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in
Electrical Engineering
Submitted by
J. G. Chaudhari
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Success is the manifestation of
perseverance, inspiration and motivation. We,
the projectees, ascribe our success in this
venture to J.G. Chaudhari, project guide. His
endeavor for perfection, indefatigable zeal and
enthusiasm, foresight and innovation
contributed in a big way in the successful
completion of this project within the estimated
time. This work is a reflection of his ideas and
concept and above all his sincere interest.
………..Projectees
INDEX
CHAPTE TITLE PAGE
R NO.
NO.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 4
3 MAIN COMPONENT 6
3.1 Electronic Energy Meter 7
3.2 Digital Pulse Generator 11
3.3 Microcontroller (IC 89C2051) 13
3.4 RF Transmitter 18
3.5 Implemented Model For RF 21
Transmitter
3.6 RF Receiver 22
3.7 Implemented Model For RF 25
Receiver
4 WIRELESS ENERGY CONTROL UNIT 26
5 RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION 29
6 POWER SUPPLY REQUIRMENTS 35
7 OTHER COMPONENTS 40
7.1 ATMEL 553 (AT 24C08A) 41
7.2 Voltage Regulator 43
7.3 Crystal Oscillator 44
7.4 Transistor 46
7.5 Resistor 49
7.6 Capacitor 50
7.7 Zener Diode 52
8 ADVANTAGES 54
9 LIMITATIONS 55
10 APPLICATIONS 56
11 CONCLUSION 57
12 FUTURE SCOPE 58
13 REFRENCES 59
14 APPENDIX 61
CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
Power sector players have made many efforts and spent considerable
money and resources in formulating strategies for improving collection
efficiency, however, these have seldom yielded encouraging results.
Metering is one of the major technical issues impacting the collection
efficiency of power companies. Currently, only a few percent of power
meters installed in India are electronic and rest are electromechanical.
The demand for electrical energy is ever increasing. Today over 21%
(theft apart!!) of the total electrical energy generated in India is lost in
transmission (4-6%) and distribution (15-18%). The electrical power deficit
in the country is currently about 18%. Clearly, reduction in distribution
losses can reduce this deficit significantly. It is possible to bring down the
distribution losses to a 6-8 % level in India with the help of newer
technological options (including information technology) in the electrical
power distribution sector which will enable better monitoring and control.
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R e la y -1
C o n ta c t
+5V
R e la y
C o n ta c t
P
In E L E C T R O N IC O ut LO A
P ut EN ER G Y M E TER Put D
N
1K H z
S IG N A L
G E N ER A TO R
CHAPTER - 2
R e la y - 1 A n te n n a
D IG IT A L
D IG IT A L
+12 V P U LS E
D IS P L A Y
G EN E R A TO R
T R A N S M IT T E R
BLOCK DIAGRAM A n te n n a
M IC R O - R E C E IV E R
C LEVE R C A R D LA TC H
C O N TR O LLE R
R e la y
P
P O W ER +12 V
In p u t SU P PLY +5 V LC D S IG N A L
230 V U N IT +12 V P A N EL A M P L IF IE R
N
A LA R M
M IC R O TR A G G ER
A LA R M
C O N TR O LLE R C IR C U IT
K E YB O A R D
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2.1 Working:
The supply is given to the input side of analog energy meter and
output connected to the load side. Analog meter is interface with
microcontroller (IC 89C2051). When load is on energy meter consumes
certain amount of energy. The number of unit consumed by the load is
shown by LED and with the help of digital pulse generator this analog signal
from led is fed to the microcontroller. Then this LED signal fed to
transmitter via ATMEL 553 timer IC in the for of digital signal (0, 1).
Crystal oscillator is used to generate the high value of frequency for IC
operation, due to higher value of frequency (24 MHZ) the digital signal fed
to transmitter circuit and transmitter circuit sends this signal via antenna to
the receiver circuit. At receiver circuit the signal is received and fed to the
signal generator with the help of carrier frequencies with suitable value.
…5…
CHAPTER - 3
MAIN COMPONENTS
RF Transmitter
RF Receiver
…6…
…7…
ENERGY- drives the world- the masculine, the feminine and the
neuter all in all. Though energy can be of different forms like electrical.
Which are interring convertible using the technologies in hand.
…8…
3.1.2 ADVANTAGES:
Electronic energy meter are quite compact as compared to analog
meter.
Electronic meter give quite good dynamic response much better than
electro mechanical type instrument for fluctuating loading condition.
Electronic meter have less aging problem, as these are static device
and do not contain any rotary part.
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…11…
NLTL-based pulse generators generally have lower jitter, but are more
complex to manufacture, and are not suited for integration in low-cost
monolithic ICs. A new class of microwave pulse generation architecture, the
RACE (Rapid Automatic Cascade Exchange) pulse generation circuit, is
implemented using low-cost monolithic IC technology and can produce
pulses as short as 1picoseconds, and with a repetition rates exceeding 30
billion pulses per second. These pulsars are typically used in military
communications applications, and low-power microwave transceiver ICs.
Pulse generators are generally voltage sources, with true current pulse
generators being available only from a few suppliers.
These pulses can then be injected into a device under test and used as
a stimulus or clock signal or analyzed as they progress through the device,
confirming the proper operation of the device or pinpointing a fault in the
device. Pulse generators are also used to drive devices such as switches,
lasers and optical components, modulators, intensifiers as well as resistive
loads. The output of a pulse generator may also be used as the modulation
signal for a signal generator.
…12…
3.3.1 DESCRIPTION:
The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit
microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read-only
memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density
nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard
MCS-51 instruction set.
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…14…
Speed of operation.
The Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7
provide internal pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pull-ups. P1.0 and
P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1),
respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1 out-put
buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are
written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are
used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups.
…15…
Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-directional I/O pins with
internal pull-ups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip
comparator and is not accessible as a gen-eral-purpose I/O pin. The Port 3
output buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,
Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the pull-ups.
RST (Pin 1)
Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes high. Holding
the RST pin high for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device. Each machine cycle takes 12 oscillator or clock cycles.
XTAL1 (Pin 5)
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
XTAL2 (Pin 4)
…16…
The XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an
inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator,
as shown in Figure 5-1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be
used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be
left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 5-2. There are
no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the
input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop,
but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must
be observed.
Fig.1 Oscillator Connections Fig.2 External Clock Drive Configuration
…17…
3.4 RF TRANSMITTER:
3.4.1 Working:
…18…
3.4.2 FEATURE:
Low Cost
3.6 RF RECEIVER:
3.6.1 OPERATION:
RF Receiver allows users to easily receive serial data, robot control,
or other information wirelessly. When paired with the matched RF
TRANSMITTER, reliable wireless communication is as effortless as
sending serial data. The power-down (PDN) pin may be used to place the
module into a low power state (active low), or left floating (it is tied high
internally).
Short for Radio Frequency, RF refers to the frequencies that fall
within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave
propagation. When applied to an antenna.
…21…
RF current creates electromagnetic fields that propagate the applied
signal through space. Any RF field has a wavelength that is inversely
proportional to the frequency. This means that the frequency of an RF signal
is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the field received signal
strength indicator.
This line will supply an analog voltage that is proportional to the strength of
the received signal. When initiating communication between the RF
modules, a sync pulse should be sent to re-establish the radio connection
between the modules. Sending several characters can accomplish this,
however sending a pulse (which maintains a high state during the
synchronization) is more efficient.
Suppose I have a little device capable of emitting a beep sound. It's
just a little box, with a loudspeaker and an on/off switch. When you turn the
switch on, the device emits a continuous beep sound. When you turn the
switch off, the device becomes silent. This device is an emitter. Secondly,
suppose I have another little device capable of hearing the beep sound.
When you turn the emitter switch on, the lamp of the receiver begins
to glow. When you turn the switch of the emitter off, the lamp of the
receiver darkens. And so on. If the receiver has been build a basic way, then
the distance over which the communication works will be a few meters or a
few tens of meters. If you put the receiver, say 50 meters away of the
emitter, then there will be no more communication. When you turn the
switch of the emitter on, the lamp of the receiver will not begin to glow. But,
if you build a long distance receiver, then the Distance may be a lot more
than 50 meters.
…22…
But, after 1 kilometer walking away, the long distance receiver still
manages to hear the sound of the emitter. Amazingly, the communication
works.
A device is added to the receiver to make him listen as much as
possible only to the signal coming from the direction of the emitter. That's
what you do when you put your hands back your ears to hear better a weak
sound. The device best known is again the parabolic antenna, but there are a
lot of other ways to achieve directivity. Like using several antennas and
adding their signals. The bigger the device, the more directivity you get. A
parabolic antenna acts for radio waves just like a solar oven acts for the
sunlight, concentrating what it receives on one given point.
You can imagine for sure that making a receiver work in a noisy
environment reduces its performances. But a receiver also produces its own
"internal noise" every electronic component inside a receiver produces a
noise. That's why those components must be carefully choose or
manufactured to produce the less possible noise.
Increase the electric tension of the signal send into the antenna. Just
like a lamp would glow lighter or a loudspeaker would give louder
sound, an antenna will broadcast more powerful radio waves.
Increase the length of the antenna. The more the length is increased,
the littler becomes the impedance. Thus, the more current goes trough
the antenna and the more power is consumed an emitted as radio
waves. If you double the length of the antenna, you half the resistance
and thus you emit two times more power. Attention: once the antenna
becomes longer than half the wave length you get a disturbing
directivity. That's why half the wave length is the common length for
an antenna. Longer Antennas may emit no more power in the
direction of the receiver and thus give the impression they emit less
energy which is false (hence the illusion an antenna is a resonating
device, which is false too).
3.6.2 FEATURES:
High – speed data RECEIVE rates.
SIP header allows for ease of use.
Compatible with all BASIC Stamp modules SX chips.
AS easy to use as simple SEROUT/SERIN PBASIC instruction
Power – down mode for conservative energy usage (longer battery
life)
Line – of – sight range of 500 feet (or greater depending on
conditions)
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CHAPTER - 4
…28…
CHAPTER - 5
RADIO FREQUENCY
IDENTIFICATION
The object of any RFID system is to carry data in suitable
transponders, generally known as tags, and to retrieve data, by machine-
readable means, at a suitable time and place to satisfy particular application
needs. Data within a tag may provide identification for an item in
manufacture, goods in transit, a location, the identity of a vehicle, an animal
or individual. By including additional data the prospect is provided for
supporting applications through item specific information or instructions
immediately available on reading the tag. For example, the color of paint for
a car body entering a paint spray area on the production line, the set-up
instructions for a flexible manufacturing cell or the manifest to accompany a
shipment of goods.
A system requires, in addition to tags, a means of reading or
interrogating the tags and some means of communicating the data to a host
computer or information management system. A system will also include a
facility for entering or programming data into the tags, if this is not
undertaken at source by the manufacturer. Quite often an antenna is
distinguished as if it were a separate part of an RFID system. While its
importance justifies the attention it must be seen as a feature that is present
in both readers and tags, essential for the communication between the two.
…29…
…32…
Basically, tags may be used to carry:
Identifiers, in which a numeric or alphanumeric string is stored for
identification purposes or as an access key to data stored elsewhere
in a computer or information management system.
Portable data files, in which information can be organized, for
communication or as a means of initiating actions without recourse
to, or in combination with, data stored elsewhere.
In terms of data capacity tags can be obtained that satisfy needs from
single bit to kilobits. The single bit devices are essentially for surveillance
purposes. Retail electronic article surveillance (EAS) is the typical
application for such devices, being used to activate an alarm when detected
in the interrogating field. They may also be used in counting applications.
Devices characterized by data storage capacities up to 128 bits are
sufficient to hold a serial or identification number together, possibly, with
parity check bits. Such devices may be manufacturer or user programmable.
Tags with data storage capacities up to 512 bits, are invariably user
programmable, and suitable for accommodating identification and other
specific data such as serial numbers, package content, key process
instructions or possibly results of earlier interrogation/response transactions.
Tags characterized by data storage capacities of around 64 kilobits
may be regarded as carriers for portable data files. With increased capacity
the facility can also be provided for organizing data into fields or pages that
may be selectively interrogated during the reading process.
…33…
5.6 STANDARDIZATION:
If the unique advantages and flexibility of RFID is the good news,
then the proliferation of incompatible RFID standards is the corresponding
bad news. All major RFID vendors offer proprietary systems, with the result
that various applications and industries have standardized on different
vendors’ competing frequencies and protocols. The current state of RFID
standards is severe disarray - standards based on incompatible RFID systems
exist for rail, truck, air traffic control, and tolling authority usage. The US
Intelligent Transportation System and the US Department of Defense (DOD)
Total Asset Visibility system are among other special-interest applications.
The lack of open systems interchangeability has severely crippled
RFID industry growth as a whole, and the resultant technology price
reductions that come with broad-based inter-industry use. However, a
number of organizations have been working to address and hopefully bring
about some commonality among competing RFID systems, both in the U.S.
and in Europe where RFID has made greater market inroads. Meanwhile in
the U.S.A., ANSI’s X3T6 group, comprising major RFID manufacturers and
users, is currently developing a draft document based systems’ operation at a
carrier frequency of 2.45 GHz, which it is seeking to have adopted by ISO.
ISO has already adopted international RFID standards for animal tracking,
ISO 11784 and 11785.
…34…
CHAPTER - 6
…36…
However this is often not desirable for practical/ergonomic reasons
and a compromise may need to be reached. If an internal antenna must be
used try to keep it away from other metal components and pay particular
attention to the “hot” end (i.e. the far end), as this is generally the most
susceptible to detuning. The space around the antenna is as important as the
antenna itself.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers tend to radiate significant
amounts of radio frequency hash, which can cause desensitization of the
receiver if its antenna is in close proximity. 900MHz region is generally less
prone to this effect than lower frequencies, but problems can still arise.
Things become worse as logic speeds increase, because fast logic edges are
capable of generating harmonics across the UHF range which are then
radiated effectively by the PCB tracking. In extreme cases system range can
be reduced by a factor of 3 or more. To minimize any adverse effects, situate
the antenna and module as far as possible from any such circuitry and keep
PCB track lengths to the minimum possible. A ground plane can be highly
effective in cutting radiated interference and its use is strongly
recommended.
A simple test for interference is to monitor the receiver RSSI output
voltage, which should be the same regardless of whether the microcontroller
or other logic circuitry is running or in reset.
Integral antennas generally do not perform as well as externally
mounted types, however they result in physically compact equipment and
are the preferred choice for portable applications. The following can be
recommended.
…37…
Helical: This is a compact but slightly less effective antenna formed
from a coil of wire. It is very efficient for its size, but has high Q and tends
to suffer badly from detuning caused by proximity to nearby conductive
objects. It needs to be carefully trimmed for best performance in a given
situation and the required dimensional tolerances can be difficult to achieve
repeatable, nevertheless it can provide a very compact solution.
Loop: A loop of PCB track, tuned and matched with 2 capacitors.
Loops are relatively inefficient but have good immunity to proximity
detuning, so may be preferred in shorter range applications where very high
component packing density is necessary.
External antennas have several advantages if portability is not an
issue. They can be optimized for individual circumstances and may be
mounted in relatively good RF locations away from sources of interference,
being connected to the equipment by coax feeder. Apart from the usual
whips, helicals etc, low-profile types such as microstrip patches can be very
effective at these frequencies. Suitable antennas are available from many
different sources and are generally supplied pre-tuned to the required
frequency.
…38…
Integral Antenna Configuration
…39…
CHAPTER - 7
OTHER COMPONENTS
ATMEL 553(AT24C08A)
Crystal Oscillator
Transistor
Resistor
Capacitor
Zener Diode
…40…
…41…
High reliability.
…42…
commo
…43…
t
A miniature 4 MHz quartz crystal enclosed in an hermetically sealed
HC-49/US package, used as the resonator in a crystal oscillator.
…44…
Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are
typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very
precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a
quartz crystal.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size
change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be
very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration
and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes)1
Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size,
will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or
oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator
is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and
can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external
mechanical vibrations. Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for
frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two
billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small devices
for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, and cell phones.
…45…
7.4 TRANSISTOR:
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION:
7.4.2 IMPORTANCE:
…46…
It is the key active component in practically all modern electronics.
Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass produced
using a highly automated process (fabrication) that achieves vanishingly low
per-transistor costs.
…47…
7.4.3 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL:
The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge) and some high power
types still are. Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced
microwave and high performance versions now employ the compound
semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor
alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge
and Si) is described as elemental.
150 to 200
GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200
7.5 RESISTOR:
Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object
opposes an electric current through it, measured in ohms. Its reciprocal
quantity is electrical conductance measured in siemens. Assuming a uniform
current density, an object's electrical resistance is a function of both its
physical geometry and the resistivity of the material it is made from:
Where,
…49…
7.6 CAPACITOR:
A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric
field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing
energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges
of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate.
7.6.1 CAPACITANCE:
The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge
(Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which
appears between the plates.
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…51…
…52…
7.7.1 USES:
Zener diodes are widely used to regulate the voltage across a circuit.
When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is
reverse biased, a zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's
reverse breakdown voltage. From that point it keeps the voltage at that
value.
…53…
CHAPTER - 8
ADVANTAGES
Combined hardware & software package used for automated
monitoring.
Energy data is presented in a clear format which highlights west full
practices & areas for improved energy efficiency.
Easy to use energy reporting tool that allows daily, weekly & weekly
energy cost consumption to be analyzed.
Smart automated processes instead of manual work.
Accurate information from the network load to optimize maintenance
and investments.
Customize rates and billing dates.
Better network performance and cost efficiency & Theft
identification.
BENEFITS OF WIRELESS ENERGY METER:
…54…
CHAPTER - 9
LIMITATIONS
Noise interference & distortion are the sources of data corruption.
CHAPTER - 10
APPLICATIONS
…56…
CHAPTER - 11
CONCLUSION
Wireless communication is implemented, so that the consumed energy
information can be transmitted to a centralized monitoring station
through a F.M. transmitter & FM receiver.
…57…
CHAPTER - 12
FUTURE SCOPE
If consumer may try to tamper the meter by shorting the relay
contacts, the receiver receives more pulse than the credit, immediately
alarm energizes at receiver.
CHAPTER - 13
REFRENCES
L-Li, Ju Halpem, “Wireless Energy Meter, concepts & applications”
ICC-2001, IEEE International conference on 2001.
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