci Signal. 2012 Oct 23;5(247):pt10. doi: 10.1126/scisignal.2003508.

The effects of acute and chronic stress on diabetes control.

Marcovecchio ML1, Chiarelli F.

Author information
Abstract

Stress is an important contributor to pathological conditions in humans. Hormonal changes that occur
during acute and chronic stress situations can affect glucose homeostasis in both healthy people and in
those with diabetes. Several studies have reported a negative effect of acute stress on maintenance of
blood glucose concentrations in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The effect of stress on glycemic
control in people with diabetes may be related to a direct effect of stress hormones on blood glucose
levels and an indirect effect of stress on patient behaviors related to diabetes treatment and monitoring
and meal and exercise plans. In contrast, there is no clear evidence that stressful life events promote the
development of diabetes in children or in adults. Stress hyperglycemia, the development of hyperglycemia
during acute illness, represents another interesting connection between the stress system and glucose
homeostasis. A large body of evidence supports an association between stress hyperglycemia and
increased morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients. Interestingly, there is some evidence supporting a
beneficial effect of insulin in reducing morbidity and mortality in patients admitted to intensive care units.
Finally, stress can influence the development of type 2 diabetes indirectly by promoting obesity and
metabolic syndrome.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23092890

The Link Between Stress and Blood Sugar

Feeling frazzled? High stress can make your blood
sugar levels soar. Here's how to bring both down again.
By Stephanie Watson
WebMD Magazine - Feature
Reviewed by Brunilda Nazario, MD
Sherri Buffington knows right away when she's stressed out.
"I'll start to feel hot," she says. Once the warmth floods her body, she tests her blood
sugar. It's almost always high.
Buffington isn't imagining the connection. Stress is known to spikeblood sugar, also
called glucose. "It's a very common occurrence," says Kevin Pantalone, DO, staff
endocrinologist at Cleveland Clinic. "Stress can increase levels of hormones in the
body, particularly cortisol, which can make blood sugar rise."
Hormone release is part of the body's fight-or-flight response, which readies it to take
action at the first sign of trouble -- or bolt in the other direction. Cortisol and other

hormones release a surge of energy in the form of glucose (sugar), which the body can
use to fight or flee.
That rush of glucose is no problem if your body's insulin response is working correctly.
But for people with diabetes, whose bodies can't move glucose as efficiently into cells, it
leads to a buildup of sugar in the bloodstream.
http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/features/diabetes-stress

pdf link: https://www.google.co.in/url?

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%2Fwp%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads
%2F361.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHVldGtSRNtSq0VlYrVO8sW1F46yw

Stress and Diabetes: A Review of the Links

1.
2.
3.
1.

Cathy Lloyd, PhD,

Julie Smith, BSc, RGN, MSc and
Katie Weinger, EdD, RN
Address correspondence and requests for reprints to Dr. C.E. Lloyd, Faculty of
Health & Social Care, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, U.K.
Next Section

Abstract
Evidence suggests that stressful experiences might affect diabetes, in terms of both
its onset and its exacerbation. In this article, the authors review some of this
evidence and consider ways in which stress might affect diabetes, both through
physiological mechanisms and via behavior. They also discuss the implications of this
for clinical practice and care.
Previous SectionNext Section

In recent years, the complexities of the relationship between stress and diabetes have
become well known but have been less well researched. Some studies have suggested
that stressful experiences might affect the onset and/or the metabolic control of
diabetes, but findings have often been inconclusive. In this article, we review some of
this research before going on to consider how stress might affect diabetes control and

the physiological mechanisms through which this may occur. Finally, we discuss the
implications for clinical practice and care. Before going any further, however, the
meaning of the term stress must be clarified because it can be used in different ways.
Stress may be thought of as a) a physiological response to an external stimulus, or b)
a psychological response to external stimuli, or c) stressful events themselves, which
can be negative or positive or both. In this article, we address all three aspects of
stress: stressful events or experiences (sometimes referred to as stressors) and the
physiological and psychological/behavioral responses to these.
Previous SectionNext Section

Role of Stress in the Onset of Diabetes

Stressful experiences have been implicated in the onset of diabetes in individuals
already predisposed to developing the disease. As early as the beginning of the 17th
century, the onset of diabetes was linked to prolonged sorrow by an English
physician.1
Since then, a number of research studies have identified stressors such as family
losses and workplace stress as factors triggering the onset of diabetes, both type 1
and type 2. For example, Thernlund et al. 2 suggested that negative stressful
experiences in the first 2 years of life may increase the risk of developing type 1
diabetes in children. Other factors, such as high family chaos and behavioral
problems, were also implicated. Other research has also supported the hypothesis
that stressful experiences can lead to increased risk for developing type 1 or type 2
diabetes.35
In a large population-based survey of glucose intolerance, Mooy et al. 6 demonstrated
an association between stressful experiences and the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes.
Although this was a cross-sectional study, the authors investigated stress levels in
people with previously undetected diabetes in order to rule out the possibility that
the disease itself influenced reports of stressful experiences. They also took other
factors into account, such as alcohol consumption, physical activity level, and
education.
Bjorntop7 has attempted to explain the physiological links between stressful
experiences and the onset of diabetes. He argues that the psychological reaction to
stressors of defeatism or helplessness leads to the activation of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, leading in turn to various endocrine abnormalities, such
as high cortisol and low sex steroid levels, that antagonize the actions of insulin. At
the same time, an increase in visceral adiposity (increased girth) is seen, which plays
an important role in diabetes by contributing to insulin resistance. 8 Increased visceral
adiposity can be measured by waist-to-hip ratio. In the Mooy et al. study of type 2
diabetes,6 there was only a weak association between stressful experiences and
waist-to-hip ratio, suggesting that other factors, so far unidentified, may play a
mediating role.
Where stressful experiences have been implicated in the onset of type 1 diabetes,
researchers have often attempted to explain this in terms of the effects of stress on
the autoimmune system.2 Bottazo et al.9 hypothesized that environmental factors
(e.g., viruses or toxic agents) trigger the autoimmune destruction of the -cells in
genetically predisposed individuals.

However, not all studies have demonstrated a link between stressful experiences and
the development of diabetes. In a recent review, Cosgrove 10 argued that many of the
studies that have demonstrated a link between stressful events and type 1 diabetes
have been of small size and lacked appropriate control groups. Cosgrove cited one
large Swedish study11 indicating that there was no association between stressful
events and the onset of type 1 diabetes. However, this study included a wide age
range (1534 years) of newly diagnosed people. Often quite vast differences in the
type and intensity of life changes are found at the different ages within this range,
and changes in social supports (known to be a buffer to stress) are frequent during
these years, especially in the teenage years. This may have masked any association
between stressful experiences and the development of diabetes.
Given the numerous measurement strategies and different study populations that
have been investigated through the years, definite conclusions are difficult to reach.
Smaller in-depth studies have usually demonstrated a link between stress and
diabetes, whereas larger studies using self-report checklists to measure the
occurrence of stressful experiences have sometimes failed to support this link. Much
more conclusive is the evidence regarding the relationship between stressful
experiences and metabolic control in those already diagnosed with diabetes, and it is
to this research that we now turn.
Previous SectionNext Section

Stress and Diabetes Control

In recent years, some researchers have turned their attention to the possibilities of
stressful experiences influencing diabetes control. 1215 This potential influence is
important, not only for the often debilitating effects poor blood glucose control can
have on daily life, but also because of the known association between chronically high
blood glucose levels and the development of diabetes complications. 16
It is a complex area of research, much of it having been conducted in children and
adolescents, with fewer studies in adults or in those with type 2 diabetes, and using a
number of different measurement tools. Stressful experiences have been recorded
using anything from simple checklists to longer self-report questionnaires, to in-depth
interviewing techniques. Most studies in this area have not determined the type or
severity of stress that may influence changes in glycemic control, nor have they been
able to fully address the role of other factors in mediating the impact of stress on
glycemic control. Moreover, it is difficult to determine the temporal relationship
between stress and health, not least because poor health often leads to adverse
experiences.
A number of laboratory studies have been conducted to demonstrate the effects of
specific stressful situations (for example, arithmetic problem solving, unpleasant
interviews) on blood glucose levels. Many of these studies have demonstrated that
these types of stressors can destabilize blood glucose levels, at least for hours at a
time.17 However, a major criticism of this approach is that it does not mirror the real
world in which individuals with diabetes live.

Other studies have focused on that real world and have attempted to measure
naturally occurring stress.1821 These later studies are not without problems however,
such as, the myriad possibilities for measurement and/or observation, which makes
cross-study comparisons difficult. Stress may take the form of day-to-day hassles, and
it may be that major life events (death of a close relative, losing a job) are an added
layer of complexity, along with long-term chronic difficulties (e.g., providing longterm care for a relative or long-term unemployment).
In an attempt to overcome some of the previous methodological limitations, a
prospective in-depth investigation into the relationship between stressful experiences
and changes in glycemic control over time was designed. 21 Individuals with type 1
diabetes were interviewed using an indepth interview schedule and then followed up
quarterly for a year with measures of diabetes control (hemoglobin A 1c [A1C]). Unlike
previous studies, the participants were asked about both negative and positive
stressors in their lives. The results showed that those whose glycemic control
deteriorated over time were more likely to report negative stress, whereas those
whose control improved over the follow-up period reported positive stress. Negative
stressors included interpersonal conflicts, death of a close tie, and disturbed behavior
of someone close, whereas positive stressors were events such as engagement to be
married, birth of a child, or a desired change in employment (Figure 1).
Studies such as the one reported above have their limitations. For example, not all
individuals perceive stressors in the same way; what is a negative stressor in one
person's life might actually be a positive one in another's, so the context in which
stress occurs is also important. Some people react to stressful events in a way that
makes them psychologically vulnerable, for example, they may experience feelings of
hopelessness or anxiety, particularly in the context of social isolation or poverty.
Others may respond to stress in positive terms or as a challenge, or they may feel
better able to cope with the stress because they have several social supports or the
support of a loving family. It is easier to categorize major stressors into those that are
positive and those that are negative; it is more difficult for more minor stress or
hassles. Long-term chronic difficulties are also important, but may change in
perceived level of severity or negativity over time.
Findings from Smith's study22 of women's experiences of diabetes-related stress
indicated that a wide variety of factors were important, including relationships with
other people (including health care professionals), the interaction between diabetes
and daily life and work, and fear of the future. Minor stressors and hassles were seen
as an integral part of living with diabetes in this study and were related to both work
and family life, which often took priority over the management of diabetes.

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Figure 1.

Relationship between stress and glycemic control. From Ref. 21.

The impact of stressful experiences on diabetes is clearly varied and may depend on
other psychosocial factors. One of these is social support, and research has shown this
may provide a buffering effect in times of stress. 13 Psychological support is also
important. In a recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, Ismail et
al.23concluded that people with type 2 diabetes who received behavioral-based
diabetes education or psychological interventions were likely to show improvements
in both glycemic control and psychological distress.
The relationship between stressful experiences and metabolic control is thought to
differ greatly among individuals in terms of both the strength and the direction of the
relationship,24 and these differences have serious implications for the design of
effective interventions to reduce the impact of stressors. Precisely how stressors
affect glycemic control remains controversial, and there may be both physiological
and behavioral pathways between stressors and health status. The mechanisms
through which this may take place may be direct (through physiological effects on the
neuroendocrine system)25 or indirect (through alterations in health care practices in
times of stress).18,26 It is to these pathways that we now turn.
Previous SectionNext Section

Behavior
The behavioral mechanisms through which stressful experiences might affect diabetes
control are varied and often complex. There are, of course, many different types of
stress, there are shorter- and longer-term stressors, and people may respond to these
very differently. Difficulties in measurement such as those mentioned above also
apply to measuring behavior. At the same time, differences in resources such as social
supports, ability to cope, and other psychosocial variables will all affect both the
response to and the behavior resulting from stressful experiences.
Reactions to external stressors, for example, feelings of anxiety or depression, may
lead to difficulties with self-care manifested through less physical activity, poorer
diet, or difficulties with medication taking. 27,28 Experiences of stress may lead to
other unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, which in turn are linked to poor blood
glucose control but also to a greater risk of developing diabetes complications. 29 Data
from Smith's study22 indicated a range of behavior described as occurring in response
to stress. These behaviors ranged from unhealthy lifestyle patterns associated with
alcohol and tobacco consumption to increased physical activity and relaxation, such
as walking, yoga, swimming, meditation, and hypnotherapy.
One particular type of stress was investigated in a Swedish study. Agardh et
al.30 demonstrated that work stress, as indicated by low decision latitude (or fewer

opportunities for decision making), along with a low sense of coherence, significantly
increased risk for type 2 diabetes. Low sense of coherence is thought to negatively
affect people's ability to cope with stressors 31 and also to be linked to unhealthy
lifestyle patterns that could lead to poor health.
Research also supports the behavioral link. Peyrot et al. 32 found that stress and
coping affected glycemic control by interfering with self-care practices. Coping
behavior was also shown to affect glycemic control in a study of type 1 and type 2
diabetes that used sophisticated statistical techniques to demonstrate a network of
interlinked variables in relation to the achievement of treatment goals. 33 For
example, active coping behavior was associated with higher self-efficacy and greater
satisfaction with doctor-patient relationships. The researchers suggested that their
findings have clinical implications for diabetes care because coping behavior (a key
factor in their analysis) was linked to self-care but could also be influenced by the
health care professionals involved in that care. However, little work has been carried
out to try to implement the findings of coping research into clinical
practice.34 Changes in clinical practice have usually involved behavioral interventions
(task-oriented) rather than cognitive ones or have only included coping implicitly
rather than explicitly.34
Diabetes-related distress may also affect self-care behavior,35,36 as demonstrated
when the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) scale was developed. 35 The scale covers
negative emotions related to living with diabetes, for example, feeling alone with
diabetes and worrying about the future and the possibility of serious
complications. Although often associated with depression, 36,37diabetes-related
distress has been found to be predictive of diabetes self-care behavior as well as
blood glucose control.36,38
Depression and diabetes-related distress can occur together and can have serious
implications for the management of diabetes, because those affected may feel unable
or unmotivated to carry out self-care behaviors such as blood glucose testing or
healthy eating. A different group of researchers in the United States has identified
both diabetes-related stress and other stressors as important in predicting self-care
behavior.27 If study participants reported, My life is out of control because of my
diabetes or I have other problems more serious than diabetes, they were less
likely to report attention to diet or exercise as part of their diabetes self-care.
In summary, studies strongly suggest that stressful experiences have an impact on
diabetes self-care behavior; however, there are many different factors that may
mediate this relationship. Before turning to the implications for clinical practice, we
consider the physiological mechanisms behind stress and its impact on diabetes.
Previous SectionNext Section

Physiological Mechanisms Behind Stressful Experiences

Any stressful event might be judged by people in different ways, based on factors
such as previous experience, psychological factors, and social influences. An event
that is seen by one individual as particularly threatening might be seen as totally
harmless by another individual. However, when a situation is regarded as threatening,

that is, seen as having the potential to cause harm to the individual, a specific
pattern of physiological responses is elicited, known as the stress response or
fight/flight response. This pattern of responses has developed as a result of human
evolution and is aimed at priming the individual for action, so that the situation can
be dealt with by either fighting or fleeing the threat. The actions initiated by the
central nervous system in response to a threat affect the entire body and are
associated with three different bodily systems: the autonomic nervous system, the
neuroendocrine system, and the immune system.39,40
The autonomic nervous system is concerned with the regulation of smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands and regulates the functions over which there is no
conscious control, such as cardiovascular function, digestion, and metabolism. It
consists of two distinct branches: the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous
system, the latter being the most dominant in times of stress. The sympathetic
system is involved with the preparation of the body for action. It increases oxygen
and nutrient supplies to the muscles by increasing the blood flow to the skeletal
muscles and freeing glucose and lipids from its stores. It also prepares the immune
system to deal with possible injury.
With regard to the effects of stress on the neuroendocrine system, the HPA axis is of
considerable importance.39 Upon encountering a threat or a stressor, the
hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing factor, which causes the release of
adrenocorticotropin. This in turn travels to the adrenal cortex, where it leads to the
secretion of glucocorticoid hormones, in particular cortisol.
Cortisol exerts considerable influence over bodily functions, both when the body is at
rest and during stress. In normal circumstances, it is secreted according to a circadian
(daily) rhythm, with cortisol levels highest in the morning and lowest in the evening.
However, exposures to stress stimulate the HPA axis to release additional amounts of
cortisol to maintain homeostasis and reduce the effects of stress. Cortisol influences a
wide range of processes, including the breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins to provide the body with energy. It also has an effect on bone and cell growth
and may modulate salt and water balance. Cortisol has an immunosuppressive effect
and therefore plays a role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory processes.
That the central nervous system communicates with and exerts an influence on the
immune system is now well established; brain lesions can alter a variety of immune
measures, and both the autonomic and the neuroendocrine system have been shown
to influence the state of the immune system. 41 Because both the neuroendocrine and
the autonomic system are influenced by psychosocial factors, it follows that the
immune system is also affected by such factors, although the precise nature of these
complex interactions remains to be determined.
Although there is still much unknown about the effects of acute stress on the immune
system and studies have been limited in the number of immune parameters studied,
one review42 revealed that stress influences both circulating cell numbers and the
function of immune cells. The cells generating the immune defense are generally
known as white blood cells and consist of several subgroups including the lymphocytes

(-cells, T-cells, and natural killer cells), which have received much attention in
stress research.41
Although research into the effects of stress continues, it seems clear that there is a
range of responses to stressful experiences, both physiological and
behavioral/emotional. The final section of this article focuses on the implications of
stress research for practice in the care of individuals with diabetes.
Previous SectionNext Section

Implications For Practice: Stress Management

In addition to the physiological impact that stress has on glycemia, research has
shown that stress interferes with the ability to self-manage diabetes. Doing everyday
self-care tasks, such as monitoring glucose frequently, following a meal plan, and
correctly preparing or remembering to take insulin or oral medications at the right
time, is difficult during times of stress. Moreover, diabetes self-management tasks
themselves may become a source of stress. Learning to prevent and control the
negative responses to stress is helpful, particularly if the causes are relatively
permanent. For example, if cooking dinner, bathing children, and doing laundry
constitute a typical stressful evening, that stress is a relatively permanent part of life
for several years and must be dealt with accordingly.
Assessment of stress levels in practice is a relatively underdeveloped area. One
approach is to identify those life events during the previous year that typically act as
stressors. Using a scale such as the Recent Life Changes Questionnaire 43 or the
Revised Social Readjustment Rating Scale, 44 individuals identify events that have
occurred in their life from a list that includes births, deaths, marriage, retirement,
social issues, financial worries, work-related stress, and so forth. The weighted
ratings provide the basis for an overall score that can be compared to norms.
However, these scales are rather long and take some time to complete, which may
not always be appropriate in a practice setting.
Polonsky45 describes a diabetes-specific exercise to help people with diabetes develop
an understanding of the relationship between stress and blood glucose levels. In this
exercise, individuals rate their perceived stress each evening on a 010 Likert scale
and record their glucose levels before breakfast and dinner and at bedtime. The
individual then looks for blood glucose level patterns for days when perceived stress is
high, medium, and low. The premise behind this exercise is that those individuals
whose blood glucose levels are sensitive to stress may be more sensitive to stress
management strategies. Although validation data are not available, individuals may
find this approach helpful in understanding and managing stress-related aberrant
glucose readings. Finally, surveys tools, such as the individual items on the PAID scale
that measure diabetes-related distress, may also reflect accumulated stress resulting
from living with diabetes. PAID scores are associated with A1C levels.35,36,38
Clinicians must take care to differentiate stress response from depression and anxiety.
Depression is more common in diabetes than in the general population. 46,47 Although
both under-diagnosed and under-treated,48,49 depression is responsive to both

medication and psychotherapy. Tools such as the Beck Depression Inventory 50 or the
Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale51 are useful in screening for depression. Asking
simple questions such as, During the past month, have you been bothered by feeling
down, depressed, or hopeless? and During the past month, have you been bothered
by little interest or pleasure in doing things? can be as successful as surveys when
screening for depression.52
Three approaches to stress management go hand in hand, albeit with some overlap: 1)
when possible, removing or minimizing the source of stress, 2) changing the response
to the stressful situation, and 3) modifying the longer-term effects of stress. Some
interventions directly target people with diabetes in order to prevent diabetesrelated stress and improve quality of life or glycemia.
Previous SectionNext Section

1. Remove or minimize the source of stress.

Time management and organizational techniques may reduce small stressors that
often compound until a crescendo is reached. Self-help books 53,54 may be useful for
patients to find successful ways to put structure in their lives and manage their time
and life stressors. Minimizing the source of stress is helpful. For example, if repetitive
noise at work is causing stress, one solution could be substituting white noise for the
repetitive noise by softly playing relaxing classical music. Setting up a meeting with
the employer or coworkers to get help with one's workload may also alleviate stress.
Often, the most difficult challenge is actually identifying the source of stress and
separating that source from the responses to stress. Effective problem-solving
strategies are important for minimizing the source of stress.
Diabetes-specific approaches that may help individuals cope better with diabetes
include setting specific, realistic self-management goals. Many individuals set global
vague goals that may serve to exacerbate stress. Lose weight, Take better care of
my diabetes, and Improve my glycemic control are examples of vague unhelpful
goals. Realistic, measurable, and achievable goals specifically stating the
measurement criteria that indicate success are more helpful as motivators. Examples
of realistic, measurable goals are, I will walk 20 minutes each day on Monday,
Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday at 5:00 p.m.; I will drink diet cola instead of cola
with sugar; and I will lose 6 lb over the next 9 weeks by following my meal plan and
increasing my walking to 30 minutes, 5 days per week. Evaluation does not
necessarily have to focus on whether a goal is met, but rather on how successful one's
effort has been in trying to achieve it. Thus, instead of No, I did not reach my target
A1C, evaluation would be My A1C has improved by 0.5 percentage points, thus, I am
about half way to my first goal of a 1percentage point improvement.
Previous SectionNext Section

2. Change the response to stress.

Most stress management techniques emphasize changing the response to stress. When
the response to chronic or acute stress results in rage and reactive behavior, a
thought-stopping and reflective technique can be helpful in preventing negative

consequences of the impulsive behaviors associated with anxiety and rage (Table 1).
Other approaches involve learning how to induce a more relaxed feeling.
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Table 1.

A Thought-Stopping Strategy for Acute Rage

Benson's relaxation response,55 first reported as a means to lower blood pressure, can
be useful in inducing relaxation quickly in times of stress, for example, while driving
in traffic, or before taking an exam. Practicing the relaxation response is extremely
important because the technique is difficult to learn. However, once learned, the
relaxation response quickly brings about the physiological responses associated with
relaxation.
Previous SectionNext Section

3. Modifying the longer-term effects of stress.

Other approaches to stress that may be useful for individuals with diabetes include
using distraction and involvement in pleasurable activities that help to minimize the
influence of stress-producing activities. (For other examples, see Table 2.) For
example, active participation in a hobby (even a sedentary one) or exercise program
can help combat stress. Typically passive activities, such as watching television, may
not help alleviate stress, although attending a concert, theater performance, or
movie with friends can have beneficial effects as a distraction. If one is not able to
put aside worries from work, then distraction may be effective.
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Table 2.

Useful Interventions for Managing Stress

If a person with diabetes is experiencing severe stress, referral to a mental health
professional may be the most effective approach.
Reports from research investigating the effect of stress management on glycemic
control have been inconsistent.5660 Several of these studies were underpowered, and
others had design problems. However, recent reports have shown that stress
management may affect diabetes and its treatment. In a small study with a pre-/postdesign and no control group,61 20 study participants demonstrated improved glycemic
control and state and trait anxiety scores after 12 weeks of treatment with an antianxiety medication (fludiazepam). Surwit et al. 14 used a randomized, controlled
design to investigate the use of stress management techniques for groups of type 2
diabetes patients. They found that those using stress management had a small

improvement in A1C (0.5 percentage points) at the 1-year follow-up compared to

those who were not. Although Boardway et al. 62 found that adolescents receiving
stress management improved stress levels but not glycemic control or adherence,
evidence now exists that stress management training may potentiate intensive
treatment. For adolescents enrolled in an intensive diabetes management clinic, Grey
et al.63,64 demonstrated that preventive strategies such as teaching coping skills to
adolescents with type 1 diabetes in order to better prepare them for stressful life
events can lead to improvements in both glycemic control and quality of life and that
the improvement was maintained over time.
In summary, research has indicated that stressful experiences have an impact on
diabetes. Stress may play a role in the onset of diabetes, it can have a deleterious
effect on glycemic control and can affect lifestyle. Emerging evidence strongly
suggests, however, that interventions that help individuals prevent or cope with stress
can have an important positive effect on quality of life and glycemic control. The
clinical implications of this research illustrate the need for greater understanding of
the effects of stress, as well as a serious acceptance of the need for psychosocial
support for people in this predicament.
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Azar Tol1, Bahram Mohebbi2, Roya Sadeghi1*, Agh Babak Maheri1, Mohammad Reza Eshraghian3

Affiliation(s)
Department of Health Education and Promotion, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical

Sciences,
School

Tehran,
of

Medicine,

Iran

University

of

Iran.
Medical

Sciences,

Tehran,

Iran.

Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran,

Iran.

ABSTRACT
Introduction: The aim of this study was to determine Health-Promoting Behaviors among type 2
diabetic mellitus patients. Patients and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 440
diabetic patients referred to selected teaching hospitals affiliated to Tehran University of Medical
Sciences (TUMS) during six months in 2013. A two section 40-items self-report Questionnaire with
demographic variables (12 items) and Health-Promoting Behaviors scale (28 items) included exercise
(7 items), risk reducing (7 items), life enjoyment (3 items), stress management (5 items),
responsibility (3 items) and healthy eating (3 items) domains. Data was analyzed using SPSS software
version 11.5. Level of significance was set at p < 0.05 level. Results: Mean scores of total health

promoting behaviors in participants were (55.88 18.09) and in domains of exercise, risk reducing,
life enjoyment, stress management, responsibility and healthy eating were (8.2 6.5), (12.2 6.1),
(7.8 2.6), (12.3 3.8), (3.3 3.1) and (6.9 2.8) respectively. Life enjoyment was emphasized as
the most significant domain in health promoting behaviors scale (65 percent). Study results revealed
that there was a significant association among total health promoting behavior and age (p = 0.01),
occupation (p = 0.01), family income (p < 0.001), BMI (p = 0.01) and HbA1C(p < 0.001). Conclusion:
Study findings revealed the necessity of tailoring specific intervention programs to promote exercise
and responsibility domains posit.

http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?paperID=49961

Open Journal of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases

Vol.04 No.09(2014), Article ID:49961,5 pages
10.4236/ojemd.2014.49021

Determinants of Health-Promoting Behaviors among

Type 2 Diabetic Patients: Voice of Iran
Azar Tol1, Bahram Mohebbi2, Roya Sadeghi1*, Agh Babak Maheri1, Mohammad Reza
Eshraghian3
Abstract
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How to Cite this Article
1

Department of Health Education and Promotion, School of Public Health, Tehran

University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

2

School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical

Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Email: *Sadeghir@tums.ac.ir
Copyright 2014 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC
BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Received 19 August 2014; revised 30 August 2014; accepted 10 September 2014

ABSTRACT
Introduction: The aim of this study was to determine Health-Promoting
Behaviors among type 2 diabetic mellitus patients. Patients and Methods: A
cross-sectional study was conducted on 440 diabetic patients referred to
selected teaching hospitals affiliated to Tehran University of Medical Sciences
(TUMS) during six months in 2013. A two section 40-items self-report
Questionnaire with demographic variables (12 items) and Health-Promoting
Behaviors scale (28 items) included exercise (7 items), risk reducing (7
items), life enjoyment (3 items), stress management (5 items), responsibility
(3 items) and healthy eating (3 items) domains. Data was analyzed using
SPSS software version 11.5. Level of significance was set at p < 0.05 level.
Results: Mean scores of total health promoting behaviors in participants were
(55.88 18.09) and in domains of exercise, risk reducing, life enjoyment,
stress management, responsibility and healthy eating were (8.2 6.5), (12.2
6.1), (7.8 2.6), (12.3 3.8), (3.3 3.1) and (6.9 2.8) respectively. Life
enjoyment

was

emphasized

as

the

most

significant

domain

in

health

promoting behaviors scale (65 percent). Study results revealed that there was
a significant association among total health promoting behavior and age (p =
0.01), occupation (p = 0.01), family income (p < 0.001), BMI (p = 0.01) and
HbA 1C (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Study findings revealed the necessity of
tailoring specific intervention programs to promote exercise and responsibility
domains posit.
*

Corresponding author.

Keywords:
Health-Promoting Behaviors, Type 2 Diabetes, Patients

1. Introduction
Diabetes type 2 is a common chronic condition nearly in the world [1] -[3] . It is highly
prevalent in developing countries [2] [3] including Iran [4] [5] which estimated about
2% - 10% prevalence in 2008 [6] [7] . Regarding epidemiologic transition with rapid

changes of dietary habits and tendency to high calorie food with low nutritional value,
physical inactivity, and smoking non-communicable disease prevalence are increasing in
which one of the most of them is type 2 diabetes [8] . Lifestyle and human behaviors
are responsible for majority of non- communicable disease [9] . Approximately 53% of
death causes are related to Lifestyle and human behaviors [1] [2] .
The nature of diabetes type 2 and its biopsychosocial determinants of onset, progress
and complications [8] [9] highlighted the importance of addressing Diabetes HealthPromoting Behaviors (DHPB). Health promoting behaviors are one of the most effective
ways for personal health control and maintenance [10] . Some daily behaviors, social
and psychosocial factors are challenges to adhere treatment regimen as a barrier for
self-care adaptation [11] -[13] . Sloan et al. (2004) indicated self-care behaviours
adherence decreased hospitalization rate among patients with type 2 diabetes [14] .
Studies concluded adopting healthy lifestyle in pattern of self-care would be effective to
diabetes control [15] . Implementation multidisciplinary interventions and intersectoral
participation are recommended to overcome self-care barriers [11] [12] . Since the
importance of Health-Promoting Behaviors adherence and necessity of understanding
influential factors among type 2 diabetic patients, this study aimed at determining
Health-Promoting Behaviors among type 2 diabetic patients.

2. Patients and Methods

A cross-sectional study was performed for a period of six months in 2013. The
participants were selected by continuous sampling of patients with type 2 diabetes
referred to four selected teaching hospitals affiliated to Tehran University of Medical
Sciences (TUMS) in Tehran, Iran. The inclusion criteria were diabetes confirmation by
endocrinologists and patients who agreed to sign a written informed consent to study
participation. Confirmed psychological conditions, gestational diabetes and lack of
interest to participate were exclusion criteria in the study. In this research signed up
440 patients on the basis of a p ratio between diabetic patients (0.7%) at 95%
confidence level and 80% power test, considering 25% sample size reduction.
A two section 40-items self-report Questionnaire with demographic variables (12 items)
and Health-Promot- ing Behaviors scale (28 items) including exercise (7 items), risk
reducing (7 items), life enjoyment (3 items), stress management (5 items),
responsibility (3 items) and healthy eating (3 items) domains. The responses to each
item in domains were rated between 0 and 4 on a measurement scale based on a Likert

scale [0: Never, 1: Rarely, 2: Occasionally, 3: Usually, 4: Always]. Therefore, in each of

domains, higher scores meant better Health-Promoting Behaviors.
Since the lack of specific instrument about health promoting behaviors for patients with
type 2 diabetes, in Iranian literature, we found an article about this important subject
[10] . Therefore, instrument was translated from English to Persian and vice versa. This
process was done by two expert teams of endocrinologists and Health Education and
Promotion professionals. The final version of instrument was extracted after comparing
primary versions. The final version obtained validity and reliability after following
process. Content validity method was performed by ten members of academic board of
TUMS, who were experts on diabetes and health education and promotion fields.
Internal reliability of the original scale and its subscales showed adequate agreement (
= 0.90). To determine internal reliability in this study, a test-retest method was
performed. The final version of instrument filled out twice in two weeks interval.
Chronbachs alpha was 0.89. The internal reliabilities of domains were between 0.65
and 0.90. The results of the pilot study were not contained in the main study. Regarding
ethical consideration, permission was achieved from TUMS Research Ethical Committee,
all patients were informed about study objectives in detail by skilled interviewer and
they filled written informed consent. Data was analyzed by using SPSS software version
11.5 through descriptive [mean and (SD)] and inference [x 2, independent t-test,
ANOVA] statistical tests. According to histogram and normalization of data, parametric
tests were used. Results were considered significant at the conventional p < 0.05 level.

3. Results
Four hundred forty were participated in the study. Demographic and health related
variables of participants were demonstrated in Table 1. Mean scores of total health
promoting behaviors in participants were (55.88 18.09) and in domains of exercise,
risk reducing, life enjoyment, stress management , responsibility and healthy eating
were (8.2 6.5), (12.2 6.1), (7.8 2.6), (12.3 3.8), (3.3 3.1) and (6.9 2.8)
respectively. Life enjoyment was emphasized as the most significant domain in health
promoting behaviors scale (65 percent). It notes that study participants achieved 49.8
percent of total health promoting behavior score. Table 2 presents mean score and
standard deviation of health promoting behavior dimensions of participants. Patients
with age less than 50 years old received higher mean scores of others. Physical activity
was the only domains which had significant association with gender as male (p = 0.02).
Patients with more than 10 years disease duration and Insulin therapy had significant

association with responsibility and healthy eating. Mean scores of civil servant in some
domain were higher than other occupation groups. Higher education and good family
income revealed significant association with some HPB domains. Obese, smokers and
poor diabetes patients received lee mean scores of majority HPB domains. Table
3 represented relation between mean scores in health promoting behavior domains
based on socio demographic and health related variables in details among study
participants.

Table 1. Demographic and health related variables of participants.

Table 2. Mean score and standard deviation of health promoting behavior dimensions
of participants.

Table 3. Relation between mean scores in health promoting behavior domains based
on socio demographic and health related variables among study participants.
NS: Not Significant; BMI: Body Mass Index.

4. Discussion
The aim of this study was to determine Health-Promoting Behaviors among type 2
diabetic mellitus patients. Study results presented physical activity domain had
significant

association

with

age

less

than

50

years

old,

being

male,

better

socioeconomic status (SES) and BMI less than 30. This result is in the line of Norouzi et
al. study (2010) which conducted determinants of regular physical activity in women
referee to Karaj Diabetes institute [16] . However, Wu et al. (2004) indicated that
diabetes patients were more to engage in health-promoting behaviors if they were
physically well, but their study results showed that demographic and illness variables
were unrelated to health practices [17] . The differences age of participants in two

studies might be justify the variety of results. McDonald et al. (2002) study represented
the level of education had association with health- promoting behaviors [18] . Nothwehr
et al. (2000) indicated that 66% of diabetic patients engaged in some physical activity
[19] .
Study results indicated that civil servant, education more than diploma, better income,
BMI less than 30 and non smoker participants were less in risk reduction and more life
enjoyment domains. It seems that better physical fitness, life expectancy, job security,
and better social class because of income satiability higher education. Chen et al.
(2013) represented that participants younger than 50 years reported a higher score in
risk reducing behaviors than the other age groups [10] . In the stress management
domain, those younger than 50 years, civil servant, education more than diploma,
better income, HbA 1c less than 8.5 (poor diabetic control) and non smoker participants
had better performance in the named domain. Yi et al. (2008) results suggested that
higher levels of anger coping might promote poorer diabetes control in diabetes
patients. This result confirmed our study findings [20] . In the health responsibility
dimension revealed higher score of disease duration more than 10 years, moderate and
better income, Insulin therapy, HbA 1c less than 8.5 (better diabetic control) and non
smoker participant. It might be because of more diabetes duration time had a positive
impact in using appropriate coping strategies and dealing with disease [21] . On the
other hand, participants with high income and good economic position might have
better nutrition behaviors and also good adherence to treatment regimen in type 2
diabetes [5] . In several studies confirmed that desirable adherence of diabetes
treatment can resulted good diabetes control [22] .
Study results revealed that mean score of healthy eating domain was higher in
participants with education more than diploma, HbA 1c less than 8.5 and non smokers.
Tol et al. (2014) suggested family concern about healthy dietary habits among type 2
diabetic patients is very influential [5] . It seems that the more educated family, the
more adopting healthy diet which can be resulted in better diabetes control. Also,
Mangou et al. (2012) confirmed the association between adequate diet quality and
desirable diabetes control [23] . Marcy et al. (2011) reported that presenting diet
barriers in the study population which had borderline HbA 1c in developing country in
their qualitative study [24] . This result confirmed that decreasing nutrition diabetes
barriers can promote diabetes control. Participants less than 50 years old, civil servant,
education more than diploma moderate and good income, BMI less than 30, HbA 1c less
than 8.5 and non-smoking participants had higher total HPB in diabetes scores. In this
line, Wang et al. (2008) highlighted educational level as an influential factor on

adoption HPB in patients with diabetes [25] . In sum up studies showed HPB in patients
with diabetes is effective in promoting diabetes control [26] [27] .
This study had some limitations as followed: 1) patients HPB instrument was a selfreport questionnaire and it is possible that the results might not have contributed to
accurate estimation, and 2) a few available researches in the literature had used HPB
instrument, therefore it was a limitation for comparing the results and previous studies.

5. Conclusion
Study findings highlighted that SES and clinical characteristics and adopting some
behaviors like smoking had influential role in adopting HPB in patients with diabetes.
Being relatively low obtained scores (up to mean) of all HPB domains, it seems to need
specific attention to promote all dimensions especially the lowest ones such as exercise
and responsibility to maintain health using educational interventional programs.

Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate all the study patients who participated in the study and all other
individuals who contributed to the successful accomplishment of this research. This
study supported by research chancellor of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Grant
Number: 22842). The authors declare there is no conflict of interest.

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Health-related behaviours of people with diabetes and those with

cardiometabolic risk factors: results from SHIELD
A. J. Green,1 D. D. Bazata,2 K. M. Fox,3 S. Grandy,4 and for the SHIELD Study Group
Author information Article notes Copyright and License information
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.

Abstract
What's known

Previous studies have demonstrated the benefits of changes in diet and physical activity on the
prevention or delay of diabetes and its complications. Yet, the prevalence of diabetes and obesity
are increasing globally.
What's new

This study provides evidence in a large, representative sample of individuals with type 2 diabetes
or cardiometabolic risk factors of the current patterns of diet, exercise and other health-related
behaviours to understand how a gap exists in managing diabetes and risk factors. This study
demonstrates that there is a gap for most individuals as they report healthy attitudes and the
health knowledge to manage their diabetes but have not translated this information into healthy
behaviours.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2121151/

relationship between health promoting behavourin diabetic https://www.google.co.in/url?

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