SmallGroupTeachingkeytheoriesandmethods

1. Whattheliteraturetellsusaboutusingsmallgroupsforlearning
2. Factorsinfluencingthesuccessofsmallgrouplearning
3. Smallgroupteachingmethods
4. Managingdifficultgroups/students;tipsandpitfalls

Acknowledgement:SomeofthismaterialhasbeenadaptedfromthecoursenotesforPHCM9302Learningin
SmallGroupsdevelopedbySueTooheyandconvenedbySophiediCorpo.

1.Whattheliteraturetellsusaboutusingsmallgroups

Itisusefultofirstlyremindourselveswhatconstitutesasmallgroup.
FisherandEllis(l990)emphasisethatmostofthedefinitionsofagroup
indicatethesharingelementamongmembersasthekeyfactorwhichdefines
theexistenceofagroup.Thesharingcanbearoundperceptions,motivation
orgoals,aswellasaroundtasks,suchasinascenariogroupsession.This
sharingelementcanbegreatlyinfluencedbythegroupdynamicorclimateof
thegroup.
Thestructureofthegroupisanotherdefiningelementtheroles,norms,
valuesandpowerrelationshipsthatinfluencethebehaviourofgroup
membersandtiethemtothegroup,providingthe'glue'ofgroupstructure.
Thestructureofagroupcaninfluencethelevelandsuccessofinteractionin
agroup.
Smallgroupwork(alsoknownascooperativeorcollaborativelearningor
peerlearning)involvesahighdegreeofinteraction.Theeffectivenessof
learninggroupsisdeterminedbytheextenttowhichtheinteractionenables
memberstoclarifytheirownunderstanding,builduponeachother's
contributions,siftoutmeanings,askandanswerquestions.
Secondly,whatdoestheliteraturetellus?Studieshaveshownthatwhenlookingat
longtermretention,theabilitytoapplyknowledgeandsolveproblems,critical
thinkinganddevelopmentofpositiveattitudes,resultsconsistentlyfavoursmall
discussionclasses(McKeachie&Kulik,1975,McKeachie,1994).Jaques(2004)argues
thatthepurposesandbenefitsofgrouplearningcoincidecloselywiththegoalsof
highereducationingeneral.

Benefitsoflearninginsmallgroupsinclude:

allowingstudentstodiscoverandengagewitharangeofperspectives,
ideas,andbackgrounds

providingstudentstheopportunityformoreactiveinvolvement
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assistingstudentstoclarifytheirattitudestoandideasaboutthesubject
matter,astheytesttheirownideasandattitudesagainstthoseofothers

helpingstudentsdevelopasenseofacademicrigourandawillingnessto
shareideas

providingopportunitiesforstudentstoreceivemoreimmediatefeedback
ontheirlearning

encouragingstudentstowardsselfdirectedandindependentlearning

providingmoreopportunitiesforpeerlearningandsharingresponsibility
forlearning

providingopportunitiesforstudentstomoreeasilygainawarenessof
theiremotionalreactions

providingopportunitiesforstudentstolearnanddevelopcooperative
behaviourincludingcriticalthinkingandtheprocessofgroupproblem
solving

moreeasilyestablishingrapportbetweenteacherandstudent

providingmoreopportunitytodevelopskillsincommunication(listening,
responding,interacting)andinterpersonalrelations

References
FISHERBA&ELLISDG(1990)SmallGroupDecisionMaking,(3rded)
McGrawHill,PublishingCo,NewYork.
JAQUES,D(2004)SmallGroupTeaching,OxfordCentreforStaffand
LearningDevelopment,UK.
McKEACHIE,W.J.&KULIK,J.A.(1975)EffectiveCollegeTeaching.InF.N.
Kerlinger(ed.)ReviewofResearchinEducation.Itaska,Ill.Peacock.
McKEACHIE,W.J.(1994)TeachingTips:Strategies,ResearchandTheory
forCollegeandUniversityTeachers.(9thed.)Lexington,Mass.Heathand
Co.
TIBERIUS,R.G.(1990)SmallGroupTeaching:ATroubleShootingGuide,
Toronto,OISEPressandtheOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation.
UNSWL&Twebsite:
http://learningandteaching.unsw.edu.au/content/LT/teaching_support/smallgr
oup.cfm?ss=2

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2.Factorsinfluencingthesuccessofsmallgrouplearning

GroupClimate
Groupclimateisthegeneralpsychologicaloremotionalstateofthe
group.Youmaybeabletoidentifyfromyourownexperience,groupsin
whichtheclimatewassuspicious,competitiveorantagonistic.Insuch
situationsitisunlikelythatmuchleaningwillhappen.Somegroupshavea
setofformalrulesgoverningsuchthingsasattendance(eg.Scenario
groupssessionsrequire80%attendance)andpreparation(eg.students
mustdotherequiredreadingbeforeeachclass).Evenmorepowerful
thoughisthesetofinformalrules,whichareestablishedovertimeasthe
groupmemberslearntoworkwitheachother.
DavidJaques(1991)pointsoutthatmanyofthedifficultiesthatstudents
havewithexpressingthemselvesingroupsstemfromuncertaintyabout
whattherulesofthegameare.Theymaybelievethattheywouldbe
steppingonthegroupleaderstoesiftheyweretoproposetopicsfor
discussion,askquestions,orproposeachangeindirectionorprocedure.
Becausetheydontwanttoembarrassafellowstudenttheymaybe
reluctanttoaskquestionsaboutanotherstudentsopinionor
presentation.Studentsmaybeafraidtospeakupforfearthattheywillbe
ridiculedorembarrassediftheymakeamistake.Forallofthesereasons
itisproductivetodevotesometimetoestablishinggroundrulesforhow
thegroupshouldoperate.
Youcandothisbysuggestingsomerulestothegroupandhavingthem
discussandagreeonwhichtheywouldliketouse.Ruleswhichareoften
proposed,include
-

Studentscaninitiateorredirectdiscussion
Speakerswillbeallowedtofinishwhattheyhavetosay
Speakwheneveryouwishbutafteryouhavespokentrywaitinguntil
twoorthreeothershavecontributedbeforespeakingagain,toavoid
havingafewpeopledominate
Treatotherpeopleandtheircontributionswithrespect
Everyonetakesresponsibilityfortheworkingofthegroupprocess

GroupStructure
Groupmembersneedtounderstandwhatisexpectedofthem.In
learninggroups,thismeansthattheinstructionsforanyactivitiesare
clearlyspelledout.Rolessuchasleader,recorderorreporterare
allocatedornegotiatedandclearlyagreed.Everyoneunderstandsexactly
whathastobeachievedandwhatthetimeframeis.

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Roleclarityisparticularlyimportant.Thisincludestherole,skillsand
behavioursoftheleader/facilitatorofthegroup.Onceagroupiswell
establishedgroupleaders/facilitatorsandmembersshouldsharemanyof
thegroupbuildingandthetaskroles.Intheinitialstages,itisoftenupto
thegroupleader/facilitatortodiagnosewhatisneededandensurethat
essentialsocialfunctionsoccur(suchasensuringthateveryoneis
introduced,thatpeopleknowsomethingaboutothermembersinthe
groupsothattheywillfeelcomfortableexpressingopinionsinfrontof
them)andthatessentialtaskfunctionsalsooccur(everyoneisclearabout
thepurposeofthegroup,thekindsofactivitiesthatwillbeundertaken
andthewaythegroupwilloperate.)
Importantroleswhenfacilitatingsmallgrouplearningmostcommonly
relatetosupportingthegroupbybuildingandmaintaininggood
relationshipsamonggroupmembersandgettingthetasksdone.The
behavioursassociatedwiththeserolesaredetailedbelow.
a) Maintainingandsupportingthegroup
Thesebehavioursorrolesareaimedatdevelopingthesocialsideofthe
group.Theycontributetobuildinggoodrelationshipsamongmembers.
TheexamplesarebasedonJaques(1991).
Encouragingbeingfriendly,warmandresponsivetoothers,
acknowledgingothersandtheirideas,agreeingwithandacceptingthe
contributionsofothers.
Forexample,"Hafeez,whydon'tyoutellallofuswhatyoutoldmeabout
theobservationsyoumadeinclinical?"
Mediatingharmonizing,conciliatingdifferencesinpointofview,making
compromises
bysaying,"OtherpeopleheremightbeasworriedasyouareAeysha,
aboutthedelayintreatmentforMrsBruce,butweneedtotakeasecond
lookatsomeofthepossiblereasons.Youhadsomethingtosayabout
that,Sue...?"
Diagnosingdeterminingandpointingoutblockstogroupprogress
"weseemtobegoingoverthesamegroundalloveragain,isthat
becausewe'verunoutofnewideas?"
ConsensusTakingtestinggroupopinionsanddecisionsbystatingthem
andaskingwhetherornotmembersagree

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"Whatyou'resayingLizisthatweshouldlimitthetimeeachmember
speaksonthisissue,isthatwhatothermembersarethinking?"
GateKeepingtryingtomakeitpossibleforanothermembertomakea
contribution,orsuggestinglimitedtakingtimeforeveryonesothatall
willhaveachancetobeheard.
"Wehaven'theardfromeveryoneyet,let'ssee,Jim,thenSunil."
StandardSettingexpressingstandardsforthegrouptouseinchoosing
itssubjectmatterorprocedures,rulesofconduct,ethicalvalues.
"Itisimportantthateveryonefeelsfreetoexpressanopinioninthe
group,that'sthefirstgroundrule,thenext...
Followinggoingalongwiththegroup,acceptingtheideasofothers,
servingasanaudienceduringgroupdiscussion,beingagoodlistener.
"That'sagoodpoint","Isee","LetmecheckwithyoutoseewhetherI've
understoodthepointyouweremaking"
RelievingTensiondrainingoffnegativefeelingbyjokingordiverting
attentionfromunpleasanttopleasantmatters".
"AmIright,weallseemabittenseatpresentlet'stakeafewmoments
andgetsomefreshair...."or"Icanassureyou,thissubjectisnotnearlyas
difficultasIseemtobemakingit"
Manyofus,whoareconcernedtogetthetaskdoneefficiently,tendto
underestimatetheimportanceofthesebehavioursaimedatmakingthe
groupapleasantandrewardingplacetobe.Butiftheyarelackingitis
unlikelythatthegroupwillperformeffectively.Somepeoplewilldrop
out,otherswillwithdrawandmakelittlecontribution,afewwill
dominateandjustabouteveryonewillfeelthattheirtimeandworkis
underappreciated.
b) Gettingthetaskdone
Thiscaninclude:
Initiatingsuggestingnewideasorachangedwayoflookingatthegroup
problemorgoal,proposingnewactivities.
Informationseekingaskingforrelevantfactsorinformation.
Informationgivingprovidingrelevantfactsorauthoritativeinformation
orrelatingpersonalexperiencepertinenttothegrouptask.

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OpinionSeekingaskingforopinions,judgementsorfeelingsofother
groupmembers,seekingclarificationofvalues.
OpinionGivingstatingapertinentbelieforopinionaboutsomethingthe
groupisconsidering.
Elaboratingbuildingonapreviouscomment,enlargingonit,giving
examples.
Coordinatingshowingorclarifyingtherelationshipsamongvarious
ideas,tryingtopullideasandsuggestionstogether.
Orientingdefiningtheprogressofthediscussionintermsofthegroup's
goals,raisingquestionsaboutthedirectionthediscussionistaking.
Testingcheckingwiththegrouptoseeifitisreadytomakeadecisionor
totakesomeaction.
Energisingstimulatingthegroup,encouragingactivityandmovement
towardgroupgoals
Summarisingrevisingthecontentofpastdiscussion
Recordingwritingdownideas,suggestionsordecisionsmadebythe
group
Timekeepingkeepingthegrouponscheduleortoplan.
Therolesofgroupsupportandthetaskroleslistedabovereflectthe
positiveaspectsofgroupwork.Inreality,someofthebehaviourthat
occursingroupsisnotproductiveandpreventsthegroupfrommaking
progress.Thisislikelytobeselfcentredbehaviourthatdoesnot
contributetothegroupgoalsbutsatisfiespersonalneeds.'Nonfunctional'
rolesarelistedbelowandcanapplyequallytostudentsor
teachers/facilitatorsofsmallgroups.
c) NonfunctionalBehaviour
Monopolizingtalkingsooftenorsolongthatothersdonotgetachance
tospeak.
Blockinginterferingwiththeprogressofthegroupbygoingoffona
tangent,citingpersonalexperiencesunrelatedtothegroup'sproblem,
arguingtoomuchonapointtherestofthegrouphasresolved,rejecting
ideaswithoutconsideration,preventingavote.
Aggressioncriticisingorblamingothers,showinghostilitytowardthe
grouporsomeindividualwithoutrelationtowhathashappenedinthe
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group,attackingthemotivesofothers,deflatingtheegoorstatusof
others.
SeekingRecognitionattemptingtocallattentiontoone'sselfby
excessivetalking,extremeideas,boasting,boisterousness.
SpecialPleadingintroducingorsupportingideasrelatedtoone'sown
petconcernsorphilosophiesbeyondreason,attemptingtospeak'forthe
grassroots',thepatients,'thecommonman',andsoon.
Withdrawingdaydreaming,sleepiness,becomingindifferentorpassive,
resortingtoexcessiveformality,doodling,whisperingtoothers.
Wewillcoversomestrategiesfordealingwithproblembehaviourin
Managingdifficultgroups/students;tipsandpitfalls
References
JAQUES,D(1991)LearningInGroups,(2nded)KoganPage,London.

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3.Smallgroupteachingmethods

Goodsmallgroupworkrarelyjusthappens.Itreliestoagreatextentonpreparation
bytheteacherandinvolvesbeingclearaboutwhatthesessionisdesignedto
achieve,identifyingusefulproblems,casesorothermaterialwhichmightformthe
basisoflearningandidentifyingcrucialquestionswhichwillgetpeoplethinking.

Planningyoursmallgroupsession
Beforemeetingwithyourgroupyouneedtoplanyoursession.Attheveryleast
makesureyoureviewthefollowing:
Content:
Whatarethemostimportantpointsforthesession?Whatarethelikelyerrorsthat
studentsmaymakeintryingtounderstandthetopic/issue/skill?Arethereimportant
principles,orkeyconceptsthatyouwantstudentstounderstand?
Aims:
Itisimportanttobeclearaboutwhatyouwanttoachieveinyoursmallgroup
teachingsession.Brookfield(1990)suggeststhatthefollowingaimsarewellsuited
todiscussionbasedteaching.Considerwhetheranyofthesecoulddescribetheaims
ofyoursmallgroupteaching:
1.

Toengagestudentsinexploringarangeofperspectivesand
discoveringnewperspectives

2.

Toemphasizethecomplexityandambiguityofissues,topicsor
themes.

3.

Tohelpstudentsrecognizetheassumptionsunderlyingtheirhabitual
ideasandbehaviours.

4.

Toincreaseintellectualagility

5.

Toencourageactivelistening

6.

Toincreasestudentsinterestandinvolvementwithatopic;

7.

Toshowstudentsthattheiropinionsandexperiencesarevalued;

8.

Tohelpdevelopasenseofgroupidentity;

9.

Toencouragedemocratichabitssuchasvaluingparticipation,
respectforothersopinionsandtoleranceofdiversity.

ActivitiesandQuestions:
Whatkindsofactivitiesmightyouuseorwhatkindsofquestionsmightyouaskthat
helptoraisestudentsinterestinthistopic,establishwhatisandisnotanexample
ofthisconceptorcondition,exposestudentsmisunderstandingsand/orhelp
studentsunderstandthecomplexitiesofthisissue?

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Conditions:
Howmightyouneedtomodifywhatyoucandoaccordingtothenumberof
students,thetimeavailable,andthespaceyouareworkingin?Forexample,should
youbreakthestudentsupintosmallergroupsforallorpartofthesession?There
aremanydifferentreasonswhyyoumightwanttosplityourgroupupintosmaller
subgroups;togiveeveryoneanopportunitytodiscussanissueortogetsome
handsonexperienceinanewskillortechnique;toencouragequieterstudents;to
discouragethemoredominantstudents.Althoughthephysicalarrangementof
chairsandtablesisoneofthemostbasictasksinprovidingcomfort,itisalsohighly
influentialintheflowofdiscussioninthegroup.

TechniquesforSmallGroupWork
Insmallgroupworktheteacherorfacilitatorsetsupactivities,asksquestions,listens
andrespondstostudentscommentsandquestions,occasionallyexplaining,often
askingfurtherquestions.S/heisoftentheonetopullthesessiontoaclose,by
summarisingtheunderstandingthathasbeenreachedandthequestionsthat
remain.Studentstoo,askandanswerquestions,explaintheirideasandsummarise
eachothersarguments.
Itfollowsthattheskillsneededinsmallgroupteachingarepredominantly
questioning,listening,responding,explaining,andsummarisingandthatstudents
needtodevelopthemjustasmuchasteachers.Inaddition,teachersneedtobeable
topreparematerialsandactivitiesforstudentstoworkonandtheyneedtobeable
topreparestudentssothattheyunderstandwhatsmallgroupteachingisaboutand
developtheskillsdescribedabove.
Manydifferenttechniqueshavebeendevelopedtoaccomplishthedifferent
purposesofsmallgrouplearning.Wewilllookbrieflyattwo,discussiongroupsand
briefinganddebriefingpractical,clinicalorexperientiallearning.

Discussiongroups(open)
Agooddiscussionclassallowsstudentstheopportunitytoexposetheirindividual
conceptionsandmisconceptionsandtocomparetheirideaswiththoseofothers.
Cognitively,theactofputtingmaterialintoonesownwordsisaveryimportantstep
indevelopingunderstanding,aswellasprovidinganopportunitytobeginusingthe
languageofthediscipline.
Oneimportantpointtobemadeaboutopendiscussionisthatalthoughitappearsto
bequitespontaneousandevenchaotic,itssuccessdependstoaconsiderableextent
onstudentsdoingsomepreparatoryworkandonthequestionsthatthe
teacher/facilitatorposesinordertostartthediscussion.
Educationalreasonsforquestioningmaydifferfromclinicalpurposes.Theyinclude
to

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stimulatelearningandthinking

assistthelearnerinorganizingandclarifyingconcepts

correctmisunderstandingsorfaultyreasoning

assistinshowingspecialorobscurerelationships

strengthenthelearner'sabilitytosynthesizeandanalyse

correctattitudesorbehaviour.

Teachers/facilitatorshaveaninterestingdilemmahere.Thechoiceisbasictothe
wholephilosophyofteachingandlearningintheclinicalprofessions.Clinical
teachersmustensurethatthestudent'getstherightanswer'intheinterestsof
patientsafety.Butislearningtherightansweronthisparticularpatientthebest
pathtobeingrightonthenextpatientwhentheteacherisnotthere?
Whatisthefocusofyoursmallgroupsession?Knowingthat...orKnowinghowto
workitout?

Theissueforeachclinicalteacherishowmuchtoconcentrateon'thefacts'andhow
muchon'reasoningfromthefacts'.Whatmayseemtobeaquibbleaboutbalance,
actuallyprofoundlyaffectsthewayatutorialisconducted.Topolarizetheextremes,
sometutorialsarea'lecturetoasmallgroup'oraquestionandanswersession
teacherquestions,studentanswers.Or,alternatively,thesessionmayfunction
aroundstudentquestions,hypothesesandguessestobeexploredandjustified;and
theteacherisusedbystudentsasaresource,notasthesource.

Theteachingskillsneededarequitedifferentbetweenthetwoapproaches.The
positionoftheteacherinrelationthestudentsisquitedifferent.Someteachersare
veryuncomfortableatbeingquestionedbystudents.Somestudentsresentnot
beingtoldthefactswhichtheteacherobviouslyknows.

Somequestiontypesthatareusefultouseindiscussionsinclude
Askingformoreevidence:Howdoyouknowthat?Whatdataisthatclaimbased
on?Doyouhaveanyevidenceforthat?
Askingforclarification:Canyouputthatanotherway?Canyougiveusanexample
ofwhatyouaretalkingabout?Whatdoyoumeanby...?
Openquestions:How...doyouthinkthatmaywork?Why...
Linkingquestions:IsthereanyconnectionbetweenwhatyouvejustsaidandwhatX
said...?Howdoesyourideasupportwhathasbeensaidsofar?Hypothetical
questions:Howwouldthischangeifthexxxwasxxx?
Causeandeffectquestions:Whatwouldbetheeffectof....?
Summaryandsynthesis:Whataretwoofthemostimportantideasthathave
emergedfromthisdiscussion?Whatdoyouunderstandbetterasaresultofthis
discussion?Whatremainsunresolvedorcontentious?

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BrookfieldandPreskill(1999)suggestthatdiscussiontopicsarealwaysmore
interestingwhenframedasaquestionratherthanastatement.Itsalsoimportantto
pickatopicthatisnottoofactualoruncontroversial.Youmaywellwantstudentsto
acquirequitealotoffactualinformationbuttheycanequallywelllearnitby
consideringquestionslikeWhataretwofeasibleexplanationsforwhatsgoingon
here?Whenisitnotdesirabletointervenewiththestandardtreatment?
Apartfromusingaprovocativequestiontostartdiscussion,BrookfieldandPreskill
suggestthefollowingstrategies:
Framethediscussionaroundstudentquestions
Splitstudentsintopairsorsmallgroups(35)andaskthemtoidentify
whattheythinkarethemostimportantquestionsthatneedtobe
answeredaboutaparticularcase,situationorproblem.Questionscan
thenbeputontheboardandagreementreachedaboutwhicharethe
mostimportantorinterestingoneswhichwillbeaddressedfirst.Students
canalsobegiventhistaskashomeworksothattheycometotheclass
withquestionsprepared.
Startwithasentencecompletionexercise
Studentsareaskedtochooseoneofthefollowingstatementsand
completeit,thentosharetheirstatementwithasubgroupiftheclassis
largeorthewholegroupifitisnot.Inthegroupsstudentscanchoosethe
statementthattheyfindmostinterestingandwanttoexplorefurther.
Thestatements:
Whatmoststruckmeaboutthereading(orlecture/case/data/
otherstimulusmaterial)was.
ThepointImosttakeissuewithinthereadingetcwas
ThepointIfoundmostconfusingwas.
ThequestionIwouldmostliketoasktheauthor/patient/
consultantis
ThepartofthatexperienceIfoundmostconfusingwas.
Generatetruthstatements
Insmallgroupsaskstudentstogeneratestatementswhichtheybelieve
tobetrueaboutthetopic.Thistechniquemaybeparticularlyuseful
whendealingwithatopicaboutwhichtherearemanypopular
misconceptions.Thecomplexityandambiguityofknowledgeisrevealed

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aseachgrouppresentstheirtruthstatementsandothergroupsraise
questionsaboutthemorrefutethem.Theideaisnottogenerate
statementswhicharefactuallytruebuttoidentifyissuesforfurther
researchandexploration.
Startwithapersonalexperience
Askstudentstovolunteertheirpersonalexperienceswithatopicorto
givetheirpersonalreactiontoacasehistory,videoetc.Studentswhoare
newtodiscussionmaybereluctanttospeakwhentheydontfeel
knowledgeableenough.Howevermostpeoplefeeltheyareexpertson
theirownlives.Asstudentsprogressitmaybeusefultoaskthemwhat
theythoughtandfeltabouttheexperienceatthetimeandwhethertheir
underlyingassumptionshavenowchangedortheywouldinterpretthe
situationdifferentlynow.Apossibleeducationalbenefitistohelppeople
seetheirstoriesfromdifferentperspectivesandunderstandtheir
experiencesinnewways.
Intheearlylifeofalearninggroup,membersmaybenefitfrompractisinghowto
listeneffectively,howtoprocessthecontributionofothermembersandin
sharpeningtheirownresponses.

Briefinganddebriefingpractical,clinicalorexperientiallearning
Whenbriefingstudentsbeforeapractical,clinicalorexperientiallearningsession,
youcanaskstudentstothinkforafewmomentsandtomakesomenotesfor
themselvesastowhattheyhopetolearnfromtheforthcomingexperienceandhow
theyexpecttolearn.Thenaskstudentstodiscussandcomparetheirexpectations.
Promptstudentstothinkabouthowtheymightmakethemostoftheexperience
willtheybedoingalloftheirlearningonthewardorshouldtheybedoingfollowup
reading?Whatkindsofcontactscantheyinitiateforthemselves?Whatisthe
protocol?
Youmightalsoexploretheiremotionalreadinessfortheworkaheadhow
confidentoranxiousdotheyfeel?Dotheyfeeladequatelyprepared?Dotheyhave
thelevelofknowledgenecessaryfortoday'slearning?
Remindstudentsthatinthedebriefinglater,whatandhowtheylearnedwillbe
discussed.Iftheexperienceistoextendoversometime,itmaybeusefultoask
studentstokeeparecordofanycriticalincidentsincidentsthatweresignificant
learningexperiencesforthem.Thesecanproviderichmaterialfordiscussioninthe
debriefingsession.
Ifdebriefingweresimplyamatterofcheckingwhateachstudenthadlearnedthere
wouldbenopointinmeetingasagroup.Eachstudenthasobservedfroman
individualperspective.Gettingthe'wholepicture'isimportantandisnotoften
possiblewithoutgroupdiscussionfollowingclinicalexposure.
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Debriefingmaybenecessaryduringaswellasafter.Anindividualstudent,thegroup
asawhole,orthetutorcouldinitiateadebriefingsessionasaparticularissueor
patientproblememerges.
Inadebriefingsessionyoucan:
Providesupportbyshowinginterestinstudents'problems,recognising
concernsandacknowledgingcommendableperformance,recognising
difficulties,praisingwheredue.
Provideopportunitiesforstudentstoreviewtheirprogressbyassisting
studentstodeterminefurtherlearningactivitiesinrelationtotheir
outcomesandencouragingstudents'toreviewtheirownprogress.
Acknowledgepartnershipinlearningbyofferingreviewsofyourown
clinicalorteachingperformance.
Givefeedbackonstudents'performancebyprovidingfeedback
requestedbystudentsinbriefingsessionsandusinginformationfrom
directobservationandbyprovidingconcreteexamplesandcheckingthat
thefeedbackiscongruentwithstudents'perceptionofperformance.
Invitereflectionontheeventsoftheattachmentbypromptingstudents
togooverwhathappened,whatwassurprising,different,frightening,
satisfying,disappointingandsoon;encouragingexpressionoffeelings
aboutwhathappenedduringtheattachment;invitingexamplesofnew
discoveries,newknowledgeand/orinsightsastheyappliedtheir
knowledgetopatient'sproblems;promptingstudentstodrawmeanings
fromtheirpersonalexperiences;encouragingstudentstodetermine
theirownoutcomesforfurtherlearning.

References

BROOKFIELD,S.D.(1990)TheSkillfulTeacher.SanFrancisco,JosseyBass.
BROOKFIELD,S.D.andPRESKILL,S.(1999)DiscussionasaWayof
Teaching.Buckingham,S.R.H.E.&OpenUniversityPress

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4.Managingdifficultgroups/students;tipsandpitfalls

Letsthinkfirstaboutthepitfallsasthetipscoversomestrategiestoavoidthese.
CommonpitfallsorlikelyproblemsofsmallgroupshavebeengroupedbyTiberius
(1990)underthefollowingheadings:
Groupgoals;theyareunclear,unattainableorunacceptable
Groupinteraction;itislacking,teacherdominates,studentsparticipateunequally
Groupmotivationandemotion;studentsaretunedout,teacheristunedoutor
studentsdontcooperate.
WhatismostusefulinTiberiusapproachisthatheidentifiespossiblecausesfor
eachofthese.Ratherthanapportionblametothestudents,helistsotherunderlying
factorsthatmaybecontributing.Eventhoughhisbookisnow10yearsold,his
troubleshootingguideisapplicableinthesmallgroupswehavetodayandIstrongly
recommendyougetacopy.
Averybriefsummaryofsomeofhismostusefulpointsfollowaroundthethree
areasreferredtoabove:
1. PitfallGroupgoals;theyareunclear,unattainableorunacceptable
Possiblecauses:
failuretoestablishgoalsforthegroup;digressionfromgoals;processnot
matchedtogoals;poortimemanagement;teacherandstudentsperceive
goalsdifferently
Suggestions:
setcleargoals;establishgoalsforeachsession/meeting;makegoalsrelevant
tothoseofthestudents;agreeontimeframeandremindstudents
2. PitfallGroupinteraction;itislacking,teacherdominates,students
participateunequally
Possiblecauses:
lackof,orbad,experiencewithsmallgrouplearning;studentsnotrewarded
forparticipation;lowleveloftrust;teachersauthorityisoverwhelming;
dominantspeakersmonopolisethediscussion
Suggestions:
makeclearwhatskillsareneededforsmallgrouplearningandexplainthe
benefits;agreeonasetongrouporgroundrules;reflectonbothcontentand
processofthegroup;encouragestudentstorewardoneanother;reward
studentscontributionsbyusingthem;rememberwhosaidwhat;talkless;
provideopportunitiesforstudentstocooperateandtrustoneanother;talk
tothedominantstudentprivatelyand/orassignatasktothisstudent.

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3. PitfallGroupmotivationandemotion;studentsaretunedout,teacheris
tunedoutorstudentsdontcooperate.
Possiblecauses:
littleinterestintopic;relevanceofgroupprocessunclear;studentsare
preoccupiedwiththeexam;lackofinstitutionalsupportforteaching;lackof
feedbackfromstudents;studentsdonotaccepttheassumptionofthe
course;excessivecompetitionamongstudents;disruptivebehaviour
Suggestions:
explorestudentspersonalmotivationstostudytopic;provideevidencetopic
isrelevantorinteresting;tapintostudentsexperiences;reviewgrouprulesif
needed;addresstheexamagendaanddefineactivityasusefultoexam;
supportteachinganddocumentteachingactivities;rewardexcellencein
teaching;askforformativefeedbackfromyourstudents;dontletdiscussion
ofpresuppositionsreplacethecontent;exposecompetitivebehaviour;
emphasisecooperativelearning;breakthegroupupintopairsorsmaller
groups;askstudentstotakedifferentroles;ifneededspeaktoanystudents
privately.
Someotherpitfallsyoumayencountermorespecificallyinclude

Pitfall1:Studentsdontprepare
Askthestudentswhy.Considerbeginningtheclassbygivingstudents
shortextractstoreadordatatoreviewsothatalltheclassisfamiliarwith
thematerialtheyaretoworkon.Ifyouthinkitisreasonabletogetthem
toprepareaheadoftime:
-

emphasisetheimportanceofpreparation,
considercallingoffaclassifyoufindthatmoststudentsarenotready,
inordertomakeyourpoint,and
makesuretousewhatthestudentshavepreparedintheclass.

Studentswillquicklyrealisethatwhateveryousayabouttheimportance
ofpreparationthereisnotmuchpointindoingitifnoonewillnotice.
Pitfall2:Studentsdontparticipateorseemdisengaged
ThisrelatestoTiberiusmotivation.Isitallthestudentsorjustsome?If
noonewantstoparticipateconsiderwhetherpastexperiences(inthis
grouporothers)havemadeparticipationariskybusinessbecauseofthe
likelihoodofbeingcriticised,embarrassedorhumiliatedformakinga
mistake.Itmayalsobethattheteacherorfacilitatorwhohadthegroup
beforedominatedthediscussionsandtheyexpectyoutodothesame.
Reiteratewhyyouthinksmallgroupworkisimportantand(re)establish
groundrulesfordiscussion.(TryincludingNoputdowns.)
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Beginthesessionbybreakingstudentsintopairsorsubgroupstoworkon
atask.Havereportersreportonthegroupopinion.
StartwithaquestionthatseasytoanswersuchasWhathasbeenyour
personalexperiencewith?
Poseaquestionandgivestudentsafewminutestothinkaboutitand
makesomenotesbeforecallingonsomeone.
Refertostudentspointsinthediscussionandwhensummarising(egas
Joesaid..)sothattheyknowthatyouhavebeenlisteningandthattheir
contributionwasvaluable.
Pitfall3:Onepersondominates
ThisrelatestoTiberiusinteraction.Thankthetalkativepersonfortheir
contributionandtheninviteotherstospeak.Interruptthemandinvite
othercomments(Beforeyougoon,Iwouldliketoseeifanyoneelsehas
anopiniononthat)
Usestructuredparticipation,suchasgoingaroundthegroup(each
personspeaksorpasses.)
Breakintosubgroups.Askthetalkativepersontobethescribe.
Rearrangetheseatingsothatyouaresittingbesidethetalkativeperson.
Refertogroundrules(ifyoumadearuleaboutvaluingwide
participation.)
Speaktothemprivately.Explainthatwhileyouunderstandthattheylike
toparticipateactivelyandthatyouappreciatetheirenthusiasm,youare
concernedthattheirconfidenceandarticulatenessmayinhibitothers
fromparticipating.Askthemtoholdbackabitsothatyoucanencourage
otherstocomein.
Pitfall4:Studentscomplainabouthowyourunthegroup
Checkwhattheirgoalsareforthegroup.Istheproblemthatstudentsdo
notseehowthegroupworkiscontributingtotheirgoalswhichusually
involvepassingexamsorotherformsofassessment?
Explainwhyyoudothingsandhowwhatyoudocontributestotheirgoals
(shorttermandlongtermprofessionalgoals).Ifitdoesntcontribute,
considerhowitmightandnegotiate.
Askforsuggestionsabouthowthegroupmightbebetterrun.Discuss
withthegroupandnegotiatealternativestrategies.

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Someusefultipswhenteachingasmallgroupwhichcanbeusedasachecklist
include:
Tip1:Beprepared
Aswehavealreadystated,goodsmallgroupworkrarelyjusthappens.It
reliestoagreatextentonpreparationbytheteacherandinvolvesbeingclear
aboutwhatthesessionisdesignedtoachieve.
Tip2:Makeintroductionsandsetgroundrules
Introductionsareimportantbecauseitisdifficulttohaveanopendiscussion
withsomeonewhenyoudontknowanythingaboutthem,eventheirname.
Itisalsoagreatopportunityforthegroupleader/facilitatortofindoutalittle
moreaboutstudentsbackgroundswiththetopic.Youmayalsowishtohear
thestudents'previousexperiencesoftutorials,especiallywhatworkedwell
forthem,andwhatdidn't.
Wehavealreadycoveredtheimportanceofnegotiatingandclarifyingground
rulesfordiscussionsothatstudentsknowwhattherulesofthegameare.
Ofcourseifyouareworkingwithstudentswhohavealreadyhadextensive
experienceinsmallgroupworkthisneednotbealengthyprocessbutitis
probablystillworthdoingforthevalueithasinheadingofflaterconflicts.
Tip3:Usequestioningeffectively
Askingquestions,consideringtheanswer,knowingwhentorespondwitha
commentorexplanationandwhentouseafollowupquestionorredirect
thequestiontosomeoneelsearekeyskillsinkeepingadiscussiongoingand
keepingstudentsinterestedandinvolved.
Tip4:Explainattheappropriatetime
GeorgeBrownwhowroteextensivelyabouttheartoflecturingand
explaining,pointedoutthatwhenitcomestosmallgroupsessions,knowing
whentoexplainwasprobablymoreimportantthanknowinghowtoexplain.
Becausetheobjectiveofsmallgroupteachingistoencouragestudentsto
thinkanddiscuss,itisunwisefortheteachertooffertoomuchinthewayof
explanationtooearly.Studentswillquicklyrealisethatalltheyhavetodois
remainsilentandtheteacherwillprovidealloftheanswers.
Itisusuallymuchbettertoprovideanyexplanationneededafterthe
studentshavemadeagoodattemptatthetaskforthesession.Itmaybea
goodideatoholdtheexplanationuntilyouaresummarisingattheendofa
taskortheendofasession.Atthispointyoucandrawtogetherthe
responsesofthegroup,correctanymisconceptionsthatmayhavearisenand
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makeuseofthestudentsowncontributionsinanyexplanationthatisgiven.
Havingtheircontributionsrecognisedinthiswayrewardsstudentsfor
participatingandbuildsuptheirconfidence.Itislikelytoencouragethemto
contributetofuturesessions(BrownandAtkins,1988).
Tip5:SummariseandClose
Summarisingmaybeusedattheendofanactivityaswellasattheendofa
sessiontobringtogetherthekeypointsthathavebeenmade,thekey
understandingsthathavebeenarrivedatandtheunresolvedquestionsthat
remainforfurtherdiscussionorresearch.
Ifyouareaimingforstudentstoimprovetheirteamworkandcommunication
skillsitmayalsobeusefultosummarisetheprocessesthathavebeenused,
thestagesthatthegrouphasgonethrough,forexample,inproblemsolving,
andtheprogressthathasbeenmade.
Summarieshelptoshowstudentswhatisimportantinatopicandhowthat
linkstorelatedtopics.Theyareusefulinhelpingstudentsdevelopthewell
structuredknowledgebasethatisthefoundationforexpertise.Good
judgementisrequiredindecidingwhattohighlightandwhattoomit.
Youcanalso,ofcourse,delegatetheprocessofsummarisingtostudents,
askingacoupleofstudentstohighlightthekeypointsthathavebeenmade
andsomeoneelsetoidentifyimportantquestionsthatremainunresolved.
Closingasessionalsoinvolvesothercourtesies.Thankingthegroupfortheir
contributionsandpointingoutwhathasbeenachievedisgoodformorale
andhelpstodevelopthecohesivenessofthegroup.
Tip6:Evaluateyourteaching
Askyourstudentshowyouaregoing.Askapeertocomeinandsitinona
session,usingthePeerReviewChecklist,seeattached.Makeuseofthe
institutionalevaluationprocesses,suchasCATEI.

References
BROWN,G.&ATKINS,M.(1989)EffectiveTeachingInHigherEducation.
London,Routledge
TIBERIUS,R.G.(1990)SmallGroupTeaching:ATroubleShootingGuide,
Toronto,OISEPressandtheOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation.

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