(1) Introducing a few examples of using this sort of chemistry

In the HOME: Alkaline lime (CaO, calcium oxide), is put on soil that is too acid for
healthy plant growth. Powdered limestone (CaCO3, calcium carbonate) is slower and less
effective. Both react and neutralise acids and you can pre-test the soil with pH paper.
They can be used on a larger scale in farming and rivers and lakes.

Antacid indigestion tablets are mild alkalis that react by neutralising excess stomach
acid which is the 'strong' hydrochloric acid which your delicate stomach lining and upper
gut can only take so much of! The antacids must be weak (i.e. mild) alkalis or strong alkalis
can be just as irritating as strong acids!

Bicarbonate or powder* or baking powder can be used with sour milk (acidic) for raising
action in baking. The acidic milk reacts with the *sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) to
form carbon dioxide gas to give the rising action.

Acidic bee stings (pH 5.0-5.5) can be soothed, i.e. neutralised by calomine lotion, which is a
mild alkali and antiseptic and anti-itching agent based on zinc oxide. You can also use baking
soda ('bicarb of soda' or sodium hydrogen carbonate), another mild alkali. Wasp stings are
supposed to be alkaline, but apparently not so! they are almost neutral at pH 6.8-6.9 but are
'traditionally' treated with vinegar which is a weak acid (and then perhaps you need the
calomine too!). I've come across references on the web to say that wasp stings are not
alkaline so 'English folklore' and mild-weak acid treatment has no real scientific basis.
It should be pointed out that sting venom is a complex mixture, including many protein-
enzymes, which, with other 'foreign' substances, might well trigger a response from
the bodies immune system, so, in all honesty, I'm not quite sure what the truth is!
However, what is known is that (i) bees and wasps have glands that can secrete either acids
or alkalis with other substances and (ii) ants sting venom often contains methanoic acid
('formic acid') which can have a pH of 3 and is presumably 'soothed' by mild alkalis and just
to confuse matters more, (iii) many people claim the 'folklore' remedies work! and maybe
they do!

In the chemical INDUSTRY:

Sodium hydroxide, one of the most commonly used alkalis,is used to neutralise aspirin
making 'soluble aspirin'. Aspirin is an organic acid and not very soluble in water, its sodium
salt is much more soluble and is absorbed faster by the body.

Ammonia gas is a weak alkali and neutralised by sulphuric acid or nitric acid to form
ammonium sulphate or ammonium nitrate salts. These are important agri-chemical fertilisers
supplying nitrogen to the soil for better plant growth. Of course some people prefer organic
growing using good old muck and compost, but it doesn't involve neutralisation, but it does
involve my wife, who is a member of the Soil Association!
Neutralising harmful sulphur dioxide gas (acidic, irritating and toxic SO2) in power station
smoke from burning fossil fuels, by absorbing it in alkaline calcium hydroxide solution
(limewater) to absorb it. Eventually harmless calcium sulphate solution is formed.

Acids can be used to clean corroded metal surfaces because of their reactivity to metals
and metal oxides to form soluble salts which can be washed away to leave a cleaner metal
surface.

So all of this is still pretty important chemistry even for the 21st century, with strong links
to agriculture, the environment and leading a stressful life!

Of course there are 'downsides' to some of this 'acidic' chemistry: Acid rain increases
the rate of corrosion of stonework (particularly limestone) and metal structures. Acid rain
makes water too acid for some aquatic organisms to live and this in turn affects food
chains e.g. salmon do not like water with a pH below 4.5! Living on Venus could be hard
going, its atmosphere is 98% sulphuric acid, mind you, you should be ok in a plastic suit
because plastics don't usually react with acids, which is why, as well as being cheaper,
plastics are replacing water pipes, drain pipes and gutters etc.

(2) The pH Scale - Acids and Alkali - ion theory

The colours of solutions with universal indicator

• The pH scale is a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution (see

diagram).
• pH can be approximately measured using indicator solution by putting a few drops of
universal indicator into a solution and comparing the colour formed with a
standard chart (picture above).
• You can also used paper impregnated with an indicator solution, the paper is dipped
in the solution and again the colour matched with a pH chart. This is quite handy for
testing soil mixed and shaken with water. You can get special soil testing kits which
use indicator solution and the colour of the indicator in the water is matched with a
chart after the soil has settled out.
• pH can be very accurately measured with a special instrument called a pH
meter using a glass electrode which is calibrated with buffer solutions of accurately
known pH.
 • An indicator is a substance or mixture of substances that when added to the
solution gives a different colour depending on the pH of the solution. Universal
indicator solution or paper, is prepared from mixing several indicators to give a
variety of colours to match the pH. It is a very handy indicator for showing whether
the solution is very weakly/strongly acidic (pH <7) or alkaline (pH > 7) or neutral
(pH = 7) and gives the pH to the nearest pH unit.
• Theoretically there is no limit to the pH scale, but most solutions are between pH
0 and pH 14. For example, looking at the 'extremes', 1M hydrochloric acid (HCl)
has a pH of 0 and 10M HCl has a pH of -1, and 1M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) has a
pH of 14, but 10M potassium hydroxide (KOH) has a pH of 15! However the
solubility limits of substances in water ensures that its almost impossible to get
below -1 or above 15!
• Note 1: M is the old shorthand for solubility in mol/litre or mol dm-3.
• Note 2: The pH scale is known as a logarithmic scale of base 10. At GCSE level, to
put it more simply, a change of one pH unit means a 10x change in the acidity or
alkalinity of the solution e.g. from pH 5 to pH 2 means an increase in acidity of
1000x, or to change from pH 13 to pH 11 means to become 100x less alkaline.).

Other common indicators used in the laboratory (* often used in titrations)

Indicator colour in acid pH<7 colour in neutral pH=7 colour in alkali pH >7
litmus red 'purple' blue
phenolphthalein* colourless colourless >9 pink
<3.5 red, orange
methyl orange* yellow yellow
about pH 5, > 6 yellow
<5 red, orange, >6
methyl red* yellow yellow
yellow
bromothymol blue* <6 yellow green >8 blue

• Water is a neutral liquid with a pH of 7 (green). When a substance dissolves in

water it forms an aqueous (aq) solution that may be acidic, neutral or alkaline.
• Acidic solutions have a pH of less than 7, and the lower the number, the stronger
the acid it. The colour can range from orange-yellow (pH 3-6) for partially ionised
weak acids like ethanoic acid (vinegar) to carbonated water. Strong acids like
hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric are fully ionised and give a pH 1 or less! and a red
colour with universal indicator or litmus paper.
• Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. These are quite often solutions of salts, which
are themselves formed from neutralising acids and bases.
• The 'opposite' of an acid is called a base. Some bases are soluble in water to give
alkaline solutions - these are known as alkalis.
• Alkaline solutions have a pH of over 7 and the higher the pH the stronger is the
alkali. Weak alkalis (soluble bases) like ammonia give a pH of 10-11 but strong alkalis
(soluble bases) like sodium hydroxide give a pH of 13-14. They give blue-purple-
violet colour with universal indicator or litmus paper.
• NEUTRALISATION usually involves mixing an acid (pH <7) with a base or alkali (pH >
7) which react to form a neutral salt solution of pH7 (more details below).
• THE IONIC THEORY of ACIDS and ALKALIS and a few technical terms:
o The proton (H+) donation-acceptance theory of acids and bases (Bronsted-
Lowry) is covered on the "Extra Aqueous Chemistry" page, section 3.
o Acids are substances that form hydrogen ions, H+(aq), when dissolved in
water e.g. hydrochloric acid HCl gives H+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions, sulphuric acid
H2SO4 gives 2H+(aq) and SO42-(aq) ions and nitric acid HNO3 gives H+(aq) and NO3-
(aq) ions.

o Alkalis are substances that form hydroxide ions (OH-(aq)) in water e.g.
sodium hydroxide NaOH gives Na+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions, calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 gives Ca2+(aq) and 2OH-(aq) ions. Note: an alkali is a base soluble in
water.
o The majority of liquid water consists of covalent H2O molecules, but there
are trace quantities of H+ and OH- ions from the self-ionisation of water,
BUT they are of equal concentration and so water is neutral.
o In acid solutions there are more H+ ions than OH- ions.
o In alkaline solution there are more OH- ions than H+ ions.
o When alkalis and acids react, the 'general word' and 'molecular formula'
equation might be for NEUTRALISATION ...
 ACID + ALKALI ==> SALT + WATER... e.g.
 hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide ==> sodium chloride + water
 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
 BUT the ionic equation for ANY neutralisation is
 hydrogen ion + hydroxide ion ==> water
 H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ==> H2O(l)
 because all acids form hydrogen ions in water and all alkalis (soluble
bases) form hydroxide ions in water.
 and, in this case, the remaining ions e.g. Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) become the
salt crystals NaCl(s) on evaporating the water.
 NOTE: Its much cheaper to produce sodium chloride 'salt' by
evaporating seawater!
o BASES e.g. oxides, hydroxides and carbonates, are substances that react
and neutralise acids to form salts and water.
 Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis e.g. NaOH
sodium hydroxide, KOH potassium hydroxide or Ca(OH)2 calcium
hydroxide.
 Bases which are water insoluble include CuO copper(II) oxide, MgO
magnesium oxide.
o After a neutralisation, the salt solutions consist of a mixture of positive
and negative ions (and their names are in the salt name!) e.g. sodium chloride
(NaCl) is a mixture of Na+ and Cl- ions, calcium chloride (CaCl2) is a mix of
Ca2+ and Cl- ions; magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2) is a mix of Mg2+ and NO3-
ions, aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3) consists of Al3+ and SO42- ions etc.
o See other GCSE Extra Aqueous Chemistry notes for the advanced
proton/hydrogen ion theory of acids and bases (Bronsted-Lowry theory)
 (3) pH Examples of common acidic, alkaline and neutral materials in
aqueous solution

(~ means approximately)
WEAK ALKALI STRONG ALKALI

STRONG ACID WEAK ACID ~NEUTRAL

(weak soluble (strong soluble
base) base)
pH <2 pH 2-6 ~pH 7

pH 8-12 pH >12
H2SO4 sulphuric
acid (battery vitamin C very pure NaOH sodium
acid) pH 1 (ascorbic acid) pH deionised H2O toothpaste pH 8 hydroxide pH 13-
~3 water pH7 14
sulfuric acid
HCl hydrochloric CH3COOH Ca(OH)2 calcium
NaCl sodium KOH potassium
acid (in the lab is acetic/ethanoic hydroxide
chloride (salt hydroxide pH 13-
same as your acid (vinegar) pH (limewater, slaked
water) ~pH 7 14
stomach!) pH 0 - 1 ~2 - 3 lime) pH 12
fruit juices e.g. MgSO4 magnesium Na2CO3 sodium
oven cleaner if it
HNO3 nitric acid oranges and sulphate (Epsom carbonate
contains NaOH, pH
pH 1 lemons contain salts) pH ~6.5 - (washing soda) pH
can be >12
citric acid pH 2-3 7.0 11
C6H12O6 (glucose
NH3 ammonia pH
* milk pH 6 and other sugars) *
11
pH 7
wine/beer pH 3 - C2H5OH ethanol
* bleach pH 11 *
6 ('alcohol') pH 7
* rain water some 'natural Sea water has a *
naturally has a pH fluids' e.g. pH of ~7.5 - 8.5
of pH ~5.5 due to and has many
the dissolved blood ~7.2 - 7.4 different salts
weakly acidic gas dissolved in it and
carbon dioxide saliva ~6.4 - 6.9 bicarbonates
from the causing the very
atmosphere cows milk ~6.6 slight alkalinity.
('carbonic acid'),
but it can fall to human milk 6.6 -
pH ~3.5 due to 7.6
even more acidic
 sulphur dioxide
gas from fossil
fuel burning.
NaHCO3 sodium
hydrogen
carbonate
* cider 2.9 - 3.3 * *
('bicarb', baking
soda, bread soda)
pH 8
Mg(OH)2
magnesium
* * * hydroxide ('milk *
of magnesia') pH
10 - 10.5

(4) Some important reactions of Acids

Acids are neutralised by reaction with metals, oxides, hydroxides or carbonates to

form salts and other products.

Apart from metals (which is an electron loss/gain redox reaction), the other reactants
listed above are considered as bases (meaning they react by accepting a proton from an
acid). Water soluble bases are known as alkalis.

The reaction between acids and bases like oxides, hydroxides and carbonates are called
neutralisation reactions.

• (A) metal + acid ==> a salt* + hydrogen

• (A1) e.g. zinc + hydrochloric acid ==> zinc chloride + hydrogen
o Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
o Its the same equation for many other Group 2 and Transition metals
e.g. Mg, Ca and Fe, Co, Ni
 Test for hydrogen gas - squeaky pop with lit splint (can often see
condensed water on side of test tube)
 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l) + energy!
• (A2) magnesium + sulphuric acid ==> magnesium sulphate + hydrogen
o Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
o Note 1: sulphuric acid gives sulphate salt and hydrogen,
 see also extra example 3. Zn/H2SO4
o Note 2: Nitric acid (HNO3) doesn't usually form hydrogen with a metal,
instead you get nasty brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide! but you still get
the metal nitrate salt.
• (B) alkali (soluble base ) + acid ==> salt + water (the 'classic' neutralisation
reaction)
• (B1) e.g. sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water
(method a)
o NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• (B2) metal hydroxide + acid ==> a salt* + water
o e.g. sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ==> sodium sulphate + water
o 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
o Its the same equation for any Group 1 Alkali Metal hydroxide e.g. LiOH,
KOH etc.
o or potassium hydroxide + nitric acid ==> potassium nitrate + water
o NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) ==> NaNO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
• (B3) insoluble base + acid ==> salt + water
o (note: oxides that react with acids to form salts are known as 'basic
oxides')
o e.g. metal oxide + acid ==> salt* + water
o e.g. copper(II) oxide + sulphuric acid ==> copper(II) sulphate + water
o CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• (B4) calcium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> calcium chloride + water
o Ca(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
• See also extra examples
o 2. Mg(OH)2/HCl and 5. ZnO/HCl and 8. KOH/HBr

• (C) metal carbonate or hydrogencarbonate + acid ==> a salt* + water + carbon

dioxide
• (C1) e.g. calcium carbonate + nitric acid ==> calcium nitrate + water + carbon
dioxide
o CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ==> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
o Its the same equation for many other Group 2 and Transition metals
e.g. Mg, Sr and Co, Ni, Cu
 Test for carbon dioxide gas - it gives a white precipitate of
calcium carbonate (cloudiness) when bubbled into limewater
(calcium hydroxide solution).
 Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ==> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
o Note: Using sulphuric acid and calcium carbonate you don't get much of
a fizz! because the calcium sulphate salt formed, is not very soluble,
and coats the remaining calcium carbonate inhibiting the reaction! This
will happen with any reaction between an acid and a water insoluble
reactant which forms an insoluble solid product!
• (C2) magnesium carbonate + sulphuric acid ==> magnesium sulphate + water +
carbon dioxide
o MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
o or sodium hydrogencarbonate + nitric acid ==> sodium nitrate + water +
carbon dioxide
 o NaHCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) ==> NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
• See also extra examples at the end of the page.
o 1. CuCO3/H2SO4, 6. HCl/CaCO3, 7. Na2CO3/HCl and 9. NaHCO3/HCl

• (D) ammonia + acid ==> ammonium salt**

o Note that no water is formed and see also note (c) below.
o e.g. ammonia + hydrochloric acid ==> ammonium chloride
o NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NH4Cl(aq)
o or ammonia + sulphuric acid ==> ammonium sulphate
o 2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> (NH4)2SO4(aq)
• See also extra example 4. NH3/HNO3

NOTE (a)*: The name of the particular salt formed depends on (i) the metal name, which
becomes the first part of salt name, and (ii) the acid e.g. H2SO4 sulphuric acid on
neutralisation makes a ... sulphate; HCl hydrochloric acid makes a ... chloride; HNO3 nitric
acid makes a nitrate etc.

NOTE (b)**: There is a list of compound formulae and their solubility at the bottom of
the page. The first part of the salt name is ammonium derived from ammonia (with metals
or their compounds the metal retains its original name), but the second part of the salt
name is always derived from the acid as in NOTE (a) above.

NOTE (c): Ammonia is an alkaline gas that is very soluble in water. It is a weak alkali or
soluble base and is readily neutralised by acids in solution to form ammonium salts which can
be crystallised on evaporating the resulting solution. Sometimes the equations are written
with the 'fictitious' 'ammonium hydroxide'

e.g. NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

NOTE (d): There are more equations at the end and an extensive structured question
on acid reaction equations.

(5) Some important reactions of Bases (alkali = soluble base)

• Neutralisation with acids is dealt with above.

• Ammonium salts are decomposed when mixed with a base e.g. the alkali sodium
hydroxide.
o e.g. sodium hydroxide + ammonium chloride ==> sodium chloride + water +
ammonia
o NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
 o The ammonia is readily detected by its
pungent odour (strong smell) and by turning
damp red litmus blue.
o The ionic equation is: NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) ==>
H2O(l) + NH3(l)
o This reaction can be used to prepare
ammonia gas and as a simple chemical test
for an ammonium salt (see also the
"Chemical Tests" and "Gas Preparation-
Collection" pages).
• Use of limestone and lime to control soil acidity is dealt with in the 1st section
on the Extra Industrial Chemistry page.
• Alkali's (soluble bases) are used to produce the insoluble hydroxide precipitates
of many metal ions from their soluble salt solutions.
o e.g. sodium hydroxide + copper(II) sulphate ==> sodium sulphate +
copper(II) hydroxide
o 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) a blue precipitate
o ionically: Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s)
o This reaction can be used as a simple test to help identify certain metal
ions.
 See "Chemical Tests" page.
• Aqueous solutions of alkalis like sodium hydroxide ('caustic soda') and calcium
hydroxide ('limewater') react with the acidic gas carbon dioxide to form
carbonate compounds if the gas is bubbled into their solutions.
o sodium hydroxide + carbon dioxide ==> sodium carbonate + water
 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) ==> Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
 This reaction can be used to remove carbon dioxide gas from a
mixture of gases.
o calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide ==> calcium carbonate + water
 Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ==> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 The formation of the white precipitate of calcium carbonate is used
as a test for the gas carbon dioxide.

(6) Two Methods of making Salts which are water soluble

METHOD (a) Neutralising an acid with a soluble base e.g. the hydroxide of an alkali
metal like sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution. Steps (1) to (3) below is called a
titration.

(1) A known volume of acid is pipetted into a conical flask and universal indicator added.
The acid is titrated with the alkali from the burette.
 (2) The acid is added until the indicator turns green, pH 7 neutral.
This means all the acid has been neutralised to form the salt

(3) The volume of alkali needed for neutralisation is then noted, this is called the
endpoint volume. (1)-(3) are repeated with both known volumes mixed together BUT
without the contaminating universal indicator.

(4) The solution is transferred to an evaporating dish and heated to partially evaporate the
water causing crystallisation or can be left to slowly evaporate - which tends to give bigger
and better crystals.

(5) The residual liquid can be decanted away and the crystals can be carefully collected
and dried by 'dabbing' with a filter paper OR the crystals can be collected by filtration
(below) and dried (as above).

Note (i) You can put the acid in the burette and the alkali in the flask.

(ii) Parts (1) to (3) are known specifically as an acid-base (alkali) titration, and the general
method is known as a volumetric titration by which it possible to find out exactly what
volume ratios are needed for neutralisation. So knowing one concentration, you can calculate
the other.

(iii) Concentration calculations are on other pages sections 11. and 12.

(iv) Apparatus used: (1) pipette and conical flask; (2)-(3) burette and conical flask; (4)
evaporating (crystallising) dish, bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (5) filter paper.

(v) Other indicators e.g. phenolphthalein can be used instead (pink alkaline, colourless acid).

(vi) The burette and pipette are both used for the accurate measurement of volume.

(vii) The pH changes in this preparation are described in section (7).

METHOD (b) Reacting an acid with a metal or with an insoluble base e.g. an insoluble
metal oxide, hydroxide or carbonate, often of a Group 2 metal like calcium, magnesium
or a Transition Metal like iron, zinc or copper. Copper metal won't dissolve in acids, but
its oxide and carbonate will.

(1) The required volume of acid is measured out into the beaker with a measuring cylinder.
The metal, oxide, hydroxide or carbonate is weighed out and the solid added in small
portions to the acid in the beaker with stirring.

(2) The mixture may be heated to speed up the reaction. When no more of the solid
dissolves it means ALL the acid is neutralised and there should be a little excess solid.
 (3) The hot solution (with care!) is filtered to remove the excess
solid metal/oxide/carbonate, into an evaporating dish.

(4) The hot solution is left to cool and crystallise. Then collect and
dry the crystals with a filter paper.

Note (i) Apparatus used: (1) balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and
glass stirring rod. (2) beaker/rod, bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (3)-
(4) filter funnel and filter paper, evaporating (crystallising) dish.

(ii) A measuring cylinder is adequate for measuring the acid volume, you do not need the
accuracy of a pipette or burette required in method (a).

(iii) How to calculate amounts required and % yield is dealt with in Chemical Calculations
Part 14.

More on other methods of making salts on the "Extra Aqueous Chemistry" page.

(7) What pH changes go on in a neutralisation reaction?

The graphs show how the pH changes when an alkali (soluble base) and an acid
neutralise each other and what you see visually using universal indicator (univ. ind.).

This what is happening in the salt preparation method (a) above. Note: you can prepare a
salt by doing the acid-alkali addition either way round but in either case the volume of acid
or alkali needed for neutralisation = the volume reading X at pH 7 (univ. ind. green).

Red graph line: If you add acid to an alkali (univ. ind. = blue), the pH starts at about 13 and
only falls little at first as the colour changes from purple ==> blue. Then the pH falls much
more steeply as the indicator colour changes from 'bluey' green ==> dark green ==> pale
green. The solution is then neutralised at pH 7. This is the point where the salt is 100%
formed. With further addition of excess acid, the pH falls and then levels out to about pH 1
as the colour changes further from green ==> yellow ==> orange.

Blue graph line: If you add alkali to an acid (univ. ind. = red), the pH starts at about 1 and
only rises a little at first with the colour still quite red. Then on further addition of alkali
the pH rises more sharply as the colour changes from red ==> orange ==> yellow and
eventually at the neutralisation point at pH 7 the univ. ind. is green. This is the point where
the salt is 100% formed. With excess alkali the pH continues to rise and then levels out to
about 13 as the indicator colour changes through dark green ==> blue ==> purple.

Universal indicator, and most other acid-base indicators, work for strong acid and
alkali titrations, but universal indicator is a somewhat crude indicator for other acid-alkali
titrations because it gives such a range of colours for different pH's. Examples of more
accurate and 'specialised' indicators are:

• titrating a strong alkali with a strong acid (or vice versa):

o e.g. for sodium hydroxide (NaOH) - hydrochloric/sulphuric acid (HCl/H2SO4)
titrations, use ...
o phenolphthalein indicator (pink in alkali, colourless in acid-neutral solutions),
the end-point is the pink <==> colourless change.
o Litmus works too, the end point is the red <==> purple/blue colour change.
• titrating a weak alkali with a strong acid:
o e.g. for titrating ammonia (NH3) with hydrochloric/sulfuric acid
(HCl/H2SO4), use ...
o methyl orange indicator (red in acid, yellowish-orange in neutral-acid), the
end-point is an 'orange' colour, not easy to see accurately.
o screened methyl orange indicator is a slightly different dye-indicator
mixture that is reckoned to be easier to see than methyl orange, the end-
point is a sort of 'greyish orange', but still not easy to do accurately.
• titrating a weak acid with a strong alkali:
o e.g. for titrating ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
use ...
o phenolphthalein indicator (pink in alkali, colourless in acid-neutral solutions,
pink in alkali), the end-point is the first permanent pink.
o methyl red indicator (red in acid, yellow in neutral-alkaline), the end-point is
'orange'.
• titrating a weak acid with a weak alkali (or vice versa):
o These are NOT practical titrations because the pH changes at the end-
point are not great enough to give a sharp colour change with any indicator.
• Section (2) lists common indicators.
• Acid-alkali titration calculations for GCSE students.
• The theory, and examples of strong/weak acids/alkalis (soluble bases) are described
on the