WATER

Keep Southeast Michigans Water in Public Hands

)DFW6KHHW2FWREHU

esidents across southeast Michigan must protect their water supply and fend off the looming
[OYLH[VMWYP]H[PaH[PVU:[H[LSH^THRLYZHUKVMJPHSZOH]L[OLHIPSP[`[V[HRLH^H`SVJHSKLJPZPVU
making powers and make it easier for private interests to control one of the largest water utilities
PU[OLJV\U[Y`;OL+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[^H[LYZ\WWSPLYMVY[^VPU]LWLVWSL
HUKZL^HNL[YLH[TLU[WYV]PKLYMVYVULPU[OYLLWLVWSLPU[OLZ[H[L\UKV\I[LKS`MHJLZHU\WOPSS
IH[[SLHNHPUZ[K^PUKSPUNZHSLZHUKLZJHSH[PUNULLKZI\[WYP]H[PaH[PVUPZUV[H]PHISLVW[PVU0[MHPSZ[V
HKKYLZZ[OLZ`Z[LTZ\UKLYS`PUNWYVISLTZHUKSPRLS`^V\SKVUS`^VYZLU+L[YVP[Z^H[LY^VLZ

Undemocratic Measures
Would Facilitate Privatization
Emergency Financial Management: Michigans local
NV]LYUTLU[HUKZJOVVSKPZ[YPJ[ZJHSHJJV\U[HIPSP[`HJ[
WHZZLKPU4HYJONP]LZ[OLZ[H[LJVUZPKLYHISLWV^LY
V]LYJHZOZ[YHWWLKT\UPJPWHSP[PLZ0M[OLZ[H[LKLJPKLZ[OH[
+L[YVP[ZZJHSZP[\H[PVU^HYYHU[ZPU[LY]LU[PVU[OLNV]LY
UVY^V\SKHWWVPU[HULTLYNLUJ`UHUJPHSTHUHNLY^P[O
IYVHKQ\YPZKPJ[PVUV]LYJP[`M\UJ[PVUZ2 This person who
serves at the pleasure of the governor, not the voters3
OHZ[OLH\[OVYP[`[VWYP]H[PaLW\ISPJZLY]PJLZ4 regardless of
[OL^PZOLZVMLSLJ[LKVMJPHSZ5
Pontiacs emergency manager, for example, privatized the
water and sewer department, laying off workers and turn
ing over the utilitys operation and management to United
>H[LYHJVTWHU`V^ULKI`-YLUJOT\S[PUH[PVUHS:\La
Environnement.6
Whats more, an emergency manager can unilaterally sell
off entire water and sewer systems.7 Even though Detroits
Home Rule Charter says that voters must approve any such
sale,8[OLZ[H[LSH^[Y\TWZHU`JVUPJ[PUNSVJHSJOHY[LY
provision.9(ULTLYNLUJ`THUHNLYULLKZW\ISPJHWWYV]HS
only to sell light, heat or power utilities, leaving water and
sewer systems as fair game for privatization schemes.10
6]LYHSS[OPZHJ[ZL]LYLS`YLZ[YPJ[ZSVJHSW\ISPJHJJV\U[HIPS
ity and input into the fate of water resources.
Regionalization: (UV[OLYWV[LU[PHSWV^LYNYHIH[[OLZ[H[L
level exclusively targets the Detroit Water and Sewerage
+LWHY[TLU[0U1HU\HY`:[H[L9LWYLZLU[H[P]L2\Y[

Heise introduced legislation which to date has not

moved out of committee to turn the department into a
regional authority, with the ultimate goal of having a pri
vate corporation operate and manage the utility.11 The De
troit City Council adamantly opposed any effort to usurp its
local control and called on the state legislature to respect
its property rights.12(U\TILYVMJV\U[`VMJPHSZHSZVJHTL
out against the proposal particularly after the city agreed
to give the counties a greater voice in the departments
oversight.13 Nonetheless, in August 2011, Oakland County
renewed a legal effort to effectively transfer more control to
[OLJV\U[PLZ]PH[OLIVHYKVM^H[LYJVTTPZZPVULYZ14
;OLNO[V]LY+L[YVP[Z^H[LYOV^L]LYPZUV[IL[^LLU[OL
JP[`HUK[OLZ\I\YIZI\[IL[^LLUWYP]H[LPU[LYLZ[ZHUK[OL
W\ISPJNVVK

Detroits Water Woes

Privatization offers no solution for the Detroit Water and
:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[ZIPNNLZ[VIZ[HJSLZ!KLJSPUPUN^H[LY
sales and growing improvement costs.
Falling Sales: (ZQVIZWLVWSLHUKTVUL`SLM[[OLHYLH15
[OLKLWHY[TLU[Z^H[LYZHSLZMLSSKYHZ[PJHSS`I`ULHYS`
WLYJLU[V]LY[OLSHZ[]L`LHYZ16([[OLZHTL[PTLILJH\ZL
MV\YM[OZVMZ`Z[LTJVZ[ZHYL_LKHUKKVUV[]HY`^P[O
water usage,17 the average cost to deliver each gallon of
water has increasd.18
Mounting Needs: ;OL^H[LYHUKZL^LYZ`Z[LTZULLKZ\I
stantial upgrades and improvements. Despite saving more
[OHUHIPSSPVUKVSSHYZI`ZJHSPUNIHJRPTWYV]LTLU[WSHUZ
over the last couple years,19 the department planned to

ZWLUKIPSSPVUMYVTZJHS`LHYZ[V20 mostly

VUWYVQLJ[ZTHUKH[LKI`MLKLYHSHUKZ[H[LYLN\SH[PVUZ21
Climbing Rates: Without another source of revenue to off
set the drop in sales, and with capital improvement needs
growing, the department increases rates almost every
year.224VZ[YLJLU[S`PUP[OPRLKYH[LZI`HIV\[
percent.23

City Rates

$800

Annual DWSD Bill of a Typical Detroit

Household (8,400 Cubic-Feet)

$700
$162

$600

$142
$139

$500

$110

$300

$341
$252

$231

$282

$311

$200
$100

$158

$168

$176

$192

$210

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

$0

Drinking Water

Wastewater

Stormwater

Annual bill of Detroit retail customer using 700 cubic-feet of water a

month (8,400 cubic-feet a year) the average residential use with
a 5/8 meter and unadjusted sewer and stormwater rates
$800

$800

$800

$700

$700
$700
Suburban
Rates
Average Cost of DWSD Wholesale Service
(8,400 Cubic-Feet)
$600
$600
$600

$300

$250

$500

$500

$500

$200$400

$400

$400

$106

$108

$150$300 $100

$300

$300

$100

$200

$200

$200

$50

$100

$99

$0 2007

$106

$100

$113

$125
$112

$121

$100

2008

2009
$0
2008
2007
Drinking Water

2007

$0

2010

2009
2007
2008

Wastewater

$132

$700

$800

Privatization cannot make the infrastructure needs disap

WLHYHU`TVYL[OHUP[JHUIYPUNIHJRPUK\Z[Y`[VIVVZ[
+L[YVP[Z^H[LYZHSLZ0UMHJ[P[ZLLTZTVYLSPRLS`[VL_HJLY
IH[L[OLKLWHY[TLU[Z^H[LYWYVISLTZ[OHUTP[PNH[L[OLT
Higher Financing Costs: Privatization usually increases the
JVZ[VMUHUJPUNPTWYV]LTLU[WYVQLJ[Z*VTWHYLK[VT\
nicipal utilities, private water companies typically have to
WH`OPNOLYPU[LYLZ[YH[LZVU[OLPYKLI[*VUZ\TLYZLUK\W
ZLLPUN[OH[L_[YHJVZ[HZ^LSSHZ[OLJVTWHU`ZWYV[HUK
[H_LZPU[OLPY^H[LYIPSSZ28
Higher Rates: Privatization is unlikely to result in lower
rates. Private water companies tend to impose higher
prices than municipalities. A survey of the largest water
utilities in the Great Lakes region found that privately
owned systems charge more than twice as much as mu
nicipal systems.29;OLYLZLHYJOLYZH[[YPI\[LK[OPZKPMMLYLUJL
[VWYP]H[LJVTWHUPLZ[H_LZWYV[ZOPNOLYV]LYHSSZLY]PJL
costs and ratemaking practices.30
Unaffordable Service: Detroit residents cannot afford to
privatize their water department. Detroit income levels
are less than 60 percent of the national average,31 and one
in three people and nearly one in two children are
living in poverty.32(SYLHK`PU^H[LYWYPJLZJV\SKIL
JVUZPKLYLK\UHMMVYKHISLMVYTVZ[OV\ZLOVSKZPU[OLJP[`"
[OL[`WPJHSHUU\HS^H[LYZL^LYHUKZ[VYT^H[LYIPSS^HZ
more than 2 percent of the median household income,33
^OPJOPZHZ[HUKHYKHMMVYKHIPSP[`[OYLZOVSK34

Water Shut-Offs: When households cannot afford to pay

[OLPY^H[LYIPSSZ[OL`JHUSVZLHJJLZZ[V^H[LY350UQ\Z[[OL
YZ[ZP_TVU[OZVM[OL+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL
Department disconnected service to 5,268 customers
2011
2010
2011
2008
2009TVYL[OHU[^PJLHZTHU`HZP[KPZJVUULJ[LKPU[OLYZ[OHSM
2009
2010
2010
2011
2011
36
of 2010. 0MWYP]H[PaH[PVUPUJYLHZLZ^H[LYYH[LZZO\[VMMZ
could continue to escalate.

The average unit cost of DWSD suburban wholesale service, for

FXELFIHHWRIZDWHUZLWKSURSRVHGJXUHV

$800

0UZ\I\YIHUJVTT\UP[PLZ[OH[W\YJOHZL^H[LYHUKZL^LY
treatment from Detroit, the wholesale charges account for
half of the total cost of water and sewer service, according
to a 2006 survey; the other half is the cost of delivery and
JVSSLJ[PVUZLY]PJLZWYV]PKLKI`[OLSVJHST\UPJPWHSP[`26
)HZLKVU[OPZP[JHUILLZ[PTH[LK[OH[H[`WPJHSZ\I\YIHU
household would pay roughly $515 annually for water and
^HZ[L^H[LYZLY]PJL0UJVTWHYPZVUH+L[YVP[OV\ZLOVSK
with the same water use would pay $551 a year for water
and sewer service (excluding stormwater).27 The cost of
^H[LYZLY]PJLPZZPTPSHYMVYZ\I\YIHUHUKJP[`YLZPKLU[Z

The Price of Privatization

$97

$400

-VYJP[`YLZPKLU[Z[OL[V[HSLMMLJ[PZZ\IZ[HU[PHS6]LY[OL
SHZ[]L`LHYZ[OLJVTIPULKHUU\HS^H[LYZL^LYHUK
Z[VYT^H[LYIPSSVMH[`WPJHSOV\ZLOVSKOHZQ\TWLK
percent, from $486 to $713.24 Over the same period, the
H]LYHNLJVZ[VMZ\I\YIHU^OVSLZHSLKYPURPUN^H[LYHUK
^HZ[L^H[LYZLY]PJLPUJYLHZLKHIV\[WLYJLU[25

Cutbacks and Service Risks: Privatized water systems gen

LYHSS`HYLUVTVYLLMJPLU[[OHUW\ISPJS`Y\UVULZ37I\[

Average Annual Household Drinking Water Bill

Charged by Large Utilities in the
Great Lakes Region by Ownership
(For 1,000 Cubic-feet a Month, 2010)
$700
$600

$662

)LJH\ZLSHIVYJVZ[ZHYLHYLSH[P]LS`ZTHSSWVY[PVU 
WLYJLU[VM[OLKLWHY[TLU[ZI\KNL[43 any resulting savings
MYVT^VYRMVYJLJ\[IHJRZL]LUPM[OL`^LYLWHZZLKVU[V
consumers, which often doesnt happen under privatization
^V\SKUV[IL^VY[O[OLYPZR[VZLY]PJLX\HSP[`

$500
$400
$300
$200

Moving Forward

$300

7YP]H[PaH[PVUPZUV[HZVS\[PVUMVY+L[YVP[Z^H[LYWYVISLTZ"
P[PZHYLKOLYYPUN[OH[KPZ[YHJ[ZW\ISPJVMJPHSZMYVTUKPUN
a real solution to the water issues facing the region.

$100
$0

whom worked at the wastewater treatment plant, have quit

[OLKLWHY[TLU[ILJH\ZLVM[OLTH`VYZWSHU[VJ\[WLUZPVU
HUKZPJRSLH]LILUL[Z41-\Y[OLYJ\[ZI`HWYP]H[LVWLYH[VY
^V\SKVUS`KYP]L[OLTH^H`MHZ[LY(Z\Y]L`ZWVUZVYLKI`
the department indicates that retirement and downsizing
will result in a deterioration of service quality and a loss of
institutional knowledge.42

Municipal
Municipal

Private
Private

The average unit cost of DWSD suburban wholesale service, for

FXELFIHHWRIZDWHUZLWKSURSRVHGJXUHV

HWYP]H[LVWLYH[VYTH`H[[LTW[[VJ\[JVZ[ZI`KV^UZPaPUN
[OL^VYRMVYJLHUKZJHSPUNIHJRLTWSV`LLILUL[Z38 These
practices could worsen customer service. Downsizing can
slow responses to service requests and emergencies,39 and
ZJHSPUNIHJRJVTWLUZH[PVUJHUPTWLKL[OLKLWHY[TLU[Z
HIPSP[`[VH[[YHJ[X\HSPLKVWLYH[VYZ
>P[OHIV\[WLYJLU[VM[OLYLNPVUZ^H[LY^VYRMVYJL
YLHJOPUNYL[PYLTLU[HNLPU[OLUL_[]L`LHYZ40 the recruit
TLU[HUKYL[HPUTLU[VM^VYRLYZPZILJVTPUNPUJYLHZPUNS`
PTWVY[HU[(SYLHK`HU\TILYVMLTWSV`LLZTHU`VM

0UZ[LHKVMSL[[PUNWYP]H[LPU[LYLZ[ZKL[LYTPUL[OLPY^H[LY
future, municipalities should explore additional ways to
^VYR[VNL[OLY[OYV\NOW\ISPJpublic partnerships to share
resources and expertise. The Southeast Michigan Council
VM.V]LYUTLU[ZHSZVOHZYLJVTTLUKLKJVSSHIVYH[PVU
among service providers to help address the regions infra
structure needs.44 Research has found that intermunicipal
JVVWLYH[PVUJHUYLK\JLJVZ[ZHUKPTWYV]LW\ISPJZLY]PJLZ
^OPSLTHPU[HPUPUNW\ISPJJVU[YVS45 These types of arrange
TLU[Z[LUK[VILTVYLLX\P[HISLHUKYLZWVUZP]L[VW\ISPJ
concerns than privatization.46
>P[OYLZWVUZPISLW\ISPJTHUHNLTLU[[OL+L[YVP[>H[LY
HUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[JHUILZ[LUZ\YLZHMLJSLHUHUK
HMMVYKHISL^H[LYZLY]PJLMVYHSSP[ZJ\Z[VTLYZ

Endnotes



4
5
6




10


12


+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[-HJ[Z4H`
2HMMLY5HUJ`:[H[L[HRLV]LY[HSRJVUJLZZPVUKLHKSPULI\PSK
I\KNL[WYLZZ\YLCrains Detroit Business. May 15, 2011; Michigan
7\ISPJ(J[5VVM4HYJO
4PJOPNHU7\ISPJ(J[5VVMK
Ibid. YHUK `
Ibid. LL
Byron, Shaun. Pontiac dissolves planning commission, layoffs
OP[JP[`;OL6HRSHUK7YLZZ4H`"<UP[LK>H[LYB7YLZZ
YLSLHZLD<UP[LK>H[LYHUK7VU[PHJ40ZPNUWYVMLZZPVUHSZLY]PJLZ
HNYLLTLU[MVYTHUHNLTLU[VM^H[LYHUK^HZ[L^H[LYZ`Z[LTZ1\S`
2011.
4PJOPNHU7\ISPJ(J[5VVM YHUK
+L[YVP[*OHY[LYVM*P[`VM+L[YVP[1HU\HY` 
4PJOPNHU7\ISPJ(J[5VVM 
Ibid. YHUK 
2\Y[/LPZLMVY:[H[L9LWYLZLU[H[P]LB7YLZZYLSLHZLD/LPZLHUUV\UJLZ
plan for regional authority and privatization of Detroit water and
ZL^LYZ`Z[LT:LW[LTILY"4PJOPNHU:[H[L3LNPZSH[\YL
House Bill 4112 (2011); Neavling, Steve. Plan seeks to relieve
+L[YVP[VMJVU[YVSVM^H[LYKLWHY[TLU[Detroit Free Press1HU\HY`
 "5PJOVSZ+HYYLU(3H^THRLYW\ZOLZIPSS[VYLNPVUHSPaL
+L[YVP[^H[LYKLWHY[TLU[The Detroit News1HU\HY`
Detroit City Council. Resolution Strongly Opposing Any Change in
.V]LYUHUJLVM[OL+L[YVP[>H[LY :L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[1HU\HY`
14, 2011.
>PZLS`1VOU+LHSYLHJOLK[VNP]LZ\I\YIZTVYLZH`PU+L[YVP[
^H[LYZ`Z[LT)PUNZH`ZDetroit Free Press-LIY\HY`"-P[JO

14

15


17


19
20

21

9H[PUNZ-P[JOKV^UNYHKLZ+L[YVP[^H[LYZ`Z[LTZLUPVYYL]Z[V( 
Z\IYL]Z[V("V\[SVVRZ[HISL(WYPS"5LH]SPUN:[L]L*P[`
Z\I\YIZNLHY\WMVYIH[[SLV]LY^OVSSJVU[YVS+L[YVP[^H[LYZ`Z[LT
Detroit Free Press1HU\HY`
Oakland County. Oakland Countys Response to Detroits Motion
[V+PZTPZZUnited States of America v. City of Detroit, et al. United
States District Court, Eastern District of Michigan, Southern Division.
*HZL5V(\N\Z[H[[V">PZLS`
Detroit Water and Sewerage Department and the Technical Advisory
*VTTP[[LL9H[LZ>VYR.YV\W+>:+9H[LZ!(5L^9LNPVUHS7HYH
KPNT+LJLTILY H[":V\[OLHZ[4PJOPNHU*V\UJPSVM.V]LYU
TLU[Z*YLH[PUNH:\Z[HPUHISL0UMYHZ[Y\J[\YL:`Z[LTPU:V\[OLHZ[
4PJOPNHU1\S`H[HUK
+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[+L[YVP[*P[`*V\UJPS7\I
SPJ/LHYPUNVU-PZJHS@LHY7YVWVZLK>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL
:`Z[LT)\KNL[ZHUK9H[LZ4HYJOH[
Detroit Water and Sewerage Department and the Technical Advisory
*VTTP[[LL9H[LZ>VYR.YV\W+>:+9H[LZ!(5L^9LNPVUHS7HYH
KPNT+LJLTILY H[
+L[YVP[*VTWYLOLUZP]L(UU\HS-PUHUJPHS9LWVY[-VY-PZJHS@LHY
,UKLK1\UL+LJLTILYH[[V":V\[OLHZ[
4PJOPNHU*V\UJPSVM.V]LYUTLU[Z*YLH[PUNH:\Z[HPUHISL0UMYH
Z[Y\J[\YL:`Z[LTPU:V\[OLHZ[4PJOPNHU1\S`H[
Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, March 10, 2011 at 5.
Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. Water Supply System
*HWP[HS0TWYV]LTLU[7YVNYHT-PZJHS@LHYZ;OYV\NO
+YHM[001\S`H["+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[
:L^HNL+PZWVZHS:`Z[LT*HWP[HS0TWYV]LTLU[7YVNYHT-PZJHS@LHYZ
;OYV\NO+YHM[001\S`H[
Ibid. at 11; Ibid. at 13.

 -P[JO9H[PUNZ-P[JOKV^UNYHKLZ+L[YVP[^H[LYZ`Z[LTZLUPVYYL]Z[V
( Z\IYL]Z[V("V\[SVVRZ[HISL(WYPS")VHYKVM>H[LY
Commissioners, City of Detroit. Proceedings of the Board of Water
*VTTPZZPVULYZ4LL[PUNUV-LIY\HY`H["+L[YVP[
Water and Sewerage Department and the Technical Advisory Com
TP[[LL9H[LZ>VYR.YV\W+LJLTILY H[HUK
23 Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, March 10, 2011 at 1.
 *HSJ\SH[PVUI`-VVK >H[LY>H[JOIHZLKVU!Ibid.H[(HUK
)"+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[7\ISPJ/LHYPUNVU
-PZJHS@LHY 7YVWVZLK>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL:`Z[LT)\KNL[Z
HUK9H[LZ4HYJO H[(HUK)"+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^
LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[7\ISPJ/LHYPUNVU-PZJHS@LHY7YV
WVZLK>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL:`Z[LT)\KNL[ZHUK9H[LZ-LIY\HY`
H[(HUK)"+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[*P[`
VM+L[YVP[>H[LY9H[LZ,MMLJ[P]L(\N\Z["+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK
:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[*P[`VM+L[YVP[:L^HNL+YHPUHNL0UK\Z[YPHS
>HZ[L*VU[YVSHUK:\YJOHYNL9H[LZ,MMLJ[P]L(\N\Z[
 *HSJ\SH[PVUI`-VVK >H[LY>H[JOIHZLKVU!+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK
:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[7\ISPJ/LHYPUNVU-PZJHS@LHY 
7YVWVZLK>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL:`Z[LT)\KNL[ZHUK9H[LZ-LIY\HY`
H[/"+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[4HYJO
 H[(HUK/"+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+LWHY[TLU[
-LIY\HY`H[(HUK)"+L[YVP[>H[LYHUK:L^LYHNL+L
WHY[TLU[4HYJOH[-HUK-
26 Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, March 10, 2011 at 6.
 *HSJ\SH[PVUI`-VVK >H[LY>H[JOIHZLKVU[`WPJHSJVTIPULK
^H[LYHUKZL^LYIPSSVMHJ\Z[VTLY\ZPUNJ\IPJMLL[HIV\[
gallons) of water. Wholesale service compared with retail. Proposed
YH[LZMVY-PZJHS:LL!Ibid.H[()--
 1HJVIZ1LMMYL`>HUK*OHYSLZ>/V^L2L`PZZ\LZHUKL_WLYPLUJL
PU<:^H[LYZLY]PJLZWYP]H[PaH[PVUWater Resources Development,
]VSPZZ4HYJOH[ ",U]PYVUTLU[HS-PUHUJPHS(K]PZVY`
)VHYK<:,U]PYVUTLU[HS7YV[LJ[PVU(NLUJ`7\ISPJ7YP]H[L7HY[
ULYZOPWZPU[OL7YV]PZPVUVM>H[LYHUK>HZ[L^H[LY:LY]PJLZ!)HYYPLYZ
HUK0UJLU[P]LZ(WYPSH[":TP[O/HYVSK19HM[LSPZ-PUHUJPHS
Consulting. Prepared for the National Rural Water Association.
7YP]H[PaH[PVUVMZTHSS^H[LYZ`Z[LTZ+LJLTILYH["
+H]PZ-YHUR0KLU[PJH[PVUVM9L]LU\L9LX\PYLTLU[Z0U9HM[LSPZ
George A (ed.). (2005). Water and Wastewater Finance and Pricing:
A Comprehensive Guide)VJH9H[VU-3!;H`SVY -YHUJPZ.YV\WH[
186 to 187.
  )LLJOLY1HUPJL(HUK1HZVU(2HSTIHJO0UZ[P[\[LVM7\ISPJ<[PSP
[PLZH[4PJOPNHU:[H[L<UP]LYZP[`.YLH[3HRLZ>H[LY:\Y]L`
=HS\LVM.YLH[3HRLZ>H[LY0UP[PH[P]LVM[OL.YLH[3HRLZ*VTTPZZPVU
-LIY\HY`H[
30 Ibid. at 16.
 -P[JO9H[PUNZ(WYPS
32 U.S. Census Bureau. Detroit city, Michigan. Selected Economic
*OHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZ!  (TLYPJHU*VTT\UP[`:\Y
]L`(JJLZZLK1\S`
 *HSJ\SH[PVUI`-VVK >H[LY>H[JO(]LYHNLOV\ZLOVSK\ZL$
J\IPJMLL[HTVU[O)HZLKVU!Ibid.; Detroit Water and Sewerage
+LWHY[TLU[*P[`VM+L[YVP[>H[LY9H[LZ,MMLJ[P]L(\N\Z["
Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. City of Detroit Sewage,
+YHPUHNL0UK\Z[YPHS>HZ[L*VU[YVSHUK:\YJOHYNL9H[LZ,MMLJ[P]L
August 1, 2011.

 -P[JO9H[PUNZ(WYPS
 +L[YVP[(TLUKLKHUKYLZ[H[LVMJPHSZ[H[LTLU[HUKYLTHYRL[PUN
JPYJ\SHYZJP[`VM+L[YVP[4PJOPNHU^H[LYZ\WWS`
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