10/16/2009

Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
Part 1
Professor Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi

Solar
Wind
Fuel Cell
Small Hydro
Geothermal
Tidal
Biomass

Solar Power Density

o cos dt wa p
Solar Energy

: solar power density on earth in kW/m2

o: extraterrestrial
t t
t i l power density
d
it (1.353
(1 353 kW/
kW/m2)
: zenith angle (angle from the outward normal on the earth
surface to the center of the sun)
dt: direct transmittance of gases except for water (the
fraction of radiant energy that is not absorbed by gases)
p: is the transmittance of aerosol
wa: water vapor absorptions of radiation.

Zenith Angle

Solar Energy (Whr/m2/day)

Center
of Sun

Center of Earth

10/16/2009

Daily Solar Power Density

Solar Efficiency ()

Density ratio
100%

o cos dt wa p

80%

60%

(t t o ) 2

max e

40%

2
20%

0%
0

10

12

14

16

18

t:hour of the day using the 24 hr clock

max: the maximum solar power density
to: time at max (noontime in the equator)
: standard deviation

20

22

Time

Example
An area located near the equator has the following
parameters:

dt 80%, p 95%, wa 2%
Assume that the standard deviation of the solar distribution
function is 3.5hr. Compute the solar power density and
solar efficiency at 3:00 PM.

24

cos dt wa p 5 70%

Solution

At noon

max o cos dt wa p
max 1353* cos( 0 )* 0.8 0.02 * 0.95 1.0 kW/m 2
At 3:00PM
( t t o )2

max e

2 2

( 1512 )2

1.0* e

2*( 3.5 )2

0.693 kw/m2

cos( 0 )* 0.8 0.02 * 0.95 74%

Types of Solar Systems

Passive Solar System

New supply of cold water

Warm water to the house

Passive Solar System

Warm
water

Active
A ti S
Solar
l S
System
t
(Ph
(Photovoltaic
t
lt i or PV)
Lens

Tank

Sun rays
Collector

Cold water
back
to solar
collector

10/16/2009

Passive Solar

Integrated Solar Combined

Cycle System (ISCCS)

Receiver
Collector
mirror

Integrated Solar Combined Cycle System (ISCCS)

Active Solar Cell

(Photovoltaic PV)

Silicon

Silicon

Empty
space for
extra
electron

Silicon is a good insulator

To make the silicon more conductive
electrically additives (impurities) are
electrically,
added (doping)

Nucleus

Electrons

Phosphorus (P), which has 5 electrons in

its outer shell
Silicon Atom

Silicon Crystal

Boron (B), which has 3 electrons in its

outer shell

10/16/2009

P-N Material
Electron without
bonding
SI

SI

SI

SI

SI

Lens
SI

SI

SI

N-Type

Load

SI

SI
SI

SI

SI

Extra
space for
electron

SI

P-Type

SI

SI

Base

n-type

p-type

Active Solar Cell (PV)

PV cell is built like a diode out of semiconductor
material.
Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of
solar energy.
energy Photons are the energy byproducts of
the nuclear reaction in the sun.
When photons strike a PV cell, some of the
protons energy is absorbed by the semiconductor
material of the PV cell.

Active Solar Cell (PV)

With this extra energy, the electron in the
semiconductor material become excited and
break off its atom, and eventually begin an
electric
l
i current.
Because PV cells are built like diodes, free
electrons are forced to flow in only one
direction
the current is DC.

Main Parts of PV
Glass cover or lens
Antireflective coating

Structure of Solar System

PV cell: 4X4 inches. The cell can produce
about 1 watt which is enough to run a
calculator.

Contacts grid
n-type material
p-type material
Base

10/16/2009

Structure of Solar System

Panel or Module: To increase
its energy rating, the PV cells
are connect together in parallel
and
d series.
i

Structure of Solar System

Array: PV panels connect together in parallel
and series to form a high power system.

Parallel cells increase the

current rating
Series cells increase the
voltage rating.

10/16/2009

Example

Solution
The panel has 9 series cells. Assume that
the voltage of each cell is 0.5 V, the total
voltage of the panel is

V panell 0.5 * 9 4.5 V

The panel has a total of 36 cells, the power
of the panel is

Ppanel 2.5 * 36 90 W
Estimate the maximum power, current, and voltage ratings
of the panel and array in the figure. Assume that each PV
cell produce a maximum power of 2.5 W at the best solar
conditions

Total current of panel

I panel

Ppanel
V panel

Computation of PV Energy

90
20 A
4.5

Density ratio
100%

80%

The array consists of 2 columns of 4 series modules.

The total voltage of the array is

60%

40%

Varray V panel * 4 4.5 * 4 18 V

20%

Total power of the array is

Solar power density

Parray Ppanel * 8 90 *8 720 W

I array

Parray

Varray

0%

(t t o ) 2

max e

720
40 A
18

Computation of PV Energy
Linear relationship
Panel power

Solar power density

( t t o ) 2

(t t o ) 2

max e

Ppanel Pmax e

24

Panel Energy

E panel Pmax e
0

( t t o )
2 2

max e

( t 12 ) 2
12.5

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Time

Pmax 100 W

Compute the daily energy produced by a PV panel.

Solution
2 2 12.5

dt Pmax 2

Example

2 2

12.5
2.5
2

E panel Pmax 2 100 * 2 * 2.5 627

Wh

10/16/2009

Example

Psun * A 685.5* 2 1.371 kW

A 2 m2 panel of solar cells is installed in the Nevadas

area. The efficiency of the solar panel is 10%.

max 1.0 kw / m 2
3.5 h

Ppanell Psun 0.1* 1371 137.1 W

2. Assume the panel is installed on a

geosynchronous satellite. Compute its electrical
power output.

Battery

Converteer

Ppanel Psun 0.1* 2706 270.6 W

Stand Alone
PV System

dc current

Charger
Discharger

Psun o * A 1353* 2 2.706 kW

ac current

Local load

Solar System With Battery

Battery: To store the energy when
the PV power is not fully utilized by
the load.
The battery power is later used when the
PV power is less than the demand.
These batteries are deep cycle types

Charger: To charge the battery by the

PV

PV System
without battery

Solar
array

House

dc currrent

House

2.

ac current

Meter To utility

Converteer

1. Compute the electrical power of the panel.

Solar array

Solution

1.

Local load

Solar System With Battery

Inverter: To invert the dc power of
the battery to the 60Hz power used in
homes.
Synchronizer: Used to connect the
PV system to the power grid.
DC/AC converter.

10/16/2009

Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction

Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction

Vd
Cathode (K)

Cathode (K)

Vs

Vl

I
R

Forward biased
region

n
p

Vd
I

Io

Reverse saturation current

Vd

Anode (A)

Reverse biased
region

PV Model

Ideal PV Model: P-N Junction

Vd
I I o e VT 1

VT

kT
q

Forward
biased
region

Io

Reverse saturation
current

Io: reverse saturation current

Reverse biased
region
VT: thermal voltage
-19
q: elementary charge constant (1.602 10 Coulomb)
k: Boltzmanns constant (1.380 x 10-23 J/K)
T: absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).

Vd

PV Model

Io

The current Io makes the upper terminal of the load

positive with respect to the lower terminal
So the diode has a positive voltage on its anode wrt
cathode.
This is a forward biased voltage which causes a
forward current to flow back into the diode.
Now we have two currents in the circuit at the same time
1. current coming out of the diode due to the acquired
energy by the PV Is
2. current going into the diode due to the positive
polarity across the load Id

PV Characteristics
I Is Id

Solar Cell

Io

Load

Anode (A)

Is

Id

Io

Is

Id

V Vd
V=V

Loaad

Vd
I

Is: the solar current (is a nonlinear variable that changes

with light density (irradiance)
Id: the forward current through the diode.

Vd

I=Is-Id
QII

QI

QIII

QIV

Vd

10/16/2009

PV Power Characteristics
P VI

PV Power Characteristics

Solar Cell

I Is Id

Is

Id

V=Vd

L
Load

V Vd

Isc
Imp
Pmax

Vd

I d I o e VT 1

VVd

P V I Vd I s Vd I o e T 1

Vmp

PV Power Characteristics

Voc

Vd

Short Circuit PV

Main variables
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
Open
O
Circuit
Ci it V
Voltage
lt
(Voc)
Maximum Power Operating Point (Pmax,
Vmp, Imp)

Open Circuit PV
Is

Id=Is

Voc

VVoc

I d I s I o e T 1

Is

Id=0

Isc=Is

I sc I s

Example
An ideal PV cell with reverse saturation
current of 1nA is operating at 30oC. The
solar current at 30oC is 1A. Compute
p
the output voltage and output power of
the PV cell when the load draws 0.5A.

Voc VT * ln s 1
Io

10/16/2009

Solution
k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 273.15)
VT

26.11*10 3 V
q
1.602 *10 19
V

I I s I o e VT 1

0.5 1 10 9 * e 0.02611 1

Example
An ideal solar cell with reverse
saturation current of 1nA is operating at
20oC. The solar current at 20oC is 0.8A.
Compute the voltage and current of the
solar cell at the maximum power point.

V ln 1 0.5*109 1 *VT 0.523 V

P V I 0.523 * 0.5 0.2615

Solution

Solution

P VI

P
I
Vmp
I 0
V
V

I I s Io e

V
VT

I
I
o eV / VT
V
VT
At maximum Power

Vmp Vmp /VT

P
I o e
I s I o 1
0
V
VT

VT

k T 1.38*10 23 * (20 273.15)

25.25 *10 3 V
q
1.602 *10 19

Vmp Vmp / VT I s I o
e
1

Io
VT
V

1 mp eVmp / 25.25 0.8 *10 9

25
.25

Vmp 443.8479 mV

Solution
I mp

I mp

Vmp
I s I o e VT 1

44325.8479

0.8 10 e .25 1 0.7569 A

Pmax Vmp * I mp 443.8479 * 0.7569 335.948 mW

Operating Point of PV
The operating point of the solar cell depends
on the magnitude of the load resistance R
p voltage
g V
The load resistance is the output
divided by the load current I.
The intersection of the PV cell characteristic
with the load line is the operating point of the
PV cell.

10

10/16/2009

Operating Point of PV
I

Solar Cell

R1<R2<R3

R1
1

V=Vd

Id

Load

Is

R2

Loadd lines
l

R3

Voc V

Example

Example

For the solar cell in the previous example, compute

the load resistance at the maximum output power.

An ideal PV cell with a reverse saturation current of 1nA is

operating at 30oC. The solar current at 30oC is 1A. The cell
is connected to a 10 resistive load. Compute the output
power of the cell

Solution
From the previous example

Vmp 443.8479 mV
I mp 0.7569 A

Rmp

Vmp
I mp

443.8479
0.5864
756.9

V I s R I o R e VT 1

V 10 10 8 e 0.0261 1

Iteratively solve for V

Iteratively,

V 0.4722 V
P

V 2 0.4722 2

22.29 mW
R
10

Solution

VT

k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 273.15)

26.1*10 3
q
1.602 *10 19

V
V
I I s I o e VT 1
R

Effect of Irradiance
1<2<3

2
1

Load line

2
1

Voc

11

10/16/2009

Effect of Irradiance
P

1<2<3

Effect of Temperature T
1

T1

T1>T2>T3

2
3

Load line

3
T2
T3

Voc

PV Module (Series
Connection)

Effect of Temperature T
T1

T1>T2>T3

T2
T3

Id1

V1
Load

Is1

Is2

Id2

V=Vd1+Vd2

Load

Is=Is1=Is2

V2

PV Module (Parallel
Connection)
V1

V Vd1=V
V=V
Vd2

Is2

Id2

V2

Is=Is1+Is2

Loa
ad

Id1

Load

Is1

Example
An ideal PV module is composed of 50
solar cells connected in series. At 20oC,
the solar current of each cell is 1A and
the reverse saturation current is 10nA.
Draw the I-V and I-P characteristics of
the module.

12

10/16/2009

Losses of PV Cell

Solution
23

k T 1.38*10 * (20 273.15)

25.25 mV
q
1.602 *10 19

V
I d I o e VT 1 10 8 * e 0.02525 1

Vcell

I cell I s I d 1 10 8 * e 0.02525 1

20
Module Current and Power

VT

Pcell Vcell I cell

Vmod ule n *Vcell
Pmod ule n * Pcell

Irradiance Losses
Electrical Losses

Current

15

Power

10
5
0
0

10

15

20

25

Module Voltage

Losses of PV Cell
(Electrical Losses)

Irradiance Losses
1. Due to the reflection of the solar radiation at
the top of the PV cell.
2. The light has photons with wide range of
energy
gy levels
Some dont have enough energy to excite the
electrons.
Others have too much energy that is hard to
capture by the electrons.

These two scenarios account for the loss of

about 70 percent of the solar energy

The resistances of the collector traces at the

top of the cell.
The resistance of the wires connecting cell to
load.
The resistance of the semiconductor crystal

Real PV Model

Efficiency of PV Cell

To account for the electrical losses only

irradiance

Rs

Solar
Cell

Is

Id

Vd

Ip

Rs : Resistance of wires and traces

Rp : internal resistance of the cell

Load

I
Rp

Sun power converted to electricity Pse Vd * I s

Sun power
Ps
A

P
Output power of the cell
V *I
out
Sun power converted to electricity Pse Vd * I s

irradiance e

Pse Pout Pout V * I

Ps Pse
Ps
A

13

10/16/2009

Solution
Example

k T 1.38*10 23 * (30 273.15)

VT

26.1*10 3 V
q
1.602 *10 19

A 100 cm2 solar cell is operating at 30oC

where the output current is 1A, the load
voltage is 0.4V and the saturation current of
th di
the
diode
d is
i 1
1nA.
A Th
The series
i resistance
i t
off th
the
cell is 10 m and the parallel resistance is
1k. At a give time, the solar power density is
200W/m2. Compute the irradiance efficiency
and the overall efficiency.

Vd V IRs 0.4 1 * 0.01 0.41 V

Vd

0.41

I d I o e VT 1 10 9 * e 0.0261 1 6.64 mA

Ip

Vd
0.41

0.41 mA
R p 1000

I s I I d I p 1 0.00664 0.00041 1.00705 A

irradiance

Vd * I s 0.41 *1.00705

0.205
200 * 0.01
A

Solution

Peloss I 2 Rs I p2 R p 1.0 2 * 0.01 0.41*10 3 *1000 10.168 mW

Assessment of PV Systems
$6.0

Pout
Pout
VI
0.4 *1.0

0.975
Pse
Pout Pe loss VI Pe loss 0.4 *1.0 0.010168

$5.0

$5.0

irradiance e 0.205 * 0.975 0.20

$/kW
Wh

$4.0
$3.0
$2.0
$1.5
$1.0

Conclusion
Most of the losses are irradiance

Solar Power and the

Environment
6kW from a photovoltaic system
instead of a thermal power plant can
reduce annual p
pollution by
y
3 lbs. of NOx (Nitrogen Oxides),
10 lbs. of SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide), and
10530 lbs. of CO2 (Carbon Dioxide).

$0.0
1970

$0.6

1980

1990

$0.4
2000

$0.3
2010

Year

Assessment of PV Systems
Consumer products (calculators, watches,
battery chargers, light controls, and flashlights)
are the most common applications
Larger PV systems are extensively used in
space applications (such as satellites)
In higher power applications, three factors
determine the applicability of the PV systems
1. the cost and the payback period of the system
2. the accessibility to a power grid
3. the individual inclination to invest in environmentally
friendly technologies.

14

10/16/2009

Assessment of PV Systems
In remote areas without access to power
grids, the PV system is often the first choice
among the available alternatives.
By the end of the 20th century,
century the PV
systems worldwide had the capacity of more
than 900 GWh annually
this PV energy is enough for about 70,000 homes
in the USA, or about 4 million homes in developing
countries.

Assessment of PV Systems
To manufacture the solar cells, arsenic and
silicon compounds are used
Arsenic is odorless and flavorless semi-metallic
chemical that is highly toxic
Silicon, byy itself, is not toxic. However, when additives
are added to make the PV semiconductor material, the
compound can be extremely toxic.
Since water is used in the manufacturing process, the
runoff could cause these material to reach local
streams
Should a PV array catch fire, these chemicals can be
released into the environment.

Assessment of PV Systems
Solar power density can be intermittent due to
weather conditions
PVs are limited exclusively to daytime use
For high power PV systems, the arrays spread
over a large area.
The PV systems are considered by some to be
visually intrusive
The efficiency of the solar panel is still low, making
the system expensive and large
Solar systems require continuous cleaning of their
surfaces

15