CHAPTER 7

ELECTRIC MOTOR

Generators, Motors and How We

Get Electricity

What is Electricity?
Electricity is energy transported by
the motion of electrons
**We do not make electricity, we CONVERT
other energy sources into electrical
energy**
Conversion is the name of the game

Energy Conversion Options for Electricity

Non-Thermal Paths
Source to Electrical
Source
Sun
Chemical

Converter
Photovoltaic (photon to electron)
Fuel Cell

Source to Potential/Kinetic to Mechanical to Electrical

Source Converter
Electrical
Dam
Penstocks
Tides Machine
Generator
Wind N/A

Kinetic to Mechanical

Mech to

Turbine (water)
Generator
Turbine (air or water)
Turbine (air)

Generator

Energy Conversion Options for Electricity

Thermal Paths
Heat to Mechanical to Electrical
Source
Geothermal
OTEC

Heat to Mechanical
Turbine (vapor)
Turbine (vapor)

Mech to Electrical
Generator
Generator

Stored Energy to Heat to Mechanical to Electrical

Source Reactor
Fuel
Combustor
U, Pu
Reactor
Sun
Collector*
H, H2, H3Reactor

Heat to
Turbine
Turbine
Turbine
Turbine

Mechanical
(gas or vapor)
(gas or vapor)
(gas or vapor)
(gas or vapor)

* More a modifier or concentrator than a reactor

Mech to Electrical
Generator
Generator
Generator
Generator

GENERATORS AND MOTOR

These can be divided into:
generators which convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy

motors which convert electrical energy into

mechanical energy

Both types operate through the interaction

between a magnetic field and a set of
windings

Faraday Effect
Faraday Effect
Basic Concepts
Voltage V Potential to Move Charge (volts)
Current I Charge Movement (amperes or amps)
Resistance R V = IxR (R in =ohms)
Power P = IxV = I2xR (watts)

Basic Electromagnet
Electromagnets are very useful tools. They
have the ability to gain a magnetic field with
the introduction of current and to lose it once
the current ceases

Basic Electromagnet Right Hand Rules

Basic Electromagnet Left Hand Rules

ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is an electric machine that
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans,
blowers and pumps, machine tools, household
appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric
motors can be powered by direct current
(DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor
vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current
(AC) sources, such as from the power
grid, inverters or generators.

DC MOTOR
A DC motor relies on the fact that like magnet
poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract
each other.
A coil of wire with a current running through it
generates an electromagnetic field aligned with
the centre of the coil.
By switching the current on or off in a coil its
magnet field can be switched on or off or by
switching the direction of the current in the coil
the direction of the generated magnetic field can
be switched 180.

DC MOTOR-PRINCIPLES

DC MOTOR-CONSTRUCTION
A D.C. motor consists of a rectangular
coil made of insulated copper wire
wound on a soft iron core. This coil
wound on the soft iron core forms the
armature. The coil is mounted on an
axle and is placed between the
cylindrical concave poles of a magnet.
Two small strips of
carbon, known as
brushes press slightly
against the two split
rings, and the split
rings rotate between
the brushes.
The carbon brushes
are connected to a
D.C. source.

A commutator is used to reverse the direction

of flow of current. Commutator is a copper
ring split into two parts C1 and C2. The split
rings are insulated form each other and
mounted on the axle of the motor. The two
ends of the coil are soldered to these rings.
They rotate along with the coil. Commutator
rings are connected to a battery. The wires
from the battery are not connected to the
rings but to the brushes which are in contact
with the rings.

DC MOTOR - EFFICIENCY

Increasing the number of turns in the coil

Increasing the strength of the current
Increasing the area of cross-section of the coil
Increasing the strength of the radial magnetic
field

BRUSHED DC MOTOR
BRUSHED
The brushes of dc motor are made with carbon or
graphite structures, making sliding contact over the
rotating commutator.
The brushes are used to physically relay the electric
current from external circuit to the rotating
commutator form where it flows into the armature
winding.
So, the commutator and brush unit of the dc motor is
concerned with transmitting the power from the static
electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or
the rotor.

BRUSHLESS DC MOTORCONSTRUCTION

BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
OPERATING PRINCIPLES

BRUSHLESS vs. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

BRUSHED

BRUSHLESS

PROS

Two wire control

Replaceable brushes for extended life
Low cost of construction
Simple and inexpensive control
No controller is required for fixed
speeds
Operates in extreme environments
due to lack of electronics

Less maintenance due to absence of

brushes
Higher speed and torque
High efficiency, no voltage drop
across brushes
Low noise

CONS

Periodic maintenance is required

Speed/torque is moderately flat. At
higher speeds, brush friction
increases, thus reducing useful
torque
Poor heat dissipation due to internal
rotor construction
Brush Arcing will generate noise
causing EMI

Higher cost of construction

Control is complex and expensive
Electric Controller is required to keep
the motor running. It offers double
the price of the motor.

STEPPER MOTOR - OVERVIEW

A stepper motor convert electrical pulses into rotating
mechanical energy. These pulses are directed by a step
motor controller. The rotor rotates according to discrete
increments, measured in degrees and called steps. This is
where the name "step motor" comes from.
The speed and direction in which the rotor rotates in the
step motor is dependent upon the action of the step motor
controller on the motors windings.
The direction of the motors rotation is dependent on how
the controller sequences the electrical pulses. The motors
speed is dependent on the frequency of the controller
pulses. And the length of the rotation is dependent on how
long the controller keeps sending electrical pulses to the
motor.

STEPPER MOTOR - BENEFIT

a step motor with a step motor controller is its
accuracy. There is a direct relationship between the
rotation angle and the input pulse, so you can "stop on
a dime." In other words, you can get the motor to stop
almost exactly where you want at any time, or you can
get it to reverse direction at exactly where you want.
For applications that require great precision, step
motors are therefore ideal.
these motors work well with open loop control. Open
loop control means that there is no feedback from the
step motor to the step motor controller.
the fact that it is brushless.

STEPPER MOTOR - OPERATION

DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Pulse width
modulation (PWM)
It is a technique of
speed control by giving
on and off signal
(power) to the motor.
To avoid stutter, it
must be fast enough
(high frequency) but
varying the duty cycle
(higher for more
speed).

SERVO DC MOTOR - INTRO

servo motor is actually an assembly of four
things: a normal DC motor, a gear reduction
unit, a position-sensing device (usually a
potentiometera volume control knob),
and a control circuit.
The function of the servo is to receive a
control signal that represents a desired
output position of the servo shaft, and
apply power to its DC motor until its shaft
turns to that position. It uses the positionsensing device to determine the rotational
position of the shaft, so it knows which way
the motor must turn to move the shaft to
the commanded position. The shaft
typically does not rotate freely round and
round like a DC motor, but rather can only
turn 200 degrees or so back and forth.

SERVO DC MOTOR - INTRO

The servo has a 3 wire connection: power, ground, and
control. The power source must be constantly applied; the
servo has its own drive electronics that draw current from
the power lead to drive the motor.
The control signal is pulse width modulated (PWM), but
here the duration of the positive-going pulse determines
the position of the servo shaft. For instance, a 1.520
millisecond pulse is the centre position for a Futaba S148
servo. A longer pulse makes the servo turn to a clockwisefrom-centre position, and a shorter pulse makes the servo
turn to a counter-clockwise-from-centre position.
The servo control pulse is repeated every 20 milliseconds.
In essence, every 20 milliseconds you are telling the servo,
go here.

DC MOTOR SERVO
To recap, there are two important differences between
the control pulse of the servo motor versus the DC
motor. First, on the servo motor, duty cycle (on-time
vs. off-time) has no meaning whatsoeverall that
matters is the absolute duration of the positive-going
pulse, which corresponds to a commanded output
position of the servo shaft.
Second, the servo has its own power electronics,
so very little power flows over the control signal. All
power is draw from its power lead, which must be
simply hooked up to a high-current source of 5 volts.

AC MOTOR
The difference between AC and DC motor:
Power source AC motor uses alternating current
while DC motor uses direct current
DC motor construction either brushed or
brushless, but AC motor can only b brushless.
Speed control: DC motor uses current while AC
motor uses frequency

AC/DC
(not the band)

Alternating Current
Large-scale generators
produce AC
Follows sine wave with n
cycles per second
1, 2, 3-phase?
US:120 V,60 Hz
Europe: 240 V,50Hz
Transforming ability

Direct Current
Batteries, Photovoltaics,
fuel cells, small DC
generators
Charge in ONE direction
Negative, Positive
terminals
Easy conversion AC to DC,
not DC to AC

AC MOTOR - INTRO
AC motors can be divided into two main forms:
synchronous motors
induction motors

High-power versions of either type invariably operate

from a three-phase supply, but single-phase versions
of each are also widely used particularly in a
domestic setting

AC MOTOR - INTRO
Synchronous motors
just as a DC generator can be used as a DC motor, so
AC generators (or alternators) can be used as
synchronous AC motors
three phase motors use three sets of stator coils
the rotating magnetic field drags the rotor around with it

single phase motors require some starting mechanism

torque is only produced when the rotor is in sync with
the rotating magnetic field
not self-starting may be configured as an induction motor
until its gets up to speed, then becomes a synchronous motor

AC MOTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction motors
these are perhaps the most important form of AC motor
rather than use slip rings to pass current to the field
coils in the rotor, current is induced in the rotor by
transformer action
the stator is similar to that in a synchronous motor
the rotor is simply a set of parallel conductors shorted
together at either end by two conducting rings

AC MOTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

A squirrel-cage induction motor

AC MOTOR THREE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR

In a three-phase induction motor the three phases

produce a rotating magnetic field (as in a three-phase
synchronous motor)
a stationary conductor will see a varying magnetic field
and this will induce a current
current is induced in the field coils in the same way
that current is induced in the secondary of a
transformer
this current turns the rotor into an electromagnet which
is dragged around by the rotating magnetic field
the rotor always goes slightly slower than the magnetic
field this is the slip of the motor

AC MOTOR SINGLE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR
In single-phase induction motors other
techniques must be used to produce the
rotating magnetic field
various techniques are used leading to various
forms of motor such as
capacitor motors
shaded-pole motors

such motors are inexpensive and are widely used

in domestic applications

UNIVERSAL MOTOR
While most motors operate from either AC or DC,
some can operate from either
These are universal motors and resemble serieswound DC motors, but are designed for both AC
and DC operation
typically operate at high speed (usually > 10,000 rpm)
offer high power-to-weight ratio
ideal for portable equipment such as hand drills and
vacuum cleaners

Electrical Machines A Summary

Power generation is dominated by AC machines
range from automotive alternators to the synchronous
generators used in power stations
efficiency increases with size (up to 98%)

Both DC and AC motors are used

high-power motors are usually AC, three-phase
domestic applications often use single-phase induction
motors
DC motors are useful in control applications

Key Points

Electrical machines include both generators and motors

Motors can usually function as generators, and vice versa
Electrical machines can be divided into AC and DC forms
The rotation of a coil in a uniform magnetic field produces a
sinusoidal e.m.f. This is the basis of an AC generator
A commutator can be used to produce a DC generator
The magnetic field in an electrical machine is normally produced
electrically using field coils
DC motors are often similar in form to DC generators
Some forms of AC generator can also be used as motors
The most widely used form of AC motor is the induction motor

GOING GREEN

Where do we get our Electricity?

Fossil Coal, Natural Gas, Oil
550 Gigawatts (GW)
Nuclear 200 GW
Hydro 75 GW

Geothermal 2.3 GW
Other Renewable Wind, Solar,
OTEC 13.6 GW

Energy Usage Per Capita (1999)

9
8
7
6

4
3
2
1

*TOE - Tons of Oil Equivalent (~40 Million Btus)

ic
Ba
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la
de
sh

Af
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In
di
a

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Ch
i

M
ex
ic

U
.K
.

Ja
pa
n

ss
i
Ru

Ca
na
da
N
or
w
ay

U
SA

TOE/person-year

Oil Resources
Have Oil
Saudi Arabia
Iraq
Kuwait
Iran
UAE
Venezuela
Russia
Libya
Mexico
China
Nigeria
U.S.

Use Oil
26%
11%
10%
9%
8%
6%
5%
3%
3%
3%
2%
2%

U.S.
Japan
China
Germany
Canada
Russia
Brazil
S. Korea
France
India
Mexico
Italy

The U.S. uses more than the next 5 highest

consuming nations combined.

26%
7%
6%
4%
4%
3%
3%
3%
3%
3%
3%
2%

U.S. Renewable Energy Resource Assessment

Solar
10

12

14

16

16

Wind

14
12

10
12
14
16
18

10

Megajoules/m

10
12

20

22 24

14

26
26
24

22 20 18

14
16

<10
10-12
12-14
14-16
16-18
18-20
20-22
22-24
24-26
26-28
>28

Biomass

6.0-6.5 m/s
13.4-14.6 mph
6.5-70 m/s
14.6-15.7 mph
>7.0 m/s
15.7+ mph

Geothermal

Agricultural resources
& residues Wood
resources & residues
Agricultural & wood
residues
Low
inventory

Temperature <90C
Temperature >90C
Geopressured resources
o

Barriers to Change
US energy infrastructure is large and deeply entrenched
400,000+ miles of gas and oil pipelines
160,000+ of high voltage transmission lines
176,000 gasoline stations
1000s of oil and gas wells drilled annually in the US and Canada

Barriers to Change
oil and gas are readily available as a world commodity at low
cost -- equivalent to $ 4 to 5 / million Btu
US coal is even more abundant and cheaper approximately
$1/million Btu
US electricity prices remain low relative to other commodities

The average American family spends only 3 to 4% of their

income on energy!!