Tribology International 70 (2014) 148154

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Wear mechanisms of several cutting tool materials in hard turning

of high carbonchromium tool steel
M.A. Shalaby a, M.A. El Hakim b, Magdy M. Abdelhameed b, J.E. Krzanowski c,
S.C. Veldhuis d, G.K. Dosbaeva d,n
a

Technical Research Center, Cairo, Egypt

Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, USA
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 31 July 2013
Received in revised form
15 October 2013
Accepted 17 October 2013
Available online 24 October 2013

The present study illustrates the performance of three different cutting tool materials, namely: PCBN, TiN
coated PCBN, and mixed aluminum ceramic (Al2O3 TiC) in the turning of medium hardened D2 tool
steel (52 HRC). Formation of CrO tribolms on the ceramic tool surface as a result of interaction with the
workpiece material and environment (identied by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy) leads to
improvement of lubricating properties at the tool/chip interface. Obtained results revealed that the
mixed alumina ceramic tool can outperform both types of PCBN under different machinability criteria.
Crown Copyright & 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Hard turning
Tool wear
PCBN tool material
Alumina ceramic tool material

1. Introduction
Hard turning is a process of single point cutting of workpieces
that have hardness levels in the range of 4565 HRC. An example
is AISI D2 steel, which is a high carbon and chromium tool steel
alloyed with a smaller amount of molybdenum and vanadium.
This steel is characterized by a high wear resistance, and it can
be used in the medium-hardened state (5256 HRC) for deep
drawing, rolling, punching, and extrusion dies. Since the late 1970s
hard turning of hardened steels such as D2 has been technically
and economically competitive to cylindrical grinding [1]. The
major benets of hard turning compared with cylindrical grinding
come from process exibility and economy [2]. Dry, hard turning
eliminates disposal and recycling cost of coolants. It has been
found out that turned surfaces may have a fatigue life as large as
twice that of ground surfaces with equivalent surface nish [3].
Historically, the rst ceramic material used as a cutting tool for
hard turning was alumina (Al2O3). However, this material has
limited applications due to its poor fracture toughness and low
thermal conductivity. These disadvantages of alumina have been
improved by means of additives such as ZrO2, SiC, TiC and TiCN.
Nowadays, (Al2O3 TiC) mixed ceramic is widely used as a cutting

Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 905 525 9140.

E-mail address: jdosby@mcmaster.ca (G.K. Dosbaeva).

tool material due to a benecial combination of physical properties

such as high thermal shock resistance, fracture toughness, and
high wear resistance [4]. Moreover, they are excellent materials for
high speed cutting due to their high hardness, especially at high
temperatures, and their relatively low chemical reactivity with
steels and many other materials [5]. The presence of Al2O3 in a
cutting tool assists in reducing the adhesion of the workpiece
material to the cutting tool surface, consequently increasing the
cutting tool life [6,7].
Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) has also been considered as a suitable choice for hard turning applications, particularly those that require high accuracy and good surface nish. TiN
coatings have been used to improve performance of the PCBN [8].
In spite of the extensive work in that eld, turning of hardened
alloy steels still constitutes a challenge to the machining process,
and in particular the performance of the cutting tools. The
presence of multiple alloying elements leads to the formation of
very hard carbide particles in the structure of such steels when
heat treated, leading to excessive tool wear. The resultant cutting
tool wear plays a major role during nish hard turning due to its
effects on surface integrity and dimensional accuracy [9]. The
capability to predict tool wear during hard turning is necessary to
avoid catastrophic tool failure, which leads to damage of the
workpiece surface, destruction of the cutting tool, and may affect
machine tool performance. Moreover, it can be used to determine
the optimum cutting speed for the minimum machining cost.

0301-679X/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright & 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2013.10.011

M.A. Shalaby et al. / Tribology International 70 (2014) 148154

Abrasive wear has been frequently reported as the main wear

mechanism in hard turning [10,11]. Due to high temperature and
high stresses in hard turning, diffusion wear also may occur and is
often accompanied by the decomposition of a component of one of
the sliding surfaces. Chemical reactions, including oxidation at
high speeds due to a high cutting temperature have also been
reported [11].
The measurement of cutting force components during hard
turning is essential to determine the torque and the power in order
to select the proper machine tool to carry out the machining process.
Moreover, the determination of the radial force component is
necessary to calculate the Machine-Fixture-Tool-Workpiece (MFTW)
system deection, which affects workpiece accuracy [12]. Cutting
forces are therefore used in the present study as a machinability
criterion to compare between the different cutting tool materials.
The present work provides a scientic approach to select the most
proper tool material for machining of the medium hardened D2 tool
steel. Three different tool materials most widely recommended by
literature [1315] for hard turning of hardened steels have been used:
low content Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride, PCBN (BNX20); TiN
coated PCBN (7020) having the same chemical composition as the rst
type; and (Al2O3 TiC) mixed alumina ceramic, a chemically stable
tool material with high red hardness and reasonable toughness.

2. Experimental work
AISI D2 high carbon high chromium tool steel hardened to 52
HRC has been used in the present work. The chemical composition
of the used workpiece material is presented in Table 1. The
chemical composition and the hardness of the used tool materials
are given in Table 2. The cutting tool inserts were mounted on a
tool holder having the specications mentioned in the same table.
The tool nose radius (r) was kept constant at 1.2 mm for all the
tool materials used. Machining tests were carried out on a 3 kW
digitally controlled general purpose center lathe. A tool makers
microscope was used to measure the tool ank wear land width
(VB). Progressive ank wear has been plotted against the machining time (t), in minutes. Tool life was determined at 0.2 mm ank
wear. The scatter of tool wear measurements was around 10%.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to study the wear
mechanisms of the different cutting tools. A 3-components tool
force turning dynamometer was used for measuring the cutting
force components. The calibration of the cutting forces dynamometer was carried out using a loading device with a capacity of
2000 N. The calibration procedures were repeated 3 times, and the
average least squares line has nally been used. Two cutting
speeds (vc) of 100 and 175 m/min were used. The chip was
collected at different cutting speeds and its thickness was measured using a digital micrometer to obtain the chip compression
Table 1
Chemical composition of the workpiece material.

149

ratio (c). After each cutting test, the workpieces were machined
using a mixed-alumina tool at a relatively low cutting speed of
30 m/min to minimize the probable effect of tool wear on the
machined surface during the previous pass. Considering the workpiece materials ability to harden, the machined depth of cut after
all the machining passes did not exceed 4 mm, maintaining uniform workpiece properties throughout the machining tests.
The characteristics of the surface tribo-lms that were formed on
the worn surface were studied using the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) on a Kratos-HS XPS system. A MgK X-ray source was
used, running at 15 kV and 10 mA. For the detailed scans on individual
elements (as shown in this work for Cr) the scan was run at a pass
energy of 160 eV, a step size of 50 meV, a dwell time of 100 ms with
10 passes. To reduce the impact of surface impurities on the nal
result, the sample was etched in the XPS system before collection of
the scan using 4 keV Ar ions for 5 min. The deconvolution analysis
was carried out using the system-supplied software and database.

3. Results
3.1. Tool wear and tool life
Fig. 1 illustrates the behavior of the tool ank wear land width
(VBB) as wear scars occurred in the tool corner area with the
machining time (t) for the three tool materials. Firstly, a machining
test was carried out at 100 m/min. It was noticed that at the
beginning of the machining process, the lowest wear was obtained
with the PCBN tool. However, after a machining time of 5.5 min,
(after exceeding a ank wear of 0.12 mm) the lowest wear was
obtained by the ceramic tool. The TiN coated PCBN gave the
highest wear value amongst the used tool materials.
When the cutting speed was increased to 175 m/min, similar
results were observed. The PCBN tool at rst displayed the lowest
wear value. However, after 4.3 min, (after reaching a ank wear
land of 0.16 mm) the ceramic tool displayed the lowest wear
values. The highest wear was obtained by the coated PCBN tool.
Fig. 1 shows that the running-in and the stable wear stages can
be easily observed when using the ceramic tool, whereas for the
two types of PCBN tool; higher ank wear values in relation to
time were obtained.
The corresponding tool life values for a ank wear land width
of 0.2 mm are given in Table 3. The mixed ceramic tool shows
2034% higher tool life than uncoated PCBN, and a 100300%
higher tool life than TiN coated PCBN at the cutting speeds
examined here. This can be attributed to the relatively lower red
hardness of TiN as a compound compared to TiC and alumina, as
clearly shown at the higher speed of 175 m/min.
Fig. 2 presents the SEM micrographs of the three worn out
inserts. The abrasion marks are clear on the three cutting tool
anks. Crater wear is not found on the ceramic tool face, whilst it
can be observed on the faces of the two types of PCBN inserts.
3.2. Chip formation

%C

%Si

%Mn

%Cr

%Mo

%V

%Fe

1.55

0.3

0.4

11.8

0.8

0.8

Balance

The chip study is important for the fundamental understanding

of the entire performance of the cutting process. Chip morphology

Table 2
Chemical composition of the cutting tool materials and tool holder specications [2931].
Tool material

Chemical compositions

Hardness

Tool holder specications

Inserts micro-geometry

PCBN (BNX20)
TiN coated PCBN (CB7020)

60%CBN TiN binder

57% CBN TiN binder TiN physical
vapor deposition (PVD) coated, 2 m thickness
70% Al2O3 30% TiC

31003300 HV
27002900 HV

 51 rake angle, 51 clearance

angle, 751 setting angle

Chamfer angle 251, Effective chamfer

angle 301, Cutting edge angle 901

Mixed Alumina

2000 HV

150

M.A. Shalaby et al. / Tribology International 70 (2014) 148154

0.3

(mm)
Flank wear (VBB)

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1

TiN coated PCBN (7020)

PCBN (BNX20)

0.05

Ceramic

0
0

12

15 (min) 18

Machining time (t)

0.3

(mm)

Flank wear (VBB)

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1

TiN coated PCBN (7020)

PCBN (BNX20)

0.05
Creamic

0
0

(min)

10

Machining time (t)

Fig. 1. Wear curves at different cutting speeds using the different tool materials;
(a) vc 100 m/min, (b) vc 175 m/min; ap 0.06 mm, f 0.05 mm/rev, r 1.2 mm.

Table 3
Tool life values (minutes) for the used tool materials at ank wear land width of
0.2 mm.
Tool material

Coated PCBN

PCBN

Mixed alumina

v 100 m/min
v 175 m/min

7
2

12
6

14.5
8

depends on both tool and workpiece materials. Accordingly, chips

were collected during each machining test for each tool material.
Discontinuous chips were obtained at low cutting speeds,
vc o20 m/min for ceramic and vc o 30 m/min for both coated
and uncoated PCBN. The difference of these cutting speed values
is due to the higher thermal conductivity of CBN compared to the
ceramic, leading to lower cutting temperatures.
At higher cutting speeds and consequently higher than average
chip temperature, a steady plastic ow of the workpiece material
occurs on the tool face producing continuous, tangled chips as
indicated in Fig. 3. The examination of the smoothness of the chip
underside can therefore reveal the intensity of adhesion of the
chip to the tool face; Fig. 3 shows the SEM chip micrographs. It can
be easily detected that the smoothest chip underside was obtained
with ceramic, indicating least adhesion of chip on the tool face,
followed by PCBN, and nally by the coated PCBN showing the
most intense adhesion of the chip to the tool face.
The chip compression ratio (c) is a parameter dened as the
ratio between the deformed chip thickness to its undeformed
thickness. It can be used as a direct indication of the frictional
behavior at the chiptool interface [16].
Fig. 4 shows the chip compression ratio (c) for each of the used
tool materials as a function of the cutting speed. It can be noticed
that the lowest values of the chip compression ratio are obtained
with the ceramic tool, while the highest values are due to the

Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of the worn inserts; (a) mixed alumina ceramic, (b) PCBN,
(c) TiN coated PCBN vc 100 m/min, ap 0.06 mm, f 0.05 mm/rev, r 1.2 mm.

coated PCBN, which conrms the results of the chip micrographs

mentioned before. Each of the (cvc) relationships of the three
cutting tool materials has a peak value at 30 m/min for the two
types of PCBN, and 20 m/min for the ceramic. These peaks are
caused by hot pressure welding causing a higher coefcient
of friction at the tool/chip interface under these cutting speeds.

M.A. Shalaby et al. / Tribology International 70 (2014) 148154

151

Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of the produced chips using different tool materials; (a) mixed alumina ceramic, (b) PCBN, (c) TiN coated PCBN vc 100 m/min, ap 0.06 mm,
f 0.05 mm/rev, r 1.2 mm.

Chip compression ratio (c)

5
4.5
4
3.5
3

TiN coated PCBN (7020)

PCBN (BNX20)

2.5

Ceramic
2
0

40

80

120

160

(m/min) 200

which decreases the friction coefcient at the tool/chip interface,

and consequently decreases the chip compression ratio. At higher
cutting speeds and hence higher cutting temperatures, lower
shear strength of the chip material at the chip underside is
achieved leading to a lower coefcient of friction. The high chip
compression ( 44), occurring in three cutting tool materials used,
can be attributed to the relatively small undeformed chip thickness, which increases the coefcient of friction at the toolchip
interface. The toolchip contact length (as a function of the
undeformed chip thickness) is considered small when compared
to the chamfer width, which increases the effective rake angle and
consequently increases the coefcient of friction between the
chip-underside and the tool face.

Cutting speed (v)

Fig. 4. Effect of the cutting speed (v) on the chip compression ratio (c). ap 0.06 mm,
f 0.05 mm/rev, r 1.2 mm.

For the same workpiece material, the speed at which the hot
pressure welding takes place depends mainly on the thermal
properties of the tool material [17]. At low cutting speeds below
the hot working temperature, the chips tend to be discontinuous,

3.3. Cutting forces

Fig. 5 presents the effect of the cutting tool material on the
cutting force components: the radial cutting force components
(Fy), the tangential cutting force component (Fz), and the axial
cutting force component (Fx). The cutting force measurements
were taken when the values of the tool ank wear land width not
exceeded 0.05 mm to avoid or at least decrease the effect of tool

Value of the cutting force components (N)

152

M.A. Shalaby et al. / Tribology International 70 (2014) 148154

220

PCBN

Ti 2p

200
Coated
carbide
Ceramic

180
160
140

Ti O2

120
100

(458.09 eV)

Ti Ox

80

(465.86 eV)

60
40
20
0
Fy

Fz

Fx

Cutting force components

Fig. 5. Effect of the cutting tool material on the cutting force components
vc 175 m/min, ap 0.15 mm, f 0.1 mm/rev, r 1.2 mm.

wear on the cutting force components. The lowest values of the

three cutting force components were those produced by the
ceramic tool, followed by the PCBN, while the largest force
components were obtained using the coated PCBN tool material.
As the cutting tool nose radius (r 1.2 mm) is greater than the
depth of cut, the radial cutting (Fy) force component was the
largest component in the tool material used.
3.4. Characterization of the surface tribo-lms on the worn surface
To understand the cause of better tool life of ceramic insert,
investigation of its worn surface was made. To study characteristics of the tribolms, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
analysis was used. Two kinds of the tribo-lm could be identied
on the worn rake surface of the tool. It was only possible to
identify the tribo-lms on the surface of a ceramic tool. All other
tools studied did not show formation of tribo-lms. Minor
amounts of TiO lms were found (Fig. 6a) that correspond to
our previously obtained results [18,19]. Signicant amount of
lubricating polyvalent chromium oxides are generated. A corresponding spectrum is shown in Fig. 6b. The XPS spectra of the Cr
2p region (Fig. 6b) indicate the presence of two Cr states on the
surface of the worn ceramic insert. The tted spectrum has peaks
at 574.2 (Cr), 577.8 (CrOx) and 587.3 (CrOx). This interpretation
of chromium bonds is obtained in accordance with the data
published elsewhere [18,19]. The position of the photoelectron
lines is shifted from the binding energy for standard elements,
which indicates their partial oxidation with the formation of nonequilibrium phases
The positions of the photoelectron lines are shifted from the
binding energies values for pure elements indicating their partial
oxidation with the formation of non-equilibrium phases that are
close to Cr 3  O phase.

4. Discussion
Three cutting tool materials used have been assessed using
different machinability criteria. Firstly, the tool wear mechanisms
have been dened. For the two types of PCBN, the abrasion wear
marks which have been identied on the tool ank are the result
of the presence of very hard carbides (such as chromium carbide)
in the microstructure of the workpiece material. The adhesive
wear has also been noticed from the adhesion marks on the chip
underside as shown in Fig. 3.
The higher chip compression ratio associated with the two
types of PCBN can be also used as an indication of the adhesive
wear mechanism when using the two types of PCBN tools. TiN
coated PCBN had a higher compression ratio and higher adhesion

Cr O x
(587.3 eV)
Cr Ox
(577.8 eV)

Cr (574.2 eV)

Fig. 6. Photoelectron spectra of the (a) Ti 2p and (b) Cr 2p region taken from the
worn rake surface of ceramic tool.

mark density on the chip underside than the uncoated PCBN.

This observation can be attributed to the higher micro-hardness of
the uncoated PCBN compared with the coated one as shown in
Table 2.
The crater wear has only been observed on the tool faces of the
two types of PCBN, while it is not found on the ceramic tool face.
The presence of the craters while using the two types of the coated
and uncoated PCBN tools is considered an indication of diffusion
wear.
Referring to Fig. 1, both of the PCBN tools show at rst relatively
lower ank wear values vs. time compared to the ceramic tool.
Upon reaching a prescribed tool ank wear value (which is
dependent on the cutting speed), the ceramic tool wear rate then
becomes remarkably lower than that of the PCBN.
These phenomena are explained in the following way: ceramic
tool has low thermal conductivity (around 10 W/mK), with temperature the thermal conductivity for ceramic tools reduces
signicantly [20] as compared to PCBN (56 W W/mK) [21]. The
produced chip is heated up rst by the deformation work done in
overcoming the shear resistance in the primary deformation zone,
which results in the shear plane temperature rise (s). The shear
plane temperature rise is a function of the power consumed in
shearing action at the shear zone and the workpiece material
properties in addition to the cutting conditions. Due the work
done in overcoming friction at the toolchip interface, an additional temperature rise occurs (f). The frictional temperature rise
is a function of the power consumed in overcoming the friction,
the workpiece material properties, the tool material properties,
the chip dimensions, and the toolchip contact length [22].

M.A. Shalaby et al. / Tribology International 70 (2014) 148154

The average toolchip temperature (c) is therefore obtained as

follows:
c s f
The effect of the tool material thermal conductivity on the
average tool chip temperature has been investigated [17]. Fig. 7
shows that for prescribed cutting conditions and workpiece
material properties, the average toolchip temperature would
decrease with increasing the tool material thermal conductivity
(kt) due to the decrease of the frictional temperature rise. It has to
be mentioned that the tool material thermal conductivity has no
effect on the shear plane temperature rise. Therefore temperature
on the rake surface is signicantly higher on ceramic tools. This
promotes formation of protective/high temperature lubricating
oxides.
Two types of tribo-lms are forming on the surface of ceramic
tools. First one is due to chemical modication of tool material.
Our previous studies of the tribo-lms formed on the tool surface
using the Raman spectroscopy during hard turning of hardened
steel under similar conditions [23] provided some indication that
formation of the rst type of tribo-lm is based on the TiO phase,
and is due to the chemical modication of tool material (TiC
containing ceramics [18,19]). However, the machining conditions
used here are very hard and therefore TiO tribo-lms could not
efciently sustain such high temperature/heavy load conditions
[16], and as a result, rapidly wore out. This is why the XPS analysis
performed in this study (Fig. 6a) found only small amounts of
these TiO based tribo-lms.
It has been proven previously by Kramer and Suh [24] that the
solubility of iron in CBN is higher than in alumina, which can be
used to explain the occurrence of crater wear when using the
PCBN tools only, which does not occur on the ceramic tool surface.
Application of TiN coating on a PCBN insert does not result in tool
life improvement because the TiN layer has a limited oxidation
stability [25] and TiO tribo-lms formed cannot sustain harsh
operating conditions of dry hard turning. In a previous research
carried out by the co-authors [23], using the same mixed alumina
ceramic tool to machine hardened high speed steel (HSS), where
the friction surface was analyzed by Raman spectroscopy and SEM
elemental mapping, an Al2O3 tribo-lm was identied in the ank
wear region. The high temperature reached under such harsh
cutting conditions caused Al2O3 to diffuse to the tool surface to
form a protective layer. The high chemical and thermal stability of
the Al2O3 tribo-lm protects the tool substrate because it prevents
the heat generated at the tool/chip interface from entering the tool
core. Accordingly, it can be deduced that in this case, the adaptive
behavior of ceramic tools was developed by means of the ability of
the tool to generate a protective tribo-lm on frictional surfaces
due to the presence of certain elements in this tool material [19],

which reduces the tool wear under severe operating conditions.

As it was expected, the second type of tribo-lms forms due to the
tribo-oxidation of the workpiece material, which is sticking to the
rake surface as a result of friction at the chip/tool interface.
The XPS spectra of the Cr 2p region (Fig. 6) indicate the
presence of two Cr states on the surface of the worn ceramic
insert. The tted spectrum has peaks at 574.2 (Cr), 577.8 (CrOx)
and 587.3 (CrOx). This interpretation of chromium bonds is
obtained in accordance with the data published elsewhere
[26,27]. The position of the photoelectron lines is shifted from
the binding energy for standard elements, which indicates their
partial oxidation with the formation of non-equilibrium phases.
Formation of high temperature lubricious CrO tribolms that
are indentied by XPS (Fig. 6) results in improvement of lubricating properties at the tool/chip interface. The lowest cutting force
components have been obtained using the mixed alumina ceramic
tool as a result of the lowest coefcient of friction on the tool face,
which can be easily detected from the chip compression ratio data
and also conrmed by the examination of the chip underside using
SEM. Similar results were previously obtained for TiAlCrN PVD
coating with high Cr content [28].

5. Conclusions
The present study illustrates wear mechanisms of different tool
materials used in machining medium hardened AISI D2 tool steel.
Friction kinetics between each tool material and workpiece
material control the tool wear. Mixed alumina ceramic tool has
given longer tool life and lower cutting force components than
PCBN tools, which can be attributed to its higher chemical and
thermal stability, exhibited during hard machining of D2 tool steel
as well as due formation of high temperature lubricating CrOx
tribo-lms under operation. As shown in this research this
combination of characteristics does not exist with PCBN. The wear
mechanisms of PCBN can be considered as a combination of
abrasion, adhesion, and diffusion. TiN coating of PCBN has not
improved its performance. Ceramic tooling is considered the best
choice for machining the medium hardened D2 tool steel with
respect to the PCBN.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Dr. G. S. Fox-Rabinovich
(McMaster University) for his helpful assistance. One of the
authors (J.E. Krzanowski) gratefully acknowledges the US National
Science Foundation (grant CMMI/MCME-1031052) for partial
support of this research.
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700
600
500

Temperature

153

400
300
200
100
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

Tool material thermal conductivity (kt)

60

70

(W/mK)

Fig. 7. Effect of tool material thermal conductivity (kt) on the different temperatures.

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