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Perception
Sight dominates the way we 'see' the world. It even dominates our descriptive
vocabulary. We don't know how other creatures see the world, though we do
know how eyes differ in the animal kingdom amd we know that different
animals vary in their reliance on vision. Of course, some creatures don't 'see'
the world at all. And many creatures rely far less on vision than we do (e.g.
bats, dolphins). Most mammals live in more of a world of scent than of sight.
We share our reliance on sight more than scent with other primates. However,
of all vertebrate animals, birds are the most dependent on sight.
Flies have what are called 'compound eyes', but it's likely to be a myth that
they see multiple images. However, if we had the eyes of a fly we would see
television images as separate frames, since TV images are displayed at 25
frames per second, which for the rapid scanning eye of the fly is quite slow.
Although the image can be misleading, our eyes are typically described in
contrast to 'compound eyes' as being 'camera-style' eyes. Animals with such
eyes comprise less than 6% of the species in the animal kingdom; more than
77% are insects and crustaceans with compound eyes.
Animals differ in visual acuity. Insects are short-sighted whereas a kestrel can
spot a mouse from 1.5 km up. Hawks can spot prey 8 times further away than
human beings can. The range of distances that animals can focus on is
measured in dioptres. We have a good focal range (or 'accommodation')
compared with most mammals. A child's range is about 14 dioptres, though
an old person's is about 1 dioptre. Many creatures have poor accommodation
or none. A dog copes with 1 dioptre. However, diving birds have 50 dioptres -
the greatest of all animals.
The position of the eyes on the head also varies amongst animals. Eye
position controls the extent of the field of view when the head is stationary,
and also the possibility and extent of binocular vision. When the eyes are on
either side of the head, the view is almost panoramic, but there is a loss of
stereoscopic depth perception. Hunting animals tend to have a broader field of
binocular vision. Hunted animals tend to have a far broader field of view.
Hunters tend to have a much larger 'blind area' behind the head than hunted
animals do. Humans have a total field of view of somewhere between 160-
208 degrees, about 140 degrees or so for each eye and a binocular field of
120-180 degrees. A dog has a total field of view of about 280 degrees, 180-
190 degrees for each eye and 90 degrees of binocular field. A hare has a total
field of view of 360 degrees, 220 degrees for each eye, with only 30 degrees
of binocular field in front and 10 degrees behind the head.
Some humans can distinguish 250 colours. Whilst some mammals are colour-
blind, birds probably see more colours than we do. The desert ant has the
most refined colour system amongst insects and can discriminate between
colours we can't see. As we age our lenses grow more yellow and filter out
some of the violet. Many insects are sensitive to ultraviolet light; vertebrates
are not. We know that the colour vision of bees is different from ours, bees
being highly sensitive to ultraviolet light and insensitive to red light. Many
insects, fish and birds can see beyond violet into ultraviolet radiation.
Ultraviolet light gives flowers such as the yellow daisy a bright glowing core
for honey-bees. At the other end of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy,
some snakes are sensitive to infra-red which they use to detect the presence of
warm-blooded animals. Some freshwater fish can see far further into the red
or longer wavelength part of the spectrum than we can. If our eyes were as
sensitive as those of goldfish we'd see the infra-red beams that control our
TVs and videos. Whilst we are not sensitive to polarized light, many other
animals are, and must therefore see the sky as having a far more intricate
pattern than we are aware of. Of course, we can use tools to temporarily
extend the visibility of the spectrum.
No creature sees fine detail in darkness, but some other creatures have far
better 'night sight' than we do (e.g. foxes, cats and owls). Creatures with good
night sight typically have the reflective 'eye-shine' that we often notice. It is
this which allows them to make the most of whatever light there is. Owls
have a sensitivity to low light intensities 50-100 times greater than that of
unaided human night vision. Cats' eyes catch 50% more light than ours and
are eight times more sensitive than ours at night. But such sight is typically
supplemented by other senses. And even within vision, movement is the key
for some creatures: the eyes of such creatures as the bee and the frog are very
sensitive to movement.
Different creatures vary in the amount of the brain which is devoted to vision.
Over half of the brain of the octopus and the squid is devoted to vision. But
we still don't know how other creatures make sense of what their eyes detect.
No single creature can see all that others can. We often forget that the human
world of sight is only one such world.
Ocularcentrism
Amongst the senses, Plato gave primacy to sight. When he decided that we
had five senses, Aristotle ranked sight over hearing: 'Of all the senses, trust
only the sense of sight'. Plato and Aristotle closely associated vision and
reason. This has been a persistent bias in Western culture. Thinking is
associated with visual metaphors: 'observation' privileges visual data;
phenomenon (Greek: 'exposing to sight'); definition (from definire, to draw a
line around); insight, illuminate, shedding light, enlighten, vision, reflection,
clarity, survey, perspective, point of view, overview, farsighted. Other words
associated with thinking also have visual roots: intelligent, idea, theory,
contemplate, speculate, bright, brilliant, dull. And there is no shortage of
commonly-used phrases which emphasize the primacy of the visual:
Seeing is believing
Let me see, I see
I'll believe it when I see it with my own eyes
Seeing eye to eye
It's good to see you
Love at first sight
What does she see in him?
In the mind's eye
Draw your own conclusions
See what I mean?
When students in one study were asked to list the sense they'd least like to
lose, 75% listed sight.
It is likely that the spread of literacy in modern times has helped to privilege
sight.
Homo signifificans
This time, you are more likely to impose a particular grouping on what you
see. People tend to refer to five pairs of lines which are close together with
fairly broad gaps between them. You are less likely to group together the lines
which are further apart, perhaps partly because this would leave lonely lines
on each side of the image, but also (as we will see in a later lecture) because
we seem to have a predisposition to associate things which are close together.
We all seem to 'see things' in inkblots, flames, stains, clouds and so on. Some
of us may, of course, be more 'suggestible' than others...
Some images are more open to interpretation than others. Most of us would
see no 'intended reading' in such natural phenomena as flames and clouds
(though this wouldn't stop us seeing meaningful patterns in them). We would
generally accept that there is typically less openness to interpretation when it
comes to images deliberately designed by human beings. The declaration that
a road sign is 'open to interpretation' is not likely to be much of a defence for
ignoring its intended meaning in the eyes of the law! On the other hand, we
would usually feel free to be fairly free-ranging in our interpretation of an
image which we knew to be intended as a work of art.
Here is another black and white image. For some people it will be
immediately obvious - others may not instantly recognize it.
Familiar as this image is, whilst we may recognize it as a map, we may not
immediately recognize it as representing the world (upside down, according
to the way we're used to seeing it). However, once we 'know what to look for',
we have no difficulty seeing it as a map of the world which happens to be
upside down.
Those who haven't seen it before shouldn't have too much difficulty if they
are told that there is a dalmation dog nosing around on a path near a tree. The
dog is in the centre of the picture, facing the top-left corner. Often, significant
details seem to suddenly lead to the 'click' of recognition, at which point it is
hard to understand why we hadn't seen the 'hidden' image in the first place.
On subsequent occasions we see the image without any of our initial
difficulty.
Here the intended alternatives are a duck and a hare. What do you see first?
Such examples demonstrate that your own preferred interpretation is part of
what you bring to making sense of an image. In the context of media theory,
the relative openness of images to interpretation can serve as a reminder that
the 'meaning' of an image cannot be simply equated with a universal, unitary,
fixed and objective 'content' - meaning is not 'extracted' but is constructed in
the process of interpretation. But such constructed meanings are not
unconstrained: if you reported in all seriousness that your interpretation of the
image shown above was an elephant, you would be in danger of being
regarded as either mentally deficient or insane.
I do not intend to discuss the controversial issue of the extent to which the
way we perceive the world may be influenced by the categories which are
embedded in the language available to us. I have discussed the so-called
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis elsewhere. Suffice it to say that words can be found
in English, as above, to refer to distinctions which we may not habitually
make, but that this does not rule out the possibility that the categories which
we employ may not only reflect our view of the world but may also
sometimes exercise subtle influences upon it.
There is research evidence that verbal labels may influence the recall of visual
images. In a well-known experiment by Carmichael, Hogan and Walter
(1932), observers were shown simple line drawings each of which was
associated with either of two verbal captions - e.g. a drawing of two circles
linked by a straight line bore either the caption 'eye-glasses' or the caption
'dumb-bells'. The observers were then asked to reproduce the drawings. Their
reproductions showed a strong tendency to distort the original image to make
it closer to the verbal label which had been attached to it.
The Stroop Colour-Word Test can be used to illustrate the difficulties which
we can experience in separating labels from what they refer to (see below).
Try counting the number of green words, for instance.
When I could see again, objects literally hurled themselves at me. One of the
things a normal person knows from long habit is what not to look at. Things
that don't matter, or that confuse, are simply shut out of their seeing minds. I
had forgotten this, and tried to see everything at once; consequently I saw
almost nothing. (Muenzinger 1942)
Perception is unavoidably selective: we can't see all there is to see. There are
of course physiological limits (both for the human species and for
individuals); some argue that there are limits to cognitive capacity. And then
there are the constraints of our locational viewpoint: we can't see things from
every angle at once. But in addition to such physical limits we focus on
salient features and ignore details which are irrelevant to our current purposes
or interests. Selectivity thus involves omission. Some commentators use the
'filter' metaphor - we 'filter out' data, but this suggests a certain passivity: we
may also 'seek out' data of a certain kind.
Selective attention is assisted by redundancy: we don't always need much data
in order to recognize something. Often we can manage with minimal visual
data, making use of what is called 'redundancy'. You may know those 'blocky'
pictures of famous people in which you can just about recognize who it is.
Our schemata allow us to 'fill in gaps' because we know what should be there.
So selectivity also involves addition.
Gordon Allport and Leo Postman (1945; Newcomb 1952, 88-96) offered a
classic account of the selectivity of perception in their study of rumour.
Whenever an event is open to divergent interpretations, reporting it involves
transforming it. The selection, retention, reporting and retelling of events
routinely involves several kinds of transformations. All of these involve
simplifying events to make them more meaningful in terms of personal
interests, needs and experience. The process is exaggerated where memory
and retelling are involved, but it is already at work in the selectivity involved
in the initial perception of an event.
Evidence that Indians have a different manner of looking at the world can be
found in the contrast between the ways in which Indian and non-Indian artists
depict the same events. That difference is not necessarily a matter of 'error' or
simply a variation in imagery. It represents an entirely individual way of
seeing the world. For instance, in a sixteenth-century anonymous engraving
of a famous scene from the white man's history an artist depicted a sailing
vessel anchored offshore with a landing party of elegantly dressed gentlemen
disembarking while regal, Europeanized Indians look on - one carrying a
'peace pipe' expressly for this festive occasion.
The drawing by an Indian, on the other hand, records a totally different scene:
Indians gasping in amazement as a floating island, covered with tall
defoliated trees and odd creatures with hairy faces, approaches.
When I showed the two pictures to white people they said in effect: 'Well, of
course you realize that what those Indians thought they saw was not really
there. They were unfamiliar with what was happening to them and so they
misunderstood their experience.' In other words, there were no defoliated
trees, no floating island, but a ship with a party of explorers.
Indians, looking at the same pictures, pause with perplexity, and then say,
'Well, after all, a ship is a floating island, and what really are the masts of a
ship but the trunks of tall trees?' In other words, what the Indians saw was
real in terms of their own experience.
The Indians saw a floating island while white people saw a ship. Isn't it also
possible - if we use the bounds of twentieth-century imagination – that
another, more alien people with an entirely different way of seeing and
thinking might see neither an island or a ship? They might for example see
the complex networks of molecules that physics tells us produce the outward
shapes, colours and textures that we simply see as objects. Albert Einstein
showed us that objects, as well as scientific observation of them, are not
experienced directly, and that common- sense thinking is a kind of shorthand
that attempts to convert the fluid, sensuous animation and immediacy of the
world into illusory constructs such as stones, trees, ships and stars.
We see the world in terms of our cultural heritage and the capacity of our
perceptual organs to deliver culturally predetermined messages to us.
(Highwater 1981, 6-8)
Both the historical and socio-cultural context of perception are vast themes
which will not be explored further here, but such studies do help to emphasize
that 'the world' is not simply indisputably 'out there' but is to some extent
constructed in the process of perception. Within a given socio-cultural
context, there are widely-shared interpretive conventions and practices.
Whilst the basic processes of human perception are largely universal there is
scope for subtle but significant variations over space and time.
Several other kinds of context are commonly referred to. I have referred
already, in Visual Perception 3, to the importance of individual factors which
can have an influence on perception. An emphasis on the individual as a
context emphasizes the role of the various long-term characteristics of
individual perceivers such as values, attitudes, habits and so on. An emphasis
on the situational context considers such transitory situational factors as
goals, intentions, situational constraints and contextual expectancies. Finally,
an emphasis on the structural context stresses structural features and
relationships (such as the relationship between one line and another) 'in' what
is perceived - though the extent to which there is agreement about even such
low-level formal features may vary.
Five main definitions of the scope of the term 'context' have been listed here
in relation to their potential influence on perception:
historical
socio-cultural
individual
situational
structural
Whilst it may be useful to be alert to the very different meanings that the
word 'context' can have, disentangling them is problematic.
The influence of perceptual set has also been explored in relation to the
famous image shown below:
This image was designed to be interpreted as either a young woman or an old
woman. It was introduced into the psychological literature by Edwin G
Boring (1930) (though it was published by the British cartoonist W E Hill in
1915, and is thought to be based on a French version of 15 years earlier). It is
sometimes given the chauvinistic label of 'The Wife and the Mother-in-Law'.
In order to study the role of perceptual set Robert Leeper (1935) had the
image redrawn in two 'biased' forms: one which emphasized the old woman
and the other which emphasized the young woman (see image below).
Leeper varied the conditions of viewing for five groups. A control group was
shown only the ambiguous drawing, and 65% of this group spontaneously
described the image as that of a young woman. The second and third groups
were first given a verbal description of the old woman and the young woman
respectively. The fourth and fifth groups were first shown the 'old' version
and the 'young' version respectively. Groups 2 to 5 were then shown the
original ambiguous image. Leeper found that each of the primed groups was
'locked-in' to their previous interpretation. 100% of group 5, which had seen
the young version first, interpreted the ambiguous image as a young woman.
94% of group 4, which had seen the old version first, reported seeing the old
woman in the ambiguous image. The percentages opting for each
interpretation amongst those given verbal descriptions were much the same as
for the control group. Gerald Murch (1973, 305) was unable to replicate these
findings (94% of his control group first saw the young woman) and suggested
that the image was by then so well-known that this may have influenced the
results.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ocularcentrism
Homo significance
References
PREFACE
M.RIAZ KHAN
Organizational Theory & Behavior
His Excellency:
By: