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MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES
2.1 CHAINS
Chain surveying:
Survey for taking only linear measurements with the help of chain.
2.1.1 Principle of chain surveying
The principle of chain surveying is to divide the area into a number of triangles of suitable sides.
2.1.2 Suitability of chain surveying
Chain surveying is most suitable in the following cases:
i) when the ground is fairly level and open with simple details.
ii) When large scale plans are required such as those for a factory site.
iii) When the area is comparatively small in extent.
2.1.3 Unsuitability of Chain Surveying
Chain surveying is unsuitable in the following cases:
i) It is unsuitable for large areas
ii) It is unsuitable for areas crowded with many details
iii) It is unsuitable for wooded countries
iv) It is unsuitable for undulating areas
2.1.4 The various types of chains are:
i) Metric Chains
It consists of 20 m or 30 m in length chain and is divided into 100 or 150 links respectively. Each
link measures 0.2 cm or 0.3 cm.
ii) Gunters chain or surveyors chains
It consists of 66 ft. length chain and is divided into 100 links. Each links measures 0.66 ft/
iii) Engineers Chain
It is 100 ft length chain and is divided into 100 links each link measures 1 ft.
iv) Revenue Chain
It consists of 33 ft. length chain and is divided into 16 links.

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2.2 TAPES
Tapes are used for more accurate measurements.
2.2.1 The classifications of tapes according to the material used are:
i) Cloth or linen tape
ii) Metallic tape
iii) Steel tape
iv) Invar tape (alloy of 34% nickel and 64% steel) low thermal expansion.

2.3 Technical terms

While carrying out linear measurements with the help of chain or tape, it is essential to understand
the following terms:
i) Base Line
The longest line and the most important line.
Care must be taken to measure this line accurately.
It must pass through the center of the area to be surveyed.
Base line must be chosen on flat ground.
ii) Tie Line
Line joining the Auxiliary survey stations on the main survey lines.
It enables to locate the interior details that are far away from the main lines.
iii) Check Lines.
Also called proof Lines are the lines which joins some fixed points on any two side of a triangles.
It enables to check whether the survey lines transferred from the ground to the paper are correct
or not.
iv) Offsets
Lateral measurements taken with respect to main survey lines to collect details like corners of
buildings, road fences etc. are called offsets.

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Types of Offsets
a) Perpendicular offsets
b) Oblique offsets.
Perpendicular Offsets
When the lateral measurements for fixing details/ points are made perpendicular to the chain line.
Methods of erecting perpendicular offsets:
I) By making use of measuring tape
a) By swing offsets
b) By 3-4-5 method

II) By making use of instruments.

a) Cross staff
b) Optical staff
Oblique Offset
When the lateral measurements for fixing detail points are made at any angles to the main line.
2.4 Ranging
Establishment of intermediate points in between two terminal stations, when the length of the line
exceeds the length of the chain is known as ranging.
2.4.1 Methods of ranging:
i) Direct ranging
ii) Indirect ranging
Direct Ranging:
When the two ends of the survey lines are indivisible, direct ranging is possible.
It can be done by:
a) Eye Estimation
b) Theodolite
c) Line ranger

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Ranging by eye estimation

Procedure:
i) Let A and B be the two points at the end of the survey line.
ii) Erect intermediate point D approximately in line with A and B.
iii) From about half a meter or meter from A guide the point D exactly in line with A and B.

Indirect or reciprocal ranging

When both the ends of the survey lines are not indivisible due to high intervening ground or due
to long distances between them reciprocal ranging is adopted.

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Procedure:
i)
Select two intermediate points M1 and N1 near the chain line such that from M1 both N1
and B are visible and from N1 both M1 and A are visible.
ii)
The person at M1 directs the person at N1 to move to N2 in line with M1B.
iii)
The person at N2 directs the person at M1 to move to M2 in line with N2A
iv)
Now two persons are at M2 and N2.
v)
The same procedure is repeated till points M and N are located so that person at M finds
the person at N in line with MB and person at N finds the person at M in line with NA.
vi)
Finally other points can be fixed by direct ranging.
2.4.2 Code of Signals for ranging
Signal by Surveyor
1. Right arm extended
2. Rapid sweep with right hand.
3. Slow sweep with right hand
4. Right arm up and move to the right
5. Left arm extended
6. Rapid swift with left hand
7. Slow swift with left hand
8. Both hands above head
9. Both arms extended forward horizontally

Action by Assistance
Continue to move to the right
Move considerably to the right
Move slowly to the right
Plumb the rod to the right
Continue to move to the left
Move considerably to left
Move slowly to the left
Correct
Fix the rod

Chaining on uneven or Sloping ground

Chaining on sloping ground gives the sloping distance between the points o the measurements are
reduced to their horizontal equivalents to plot as plan.

Method of determining the horizontal distance along sloping ground

1) Direct Method
Adopted when slope is not very steep
Measured by the process of steeping
Procedure:
i) The follower holds the zero end of the chain at point A and the leader holds the chain at
suitable distance Aa1 stretching it horizontally.
ii) Range the leader in line with B
iii) After ranging, transfer the point a1 by plumb-bob and mark the point a2 on the ground
iv) The leader holding the chain or tape moves forward till follower comes at point a2.

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v) Stretch the chain horizontally up to a convenient length a2a3, again point a3 is transferred
on the ground and the same process is continued till the desired length of chaining.
vi) Finally the total length is equal to L1 + L2 + L3 + -----------L5.

2) Indirect method of chaining on sloping ground

When the slope of the ground is steep and uniform, distances can be measured more accurately
along the surface of the ground by measuring the angle of the slope with the help angular
measuring instruments. The measured distance is later reduced to their horizontal equivalents by
calculation.
Example:

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If L1 and L2 etc are the measured slope lengths and if 1 and 2 etc are etc are the respective angles
of slopes from the horizontal.
The horizontal distance
D1
= L1 Cos (1) and D2 = L2 Cos (2)
Therefore D = D1 + D2
= L1 Cos (1) + L2 Cos (2)

1) By measuring the level difference between two points with the help of leveling instruments.

If h is the level difference between point A and B

L2 = D2 + h2
Therefore D = Sq.Root of L2 - h2

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Method of overcoming obstacles in chaining

Obstacles in changing may be classified as under:
1. Obstacles, which obstruct ranging but not chaining.
2. Obstacles, which obstruct chaining but not ranging.
3. Obstacles, which obstruct both ranging and chaining.
1. Obstacles, which obstruct ranging but not chaining.
In this types of obstacles, end of a chain lines are not inter visible.
Normally encountered at undulating/ rising grounds or when the distance between two points
are being too large.
a) When ends are visible from intermediate points on the chain lines By reciprocal ranging.
b) When ends are not visible from any intermediate point on the chain line.
When the end stations are not visible from any intermediate point random line method is used.
This method is suitable for ranging a line across forests and wooded areas where vision is
obstructed.
1) Let AB be a line to be ranged, which is intervened by vegetation, Estimate approximately the
direction of the station B from A.
2) Run a random line AB in the estimated direction and measure it. Fix intermediate direction
points such as C and D
3) Continue ranging until station B is visible.
4) Measure a perpendicular offset BB on AB
5)
2
+ (BB)2
6) Calculate the perpendicular offsets CC and DD, which are equal to (AC/AB) x BB and
(AD/AB) x BB respectively.
7) Lay out the perpendicular offsets equal to their calculated values from C and D
8) Locate the number of points on the line AB. Clear the line from vegetation for accurate ranging
in-between.

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2. Obstacles, which obstruct chaining but not ranging

The obstructions are normally due to large water bodies like lakes, ponds, river etc.
Normally two cases may arise in such situations where;
It is possible to chain round the obstacle.
It is not possible to chain around the obstacle.
Chaining around the obstacles possible
By constructing a rectangle.
At A and B, erect perpendicular AD & BC of equal lengths, measure DC which is equal
to desire length AB.

ii) By constructing a right angled triangle ABC having 90o.

Erect perpendicular AC such that CB is clear of obstacle, measured AC & CB.
AB =((BC)2 (AC)2)1/2

iii) By constructing a right angled triangle ABC having 90o angle at C as follows:
Fix two points A and B. From point C erect perpendicular, such that angle ACB is right
angle, ensuring AC and BC are clear of the obstacle. Measure distances AC and AB.
AB = ((AC)2 + (BC)2)1/2
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iv) By construction of similar triangles

Fix a point C clear of the obstacle. Range point D in line with AC such that AC = CD.
Range another point E in line with BC such that BC = CE. Measure ED, which is equal to
AB.

Chaining round the Obstacle not possible

i) By constructing similar triangle
From Point A and C erect perpendiculars AD and CE such that points B,D and E are in a
straight line. Measure AC, AD and CE.
AB = [(AC.AD/CE-AD)]

ii) By setting out perpendiculars

Set out a perpendicular AC. Mark the mid point E on AC. Set out another perpendicular
CD at C such that points B, E and D lie in one straight line. Then AB = CD.

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iii) By Constructing right angle triangles

Erect a perpendicular AC to the chain line DB. Find a point D on the chain line such that
Angle DCB is 90o. Measure AC and AD.
AB = (AC)2/AD.

iv) By Constructing a parallelogram

Let ABC be the chain line. Set out a line BE roughly parallel to the river. Extend CE to F
and establish the mid point H of BF. Extend EH to G such that EH = HG. Extend FG to cut
the line AC at D. Measure GD and BD.
BC = (BD x BE)/DG.

Obstacles, which obstruct both ranging and chaining

Prolonging the line beyond the obstacle and finding the distance across it can overcome the
obstacle.
Method 1.
From points A and B on chain lines, erect equal perpendiculars AC and BD. Range G and H in
line with C and D. Set out GE and HF perpendicular to CH and equal to AC. E & F are on chain
line and BE = DG.
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Method 2.
Erect a perpendicular AC. Mark a point B on the chain line such that AC = AB. Produce BC to D.
Set out right angle BDF. Measure DE equal to CD and EF equal to BC. From E and F swing two
radii equal to AC to get the location of G. Points G and F are along the chain line. Measure CE to
get the length AG.
Method 3.
By swinging a tape, construct an equilateral triangle ABC. Produce BC to D such that CD = 2BC
and mark the mid point of CD at E. An equilateral triangle DEF is constructed and the side DF is
produced so that FG = BE and mid point K of FG located. Mark H by intersection of two arcs of
radius AB with K and G as centers. Then AH = AB and HG is along the chain line.

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Error in chaining
The errors that generally occur in chaining are classified under two categories as:1) Cumulative errors
2) Compensative errors
Cumulative errors.
The errors, which occur in the same direction and tend to accumulate or to add up are called
cumulative errors. Such errors make the apparent measurements always either too long or too
short.
a) Positive Cumulative errors.
Those errors, which make the measured lengths more than the actual, are known as positive
cumulative errors. These are caused in the following situations:
1) The length of the chain or tape is shorter than its standard length due to:
i)
Bending of the links
ii)
Removal of too many rings during adjustment of the length.
iii)
Knots in the connecting links.
iv)
The field temperature lower then that at which the tape was calibrated.
v)
Shrinkage of the tape when moist.
vi)
Clogging of rings with mud.
2) The slope correction ignored while measuring along the sloping ground.
3) The sag correction, if not applied, when the chain or tape is suspended at its ends.
4) Incorrect alignment.
5)Working in windy weather, when the tape bellys out.
b) Negative Cumulative Errors.
The errors, which make the measured lengths less than the actual, are known as negative
cumulative errors. These are caused in the following situation:
The length of the chain or tape is shorter than its standard length due to:
i)
Flattening of the connecting rings.
ii)
Opening of ring joints.
iii)
The Field temperature higher than that at which tape was calibrated.
2. Compensating Errors.
The errors, which are liable to occur in either direction and tend to compensate, are called
compensative errors. These are caused under the following situations:
i)
Incorrect holding of the chain.

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ii)
iii)
iv)

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The chain being not uniformly calibrated throughout its length.

Refinement is not made in plumbing during stepping method.
Chain angles are set out with a chain, which is not uniformly adjusted.

Error in measurement due to Incorrect Chain length

Due to usage of a chain over rough ground the links get elongated increasing the length of chain
or sometimes the links get bent and consequently the length gets reduced.
In general, if the chain is too long the measured distance will be less and if the chain is too short,
the measured distance will be more.
Let L be true length of the chain, L be faculty length of the chain.
1. True length to a line = (L/ L) x measured length of the line.
2. True area of a plot land = (L/L) 2 x measured area of the plot.
3. True volume of an excavation = (L/L) 3 x measured volume of the excavation.
Problem 1.
The length of a survey line measured with a 30m chain was found to be 631.5m. When the chain
was compared with standard chain it was found to be 0.10m too long. Find true length of the survey
line.
L = 30 m
L = 30.10m
Measured length of survey line = 631.5m
True length of the line =(L/L) x measured length of the line.
True length of the survey line =[(30.10/30) x 631.5] = 633.605m
Problem 2.
A 20m chain was found to be 4cm too long after chaining 1400m. It was 8cm too long at the end
of days work after chaining a total distance of 2420m. If the chain was correct before
commencement of the work, find the true distance.
Correct length of chain at commencement = 20m.
Length of chain after chaining 1400m =20.04m
Mean length while measuring =(20+20.04)/2 = 20.02m
True distance for the wrong chaining of 1400m =(20.02/ 20) x 1400 =1401.40m
The remaining distance = 2420 - 1400 = 1020m
Mean length of the chain while measuring the remaining distance
= (20.08+20.04)/2 = 20.06m
True length for remaining 1020m= (20.06/20) x 1020 =1023.06m
Hence total true distance = 1401.40+1023.06 = 2424.46m

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Problem 3.
The length of a line found to be 600m when measured with a 20 m chain. If the chain is 15 cm too
short, find out the correct length of the line.
Correct Length of the chain = 20m
Length of the chain during measurement = 19.85m
Measured length of line = 600m
Correct length of line = (19.85/20) x 600 = 595.5m

Problem 4.
The area of the certain field was measured with a 30m chain and found to be 5000m2. It was
afterwards detected that the chain was 10cm too short. What is the true area of the field?
True area = (L/L) 2 x measured area.
Here L = 29.9m
L = 30m, measured area = 5000m2.
True area = (29.9/30) 2 x 5000 = 4966.72m2
Problem 5.
At the end of the survey of a field a 30m chain was found to be 10cm too long. The area of the
plan drawn with the measurements taken with this chain is found to be 125 cm2. If the scale of the
plan is 1 cm = 10m, what is the true area of the field. Assume that the chain was exact 30m at the
commencement of the work.
Here L = 30m
Area of the plan = 125 cm2
Scale of plan 1cm = 10m
Measured area of the field = 125 x (10)2 =12,500m2
L =(30.00+30.10)/2 = 30.05m
True area of the field = (L/L) 2 x measured area
True area = (30.05/30)2 x 12500 =12541.7m2
Problem 5.
The volume of an excavation was computed from the measurements taken by 20m chain and found
to be 58,75,000m3. On the close of the work it was detected that the chain used was 5 cm too long,
whereas it was correct at the commencement of the work. Calculate the correct volume of the
excavation.

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Here L = 20 m
L = 20.05 m
Mean length of the chain = (20 + 20.05)/2 = 20.025m
Measured volume = 58,75,000m3
Correct Volume = (L/L)3 x measured volume
Correct volume of excavation = (20.05/20) 3 x 58,75,000 = 5897058.2 m3

Corrections for linear measurements

For precise measurements, the following corrections are to be made:
Correction for standard Length
Correction for alignment
Correction for slope
Correction for tension
Correction for temperature
Correction for sag
Reduction to M.S.L

1.

Correction for Standard Length

Before using a tape, its actual length is ascertained by comparing it with a standard tape of
known length. The designated nominal length of a tape is its designated length e.g. 30 m
or 100m. The absolute length of a tape is its actual length under specified conditions.
If L = measurement length of a line.
Ca = correction for absolute length.
l= Nominal length or designated length of the tape.
C = correction to be applied to the tape
Ca =(L.C/l)

2.

Correction for Alignment.

Generally a survey line is set out in a continuous straight line. Sometimes it becomes
necessary, due to obstruction to follow a bent line, which is composed of two or more
straight portions.

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+ (BC)2
NOTE: Correction for alignment is always subtracted from the measured length of
the line.
2

3.

Correction for Slope

The distance measured along the slope between two stations, is always greater than
horizontal distance between them. The difference between the slope distance and
horizontal distance is known as slope correction, which is always subtractive.

Slope correction = h2/2L

4.

Correction for Tension.

If the pull applied to the tape during measurements, is more than the pull at which it was
standardized, its length increases and hence the measured distances become less than
actual. Correction for tension is therefore positive. On the other hand, if the applied pull is
less, its length decreases and consequently the measured distances become more. The
correction for tension is negative.
If P = Pull or Tension applied in Newton (N)
A = Cross sectional area of the tape in square cm.
L = Length of the measured line.
l= Elongation of the tape.
Po =Standard pull
Correction for tension = (P-Po/AE) L where E for steel = 2.1 x 105N /mm2.

5.

Correction for Temperature.

The length of a tape increases if its temperature is raised and decreases if its temperature is
lowered. If the temperature of a tape is above normal, the correction is positive and if it is
below normal, the correction is negative.
If L = measurement length of a line.
Tm = mean temperature during measurements
To = normal temperature at standardization
-efficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
m-

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Sag Correction
When a tape is suspended from two supports in air, it assumes the shape of a catenary. The
difference between the curved length of the tape and the horizontal distance between the
supports is known as sag correction. The apparent length of the tape is too long and as such
sag correction is always negative.
If L = horizontal distance between supports
W = total weight of the tape
P = Pull
Correction for sag = L/24 (W/P) 2

7.

Reduction to M.S.L.
The measured length of a line at an altitude of h meters above mean sea level will be more
as compared with the corresponding line on the mean sea-level surface. The difference in
the length of the measured line and its equivalent length at sea level is known as an error
due to reduction to M.S.L

Correction due to reduction to M.S.L = L (h/R)

Problem 1
A
150N. Find the length of the tape if the cross section area of the tape was 2.5mm2. The co-efficient
6
and modulus of elasticity of the
5
2
material of the tape = 2.1 x 10 N/mm .
Problem 2.
A tape 100m long, 6.35mm wide, 0.5mm thick was used to measure a line, the apparent length of
which was found to be 1986.96m. The tape was standardized under a pull of 67.5N but after the
line was measured, it was found that the pull actually used during the measurement was 77.5N.
What was the true length of the line? Take E =2000000 N/mm2

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