West Visayas State University

Social Science Department

Iloilo City

American Colonialism in the Philippines, 1901-1946

Shim Lester G. de Pio

Lecturer

Rationale of American Expansionism

Manifest Destiny
duty to bring benefits of civilization to ignorant people abroad
white mans burden to care for their little brown brothers

Economic Factor
need for markets and sources of raw materials
Philippines could become a springboard for American commercial
expansion and supremacy in Asia

Political
desire for more colonies for power and glory
play a role in the power politics in the Pacific

Religious

 American Catholic Churchs only way to protect its economic

interests

American Protestant groups saw the country as fertile ground for

spreading Protestantism

Philippines could be a springboard for American Evangelization in

Asia

Military
Philippines would be a base for American operations in Asia to
protect American economic and political interests

Opposition to American Expansionism

Oppositions from the US

political leaders: William Jennings Bryan and Sen. Robert LaFollette
(Anti-Imperialists League)

famous writers: Mark Twain and Finley Peter Dunne

industrialists and businessmen
religious groups: Quakers and Unitarians
they comprised only a small percentage of the population

Pacification Techniques: Suppression of Nationalistic Feelings

The Sedition Law (1901)

made any advocacy for Philippine Independence a crime
punishable by long imprisonment or death

The Brigandage Act (1902)

classified guerrilla fighters as brigands or ladrones and made
membership in armed group punishable by death or long
imprisonment

The Reconcentration Act (1903)

forced residents of towns infested with bandits and brigands to live
in designated military zones

The Flag Law (1907)

prohibited the display of all flags, banners and symbols and other
paraphernalia

Deportation of Irreconciliables
uncompromising Filipino Nationalists like Mabini, Ricarte and others
were deported

Banning of Political Parties

political parties which advocated independence were banned

 Establishment of the Public Education System with English as the

Medium of Instruction

aimed at making the Filipinos little brown Americans

American Military Campaigns against the Natives

burning or towns and subjected Filipinos to water cure and other
forms of torture

Suppression of Nationalistic Journalism and Literature

publications were subjected to censorship
Relationship between Filipino and American Leadership

Collaboration and Compromise

to insure their interests, many illustrados, who were prominent in
the Aguinaldo government not only collaborated with the
Americans but also welcomed American rule

in November 1898, the Negros elite organized themselves into a

provisional government which was against the Aguinaldo
government

Accommodation
American colonial policy was designed to win the support of
Filipinos

 Americans co-opted Filipinos: they moderated their colonial policies

by accommodating Filipino elites

elites were rewarded with important positions in the

government (Arellano as Chief Justice; Tavera and Legarda as
members of Philippine Commission)

William Howard Taft adopted a policy of attraction Philippines

for the Filipinos aimed at preparing Filipinos for self
government

allowing them to participate in a popular, democratic

form of government

Philippines should be retained until Filipinos proved

themselves worthy of self government

Philippine Bill of 1902 (Cooper Act) established the Philippine

Assembly in 1907

satisfied ilustrado desire for political participation

Americans allowed the establishment of the Federal Party
platform of the party was annexation

Americans implemented Filipinization or gradual substitution of

American with Filipino personnel in the government

Supreme Court in 1899 (6 of 9 justices were Filipinos)

provincial and municipal governments were under Filipino
control

Philippine Commission in 1913 was Filipinized

 rapid Filipinization took place during the administration of

Governor-General Francis B. Harrison from 1913-1921 (by
1921, most of bureaus were under Filipinos

The Jones Law of 1916 created an all-Filipino Legislature

The Municipal Code was enacted in 1901

placed the municipal government under three Filipino officials
granted suffrage to males only

Americans co-opted the ruling elites in the cultural communities

in Mindanao, Americans provided social services and
education; sultans and datus were appointed as ward leaders

in Cordilleras, Americans provided social services and

education

Bates Treaty (1899) that allowed American presence in Sulu

was signed

Carpenter-Kiram Agreement was signed in 1915 giving

Americans total sovereignty

Forms of Filipino Resistance to American Rule

Resistance of Former Officers of the Revolutionary Army

Generals Miguel Malvar and Vicente Lukban in Batangas and
Samar, respectively

Gen. Luciano San Miguel in Rizal and Bulacan

Macario Sakay, Julian Montalan and Cornelio Felizardo in the RizalCavite-Laguna-Batangas area; organized Tagalog Republic with
Sakay as president

Simeon Ola and Lazaro Toledo in Bicol

Artemio Ricarte
General Martin Delgado

Resistance with Nativistic Features

many rebel leaders and their followers believed that they have
supernatural powers

Salvador Felipe or Apo Ipe organized a movement called Santa

Iglesia or Holy Church

Ruperto Rios, the Son of God, in Quezon

Papa Isio with other babaylanes or pulahanes in Negros
pulahan movements (Dios-Dios) in Panay, Cebu, Leyte and Samar

 Resistance of Muslims and other Cultural Groups

Bates Treaty neutralized resistance in Jolo and its dependencies
resistance prevailed in many areas in Mindanao and Sulu
the Lumads (like Mandayas and Subanons) also rose against
American government

Colonial Politics

Beginnings
early years: suppressed existence of nationalist political parties;
only Federal Party was allowed (favored annexation)

1906: ban was lifted; Nationalista Party was established (immediate

independence); won 59 of 80 seats in Philippine Assembly in 1906

Federalistas reorganized into Partido Nacional Progresista (eventual

independence)

1914: Partido Democrata was formed

The Osmea-Quezon Rift

1916 (Jones Law): Quezon became Senate President; Osmea the
Speaker of the House

 Quezon challenged the leadership of Osmea

Quezon established Partido Nacionalista Colectivista
1924: Partido Nacionalista Consolidado was estabished; Quezon
was president; Osmea was vice president of the party

Nature/Characteristics of colonial Politics

political parties emphasized independence as their platform
no ideological differences; alliances based on family ties,
friendship, regionalism and political survival

turncoatism, coalitions and party splits were rampant

Filipino leaders advocated independence publicly, but privately
admitted to Americans that they are not in favor of immediate
independence

Campaign for Independence

Historical Background
Filipinos were trained for democratic self-government
1901: start of Philippines for Filipinos and Filipinization Policy
1907: Philippine Assembly was established; Filipinos exercised
legislative powers

 Jones Law of 1916: promised independence as soon as a stable

government can be established; Philippine Legislature became
bicameral

Filipino position on independence not always clear: annoyed the

Americans

Measures Employed to Campaign for Independence

Philippine Assembly (later Philippine Legislature) passed resolutions
to US Congress

Independence missions were sent to US starting 1919

Philippine Legislature passed bill for a plebiscite on immediate
independence in Nov. 1925: Gov. Gen. Leonard Wood vetoed the
bill

Results
Americans consistently rejected the appeals (Filipinos not ready
and independence not their real desire)

1933: Os-Rox Mission brought home Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (10

year transition period before independence; retention of US bases):
rejected by Quezon and Senate

Quezon secured Tydings-McDuffie Act (re-run of Hare-HawesCutting Act: unanimously accepted by Philippine Legislature

Independence law supported by Americans

Commonwealth of the Philippines

Establishment of the Commonwealth

Constitutional Convention was convened and made a constitution
US Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt approve it on March 23, 1934
May 1934: 1935 Constitution was ratified in plebiscite
September 1934: election was held
November 15, 1935: Commonwealth of the Philippines was
inaugurated; Quezon as president and Osmea as vice president

Preparations for Independence

National Security
National Assembly passed Commonwealth Act No. 1 National
Defense Act

Philippine defense system plan was formulated with Gen.

Douglas McArthur on the lead

full realization of defense plan was hindered by financial

constraints and other more pressing concerns

Social Concerns
Quezon implemented his Social justice program to answer
peasant and labor unrest

 Social Justice meant justice to the common tao, improving his

condition in life by liberating him from oppression and
exploitation

Social Justice Program was not totally successful because of

opposition from landed class

primary and adult education were given focus

1937: adoption of Tagalog as basis of the national language
was recommended

Economic Development
free trade brought economic development, but made
Philippines dependent on US

Agriculture was developed and became export-oriented:

producing crops for American market

1934: 80% of Philippine exports went to US; 65% of Philippine

imports were from US

economic progress was dependent on the continuance of free

trade

economic readjustment plan was carried out

diversification and increase in agricultural production,
development of natural resources, expansion of
domestic market, development of transportation and
communication, industrialization and development of
markets outside US

Results of American Occupation

 Political Democracy
guarantee and enjoyment of basic freedoms
blessings of democracy
guarantee and enjoyment of suffrage for women (1937)
introduction of traditional concepts in government and politics
public office is a public trust
government of laws and not of men
right to education
dignity of labor
one man, one vote

Partisan Politics
founding of political parties
learned the ways of running the government under the policy of
political education

Civil Service System

efficient and non-political civil service

 Transportation and Communication

built infrastructures
modern transportation and electricity system
more telephone and telegraph lines; radios
postal service
efficient transportation and communication network
imported from the U.S.

Trade, Commerce and Industry

free trade: increase in domestic and foreign trade
Payne-Aldrich Act in 1909
Underwood-Simmons Act in 1913

various industries were developed: textile, cigar, mining, sugar

centrals, cordage, fishing and fish-canning factories, distilleries,
coconut mills

Philippines became supplier of raw materials and consumer of

American goods; economic dependence on U.S.

liking for stateside things; colonial mentality

 Education
establishment of secularized and free public school system
stressed democratic traditions; practical application of laws;
citizenship training and character building

extra-curricular activities such as athletics were encouraged

introduced English as the medium of instruction and language
of business and government

University of the Philippines was established in 1908; protestant

managed schools like Central Philippine University and Silliman
University were established

1903-1914, scholars were sent to U.S. (pensionados)

increase of Filipino literacy; by 1935, literacy rate was 65%

Filipinos were trained to become good colonials and good imitators of

American ways

Public Health and Welfare

public health and welfare programs were introduced
introduced new methods of prevention and treatment of diseases
establishment of hospitals, leprosaria and dispensaries
facilities and asylums for orphans, insane and juvenile offenders
were established

 eliminated or reduced tropical diseases

standard of living was improved

Social and Cultural Results

colonial mentality, preference for imported goods persisted; death
of local industries

Filipinos loved what was foreign and hated their own ways; Filipinos
suffered partial loss of their racial heritage

Filipinos embraced the idea of American materialism; material

possessions became the norm in determining success in life

Japanese Occupation

Causes of Japanese Expansionism

needed territories for its excess population
needed markets abroad
needed sources of raw materials for their industries
wanted to become a leader of Asian nations; it established Greater
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

resurgence of militarism and ultra nationalism

The Declaration of War

U.S. thwarted Japanese ambitions in China and initiated an
embargo on Japan that deprived her of industrial and consumer
goods; U.S. had naval bases in the Philippines, an obstacle to
Japans imperialist ambition; U.S. became Japans principal enemy

Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941 led the U.S. to

declare war on Japan

Japanese occupied Philippines in 1942

Impact of Japanese Occupation on Philippine Society

Proclamation on January 3, 1942
to liberate Filipinos from the United States

 promised to grant the Philippines its independence so long as

it cooperates and recognizes Japans program of establishing
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Japanese allowed the establishment of Philippine Republic on

October 14, 1943

Occupation led to economic hardships

scarcity of food: people living in the cities evacuated to
provinces

production was limited; economic activities were lessened

rice production declined: distribution was controlled by a
system of coupons and rationing

Japanese enlisted the support of Filipino elites in running the

government

to legitimize their occupation and to win popular support

they wanted American-trained leaders like Jose Laurel, Claro
Recto, Benigno Aquino, Sr. and Jorge Vargas

6 of 11 pre-war cabinet; 10 of 24 senators; about 1/3 of

representatives held key positions under Japanese rule

Judiciary: members of Supreme Court and Court of Appeals

were the same

80% of the Philippine Army served under the Japanesesponsored Philippine Constabulary

Some Filipinos collaborated with the Japanese

 many of ruling elites, though loyal to the Americans and

Commonwealth, collaborated for the continuation of their
leadership

some collaborators were genuinely pro-Japanese: those who

refused to accept American rule and were deported like
Artemio Ricarte, Leon Villafuerte and Benigno Ramos

others collaborated because it was their patriotic duty to

protect their fellow Filipinos from harsh policies of the
Japanese

others collaborated as means of survival

Vacuum in political and social leadership

traditional elites left their towns and cities fearing for their
lives; many landlords left their haciendas

peasants took control of their economic life; weapons became

available and those who have them acquired power

traditional elites were replaced by guerrilla politicians

Brutality and destruction of the Japanese occupation led into

emergence of guerrilla groups

Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon (HUKBALAHAP) operated in

Central and Southern Luzon

Other guerrilla groups such as those in Panay under Macario

Peralta and Tomas Confesor operated with American support
and relied on the promise of eventual liberation of the country
by the Americans

McArthur promised to liberate Philippines in his famous

statement I shall return.

 Japanese occupation also led to social and moral breakdown

due to difficult economic conditions, crimes multiplied; people
stole and committed holdups in order to survive

Filipinos became vindictive; committed atrocities against

Japanese and their collaborators

Filipino women were made sex slaves (comfort women) by the

Japanese army

Japanese educational policy failed

Nippongo was taught, but Filipinos did not learn the language
many students dropped out of school

The brutality of the Japanese occupation made Filipinos appreciate

the Americans

when the Americans returned to the country, Filipinos

considered them as liberators and were eternally grateful

The Liberation

The Liberation
Proclamation of Independence