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by
BRIAN VANNEMAN
A THESIS
Presented to the Department of History
and the Honors College of the University of Oregon
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Bachelor of arts
August 1997
11
to be taken
Bachelor of Arts
August 1997
Approved:
Professor Richard M. Brown
111
ACKNOWlEDGMENTS
are, after all, not only the product of my work but also of the advice,
guidance, and efforts of many others.
lowe thanks first to my academic advisors at the University of
Oregon.
Connie Brown of
IV
Thanks also to
Mom, Dad and Megan in San Francisco, Joy Jacobs, and my other
supportive friends.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Page
BACK TO THE LAND
The United States' Communal Movement
in the 1960s and 1970s
OREGON BOUND
Communes Migrate to the Pacific Northwest
FROM BREITENBUSH TO YELLOW SUBMARINE
An Overview of Oregon's Intentional
Communities
MAGIC FARM
A Country Commune
ALPHA FARM
An Intentional Community
and Extended Family
IN RETROSPECT
Oregon's Intentional Communities
in Historical Perspective
9
15
27
39
52
Appendix
A.
B.
Map of Oregon
An Inventory of Oregon's Utopian Communities,
Intentional Communities and Communes
Bibliography
57
58
61
"The
Valley,
IJohn Stickney, "The Commune Comes to America," Life, 18 July 1969, p. 16.
In fact,
By beginning
Alternately called
York Times estimated that two thousand communes had burst into
existence within the previous two years, while others following the
movement claimed there were as many as ten thousand.
Everyone,
however, agreed that the country had never seen the likes of the
communal movement before, for "by 1970 there were at least twice
as many rural communes
III
3
stood at the confluence of several of the decade's social
developments: activism on college campuses, the drug culture, and a
rediscovery of non-Western philosophies.
For
Images of
Students continued to
combat injustice through the middle 1960s, but it was the Vietnam
War that widened the scope of activism from a small but radical
group to include a significant percent of America's university
students.
Vietnam
with all its rules and discipline, began to seem anachronous and
phony.
within the user a euphoric vision of a new humanity that is the very
Ibid., p. 5.
t'""
4
antithesis of the Protestant Ethic psychology.,,4
camaraderie formed within the drug culture.
Moreover, a spirit of
In addition to
III
anti-
war protests were also Eastern religion devotees, but the connection
between all the movements was strong enough that a permanent
core became dissatisfied with their country.
Through a combination
Ibid., p. 6.
5
and experimented with drugs as the movement progressed.
And as
Communes,
believed those who initiated them, were the first step in applying
these values to real life.
that given, "both our despair over the social injustices endemic to our
political and economic systems, and our optimism about our own
ability to come together and create better environments in which to
live, it now seems inevitable that so many of us would try to form
communes in the late sixties and early seventies."s
Although settlements founded by members of the
counterculture comprised the bulk of the 1960s and '70s communal
movement, many different groups of people--even middle-class
Americans and devout Christians--were inspired to abandon society
and create independent communities.
6
redistributing every penny, to simply asking for small contributions
to pay for daily meals together.
shared mutual goals; they united
All searched
Some groups
III
this
All were
One long-time
Author Frances
8
rigidity of strict Victorian society, while members of the
counterculture reacted to the inflexible bureaucrats of Washington
and "square" society.
start over.
The communal movement of the late 1960s and 70s can be seen as a
sudden, sweeping social innovation, or a development rooted
time forgotten by those who took part in it.
In
No matter the
them.
II
Oregon Bound!
Communes Migrate to the Pacific Northwest
The initial area of our choice was... a beautiful area characterized by its
moderate weather and good growing season; good multi-crop agricultural
land; West Coast location but away from earthquake prone zones; excellent
educational facilities; progressive government and relatively comfortable
political climate ("flexible within a structure"); and a social climate that
seemed to be as tolerant of new ideas as any area of the United States. After
much discussion we agreed that Oregon, especially the Eugene area, was the
most propitious in the country.!
By the
following year, the group's six members had left their former home
of Philadelphia and settled in to a 280 acre farm in Deadwood,
Oregon.
As the Alpha Farm's statement suggests, Oregon was selected
as a new home for a number of reasons.
Also
"Alpha: A Prospectus,"
p. 4.
10
incorporating altruistic sharing and a rejection of straight society.
When members of the counterculture first decided to break free and
go "back to the land", many roamed north to California's Sonoma
County.
Magic Farm, Talsalsen, Shiloh Youth Revival Centers, and even the
Family of Mystic Arts were all founded by Californians, and many
other Oregon communes housed refugees from the Golden State.
In 1974, a New Yorker correspondent wrote that Oregonians,
"have laws so progressive that, by comparison, many other states
look doddering. ,,2
Tom
Oregon's bottle bill halved litter in the state, and its new
11
In an effort to make
In fact,
Although Governor
3Ibid., p. 469.
4Ibid., from "Profile: Tom McCall of Oregon"
and Affluence."
became a popular
12
bumper sticker that protested the population invasion from the
south, and communalists often could not avoid identification as
unwanted
newcomers.
was that the state had retained the same qualities most early
American pIOneers had looked for: inexpensive land and unsettled
territory.
could expect land to be priced "as low as $250 an acre," including any
pre-existing buildings on the site--and that rate was offered in one
of the states' more settled areas. 5
Oregon's land
was inexpensive due to its modest population and the low demand
for real estate.
Th e
13
sale.
keep their plates full, and Oregon's considerable winter rainfall and
sunny summer provided for that.
from within the state, others were so disorganized that they could
hardly pause to evaluate Oregon's political climate, and still others
occupied houses in urban areas where agricultural potential was
irrelevant.
Yet Oregon certainly attracted intentional communities.
As
....-----~---------
14
announced their presence.
15
III
Intentional
Communities
The
groups that have called Oregon home since the late 1960s ranged
from a small farm of hippies in the Southern Coast Range, to a large,
modern communal development composed entirely of zealous
religious followers, to an "eco-village" of middle class
environmentalists seeking a supportive family-oriented
neighborhood.
But the groups are not categorized together without reason.
All
Communitarian
16
some degree of communalism or sharing, from pooling all income to
just paying rent together.
III
order to create a "lifestyle that reflects their shared core values. ,,2
Oregon's communal movement has been subdivided and
analyzed in various ways.
between communes that escaped from society into anarchy and those
that constructed new alternatives.
So, Oregon's
2Geoph Kozeny,
"Intentional Communities: Lifestyles Based on Ideals,"
Communities Directory: A Guide to Cooperative Living. (Langley, WA:
Fellowship for Intentional Community, 1995) pI8.
3Ibid. ,
17
The rural communal phenomenon was old news to Lane
County's residents by the early 1970s--they had long since grown
used to the communalists' rainbow-splashed Volkswagen buses and
patched-up overalls.
Furthermore,
In reality, Oregon's
However,
18
communes here.
Talsalsen, on
---
:p
19
on, "feminism, lesbianism, love of nature, recovery, and women's
spirituality. ,,6
In addition to
However, the
To
After all,
~-----------------------------------
20
complete escape from America's oppressive system was nearly
impossible while one was assaulted by it daily.
III
rural farms.
Finally, urban
21
many young communalists seemed an odd development.
After all,
The
Due
Shiloh
and the Jesus movement in general soon came under severe attack
for their fundamentalist dogma and practice of recruiting confused
adolescents from communes--which combined were labeled
III
22
"brainwashing" by the media and public.
III
untouched by the social and political turmoil that shook the 1960s.
Across the country, middle-class citizens who dared not join Vietnam
protesters
III
23
immoral war, racial inequality, and the government's apparent
indifference.
Communes,
is not enough to motivate an individual to throwaway the security of
the bourgeois life-style, however.
Middle-aged Americans watch
communal ventures with a jaundiced eye.
They know a commune many
be nothing more than a pleasant interlude in the life of a post-high13
school nineteen-year-old.
Some few
The goal of
the community, then as now, was, "to have a small pedestrian village,
a lodge and conference area, houses gathered into clusters, and small
businesses, all set in less than 200 acres, preservmg over 1000 acres
of forest, meadows and streams." 14
24
planners said, would be a well-structured, economically selfsupporting village for families, not to be confused with a subsistencelevel counterculture refuge.
The
group's members would share some costs, but not all income.
Cerro
Gordo's founders were still planning the village in 1974, well after
the energetic apex of the communal movement, and planners could
see from the past what approaches would work for a new breed of
middle-class communalists.
Unfortunately, early visions of Cerro Gordo have never been
realized.
community's failure.
of
Others
with designing and imagining their new lifestyle, and not committed
enough to jump in and live it. The Cerro Gordo Town Forum
chronicles years of discussion, not action.
IS
discouraging because, unlike Oregon's hippie communes, this ecovillage provided a unique blueprint that might have convinced
mainstream America that ecologically sound, community style living
is possible.
.
umque.
15
25
While Cerro Gordo attempted to transform their communal
dream into a reality in the middle 1970s, another intentional
community inspired by the religious teachings of a Indian mystic
burst into existence.
Rajneeshpuram
For
occupied a hallowed spot on communal bookshelves next to nearholy organic gardening guides.
26
From eastern mysticism to fundamental Christianity, Oregon's
communal pioneers of the late twentieth century were
experimenting--and no two communes combined the new array of
cultural possibilities to produce the same result.
The descriptions go
27
IV
Magic Farm
A
Country Commune
She
called it Celery Wine, and on the title page of one copy, wrote: "I
don't want this book to be assigned as required reading to anyone,
Elaine."!
In many ways, this simple statement represents her
philosophy, and that of her commune, Magic Farm.
Most of Magic
occupied the 17-acre hillside plot, tucked among the creased valleys
of Southern Oregon near Takilmah, from 1968 until 1975.
The group
hippies, although some at the farm embraced the label while others
rejected it.
They had taken refuge from the cities, because there was
They
While some
28
reveled in the psychedelic world of marIjuana and LSD, others
preferred the natural high of living and gardening in harmony with
nature.
29
Magic Farm's nature.
Members came
and went, and as they did, work projects were taken on or discarded,
new ideas introduced, and the farm's character evolved.
Magic Farm
For
The area
passed its saturation point: many other communes had joined Magic
Farm in the area, which only attracted more newcomers.
Commune
30
moment that Magic Farm's long twilight period dimmed to night, but
the influx of newcomers surely contributed to the commune's
demise.
Above all, the summation of Magic Farm's legacy, from infancy
to overpopulation,
For every
strict vegetarian.
close family, were others who felt the farm's gate was open to all.
Institutional
Magic Farm's first rule: there are no rules--customs and
routines maybe, but no rules.
31
informally.
By
August that year, several new members had joined the farm,
bringing four dogs and a cat.
32
common or problematic, and the commune stabilized at ten residents
or fewer.
north from California and other states, which could double or triple
Magic Farm's winter population. Unfortunately, the newcomers
meant three times as many mouths to feed but not three times as
much work done.
feel they owned Magic Farm, but instead that they were fortunate
guests living on the land.
Economic
As one might expect from a community that did not reqUIre
regular work of its members and had no consistent income, Magic
Farm often scrambled for money at the beginning of each month.
By
33
Sundancer's calculation, the farm needed a monthly mcome of at
least $400--a startlingly small figure considering it supported up to
20 people. Half that amount went to food bought outside the farm, a
quarter to the mortgage payments, and the final quarter towards gas,
car repairs, and miscellaneous equipment. 6
new members invested their savings and resources into the farm.
Tools, cars, and furniture also arrived unexpected, but well-received
by the community.
For Magic Farm, no work schedule did not translate into no
work.
Other members
collection of cars or canning and storing fruits for a rainy winter day.
Everyone living at Magic Farm valued their community and was
more than willing to preserve their special life on the farm.
6Ibid., p. 115.
.....
T
34
"If it didn't get done, it wasn't necessary," states Sundancer, in
the most succinct and accurate expression of Magic Farm's work ethic
possible.
know that 40 hours a week and foresight are the only way the bills
get paid.
But Magic Farm's resourceful members had ways beyond their
garden of supplementing the flow when its source seemed to dry up.
Some earned money locally, splitting fence posts or performing other
manual labor.
One month,
III
Many
The federal
7Ibid., p. 125.
35
Social
Those who called Magic Farm home were searching for some
kind of companionship or family, and most found it.
Close
As in any intentional
No "free
However,
36
relationships between Magic Farm members and outsiders were
common.
The
special skills that each knew and enjoyed: car repair, gardening,
cooking, or reading.
establish a more structured school for the children but found that the
traditional assignments and rules conflicted with everything the
commune valued.
Heavy drug use
IS
37
conclusion, and frowned on psychedelics in favor of hard work.
During one conversation about drugs, a visitor asked Niles, a Magic
Farm resident, what the community did for fun.
Niles looked up
from his gardening and responded: "Man, like everything I'm doing is
fun.
Meditation was Magic Farm's central social ritual, and the only
daily routine beyond working and eating, that members sustained
over many months.
The
usually ready for the entire community following the daily spiritual
routine.
time, and it was over the table that problems, plans, and daydreams
could be discussed.
9Ibid., p. 53.
lOIbid., p. 71.
38
Magic Farm's routines held the group together for most of the
year, but the summertime flood of visitors and drifters could not
help but unravel that relatively fragile social fabric.
As was
III
The intrusion of
39
IV
Alpha Farm
An Intentional
Gong!
Gong!
III
involved in Vietnam War protests as well as social work in the cit9',
but their efforts to improve lives in Philadelphia began to feel like an
uphill battle.
that the injustices caused by society could not be healed from within.
Only by living their lives by the principles of sharing and love could
they begin to push the world in a positive direction.
decided, and let our communal dreams spread.
six East Coast idealists dropped out, packed their bags, and arrived
In
The
the farm the longest, the community's social and spiritual character,
despite the shuffling of individual members, continues to be
accepting and active.
Institutional
Alpha Farm's institutional framework is subtle and friendly,
yet strong and effective.
.....
extended family.
Alpha's founders
felt that it was not structure itself that was rotten, but the way those
in power were using it.
consensus system, a well planned work week, and equal influence for
all members.
Three different meetings are scheduled at Alpha:
organizational, spiritual, and personal.
ensure that Alpha's members feel the family is being steered in the
right direction.
map out the coming week's work schedule, make the shopping list,
review bills, and generally tune up the nuts-and-bolts issues that
must be taken care of in all of our lives.
III
The
42
Consensus
If
Consensus often
the minority
IS
The brand
Nor
III
happen, but at the same time it is clear that she is a motherly figure,
if not the leader, of the family.
"inspirational."
But this
Economic
3Ibid.
4Alpha Farm members, from interviews, 6-7 May, 1997.
44
what they could do today, Alpha's members have kept one step
ahead of the cooking, cleaning, building, and harvesting from the
beginning.
dozen sources of income, and because of their physically tough 40hour, farm-style work week.
farm and its members has also been well conceived and defined.
In
three goats, and the water of the stream which flows through their
land.
coffee meet and come to understand Alpha's members, while the cafe
prevents Alpha from becoming too isolated on their remote farm.
Each new member who officially joins the community after a
year of residency also makes a significant economic contribution.
Because new members have decided to make Alpha their permanent
home, they contribute their money and property to the farm's
communal fund.
However, the
of the coast range's bumpy back roads each week to deliver mail.
Members of the community also make money by doing repair and
As an editor
Members usually work from eight until five, with a break for
lunch at noon.
Members
Even
so, if there's a big project that must get done, such as building a new
house, everyone may pitch in for weeks or months.
In addition to
the younger members, which means she will rarely be seen splitiihg
a cord of Douglas Fir on a hot summer day.
Another long-time
idealistic, but instead that Alpha's residents use common sense when
putting together their schedule.
While individual jobs keep Alpha's members busy most days,
the farm must also plan and complete big group projects which will
benefit the whole community.
group has built two large structures, the "new house" and the office,
and repaired and improved many others.
years old, is a two-story, five bedroom wood home which fits quietly
into Alpha's wooded hills.
complete.
Members do not
receive wages for their work, but the community supplies everyone
with reasonable food, clothing, shelter and any other necessities.
addition, residents are given a monthly allowance--$35 for those
In
otfl~rs
who have lived at the farm for more than a year, and $25 for
-which allows them to do a little personal spending.
But more
The
Social
Economic and institutional guidelines help to define Alpha
Farm, but its warm, hospitable spirit is the community's core.
"Socially, we envision a modified style of family life that overcomes
the isolation and rigid classifications of single persons, couples, and
separate families.... Community members of all ages will participate
together in the living and growing of each other."
In Alpha's vision,
to unique They work, eat, play, and hang out all in each others'
company
Its hard to draw the line at Alpha Farm between members'
social and professional lives.
6Ibid.
7Alpha Farm Community, "Alpha: A Prospectus,"
Pennsylvania, 1971.
Philadelphia,
drive home and then make plans with family or friends to relax and
unwind.
members work with friends, and socialize with their fellow workers.
Communal meals are some of the most precious social times.
Breakfast and lunch are prepared by the rotating kitchen crew for
everyone, but members break for these meals at different times and
often eat in small groups.
only time during the day when the entire community is sure to be
gathered together in the same room.
IS
appreciate time by themselves, and Alpha ensures they can get it.
The community promises each member his or her own room--a
private space to retreat to or store personal belongings in.
Personal space can be very valuable, especially at Alpha Farm,
where human contact is virtually unavoidable.
Fortunately, disagreements
are welcome.
The community
only asks that its members are respectful of others' wishes and
prIvacy.
around to teach the young ones a new skill or keep them out of
trouble.
IS
great benefit for both parents and kids, most children are schooled
Mapleton, 15 miles south of the farm.
a
III
intentional community.
small school on the farm for children of the Deadwood Creek valley.
However, no child from Alpha has ever been educated there .
..
ya
I
52
VI
In Retrospect
Oregon's Intentional Communities
in Historical Perspective
Though the
Vietnam War continued into the 1970s, the student movement had
splintered into opposing factions, and was no longer the proud social
force it had once been.
Intentional communities
III
Oregon and across the country fell into a slump, which discouraged
52
53
others from joining the movement.
III
historical context, and remember that while they were unique, they
do not stand alone in American history.
The United States' first communal movement of note was the
Millenarian sects of the east coast who, in the 1820s, believed that
God would soon end civilization on Earth, select his "chosen," and
bring them to his heavenly kingdom.
were two such groups.
The
Both
These
1 David [sic.],
"The Commune Movement in the Middle 1970s," Communities,
September/October 1975, p. 23.
2 Edward K. Spann,
Brotherly Tomorrows: Movements for a Cooperative
Society in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989) pp. 1-17.
53
54
urbanization all made people question the direction society was
headed.
More
This constant
However,
III
1855, very much fit the mold of successful communities of its time:
a charismatic religious leader united his followers communal village.
Like George Rapp and his Harmonists, Aurora's members were
devoted to Wilhelm Keil and his plans for self sufficiency through
agriculture and industry.
The community
54
'1"
55
Francisco.
III
III
Intentional communities of
the time arrived in Oregon because they believed they could adapt
the state's progressive politics, and fertile and plentiful land to their
new communal lifestyle.
55
(Eugene, Oregon:
56
Christian groups.
56
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58
Appendix II
An Inventory of Oregon's Utopian Communities,
Intentional Communities and Communes
For a complete explanation, see the notes following the inventory.
Community Name
Location
Lifespan
19th Century Intentional Communities
Aurora
Aurora
1855-77
New Odessa
Glendale
82-85
Nehalem Valley Cooperative
86
Union Mill Company
90
20th Century Intentional Communities
Great Pumpkin
Tillamook
1967Magic Farm
Takilmah
68-70s
(Saddle Ridge Farm, High Farm, Sixteen Acres)
Shiloh Youth Revival Centers Dexter
68-70s
The Eater Family
Coquille
68
68
Mu Farm
Yoncalla
68
Portland Group
Portland
Rainbow Family of Living Light
Sunny Valley
68
68Crow Research (CRO)
Veneta
Cave Junction
68
Vonu Life
68
Living Springs
68
Family of the Mystic Arts Sunny Valley
69Crook's Creek
68Yellow Submarine-->Rivendell. Eugene
70
Talsalsan Farm
Takilmah
Mountain Grove
Glendale
70
Lichen
Wolf Creek
71
71
Hog Farm
Marcola
Christian Farm
Brownsville
71
Church of the Creative Creswell
71
Lynx Hollow Farm
Cottage Grove
71
8/29171
Footbridge
Swisshome
71
Indian Creek
Swisshome
71
Hungry Hill Farm
Eugene
71
Live Wood Farm
Eugene
71
Organic Mud Farm
Eugene
71
Rainbow Family
Dunes City->Eugene. 71-75
Cerro Gordo Community. Cottage Grove 71-97
Alpha Farm
Deadwood
72-97
Portland
74
Main Street Gathering
Main
Source
Communal
Communal
Utopias
Utopias
Oregonian, 8/22/67
see bibliography
Organized Miracles
FIC 68
FIC 68
FIC 68
Life, 7/18/69
Communes, USA
FIC 68
Getting Back Together
Getting Back Together
Children of Prosperity
Communal Utopias
Children of Prosperity
FIC 93
FIC 93
Register-Guard, 8/29/71
Register-Guard, 8/29/71
Register-Guard, 8/29/71
Register-Guard,
Register-Guard,
Register-Guard,
Register-Guard,
Register-Guard,
Register-Guard,
Register Guard,
FIC 93
see bibliography
FIC 74
8/29/71
8/29/71
8/29/71
8/29/71
8/29/71
8/29/71
59
Pahana Town
Lake Dorena
WomanShare
Grants Pass
Appletree Co-op
Cottage Grove
Earth's Rising Co-op Farm Monroe
Rootworks
Wolf Creek
Rajneeshpuram
Antelope
RFD
Wolf Creek
Days Creek
Ow 1 Farm
Clackamas
Still Meadow
Brietenbush Hot Springs Detroit
Older Women's Network Wolf Creek
End of the Road House Cottage Grove
Cornucopia
Crabapple
Crack of Dawn
Folly Farm
Seven Springs Community
WoU Creek Sanctuary
Dexter
Lost Valley Center
Medford
Seven C's
Galilee
EarthSky
page.
Bag Ladies of the World Eugene
pamphlet.
East Blair Co-housing
Eugene
pamphlet.
74
74
74-93
70s
70s
70s
76
76
76
77-97
78
81
83
83
83
83
83
85
89
89
90
FIC
FIC
FIC
FIC
FIC
74
93
93
93
93
FIC 74
FIC 93
FIC 93
FIC 93
FIC 78
FIC 93
FIC 83
FIC 83
FIC 83
FIC 83
FIC 83
FIC 93
FIC 93
FIC 93
FIC 93
WWW Communities
92
Community's
90s
Community's
IS
decline than end abruptly, so some of the ending dates listed above may
be inexact also.
names.
Please remember that this list is far from complete.
Especially
during the communal heyday of the late 1960s and early 70s, bands of
communards coalesced and dissolved all in several months' time, before
60
they could announce their presence or even be noticed by others
interested in the movement. Even the Federation of Intentional
Communities, in whose lists many of these groups were found,
acknowledges that there are many communities out there still unknown to
them.
Although most of the communities listed were rural, their locations
have been listed by town and city. However, most groups actually lived
several miles from the listed towns, not in them.
Years followed by a dash (71-) indicate founding date. Years listed
alone (73) indicate that the founding date is unknown, but that the
community was first referred to in the listed year.
"FIC" is used as an abbreviation for the Fellowship for Intentional
Community. The Fellowship publishes Communities Directory: A Guide to
Cooperative Living, a compilation which grew out of Communities
magazine's yearly national guide to intentional communities. Hence these
publications share the "FIC" notation accompanied by the year the
Fellowship listed the community.
Communal Utopias refers to the University of Oregon Thesis,
"Communal Utopias of the Pacific Northwest", by Kay Teeters.
62
Bibliography
Alpha Farm Community.
Pennsylvania, 1971.
"Alpha: A Prosptectus."
Philadephia,
"Commune Tripping."
The Register-
Communitarian,
Bouvard, Marguerite.
The Intentional Communtiy Movement:
Building a New Moral World. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat
Press, 1975.
Callenbach, Ernest. Ecotopia: The Notebooks and Reports of William
Weston. Berkeley, California: Banyan Tree Books, 1975.
Cerro Gordo Communtiy. Cerro Gordo World wide web page:
www.pdss.com/cg/brochure.html
Colt, George H., "For the Forseeable Future."
76.
A Personal Tour.
Baltimore,
63
Fellowship for Intentional Community.
Directory of Intentional
Communities. Evansville, Indiana: Fellowship for Intentional
Community, 1992.
Gardner, Hugh. The Children of Prosperity: Thirteen Modern
American Communes. New York: Saint Martin's Press, 1978.
Hine, Robert V.. California 's Utopian Communities.
University of
California Press, 1983.
Houriet, Robert.
Berkeley:
The
Oregonian
Kinkade, Kat.
"How to Visit and Intentional Community."
Communities Directory: A Guide to Cooperetive Living. Langley,
Washington: Fellowship for Intentional Community, 1995.
Kozeny, Geoph.
"Intentional Communities: Lifestyles Based on
Ideals." Communities Directory: A Guide to Cooperetive Living.
Langley, Washington: Fellowship for Intentional Community, 1995.
LeWarne, Charles Pierce. Utopias on Puget Sound, 1885-1915.
University of Washington Press, 1975.
Noyes, John Humphrey. History of American Socialisms.
Dover Publications, Inc., 1966.
Seattle:
New York:
New
64
Cooperative Living. Langley, Washington: Fellowship for
Intentional Community, 1995.
p. 33-38.
Life, 18 July
Directory of
Eugene,
Thoele, Michael.
""Communal Tricentenial." The Register Guard
(Eugene, Oregon), January 11, 1976, page 8D.
Thoele, Michael.
p14-19.
"Alpha Farm."
Interviews
Estes, Caroline.
May 1997.
Personal interview, 6
r
i
65