CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Construction of highway involves huge outlay of investment. A precise engineering
design may save considerable investment as well a reliable performance of the in-service
highway can be achieved. Two things are of major considerations in flexible pavement
engineeringpavement design and the mix design. The present study is related to the mix design
considerations.
A good design of bituminous mix is expected to result in a mix which is adequately (i)
strong (ii) durable (iii) resistive to fatigue and permanent deformation (iv) environment friendly
(v) economical and so on. A mix designer tries to achieve these requirements through a number
of tests on the mix with varied proportions and finalizes with the best one.
1.2 BITUMINOUS MIX DESIGN
1.2.1 Objective of Bituminous mix design:Asphaltic/Bituminous concrete consists of a mixture of aggregates continuously graded
from maximum size , typically less than 25 mm, through the fine filler that is smaller than 0.075
mm. Sufficient bitumen is added to the mix so that the compacted mix is effectively impervious
and will have acceptable dissipative and elastic properties.
The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler, fine
aggregates, and coarse aggregates to produce a mix which is workable, strong, durable and
economical. The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportioning
various components so as to have1. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement
2. Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher temperature
3. Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional compaction by traffic
4. Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation
5. Sufficient resistance to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by traffic
6. Sufficient resistance at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks
1

1.2.2 Requirements of Bituminous mixes:1.2.2.1 Stability

Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load.
Two examples of failure are (i) shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas
subjected to severe acceleration and (ii) grooving - longitudinal ridging due to channelization of
traffic. Stability depends on the inter-particle friction, primarily of the aggregates and the
cohesion offered by the bitumen. Sufficient binder must be available to coat all the particles at
the same time should offer enough liquid friction. However, the stability decreases when the
binder content is high and when the particles are kept apart.
1.2.2.2 Durability
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions.
Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel
loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of failure are (i) pot-holes, - deterioration of
pavements locally and (ii) stripping, loss of binder from the aggregates and aggregates are
exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content since they cause the mix to be air
and waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.
1.2.2.3 Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load
and prevent cracking of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline-cracks,
alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and brittleness of the binder. Shrinkage cracks are
due to volume change in the binder due to aging. Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the
surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will give better flexibility and less fracture.
1.2.2.4 Skid resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the
surface texture and bitumen content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic. Normally, an
open graded coarse surface texture is desirable.
1.2.2.5 Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the
required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and
2

texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky, and elongated aggregates decrease
workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates improve workability.
1.2.2.6 Desirable properties
From the above discussion, the desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be
summarized as follows:

Stability to meet traffic demand

Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season
Sufficient workability for construction
Economical mix
1.2.3 Constituents of a mix

Coarse aggregates: offer compressive and shear strength and shows good interlocking
properties. E.g. Granite
Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder. E.g. Sand,
Rock dust
Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock dust, cement,
lime, fly ash
Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers impermeability. e.g.
Bitumen, Asphalt, Tar

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 GENERAL
Pavement consists of more than one layer of different material supported by a layer called
subgrade. Generally pavement is two type flexible pavement and rigid pavement. Flexible
pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under loading.
A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material. Each
layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out then passes on these loads to the
next layer below. Typical flexible pavement structure consisting of:

Surface course. This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic. It
may be composed of one or several different HMA sub layers. HMA is a mixture of

coarse and fine aggregates and asphalt binder

Base course. This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and generally consists of

aggregate (either stabilized or un-stabilized).

Sub-base course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A sub-base is not
always needed.
2.2

CLASSIFICATION OF ROAD SYSTEM

In India, the classification is based on location and function of the road. This is for the
purpose of transport planning, functional identification, earmarking administrative jurisdictions
and assigning on a road network viz; the roads are classified into three classes by Third Road
Development Plan 1981-2001. They are:
1. Primary System
a. Expressways
b. National Highways
2. Secondary System
a. State Highways
4

b. Major District Roads

3. Tertiary System
a. Other District Roads
b. Village Roads
Definitions for each road system are given below:
i. Expressways: Expressways are separate class of Highways with superior facilities and design
standards and are meant as through routes having very high volume of traffic. These Highways
should permit only fast moving vehicles. Expressways may be owned by the Central
Government or a State Government.
ii. National highways: National Highways are the main Highways running through the length and
breadth of the Indian Union, connecting ports, foreign Highways and capitals of states and
including roads of strategic and military value. The National Highways have to be declared as
such by the Central Government by notification in the official Gazette.
iii. State highways: State Highways are the other main trunk or arterial roads of State, connecting up
with the National headquarters and important cities within state. The State Highways are the
main arteries of traffic within a state. They are to be of the same standards as National Highways.
iv. The major district roads: They are roads connecting District Headquarters, Taluk Headquarters
and other important town in the District production and market centers with each other and with
State & National Highways & Railways.
v. Other district roads: They are District roads of less importance.
vi. Village roads: Village roads are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other
and to nearest District roads, National or State Highways or Railways or Navigational routes.
They are in essence roads from the villages to a market or to a main route. In India, the O.D.Rs.
and Village Roads are considered together as Rural Road.
5

2.3 PAVEMENT DESIGN

Pavement design has been defined as the process of developing the most economical
combination of pavement layers to suit the soil foundation and the cumulative traffic to be
carried during the design life. Highway pavements have been historically divided into two
categories - Flexible, Rigid, Rigid Composite.
2.3.1 COMPONENTS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
A flexible pavement in general consists of a relatively thin wearing surface built over a base
course resting on the subgrade (compacted or natural) as illustrated below:

Fig 2.1 Components of Flexible Pavement

2.3.2 FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN OF PAVEMENT

The design of pavement mainly consists of two aspects namely;
1. Mix design of materials to be used in each pavement component layer
2. Thickness design of the pavement and the component layers
2.4 BITUMINOUS MIX DESIGN
Bituminous mix design is a delicate balancing act among the proportions of various
aggregate sizes and bitumen content. The mix design should aim at an economical blend, with
proper gradation of aggregates and adequate proportion of bitumen so as to fill the desired
properties of the mix
A good design of bituminous mix is expected to result in a mix which shows adequate

i.

Stability: The resistance of the paving mix to deformation under load. Stability is a function of
density which in turn depends on the voids in the compacted mixture.

ii.

Durability: The resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive action

iii.

Flexibility: It measures the mix level bending strength

iv.

Skid resistance: The resistance of the finished pavement against skidding. Its a function of
Surface texture and bitumen content

v.

Workability: Ease with which the mix cab be laid and compacted

vi.

The most economical one

vii.

Environment friendly
2.4.1

SELECTION OF BINDER (BITUMEN)

Appropriate Grade of bitumen is selected based on climatic and traffic conditions. The

commonly used grade of ordinary bitumen in Kerala is 60/70 (penetration grade). Therefore
60/70 grade bitumen is selected for present study.
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general,
Bitumen should possess following desirable properties.

Bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix should
not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle
causing cracks.

Viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can be
achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and
aggregates prior to mixing.

Should have adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.

IRC recommends certain specifications for bitumen to be used and it is listed in Table 2.1

Sl No.

Name of
experiment

1
2

4
5

Specific gravity @
27C
Softening
point(R&B),C
minimum
Penetration test @
25c,0.1mm,100g,
5 sec
Ductility
test
@27C,min
Flash & fire point
test
Flash point
Fire point

Standard

Test procedure

specification

as per

.99-1.02

specification
IS:1202-1978

40-55C

IS:1205-1978

60-70

IS:1203-1978

75+

IS:1208-1978

Fire point
>200C

IS 1209

Elastic Recovery
IRC -53
10-12%
test
Table 2.1IRC Recommendations for Bitumen

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The
following tests are generally conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous materials.

2.4.2

TEST ON BITUMEN
Bitumen field tests include penetration test, ductility test and softening point test. For

classifying bitumen and studying the performance of bituminous pavements, the penetration and
ductility tests are essential. The softening point test is more important to guide the paving
technologists during field operation. In recent years, it has been recognized that the above tests
are not sufficient to determine the temperature, susceptibility of the bituminous materials. The
bitumen from different sources possessing same penetration value at a specified temperature may
exhibit entirely different viscous characteristics at the application or service temperatures.

2.4.2.1 TEST ON AGGREGATES

8

The following tests on aggregates were conducted sieve analysis, shape test, impact test,
specific gravity and water absorption test. Sieve analysis is the operation of dividing a sample of
aggregate in to various fractions each consisting of particles of the same size. It is conducted to
determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate which is called gradation. Shape
test is conducted to find out the flakiness and elongation index. The impact test evaluates the
toughness of stone or the resistance of the aggregates to fracture under repeated impacts. Specific
gravity of aggregate is a measure of the quality or strength of the material.

2.4.2.2 AGGREGATE GRADATION

The properties of the bituminous mix including the density and stability are very much
dependent on the aggregates and their grain size distribution. Gradation has a profound effect on
mix performance. It might be reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that produces
maximum density. This would involve a particle arrangement where smaller particles are packed
between larger particles, thus reducing the void space between particles. This creates more
particles-to -particle contact, which in bituminous pavements would increase stability and reduce
water infiltration. However, some minimum amount of void space is necessary to:

provide adequate volume for the binder to occupy

promote rapid drainage, and

Provide resistance to frost action base and sub base courses.

IRC provides Grading required for different thickness and its listed below table 2.2

Mix designation
Nominal Aggregate size
Layer thickness

Grading 1
40 mm
80-100 mm

Grading 2
19 mm
50-75 mm

IS sieve mm

Cumulative % by weight of total aggregate passing

45

100
9

37.5
26.5
19
13.2
4.75
2.36
0.3
0.075

90-100
75-100
35-61
13-22
4 - 19
2 -10
0-8

100
90-100
56-88
16-36
4- 19
2- 10
0-8

Bitumen Content, % by

3.1-3.4
3.3-3.5
weight of total mixture
Bitumen Grade
35 to 90
35 90
Table2.2IRC Recommendation for Grading required for different thickness

10

11

2.4.3

MARSHALL STABILITY TEST

Stability test is used for designing the bituminous mix design which was formulated by

Bruce Marshall. Two major features of the Marshall method of designing mixes are density void
analysis and stability flow test. The stability of the mix is the maximum load carried by a
compacted specimen at a standard test temperature of 60C.The flow is the deformations in units
of 0.25mm between no load and maximum load carried by the specimen during stability test.
Main aim of the stability test is to determine the optimum binder content for the aggregate mix
type and traffic intensity.
The apparatus used for stability test are cylindrical mould, 10.16cm diameter and 6.35cm height
with base plate and collar, compaction pedestal and hammer of 4.54 kg weight with 45.7 cm
height of fall to compact the specimen, a breaking head to test the specimen by applying a load
on its periphery in a loading machine, and dial gauge fixed to the guide rods of the testing
machine to measure deformation.
Approximately 1200 gm. of proportioned aggregate and filler taken are heated to a
temperature of 175-190C.A trial percentage of bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121-145C
is added to the heated aggregate and thoroughly mixed to form the final mix at the desired
temperature of 154-160C.The prepared mix is placed in the mould and compacted by a rammer
with 75 blows on either side at a temperature of 138-149C.3 or 4 specimens were prepared
using each trial percentage. Specimens were removed from the mould using specimen extractor
after cooling at room temperature. The diameter and mean height of the specimen are measured.
Specimen taken from the water bath at 601C for 30 to 40 minutes are placed in the Marshall
Test head and tested to determine the Marshall Stability value and flow value. Corrected
Marshall Stability for each specimen is determined by applying appropriate correction factor.
The above procedure is repeated on specimen prepared with other values if bitumen content.

12

TEST SPECIMEN

Fig.2.2 Marshall Testing Apparatus

2.5 ASPHALT CONCRETE OR (BITUMINIOUS MIXTURE)
Asphalt concrete is a composite material commonly used in construction projects such as
road surfaces, airports and parking lots. It consists of asphalt (used as a binder) and mineral
aggregate mixed together, then are laid down in layers and compacted. Mixing of asphalt and
aggregate is accomplished in one of several ways:
2.5.1 Hot mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as HMAC or HMA) is produced by
heating the asphalt binder to decrease its viscosity, and drying the aggregate to remove moisture
from it prior to mixing. Mixing is generally performed with the aggregate at about 300 F
(roughly 150 C) for virgin asphalt and 330 F (166 C) for polymer modified asphalt, and the
asphalt cement at 200 F (95 C). Paving and compaction must be performed while the asphalt is

13

sufficiently hot. In many countries paving is restricted to summer months because in winter the
compacted base will cool the asphalt too much before it is packed to the optimal air content.
HMAC is the form of asphalt concrete most commonly used on highly trafficked
pavements such as those on major highways, racetracks and airfields.
2.5.2 Warm mix asphalt Concrete (commonly abbreviated as WMA) is produced by adding
zeolites waxes, asphalt emulsions, or sometimes even water to the asphalt binder prior to mixing.
This allows significantly lower mixing and laying temperatures and results in lower consumption
of fossil fuels, thus releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols and vapors. Not only are working
conditions improved, but the lower laying-temperature also leads to more rapid availability of the
surface for use, which is important for construction sites with critical time schedules. The usage
of these additives in hot mixed asphalt (above) may afford easier compaction and allow cold
weather paving or longer hauls.
2.5.3 Cold mix asphalt concrete is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with
(essentially) soap prior to mixing with the aggregate. While in its emulsified state the asphalt is
less viscous and the mixture is easy to work and compact. The emulsion will break after enough
water evaporates and the cold mix will, ideally, take on the properties of cold HMAC. Cold mix
is commonly used as a patching material and on lesser trafficked service roads.
2.5.4 Cut-back asphalt concrete is produced by dissolving the binder in kerosene or another
lighter fraction of petroleum prior to mixing with the aggregate. While in its dissolved state the
asphalt is less viscous and the mix is easy to work and compact. After the mix is laid down the
lighter fraction evaporates. Because of concerns with pollution from the volatile organic
compounds in the lighter fraction, cut-back asphalt has been largely replaced by asphalt
emulsion.
2.5.5 Mastic asphalt concrete or sheet asphalt is produced by heating hard grade blown bitumen
(oxidation) in a green cooker (mixer) until it has become a viscous liquid after which the
aggregate mix is then added. Then bitumen aggregate mixture is cooked (matured) for around 68 hours and once it is ready the mastic asphalt mixer is transported to the work site where
14

experienced layers empty the mixer and either machine or hand lay the mastic asphalt contents
on to the road. Mastic asphalt concrete is generally laid to a thickness of around 341 316
inches (20-30 mm) for footpath and road applications and around 38 of an inch (10 mm) for
flooring or roof applications. In addition to the asphalt and aggregate, additives, such as
polymers, and anti-stripping agents may be added to improve the properties of the final product.
2.5.6 Natural asphalt concrete can be produced from bituminous rock, found in some parts of
the world, where porous sedimentary rock near the surface has been impregnated with upwelling
bitumen.
2.6 HOT MIX ASPHALT
HMA is a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates and asphalt binder. HMA, as the name
suggests, is mixed, placed and compacted at higher temperature.HMA is typically applied in
layers, with the lower layers supporting the top layer. They are Dense Graded Mixes (DGM),
Stone Matrix asphalt (SMA) and various Open graded HMA.
2.6.1 Dense-Graded Mixes
This type of bituminous concrete is a well-graded HMA has good proportion of all
constituents are also called Dense bituminous macadam. When properly designed and
constructed, a dense graded mix is relatively impermeable. Dense-graded mixes are generally
referred to by their nominal maximum aggregate size and can further be classified as either finegraded or coarse graded.
Fine-graded mixes have more fine and sand sized particles than coarse-graded mixes. It is
Suitable for all pavement layers and for all traffic conditions. It offers good compressive
strength. Materials used are Well-graded aggregate, asphalt binder (with or without modifiers)

15

Fig. 2.3Dense graded HMA surface

Fig.2.4Dense-Graded Core sample

2.6.2 Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA)
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA), sometimes called stone mastic asphalt, is a gap-graded
HMA originally developed in Europe to maximize rutting resistance and durability in heavy
traffic road. SMA has a high coarse aggregate content that interlocks to form a stone skeleton
that resists permanent deformation.
The stone skeleton is filled with mastic of bitumen and filler to which fibres are added to
provide adequate stability of bitumen and to prevent drainage of binder during transport and
placement. Typical SMA composition consists of 7080% coarse aggregate, 812% filler,
6.07.0% binder, and 0.3 per cent fibre. The deformation resistant capacity of SMA stems from a
coarse stone skeleton providing more stone-on-stone contact than with conventional dense
graded asphalt (DGA) mixes. Improved binder durability is a result of higher bitumen content, a
16

thicker bitumen film, and lower air voids content. This high bitumen content also improves
flexibility. Addition of a small quantity of cellulose or mineral fibre prevents drainage of bitumen
during transport and placement. There are no precise design guidelines for SMA mixes.
The essential features, which are the coarse aggregate skeleton and mastic composition,
and the consequent surface texture and mixture stability, are largely determined by the selection
of aggregate grading and the type and proportion of filler and binder. SMA improved rut
resistance and durability. It has good fatigue and tensile strength. SMA is almost exclusively
used for surface courses on high volume roads. Materials used for SMA are Gap graded
aggregate, modified asphalt binder, fiber filler. Other SMA benefits include wet weather friction
(due to a coarser surface texture), lower tire noise (due to a coarser surface texture) and less
severe reflective cracking. Mineral fillers and additives are used to minimize asphalt binder
drain-down during construction, increase the amount of asphalt binder used in the mix and to
improve mix durability.

Fig.2.5 SMA Surface

Fig.2.6 SMA Lab Sample

17

2.6.3 Open-Graded Mixes

Unlike dense-graded mixes and SMA, an open-graded HMA mixture is designed to be
water-permeable. Open-graded mixes use only crushed stone (or gravel) and a small percentage
of manufactured sands. The two most typical open-graded mixes are:
Open-graded friction course (OGFC). Typically 15 per cent air voids and no maximum air
voids specified.
Asphalt treated permeable bases (ATPB). Less stringent specifications than OGFC since it is
used only under dense-graded HMA, SMA or Portland cement concrete for drainage. OGFC
Used for surface courses only. They reduce tire splash/spray in wet weather and typically result
in smoother surfaces than dense-graded HMA. Their high air voids reduce tire road noise by up
to 50%.
2.6.4PROPERTIES OF HOT MIX ASPHALT (HMA)
The bituminous mixture should possess following properties
Resistance to Permanent Deformation
Resistance to Fatigue and Reflective Cracking
Resistance to Low Temperature (Thermal) Cracking
Durability.
Resistance to Moisture Damage (Stripping)
Workability.
Skid Resistance

2.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIAL USED IN BITUMINOUS MIX

2.7.1 Mineral Aggregate:There are various types of mineral aggregates which can be used in bituminous mixes.
The aggregates used to manufacture bituminous mixes can be obtained from different natural
sources such as glacial deposits or mines. These are termed as natural aggregates and can be used
with or without further processing. The aggregates can be further processed and finished to
achieve good performance characteristics. Industrial by products such as steel slag, blast furnace
slag etc. sometimes used as a component along with other aggregates to enhance the
18

performance characteristics of the mix. Reclaimed bituminous pavement is also an important

source of aggregate for bituminous mixes.
Aggregates play a very important role in providing strength to asphalt mixtures as they
contribute a greater part in the matrix. SMA contains 70-80 per cent coarse aggregate of the total
Stone content. The higher proportion of the coarse aggregate in the mixture forms a skeleton type
structure providing a better stone-on-stone contact between the coarse aggregate particles
resulting in good shear strength and high resistance to rutting as compare to BC. The aggregates
must possess

A highly cubic shape and rough texture to resist rutting and movements,
A hardness which can resist fracturing under heavy traffic loads,
A high resistance to polishing, and
A high resistance to abrasion.

2.7.2 Mineral filler

Mineral fillers have a significant impact on the properties of HMA mixtures. Mineral
fillers increase the stiffness of the asphalt mortar matrix. Mineral fillers also affect workability,
moisture resistance, and aging characteristics of HMA mixtures. Generally filler plays an
important role in properties of bituminous mixture particularly in terms of air voids, voids in
mineral aggregate. Different types of mineral fillers are used in the HMA mixes such as stone
dust, ordinary Portland cement (OPC), slag cement, fly Ash, hydrated lime etc.
2.7.3 Binder
Bitumen acts as a binding agent to the aggregates, fines and stabilizers in bituminous mixtures.
Binder provides durability to the mix. The characteristics of bitumen which affects the
bituminous mixture behavior are temperature susceptibility, visco-elasticity and aging. The
behavior of bitumen depends on temperature as well as on the time of loading. It is stiffer at
lower temperature and under shorter loading period. Bitumen must be treated as a visco-elastic
material as it exhibits both viscous as well as elastic properties at the normal pavement
temperature. Though at low temperature it behaves like an elastic material and at high
temperatures its behavior is like a viscous fluid. Bitumen along with different additives (fifers,
polymers etc.) acts as a stabilizer for the bituminous mix. Polymer modified bitumen can also be
used as a stabilizer with or without additives in the mixture.
19

2.7.4 Stabilising Additives:Stabilising additives are used in the mixture to prevent mortar drain-down and to provide
better binding. Fibres commonly used now-a days are polypropylene, polyester, mineral and
cellulose.
The main stabilising additives used in mixes can be classified in to different groups;

Fibres (Cellulose Fibres, Mineral Fibres, Chemical Fibres)

Polymer
Powder and flour like materials (Silicic acid, Special Filler)
Plastics (Polymer Powders or Pellets)

Natural fibre:-Natural fibre classified into 3 categories depending upon the part of plant from
where it is extracted
- Stem fibre (jute, banana etc.)
- Leaf fibre (sisal, pineapple)
- Fruit fibre (cotton, coir, oil palm)
2.8COIR FIBRE

Fig 2.7 Coir fibre

Coir or coconut fibre belongs to the group of hard structural fibres. It is an important
commercial product obtained from the husk of the coconut. Industries based on coir have
developed in many coconut producing countries especially India, Tanzania, Kenya, Bangladesh,
Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Ghana etc. In India, coir manufacture is a traditional
industry, which has taken deep roots in the economic structure of the rural areas in the coastal
states. The industry sustains over half a million people and contributes substantial foreign
20

exchange to the national exchequer. India was ranked first among the coconut producing
countries of the world until 1921, since then, the position has changed. Indonesia and Philippines
have increased their production and India now occupies a third place. These three countries
together account nearly 65 per cent of the world production (4.5 m mt) out of which Indias share
is about 25 per cent.
2.8.1ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES
In the case of coir coated aggregate mix a specific percentage of bitumen is replaced by
coir. In most areas of our country the coir is having no scrap value. Hence it is a freely available
raw material. The replacement of each ton of bitumen saves Rs.28000/-.In addition, if we are
considering the durability aspect; a fair amount of money can be saved for the maintenance
works of coir mixed bitumen roads. The major challenge in the field of polymer road is the
collection and cutting of coir. So it is obvious that this method is providing new employment
opportunities in the above mentioned fields.

21

CHAPTER 3
ADDITION OF COIR IN BITUMINOUS MIX
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Usage of coir in roads can be done in two different methods the dry process and the wet
process. It can be a complete success only if the roads are satisfying its intended purpose. For
that, a detailed study on the quality aspect of coir roads was made, and the description of the two
processes is given below.
3.2 THE WET PROCESS
In this method, the coir is used directly in to the bitumen to form the Coir Modified
Bitumen (CMB). The procedure adopted is the following: coir are cut into pieces using shredding
machine. It is sieved and the coir -pieces passing through 4.75 mm sieve and retaining at 2.36
mm sieve is collected. These are then added slowly to the hot bitumen whose temperature is
around I70-180C and the mixture is stirred well using mechanical stirrer for about 20-30
minutes to form the CMB.
3.2.1 LIMITATIONS OF WET PROCESS:
1

The preparation of such modified bitumen needs high power stirrer with thermostatic facilities to
maintain the temperature between 160-180C. Any increase in the temperature could affect the
properties of bitumen.

The proper storage of such coir -blended bitumen is very important. It should be stored in a
freezer and it is also referred that it is stable for 6 hrs at a temperature of 180C.

The preparation requires industrial participation.

Its cost is also more.

Use of higher percentage will be difficult as the phase separation will be unavoidable. These
limitations necessitated developing an alternate method for using higher Percentage of coir for
flexible pavement.
22

3.3 DRY PROCESS

This method, involves collecting coir and putting them through a simple dry tumbling
machine to shake off the dirt. They are cut into pieces using shredding machine. It is
sieved and the coir -pieces passing through 4.75 mm sieve and retaining at 2.36 mm sieve
are collected. These are then added slowly to the heated aggregate nearly 175C. This has
enabled to give a uniform coating of coir over the aggregates. To these hot plastics coated aggregates, the heated bitumen was added. A uniform mix obtained. This was used
for road construction.
3.3.1 ADVANTAGES
It is easy to incorporate coir in bituminous mix.
It does not involve any extra machinery.
It does not increase the cost of construction.
It helps to reduce consumption of bitumen effecting overall cost reduction.
It enables to prepare the bituminous mix in normal course without any urge or

need to avoid rapid cooling.

It is pollution free and no gas is evolved.
It enables to have a good control over the uniform distribution of waste plastic.

23

CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
4.1 DESIGN OF BITUMINOUS MIX
4.1.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the experimental works carried out in this present investigation.
This chapter is divided into two parts. First part deals with the experiments carried out on the
materials (aggregates, filler, bitumen, and fibre), second part deals with the tests carried outon
bituminous mixes.
The following steps are required for a mix design:
STEP 1:

Selection of Mix Constituents

A. Binder: Generally binders are selected based on some simple tests and
other site-specific requirements. They are:
i.

Penetration test

ii.

Ductility test

iii.

Softening point test

iv.

Determination of specific gravity of Bitumen

B. Aggregate: Number of tests are recommended by IRC (Section 500: Table

500-3) in the specifications to judge the properties of the Aggregates. They
are:
i.

Flakiness and Elongation Index

ii.

Aggregate Impact Value

iii.

Water Absorption

iv.

Determination of specific gravity of aggregates

C. Filler: Mineral filler is largely visualised as a void filling agent .Filler

shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, hydrated
lime or cement. In the present study cement was used as the filler.
24

STEP 2:

Aggregate Gradation

STEP 3:

Proportioning of Aggregates

STEP 4:

Preparation of Specimen

STEP 5:

Determination of Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimen

STEP 6:

Stability tests on compacted Specimens

STEP 7:

Selection of Optimum Bitumen Content

4.1.2 SELECTION OF MIX CONSTITUENTS

4.1.2.1 Testing of aggregates
For preparation of Bituminous mixes (BC) aggregates as per MORTH grading as given in
Table 4.1, a particular type of binder and fibre in required quantities were mixes as per Marshall
Procedure.

Sieve Size (mm)

Percentage passing

26.5

100

19

95

9.5

70

4.75

50

2.36

35

0.30

12

.075

Table 4.1 Adopted aggregate Gradation for BC (MORTH)

(a) GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

AIM:
To determine the particle size distribution of aggregates

25

APPARATUS:

A balance it shall be such that it is readable and accurate to 0.1% of the wt of the test
sample.

Sieve-26.5mm, 20mm, 13.2mm, 9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600micron, 300

micron, 150micron, 75micron.

PROCEDURE:

Take 1.5 kg air dry sample of 20mm and 9.5mm nominal size and sieve successively on
the appropriate sieve starting with the largest. Care shall be taken to ensure those sieves
are cleaned before use.

For mechanical sieve shaker arrange the set of sieves in the order of their aperture sizes.

Weigh the aggregate retained in each sieve for the two nominal sizes.

After finding cumulative weight retained, the percentage cumulative weight retained was
calculated for the given size ranges.

Finally the percentage weight passing was calculated.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sample I: Nominal Size- 20mm down Aggregates
Total weight= 5.000kg
Passing
through
Sieve (mm)
Mm
26.5
19
13.2
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.6
0.3

IS

Weight

Percentage

Cumulative

Cumulative

retained

Retained

% Retained

% Finer

KG
0.1195
2.3950
2.4450
0.0350
0.0020
0.0002
0.0002
0.0001
0.0004

%
2.39
47.90
48.90
0.70
0.04
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01

%
2.39
50.29
99.19
99.89
99.93
99.93
99.94
99.94
99.95

%
97.61
49.71
0.81
0.11
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.05
26

0.15
0.075
PAN

0.0010
0.02
99.97
0.0010
0.02
99.99
0.0012
0.02
100.01
Table 4.2Sieve analysis of 20mm aggregate

0.03
0.01
-0.01

Fig 4.1 Sieve analysis graph of 20mm aggregate

Sample 2: Nominal Size- 12mm down Aggregates

Total weight= 3.000kg
Passing through IS Weight

Percentage

Cumulative

Cumulative

Sieve (mm)
Mm
26.5
19
13.2
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18

Retained
%
0.00
0.00
13.83
62.87
22.97
0.02
0.01

% Retained
%
0.00
0.00
13.83
76.70
99.67
99.69
99.70

% Finer
%
100.00
100.00
86.17
23.30
0.33
0.31
0.30

retained
KG
0.0000
0.0000
0.4150
1.8860
0.6890
0.0005
0.0003

27

0.6
0.3
0.15
0.075
PAN

0.0003
0.01
99.71
0.0006
0.02
99.73
0.0002
0.01
99.74
0.0020
0.07
99.81
0.0058
0.19
100.00
Table 4.3Sieve analysis of 12mm aggregate

0.29
0.27
0.26
0.19
0.00

Fig
4.2
Sieve

analysis graph of 12mm aggregate

Sample 3: Nominal Size- 6mm down Aggregates
Total weight= 3.000kg

Passing through IS
Sieve (mm)

Weight retained

Percentage

Cumulative % Cumulative %

Retained

Retained

Finer

Mm

KG

26.5

0.0000

0.0000

0.00

100.00

19

0.0000

0.0000

0.00

100.00

13.2

0.0000

0.0000

0.00

100.00

9.5

0.0790

2.6300

2.63

97.37

4.75

1.7140

57.130

59.76

40.24

2.36

1.1490

38.300

98.06

1.94

1.18

0.0224

0.7500

98.81

1.19
28

0.6

0.0005

0.0200

98.83

1.17

0.3

0.0005

0.0200

98.85

1.15

0.15
0.075
PAN

0.0000
0.0000
98.85
0.0012
0.0400
98.89
0.0079
0.2600
99.15
Table 4.4Sieve analysis of 6mm aggregate

1.15
1.11
0.85

Fig 4.3 Sieve analysis graph of 6mm aggregate

Sample 4: Sample dust
Total weight= 1.000kg
Passing

through

Sieve (mm)
Mm
26.5
19
13.2
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.6
0.3
0.15

IS Weight
retained
KG
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0004
0.1450
0.2930
0.1590
0.2000
0.0171

Percentage

Cumulative

Cumulative

Retained
%
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
15.000
29.000
16.000
20.000
2.0000

% Retained
%
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.0
44.0
60.0
80.0
82.0

% Finer
%
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
85.00
56.00
40.00
20.00
18.00
29

0.075
PAN

0.0570
6.0000
88.0
0.0350
4.0000
92.00
Table 4.5Sieve analysis of sample dust

12.00
8.000

Fig 4.4 Sieve analysis graph of sample dust

Sample 5: Mineral filler (cement)
Total weight= 1.000kg
Passing through IS Weight
Sieve (mm)
Mm
26.5
19
13.2
9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.6
0.3
0.15
0.075
PAN

Percentage

Cumulative

retained
Retained
% Retained
KG
%
%
0.0000
0.0000
0.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.00
0.0005
0.0500
0.05
0.0001
0.0100
0.06
0.0039
0.3900
0.45
0.0171
1.7100
2.16
0.6157
61.5700
63.73
0.3539
35.3900
99.12
Table 4.6sieve analysis of cement

Cumulative
% Finer
%
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
99.95
99.94
99.55
97.84
36.27
0.88
30

Fig 4.5sieve analysis graph of cement

Fig 4.6combined sieve analysis graph

31

(b) AGGREGATE IMPACT TEST

OBJECTIVES
To assess the resistance of an aggregate to mechanical degradation by the Aggregate Impact Test.
BACKGROUND
When a road aggregate has been manufactured to a specified grading it is stockpiled, loaded into
trucks, transported, tipped, spread and compacted. If the aggregate is weak, some degradation
may take place and result in a change in grading and/or the production of excessive and
undesirable fines. Thus, an aggregate complying with a specification at the quarry may fail to do
so when it is in the pavement.
Granular base layers and surfacing is subjected to repeated loadings from truck tyres and the
stress at the contact points of aggregate particles can be quite high. These crushing tests can
reveal aggregate properties subject to mechanical degradation of this form.
PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus consists of a steel test mould with a falling hammer as shown in Figure. The
hammer slides freely between vertical guides so arranged that the lower part of the hammer is
above and concentric with the mould.
2. The material used is aggregate passing a 12.70 mm sieve and retained on a9.52 mm sieve. It
shall be clean and dry (washed if necessary) but it must not be dried for longer than 4 hours nor
at a temperature higher than 110 degree Celsius may otherwise certain aggregates be damaged.
3. The whole of the test sample (mass A) is placed in the steel mould and compacted by a single
tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
4. The test sample is subjected to 15 blows of the hammer dropping 381 mm, each being
delivered at an interval not less than one second.
5. The crushed aggregate is sieved over a 2.36 mm sieve. The fraction passing2.36 mm is
weighed to the nearest 0.1 g (mass B). The fraction retained on the sieve is also weighed (mass
C). If {A-(B+C)}>1 gram, the result shall be discarded and a fresh test made. The aggregate
impact value (AIV) is
32

AIV = (B/A) x 100 %

Fig 4.7 Apparatus for the aggregate impact test (Millard, 1993)

OBSERVATIONS
wt.
wt.
wt.
wt.

of
of
of
of

container + aggregate in g=
container in g =
aggregate in g W1 =
contain + agg retained in 2.36mm

sampl sampl sampl

e1
e2
e3
1089. 1098.
1096.
8
5
3
742.6 742.6
742.6
347.2 355.9
353.7
1004. 1015.
1008.
33

sieve (g) =
wt. of aggregate passing 2.36mm sieve
in g W2 =
Aggregate impact value ( W2 / W1) X
100 =
MEAN AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
(%)

85.7
24.68
%

83.4
23.43
%

87.4
24.70
%

24.27

Table 4.8Aggregate Impact value

(c ) AGGREGATE CRUSHING TEST

PROCEDURE:
1. The apparatus (Figure) consists of a case hardened steel cylinder 154 mm diameter and 125
mm high together with a plunger which just fits inside the cylinder and a base plate. Other items
are a steel tamping bar 16 mm diameter by 450-600 mm long and a metal measuring cylinder
115 mm diameter by 180 mm deep. Also required is a compression testing machine capable of
applying a force of up to 500 kN and which can be operated to give a uniform rate of loading so
that this force is reached in 10 minutes.
2. The material used is aggregate passing a 12.70 mm sieve and retained on a 9.52 mm sieve. It
shall be clean and dry (washed if necessary) but it must not be dried for longer than 4 hours nor
at temperature higher than 110 degree Celsius otherwise certain aggregates may be damaged.
3. The required volume is obtained by filling the measuring cylinder in three layers, each tamped
25 times with the rod and the top struck level. This volume is then weighed to the nearest 0.1g
(mass A).

34

Fig 4.8Apparatus for the 10% fines test and aggregate crushing test (Millard, 1993)
4. The material from the measuring cylinder is placed in the test cylinder in three layers, each
tamped 25 times with the rod. The depth of the sample will then be about 100 mm. The plunger
is lowered onto the sample and rotated gently to seat it and level it.
5. The cylinder, plunger and sample are placed in the compression test machine. It is loaded at a
uniform rate so that a force of 400 kN is reached in 10minutes. The load is then released. The
percentage fines is then determined as before. The material passing 2.36mm is weighed (mass B)
and expressed as a percentage of the original mass(mass A) to give the aggregate crushing value
(ACV).
ACV = (B/A) x 100%
Property
Test method
Test result
Aggregate impact
IS: 2386 (P IV)
24.27
value
Aggregate crushing
IS: 2386 (P IV)
27.36
value
Table 4.9Physical Properties of Coarse aggregate

35

Description

Sample

W1, Total wt of dry sample in gm

2.840

W2, Wt of portion passing 4.75mm sieve in gm

0.800

Aggregate crushing value = (W2/W1)100

28.16

Table 4.10Aggregate crushing values

RESULT
Aggregate crushing value = 28.16%
INFERENCE
The obtained aggregate crushing value for the sample is 28.16 which as per IS specifications can
be used for all types of pavement construction.

(d) LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE TEST

AIM:
To determine the Los Angeles abrasion value and to find out the suitability of aggregates
for its use in road construction
APPARATUS:
The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part 4)-1963 consists of:
1. Los Angeles apparatus: It consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both the
ends with an internal diameter of 700mm and length 500mm and capable of
rotating about its horizontal axis.
2. Abrasive charges: Cast iron or steel ball approximately 48 mm in diameter each
3.
4.
5.
6.

weighing between 390 to 445g, 6-12 balls are required.

Sieve: 1.70mm IS sieve.
Balance of capacity 5kg or 10kg.
Drying oven.
Miscellaneous like tray etc.
36

PROCEDURE:
Test sample: It consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105-110 degree Celsius and is
coarser than 1.70mm sieve size. The sample should conform to any of the grading shown in
table.
Gradin

Weight in grams of each test sample in size range, mm (passing and Abrasive charges

retaining on square holes)

80635040-

25-

20-

12.5

10-

6.3-

4.75

No of

Weight

63

20

12.5

-10

6.3

4.75

sphere

of

2.36

charge

12

(g)
50002

50

40

25

125

125

125

1250 -

0
-

0
250

2500 -

11

5
45842

0
-

0
-

250

250

5
33302

0
-

0
-

5000 6

0
25001

12

5
50002

250

250

500

0
-

0
-

0
500

500

12

5
50002

0
-

0
500

500

12

5
50002

0
0
Table4.11 Grading of aggregates as per IS

1. Select the grading to be used in the test. It should be chosen such that it conforms to the
grading to be used in construction to the maximum extent possible.
2. Take 5kg of sample for grading A, B, C or D and 10kg for grading E, F, and G.
3. Choose the abrasive charge as per the table.
4. Open the cover and feed the aggregates and steel balls in the cylinder. Replace the cover
tightly.
5. Rotate the machine at a uniform speed of 30-33rpm.
6. Allow the machine to run for 500 revolutions for grading A, B, C and D and 1000
revolutions for grading E, F, and G.
37

7. Stop the machine after the required number of revolutions and remove the cover and take
the material out.
8. Separate the steel balls and sieve the material on 1.70mm IS sieve.
9. Weigh the material coarser than 1.70mm sieve.
10. Dry in the oven to a constant weight and weigh to an average of 1g.
11. Calculate the percentage of finer from the material.
Here we selected grading B. So 2500 g passing and retaining on 20- 12.5 mm and 12.510 mm are chosen with 11 spheres. Therefore total weight of aggregate is 5000 g.
Weight of aggregate (g) , W1 =
Weight of aggregate retained in 1.70 mm sieve(g) , W2 =
Weight of aggregate passed in 1. 70 mm sieve (g), W3 =
Aggregate abrasion value (%) , ( W3/ W1) X 100 =

5000
3185
1185
23.70%

Table 4.12Los Angeles abrasion value

INTERPRETATION OF REULTS:
Los Angeles abrasion test is commonly used to evaluate the hardness of the aggregates.
The test has more acceptability because the resistance to abrasion and impact I determined
simultaneously. Depending upon the numerical value, the suitability of aggregates for different
road construction can be judged as per IS specifications as given below:
IS SPECIFICATION:
Sl no.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Type of pavement layer

Max permissible value in %
WBM sub-base course
60
WBM base course with bituminous surfacing
50
Bituminous bound macadam
50
WBM surfacing course
40
Bituminous penetration macadam
40
Bituminous surface dressing
35
Table4.13IS specifications for maximum abrasion values

RESULT:
Los Angeles abrasion value = 23.70 %
INFERENCE:
38

The maximum permissible value of Los Angeles abrasion value for bituminous concrete
pavement is 25. The value for the given specimen is 23.70 %. Hence the aggregates are safe to be
used.

(e) SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

AIM:
To determine the specific gravity and water absorption capacity of aggregates
i)

USING WIRE MESH

APPARATUS:
1

A balance having a capacity of at least 5500 g sensitive to 1 g or less.

A wire mesh basket made of No. 8 mesh, and of sufficient capacity for samples weighing
up to 5500 g.

Immersion tank of sufficient size to allow the wire mesh basket to be completely
immersed. The immersion tank and balance shall be arranged in a manner that will allow
weighing the wire mesh basket and test sample while immersed.

Corrosion-resistant containers with a capacity of approximately 30L.

PROCEDURE:

A sample of not less than 2 kg of the aggregate thoroughly washed to remove

finer particles and dust, drained and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in
distilled water at a temperature

between 22oC and 32oC with a cover of at least 5 cm

above the top of the basket.

Immediately after immersion the entrapped air shall be removed from the sample by
lifting the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop
25 times at the rate of about one drop per second.

The basket and the aggregate shall remain completely immersed during the operation and
for a period of 24+0.5 hrs afterwards.

The basket and the sample shall then be jolted and weighed in water at a
temperature of 22oC to 32oC
39

The basket and the aggregate shall then be removed from the water and allowed to drain
for a few minutes, after which the aggregate shall be gently emptied from the basket to a
shallow tray and the empty basket shall be returned to the water, jolted 25 times and
weighed in water.

The aggregate shall then be placed in the oven in the shallow tray, at a temperature of
100oC to 110oC and maintained at this temperature for 24+0.5 hrs. It shall then be
removed from the oven, cooled in the airtight container and weighed.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sample- 20mm aggregate

Sample
No
.

Description

s
12m

20mm

m agg agg
1.

Wt. Of vessel + Sample + 1907

1951

2.

Water = W1 gm
Wt. Of vessel + Water = W2 649

652

3.

gm
Wt. Of saturated & Surface 1996

1999

4.

dry sample =W3 gm

Specific Gravity

2.85

2.7

W3/(W3-(W1-W2))
Table 4.14Specific gravity of coarse aggregate

ii)

USING PYCONOMETER
40

APPARATUS
Pycnometer balance, drying oven, water content bottle or evaporating dishes, desiccators etc.
PROCEDURE
1. Take a clean, dry and empty pycnometer and take its weight with its conical cap and
washer. Let it be W1.
2. Unscrew and take out the cap and put about 300 to 500 grams of dried soil into the
pycnometer. The pycnometer with cap, washer and soil is weighed again. Let it be W2.
3. The pycnometer bottle is filled to about half with water and the contents are mixed
thoroughly with a glass rod. A little more water is added to it and the washer and the cap
are fixed in position.
4. The pycnometer bottle is now filled with water up to the conical top, flush with the hole.
The pycnometer is wiped and dried from outside and take its weight with soil and full of
water. Let it be W3.
5. The pycnometer is emptied, cleaned thoroughly and weighed after filling it with clean
water up to the hole of the conical cap and find weight W4.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Sample- 6mm AGGREGATE
Weight of empty bottle, W1g

416

Weight of bottle + dust, W2g

1045

Weight of bottle + dust + water, W3g

182

Weight of bottle + water, W4g

1417

Specific gravity =(W2W1)/[(W4-W1)(W3-W2)]

2.7

Table 4.15Specific gravity of6m aggregate

Sample-M sand
Weight of empty bottle, W1g

417
41

Weight of bottle + dust, W2g

1254

Weight of bottle + dust + water, W3g

1950

Weight of bottle + water, W4g

1425

Specific gravity =(W2W1)/[(W4-W1)(W3-W2)]

2.68

Table 4.16Specific gravity of M sand

Sample-cement
Weight of empty bottle, W1g

9.39

Weight of bottle + dust, W2g

28

Weight of bottle + dust + water, W3g

40.2

Weight of bottle + water, W4g

27.5

Specific gravity =(W2W1)/[(W4-W1)(W3-W2)]

3.15

Table 4.17Specific gravity of cement

RESULT:
Average Specific gravity Specific gravity of 12mm aggregate=2.7
Specific gravity of 20mm aggregate=2.85
Specific gravity of 6mm aggregate=2.7
Specific gravity of cement=3.15

4.1.2.2 Testing of Binder

Appropriate Grade of bitumen is selected based on climatic and traffic conditions. The
commonly used grade of ordinary bitumen in Kerala is 60/70 (penetration grade). Therefore
60/70 grade bitumen is selected for present study
42

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general,
Bitumen should possess following desirable properties.

Bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix
should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not
become too brittle causing cracks.

Viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This
can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the
bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.

Should have adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in
the mix.
There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The

following tests are generally conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous materials.
(a) PENETRATION TEST
AIM:
To determine the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of
millimetre to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.
APPARATUS:

Container-A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic container 55 mm dia and 57 mm height.

Needle-straight highly polished cylindrical hard steel with conical end.

Water bath-A temperature controlled water bath at a temperature of 25 degree Celsius for
one hour.

Penetrometer-consists of needle assembly with a total weight of 100 g and a graduated

dial to read penetration values to 1/10th of a millimetre.

PROCEDURE:

Bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred and poured in to container.

The container is placed in water bath for 1 hr after cooling it in 1 atmosphere for 1hr.
43

Sample with container is taken out and the needle is arranged to make contact with
the surface of the sample.

Initial reading is taken and needle is released for 5 seconds. Then the final reading is
taken on the dial gauge. Penetration value is obtained by subtracting final and initial
reading.

This test is repeated on the sample by testing at a distance of at least 10 mm apart.

The needle should be wiped with benzene before each testing.

The mean value is reported as penetration value.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sample No

Penetrometer dial reading

Test 1
0
68
68

Test 2
0
70
70
69.33
Table 4.18Penetration test observation

Initial
Final
Penetration Value
Mean Value

Test 3
0
70
70

IS SPECIFICATION:
Bitumen

A25

A35

grade
Penetratio

20-30

S35
30-40

& A45

& A65

S45
40-50

S65
60-70

& A90
S90
80-100

& A200 &

S200
175-200

n value
Table 4.19IRC specification for penetration values
RESULT:
Penetration Value of Bitumen = 69.33 mm
DISCUSSION:
As per IRC the penetration value of bitumen in mm is in the range of 60-70.The obtained
value of penetration for the given bitumen is 69.33mm, which lies in the range.

44

(b)DUCTILITY TEST
AIM:
To measure the adhesive property of bitumen and its ability to stretch.
APPARATUS:

Briquette mould-it is made up of brass metal. The ends of the mould (clip) possess
circular holes to grip the fixed and movable ends of the testing machine.
Dimension: length-75mm, distance between clips-30mm, width at mouth of clip- 20mm.

Ductility machine-Equipment which function as constant temperature water bath and

pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate. The central rod of the machine is threaded and
through gear system provides a movement to one end.

PROCEDURE:

The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly.

The sample along with the moulds are cooled in air and then in water bath maintained at
27 degree Celsius. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using hot knife.

The mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water bath of the ductility machine
for 85 to95 minutes.

The sides of the mould are removed, clips hooked on the machine and the pointer is
adjusted to zero.

The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally.

The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is reported in centimeters as ductility

value.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Briquette No
1

Initial Value cm

Final value cm

0
89
Table 4.20Ductility test observations
45

IS SPECIFICATION:
Source of paving bitumen and penetration Minimum ductility value (cm)
grade
Asam petroleum

From other sources

A25
5
A35
10
A45
12
A65,A90,A200
15
S35
50
S45,65,90
75
Table 4.21IRC specifications for ductility values

RESULT:
Ductility Value = 89 cm
DISCUSSION:
IRC recommended that the ductility value for bitumen is greater than 75cm.Here the
ductility value for bitumen is 89 cm which is as per specification.

(c )SOFTENING POINT TEST

AIM:
To determine the temperature at which the substance attains a particular degree of
softening under specified condition of test.
APPARATUS:

Steel balls-They are two in number. Each has diameter of 9.5mm and weights 2.5plus or
minus 0.5 g.

Brass rings-There are two rings of following dimensions.depth-6.4mm, inside diameter at

top-17.5mm, inside diameter at bottom-15.9mm, outside diameter-20.6mm.
46

Support-The metallic support is used for placing pair of rings. The upper surface of the
rings is adjusted to be 50mm below the surface of water contained in the bath.

Bath and stirrer-A heat resistant glass container of 85 mm diameter and 120mm depth is
used.

PROCEDURE:

Bitumen is heated and poured in heated rings placed on metal plate.

After cooling in air for 30 minutes the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are placed
in support.

A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is then heated.

The temperature at which the softened bitumen touches the metal placed at a
specified distance below the ring is recorded as the softening point of the bitumen.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Test Property

Sample No.s

Temperature(OC) at which
sample

touches

bottom

1
46

Mean Value
2
47

Softening point

46.5

46.5

plate
Table 4.22 Softening point test observations
IS SPECIFICATION:
Bitumen grade
Softening point
A25,A35
55-70
S35
50-65
A45,S45,A65
45-65
S65
40-55
A90,S90
35-50
A200,S200
30-45
Table 4.23IRC specifications for softening point values
RESULT:
Softening point of Bitumen = 46.5C
47

DISCUSSION:
The softening point of bitumen is in the range of 40-55 degree Celsius as per IRC
specification. The value of softening point for the given bitumen is 46.5 degree Celsius which
lies in the range.
(d) SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST
AIM:
To determine the specific gravity of bitumen.
APPARATUS:
Container and balance.
PROCEDURE:

Clean the container and weigh it. Let this be W1.

The bitumen is heated to a pouring temperature and is poured in the above container
and weighs it (W2).

Bitumen contained container is then filled with water and weight was taken as W3.

After cleaning the containers is then filled with fresh distilled water and weigh it
(W4).

Then specific gravity is given by the equation ((W2-W1)/ ((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))).

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

No

Details

Wt

unit

1
2
3
4
5

Weight of pycnometer
Weight of pycnometer+ Bitumen
Weight of pycnometer+ Bitumen+ water
Weight of pycnometer + water
Specific gravity

W1
W2
W3
W4
G

gm
gm
gm
gm

Values
19.4
33.4
44.7
44.4
1.01
48

Table 4.24 Specific gravity test observations

RESULT:
Specific gravity of Bitumen = 1.01
DISCUSSION:
Bitumen has a specific gravity is in the range of 0.97-1.02. Specific gravity of the
bitumen material obtained is 1.01 which lies in the range.
SL NO
1
2
3
4

TESTS

RESULTS

Penetration
69.33 mm
Ductility
89 cm
Softening point
46.50 c
Specific gravity
1.01
Table 4.25Final test results of bitumen

IRC
RECOMMENDATIONS
60-70 mm
>75 cm
40-650 c
0.97-1.02

4.2TEST ON BITUMINOUS MIX - MARSHALL STABILITY TEST

49

Fig 4.9Marshall Stability test in progress

4.2.1 PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN

PROCEDURE:

The proportioned coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, quarry dust and filler material was
weighed and heated together in a pan at temperature of 175 degree Celsius.

The required quantity of first trial percentage of bitumen is heated to a temperature of

145 degree Celsius and is added to the heated aggregate.

The above mix is thoroughly mixed at the desired temperature of 160 degree Celsius.

50

The mix is placed in a cylindrical mould of 10.16 cm dia and 6.35 cm height and
compacted by a hammer with 75 blows on either side at a temperature of 160 degree
Celsius.

Three specimens are prepared for each trial bitumen contents.

Compacted specimens are cooled to room temperature in the moulds for 24 hour and then
removed from the moulds using a specimen extractor.

The diameter and mean height of the specimen are measured and then they are weighed
in air and also suspended in water. Then determine the bulk gravity of the test specimen.

Optimum bitumen content is given by the average of three values:

Binder content for maximum unit weight
Binder content for maximum stability
Binder content corresponding to 4.5% voids

Table 4.26Bulk
test specimen.

%
bitume
n

Dry wt.
w1

Wet wt.
w2

1255

759.5

1296

770.55

1253

758.51

1161

726

1234

733

1239

723

Avg.
5.5

Fig 4.10Graph
weight and
Avg.
6

for

Avg.

1241

746

1249

747

1249

740

Gm
2.5327
95
2.4664
57
2.5339
24
2.511
059
2.6689
66
2.4630
74
2.4011
63
2.511
067
2.5070
71
2.4880
48
2.4538
31
2.482
983

gravity of the

between unit
binder content
From

graph,

binder

content

maximum

unit

weight = 5.33%

51

4.2.2 STABILITY TEST ON COMPACTED SPECIMENS

Stability of mixture is defined as the maximum load resistance that the standard test
specimen will develop at 60 degree Celsius. The flow value is the strain occurring in the
specimen between no load and maximum load during the stability test.
PROCEDURE

After determining bulk gravities of test specimen place them in water but at 60 degree
for 30 minutes.

Remove specimen from bath surface dry with a damp towel and center it in the lower
segment of the breaking head.

Fit the upper segment of the breaking head on the guide rods and specimen.

Center the complete assembly on to the load measuring device.

Make proving reading and flow meter set to zero.

Position the flow meter on the guide rod.

Apply a load at a constant rate of deformation of 50.8 mm per minute until failure
occurs. Point of failure is defined by the maximum load reading obtained.

Note the dial reading on the proving ring at the instant when the load as indicated by
the dial decreases. Also record the flow meter at this time.

Marshall Flow is the total sample deformation from a no load to a point where the
peak load starts to decrease.

Convert dial reading to actual Newton using stress strain table for proving ring. The
stability value is expressed as total Newton to produce failure.

Correct stability for each Marshall specimen whose height deviates from 63.5 mm.
The corrected stability is obtained by multiplying load by approximate height
correlation factor

Sl. no.

Dia

ht

ht mm

Volume

CF
52

1/1

10

6.36

63.64

499.26

1.00

1/2

10

6.47

64.66

507.90

0.97

1/3

10

6.33

63.35

496.91

1.01

2/1

10

6.52

65.20

511.82

0.96

2/2

10

6.34

63.43

497.69

1.00

2/3

10

6.40

64.03

502.40

0.99

3/1

10

6.24

62.45

489.84

1.03

3/2

10

6.35

63.50

498.48

1.00

3/3

10

6.39

63.95

501.62

0.99

Table 4.27 Height correlation factor

Specim
en No:

Bitum
en
Conten
t

Stabilit
y value

5.0

26.23

18.50

9.9

5.5

29.72

30.33

30.90

6.0

21.70

21.98

21.25

Correct
ion
factor
1.00
0.97
1.01
0.96
1.00
0.99
1.03
1.00
0.99

Correcte
d
Stability

Averag
e
Stabilit
y Value

26.1398
27.4793

Flow
Value
4.52

27.2851

2.21

28.2363

3.64

28.6160

5.01

30.3848

29.8326

3.19

30.4971

3.71

22.3374

5.65

21.9812
21.0116

Average
Flow
Value

21.7768

5.71

3.46

3.97

6.00

6.64

Table 4.28Flow value of mix

53

35
30
25
20
stability

15
10
5
0
4

binder content

Fig 4.11 Graph between stability and binder content

Binder content for maximum stability = 5.41%
7
6
5
4
Vv

3
2
1
0
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

binder content

Fig 4.12 Table between % voids and binder content

Binder content corresponding to 4.5% voids = 5%

54

4.2.3 SELECTION OF OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT

The optimum bitumen content for the mix design is found by taking the average value of
the following three bitumen contents found from the graph:
Binder content for maximum unit weight = 5.33%
Binder content for maximum stability = 5.41%
Binder content corresponding to 4.5% voids = 5%

The Optimum Bitumen Content = 5.25%

4.3EFFECT OF COIR IN MARSHAL STABILITY TEST

Coconut fiber/ coir fiber is a natural fiber derived from the mesocarp tissue or husk of the
coconut fruit. It is also termed as Golden Fiber due to its color. The individual coconut fiber
cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls made up of cellulose. These fibers are pale when
immature but later they become hardened and yellowed as a layer of lignin gets deposited on it.
Brown coir fibers are stronger as they contain more lignin than cellulose, but they are less
flexible. Coconut fibers are made up of small threads, each less than 1.3 mm long and 10 to 20
micrometers in diameter. This fiber is relatively water proof and is the only natural fiber resistant
to damage by salt water.

55

Fig 4.13 Physical appearance of coir fibre

4.3.1 PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN

PROCEDURE:

The mixes were prepared according to the Marshall procedure specified in ASTM
D1559. The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and cement were mixed according
to the adopted gradation

The proportioned coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, quarry dust and filler material

was weighed and heated together in a pan

At 100 degree Celsius coir fibres are added to this in a proportion 0.3% ,0.5%,

and 0.7% by total weight and it is heated upto temperature 170 degree Celcius
The binder is heated upto a temperature of 150 degree Celsius and is added to the
heated aggregate

The above mix is thoroughly mixed at the desired temperature of 160 degree
Celsius.

56

The mix is placed in a cylindrical mould of 10.16 cm dia and 6.35 cm height and
compacted by a hammer with 75 blows on either side at a temperature of 160
degree Celsius.

Three specimens are prepared for each trial coir contents

Compacted specimens are cooled to room temperature in the moulds for 24 hour
and then removed from the moulds using a specimen extractor

The diameter and mean height of the specimen are measured and then they are
weighed in air and also suspended in water. Then determine the bulk gravity of
the test specimen.
Binder
Coir% %
0.3 4.95

Dry wt
wet wt
w1
w2
Gm
unit wt
1230
729 2.45509
1246
741 2.467327
1259
739 2.421154
2.447857 2447.857
0.5
4.75
1258
749 2.471513
1282
755 2.432638
1282
753 2.42344
2.44253 2442.53
0.7
4.55
1289
752 2.400372
1265
735 2.386792
1255
730 2.390476
2.392547 2392.547
Table 4.29 Bulk gravity of specimen after adding coir fibre

4.3.2 STABILITY TEST ON COMPACTED SPECIMENS

Stability of mixture is defined as the maximum load resistance that the standard test
specimen will develop at 60 degree Celsius. The flow value is the strain occurring in the
specimen between no load and maximum load during the stability test.
PROCEDURE

After determining bulk gravities of test specimen place them in water but at 60 degree
for 30 minutes.
57

Remove specimen from bath surface dry with a damp towel and center it in the lower
segment of the breaking head.

Fit the upper segment of the breaking head on the guide rods and specimen.

Center the complete assembly on to the load measuring device.

Make proving reading and flow meter set to zero.

Position the flow meter on the guide rod.

Apply a load at a constant rate of deformation of 50.8 mm per minute until failure
occurs. Point of failure is defined by the maximum load reading obtained.

Note the dial reading on the proving ring at the instant when the load as indicated by
the dial decreases. Also record the flow meter at this time.

Marshall Flow is the total sample deformation from a no load to a point where the
peak load starts to decrease.

Convert dial reading to actual Newton using stress strain table for proving ring. The
stability value is expressed as total Newton to produce failure.

Correct stability for each Marshall specimen whose height deviates from 63.5 mm.
The corrected stability is obtained by multiplying load by approximate height
correlation factor

Fig 4.14 Specimen to be tested after adding coir fibre

58

Slno

Dia

ht
mm

ht

Volu
me

1/1

10

6.22

62.27

1/2

10

6.45

64.51

1/3

10

6.33

63.38

2/1

10

6.38

63.80

2/2

10

6.38

63.82

2/3

10

6.39

63.90

3/1

10

6.39

63.90

3/2

10

6.46

64.60

3/3

10

6.46

64.60

488.2
7
506.3
3
496.9
1
500.8
3
500.8
3
501.6
2
501.6
2
507.1
1
507.1
1

CF

1.03
0.97
1.01
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.97

Table 4.30: Height correlation factor

Specim
en No:

Bitum
en
Conte
nt

5.0

14.7
16.50

3
4

Stabili
ty
value

13.3
4.8

22.90

11.10

10.70

4.6

13.30

11.80

15.40

Correct
ion
factor
1.03
0.97
1.01
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.97

Correct
ed
Stabilit
y

Average
Stabilit
y Value

15.1520
27.5854

Flow Value
5.35

23.6422

6.30

28.1890

3.87

22.7497

2.06

11.0112

14.7846

5.75

10.5930

5.29

13.1504

3.53

11.4755

Avera
ge
Flow
Value

13.2008

14.9765

6.90

5.17

4.37

5.69

6.64

Table 4.31: Stability value of mix

59

STABILITY - BINDER CONTENT CURVE

25
20
15

Stability

10
5
0
4.55

4.6

4.65

4.7

4.75

4.8

4.85

4.9

4.95

5.05

Binder content %

Fig 4.15 Graph showing variation of stability value after adding coir
Binder content for maximum stability = 5 %
Coir content for maximum stability = 0.3%

60

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
5.1 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
60/70 penetration grade bitumen with and without coir fiber is used in this investigation.
The details of the experiments carried out on these SMA mixes are given under the concerned
headings. Marshall samples were prepared using SMA mixes varying the binder and fiber
concentrations to study the effects on marshall properties.
Figures 4.11and 4.15 shows the variation of marshall stability values with binder content
for 60/70 bitumen at fiber concentrations of 0%, .3%, .5% and .7% respectively. The binder
content in the mix was varied from 5-6% and the optimum bitumen content was determined
according to figures 4.10,4.11 and 4.12. Then coir fiber was added varying from .3-.7% by
weight by replacing that percentage of bitumen from the OBC. Then the stability values were
determined after suitable calculations.
Maximum stability value for the BC mix without coir fiber was obtained for 5% binder
content and it decreases further with the increase in the binder content. The variation of flow
value with binder content for SMA mixes at different fiber contents are shown in figures 4.15.
The flow value increases with the decrease in binder content. Mixes with .7% fiber has higher
flow value than that of other mixes. This may be due to the result of the heterogeneous mix with
fibers forming lumps and causing the increase in deformations under load. It is clearly observed
from the plots that the flow value decreases with increase in fiber concentrations up-to .5%. But
further addition of fiber in the mix increases its flow value. The mixes with .7% fiber have the
flow value much higher compared to that of the mixes without coir fiber.
The normal trend of bituminous mix for variation of unit weight is also observed for the
SMA mixes i.e. it increases up-to a certain value with increase in binder content and then
decreases. It can be observed that from the graph when .3% of fiber is added to the mix its unit
weight increases but with further addition of fibers lowers the unit weight values of the mix. This
type of behavior may be because of the fact that at 0.3% fiber content in the mixture, the mixing
can be done easily and uniformly and the voids get filled properly, but at higher fiber content

61

there are high air voids in the mix due to improper and non-uniform mixing, so the unit weight
decreases.
Optimum bitumen content was determined based on the maximum stability value
obtained for 4.5% air voids. If percentage voids is more than 4.5%, density decreases and if
percentage voids decreases, bleeding occurs. But the SMA mixes are gap graded and the stability
mainly relies on stone to stone contact in the matrix. Therefore, in this case the parameters like
Marshall stability value or flow value may not be the suitable factor for deciding the optimum
binder content of SMA mixes.
It can be observed from the figures that with the increase in binder content the stability
value decreases and with the increase in fiber content also the stability value decreases. This is
due to the fact that at higher percentage of fiber homogeneous mixing of the fiber materials is not
possible and this results conglomeration of fibers. Such a heterogeneous mixture affects the
aggregate-binder bonding and interlocking between the aggregates resulting in low stability
value. It can be observed from stability plots that the maximum stability value without fibers in
the mix is even more than the stability value with 0.7% fiber in the mix.
5.2 CONCLUSION
It is observed that with the increase in binder content, the marshall stability value
decreases. It also depends on the fiber content in the mix i.e. an increase in fiber content
increases the stability value as long as its amount is .3% but with further increase in fiber content
i.e. .5%, its value decreases.
The flow value increases with increase in binder content and when fiber is added to the
mix the flow value decreases and after .5% fiber content, it increases. A higher fiber
concentration in the mix increases its flow value.
The unit weight increases with the increase in binder content up-to a certain binder
content and thereafter decreases. The unit weight also depends on the fiber content of the mix.
When fiber was added to the mix, its unit weight decreases compared to the mix with no fiber.
Coconut fiber which is a low cost and abundantly available natural fiber has been used in
the mixes. The OBC are found to reduce considerably by addition of fibers, which is an
important advantage from economy and quality point of view. However further studies such as
permanent deformation, drain down characteristics, moisture susceptibility and creep properties

62

need to be carried out and for the validation of the above test results, experimental track should
be laid to study the performance of pavements with SMA mixes.
5.3 SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
Marshall properties of bituminous mixes have been studied in this investigation. 60/70
grade binder, including a natural fiber has been tried in this investigation. However, some of the
properties such as drain down characteristics, tensile strength characteristics, fatigue properties,
moisture susceptibility characteristics, resistance to rutting and creep behaviour can further be
investigated. Some other synthetic and natural fibers can also be tried in SMA mixes and
compared. Only one gradation has been adopted here, so an attempt can be made to compare
different gradations suggested by various agencies. Coconut fiber used in this study is a low cost
material, therefore a cost-benefit analysis can be made to know its effect on cost of construction.
Moreover, to ensure the success of this new material, experimental stretches may be constructed
and periodic performances may be monitored.

63

REFERENCES]
1. Amit Goel, Animesh Das, Emerging road materials and innovative applications,
National conference on materials and their application in Civil Engg, 2004.
2. Brown E.R. (1992), Experience with Stone Matrix Asphalt in the United States, NCAT
Publication, Auburn University, Alabama
3. Brown E.R. and Manglorkar H. (1993), Evaluation of Laboratory Properties of SMA
mixtures, NCAT Report No. 93-5, Auburn University, Alabama
4. Brown E.R. and Mallick R.B. (1994), Stone Matrix Asphalt Properties Related to
Mixture Design, NCAT Report 94-02
5. Brown E.R., Haddock J.E. and Crawford C. (1996), Investigation of Stone Matrix
Asphalt Mortars, TRR 1530, National Research Council, TRB, USA, pp 95 102
6. Brown E.R. and Haddock J.E. (1997), Method to Ensure Stone-on-Stone Contact in
SMA Paving Mixes, TRR 1583, National Research Council, TRB, USA, pp 11-18
7. IRC: 37-2001

8. Kadiyali L.R, Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning.Khanna Publishers

9. K. Thulasirajan and V. L. Narasimha, Studies on Coir Fibre Reinforced Bituminous
Concrete International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, ISSN 0974-5904,
Volume 04, No 06 SPL, October 2011, pp. 835-838
10. S. K Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Engineering, Nemchand and Bros, Roorkee
11. MoRTH, Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, Upgradation of Third Revision,
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
64

12. T Subramani, experimental investigations on coir fibre reinforced bituminous mixes,

International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 22489622 Vol. 2, Issue 3, May-Jun 2012, pp.1794-1804

65