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Seminar on Heritage of Water Infrastructure
"AN OUTLOOK OF INFRASTRUCTURAL HERITAGES OF IRRIGATION IN INDONESIA:

Drawbacks and Future Perspectives" 1
By
A. Hafid A. Gany,2
gany@hafied.org; http://twitter.com/hafiedgany
espite that irrigation in Indonesia has long been played a very significant role in the history of the country's development,
the technical irrigation infrastructure has only been introduced by civil engineering undertaking between the end of the
19th century and turn of the 20th century. This was more significant when the Dutch Colonial Government applying the so
called "Ethical Policy", by fostering Irrigation, education and transmigration program to enhance the development of its colonies.
Initially, the water infrastructure was developed to foster water use for sugar cane plantation and hazard protection, which was
the domain of civil engineers, then geared toward effective water use for supporting rice production as the staple diet of the
population.
Due to lack of technical expertise, at the initial stage, the main irrigation structures such as barrage and weirs were constructed
by means of trial-and-error approach. Then it was not surprising that many of the major irrigation structures were in fact
collapsed by the large flood incident before even the construction completed. Other structures were found over designed to
accommodate huge safety factors, and hence the structures were highly inefficient from both civil engineering as well as
economic justification. The term of stainable development was merely considered by development engineer from the lasting
quality of the water infrastructure as artificial resources, and less attention on sustaining the functionality by means of effective
and efficient operation and maintenance O&M. This condition become exceptionally worsened due to the fact that the structural
O&M were somewhat neglected and even become non existence, particularly the case during and after the World War II.
As the matter of fact, from a series of experiences in irrigation implementation, it gives strong supports that management of
irrigation, drainage, and flood control system is much more important than construction of facilities per se. This matter have been
apparent through the ancient traditional irrigation system under rice pattern in Indonesia that has been highly sustainable with
active participation of local population for hundreds of years without major problems. In contrast, modern system of major
engineering works has not fully achieved the expected performance in fact, some modern irrigation systems had been failure to
achieve the targets that had been previously envisaged due to a number of socio-technical constraints, including the lack of
community participation as well as inappropriate O&M.
Under such circumstances, despite the full support from the government, the structural existence of most irrigation facilities were
not only hardly possible to accomplish its practical function but also hardly available to perform social amenity for the people
living around it, although they may not be aware of the value of the amenity especially of the one constructed long years ago. It is
undeniable, however, that under the intensive irrigation development, we can still find many well-designed water infrastructures
that have been functioning for long years and still remaining in good shape in terms of physical condition, but this kind of
infrastructures especially after the war were also suffer from degradation due to the absence of appropriate O&M. In addition
to the fact that most community members were suffered from dependency attitude, waiting assistance from the government, and
almost having no sense of participation and sense of belonging against the public facilities as well as infrastructures.
In attempt to recover the impact of the post war on top of the substantial impacts of economic crisis, this paper is presenting an
outlook of infrastructural heritages of irrigation in Indonesia, giving special discussion on the drawbacks, as well as their
immediate causes and future perspectives. It is expected that by learning more from the water infrastructural heritages in
Indonesia and advanced experiences in other nations. It will enhance a good opportunity to deepen the sense of natural and
cultural friendly engineering of water infrastructures and eventually contribute the raising of awareness and hence public
participation O&M of water infrastructures, under the best cooperation between administration organization and local community.
Key Words: Infrastructural Heritages; Irrigation; Water Resources Infrastructures
1 This Paper has been prepared for the Seminar on Heritage of Water Infrastructure , as one of World Water Days Programs, conducted by
JICA in collaboration with the Secretariat of National Water Resources Council (Sekretariat Dewan Sumber Daya Air Nasional), and Directorate
General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, in Jakarta, 21st April 2010.
2 Mr.A. Hafied A. Gany, Ph D., P.Eng, is the incumbent Vice President of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) and the
Chairman of Permanent Committee of Strategic Planning and Organizational Affairs (PCSPOA) of ICID.
1
"Gany, A.H.A.: AN OUTLOOK OF INFRASTRUCTURAL HERITAGES OF IRRIGATION IN INDONESIA: Drawbacks and Future Perspectives 2010"
I. INTRODUCTION
Historical Background: From the historical perspective, Irrigation has been practiced on Java Island for
rice crop since the ancient time with the simple and least sophisticated structures. These have been
recognized through the ancient infrastructural heritages which are still in operation today. However, the
technical irrigation infrastructures by means of civil engineering undertaking had only been introduced
between the end of the 19th century and the turn of the 20th century AD. This was more significant when the
Dutch Colonial Government applying the so called "Ethical Policy", by fostering Irrigation, education and
transmigration program to enhance the development of its colonies. Initially, the water infrastructure was
developed to foster water use for sugar cane plantation and hazard protection, which was the domain of
civil engineers, then geared toward effective water use for supporting rice production as the staple diet of
most of the countrys population.
Since after independence, irrigation development Irrigation in Indonesia has been developed through five
year development plan with implementation of several major projects including Jatiluhur, Citarum River in
West Java, the Brantas River Valley Development, regional plan in East Java, Sempor Dam and irrigation
Project, and Bali Irrigation Project. The water sources come from has several river streams with the total
internal water resources of the country stood at 2,530 BCM (1987) of which a quantity of 16.6 BCM was
being withdrawn with an allocation of 76% to agriculture, whereas the irrigated area in 1995 was 4.58 M ha.
These achievements have been possible through the supports of large number of irrigation infrastructures,
weirs, from small, medium to large structure category.
Along with this irrigation development, drainage for agriculture had also been developed in several islands
of Indonesia particularly in Kalimantan and Sumatra Islands. As the matter of fact, the implementation of
drainage and reclamation of lowlands for agriculture had also been conducted in Indonesia since the Dutch
Colonial Period. Large rice fields on lowland areas were connected by excavating channels and connecting
them to tidal rivers which inundate the fields during the high tide and drain off during low-tides.
General Drawback of Irrigation Infrastructural Sustainability: Through a long term development
implementation the infrastructural heritages, especially the ones that have been constructed during before
the countrys independence, have been suffered from damages due to inadequate O&M undertakings. And
after independence, in fact were also suffered from the same problems because the country was
concentrating its effort to provide new infrastructural facilities to meet the post independence accelerating
demand. With the down fall of the countrys economy that have been experience by the country, it has been
evident that the capacity to perform operation and maintenance (O&M) of the developed infrastructures
continuously lacking behind.
Learning from a series of experiences in irrigation implementation, it gives strong supports that
management of irrigation, drainage, and flood control system is much more important than construction of
facilities per se. This matter has been apparent through the ancient traditional irrigation system that has
been highly sustainable with active participation of local community for hundreds of years without major
problems. In contrast, modern system of major engineering works has not fully achieved the expected
performance some modern irrigation systems, in fact, had been failure to achieve the targets that had
been previously envisaged due to a number of socio-technical constraints, including the lack of community
participation as well as inappropriate O&M.
Under such circumstances, despite the full support from the government, the structural existence of most
irrigation facilities were not only hardly possible to accomplish its practical function but also hardly available
to perform social amenity for the people living around it. Although the past development efforts were mostly
based on the poor methodology, lacking of data and technical expertise, it is undeniable, however, that
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under the intensive irrigation development, we can still find many well-designed water infrastructures that
have been functioning well, and still remaining in good shape in terms of physical condition, but this kind of
infrastructures were also suffered from degradation due to the absence of appropriate O&M. In addition,
most community members were suffered from dependency attitude, waiting assistance from the
government, and almost having no sense of participation and sense of belonging against the public
infrastructures.
II. OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION

2.1. The Ancient Irrigation Techniques
According to the existing folklore as well as some ancient inscriptions, there are adequate reasons to
believe that irrigation development in Indonesia must had been practiced longer before the Hindu Era.
Much of the traditional communities believed that the first Hindu migrant had found the local irrigated paddy
had been widely cultivated by the local people in the lowland plains of Java. Thus, during the Hindu Era,
the Hindu Emperors had strongly believed to have been fulfilling adequate food supplies of the peoples
through the widely practiced irrigation technique for paddies.
For illustration, the stone inscription from Dharmawangsa Emperor dated 958 Caka-Year or 1037 AD stated
that a series of dyke construction works were undertaken by the emperor at the Waringin Sapta, next to the
Brantas river banks for protecting human settlement as well as agricultural areas in the vicinity of the
middle reach of the Brantas River Basin (belongs to the East Java Province, today).
During the period Islamic Kingdoms, a number of adjustments as well as improvements were made against
the previous irrigated agricultural practices. As a matter of facts, there are some evidences to believe that
the Islamic Kingdom of Demak in the eastern Java was known to be the major rice-exporting source to
supply the entire part of the Nusantara (ancient term of Indonesian) archipelago (Wirosoemarto, S., 1997,
p.3). This matter with some other evidences indicate that irrigated agriculture for paddies has already been
implemented with appropriate water management on almost the entire lowland plains of the northern parts
of Java Island. Whatever water management technique, and however simple it was, irrigation intervention
must have been practiced.
2.2. Traditional Agricultural Heritages

Following the ancient irrigation techniques, there some evidence of the traditional agricultural heritages that
are still currently practiced today. The traditional irrigated agricultural practices had been descended from
generation to generation by the ancient Indonesian civilizations. These among others are the Subak
System in Bali Province, Dawur Pranatamangsa in Central and East Java Provinces, Tuo Banda or
Siak Bandar in West Sumatra Province, Tudang Sipulung in South Sulawesi, Panriahan
Pamokkahanan and Siauga Parjolo in North Sumatra, Panitia Siring in South Sumatra and Bengkulu
Provinces, including some institutional based traditional agriculture such as Ulu-ulu Desa , and Ulu-ulu
Vak in Central Java, Raksa Bumi in West Java, Ili-ili in East Java, Malar or Ponggawa in Sumbawa
Island, and Kejrueng Blang in Aceh Province, despite of the modern irrigation practice today.
These in themselves are the concrete explanation of the past existence of irrigation based agricultural
practices, though they do not give indication of the exact date of the initial inventions. Whoever might be
the inventors of the ancient irrigation agricultural techniques, they must have been based on systematical
observations and long-term trials-and-errors to meet and adjust with the existing demands and constrains
from generation to generations.
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2.3. New Irrigation Technique

Early at the beginning of the Dutch Colonial Era in Indonesia (referred to by the Dutch Colonial Government
as the Netherland Indie ) not much effort were addressed to irrigation development due to their special
attention on spice trade. This was the case because the Dutch still give concentration of spice products
rather than irrigated agriculture, which by nature, considered as public services oriented undertaking. Apart
from that, irrigation infrastructures were still available to provide adequate food supplies for the people.
There were a number of irrigation works and expansion of paddy cultivations in Bali Island and in Java as
well as on the Outer Islands through mutual aid (gotong royong) system. Irrigation for private lands was
also constructed in the Tangerang Plain, Bekasi and Cikarang, as well as in the vicinity of Batavia (Jakarta,
today) and Bogor for land-lords. Among others are the Ciliwung Katulampa, Cisedane Empang and
Cibalok, which are still in operation after more that 250 years, though their physical conditions are
increasingly deteriorated.
Early 20th Century: In an attempt to resolve the long financial crises, immediately after the end of
Diponegoro War in 1830, the Dutch Colonial Government assigned the Governor General Van Den Bosh to
enforce compulsory agricultural policy, so called as Cultuur Stelsel or Verplichte Cultuur or mandatory
agricultural policy. This policy imposed the farmers to cultivate 20% of agricultural lands they have with
commercial plantation and cash crops such as rubber, coffee, tea, and pepper for upland areas and for
lowland areas with nila (genus corchorus) and sugar cane, as the highly market potential agricultural
products in Europe those days.
Pioneering Period: Due to the lack of technical experience in the early development stage of irrigation for
agriculture, irrigation planning and construction implementation were undertaken almost without any basic
technical and agro-climatological data. At that time, practically no data on hydrology, hydrometry, geology,
topographical maps as well as laboratories to back up the planning and technical design available. Most
Dutch engineers who we relied to implement the irrigation development had no experience to work for
irrigation, especially in tropical regions. And hence, the technical designs were merely conducted based
trial-and-error approach. Not surprisingly, that many irrigation schemes were failure to meet the objective
previously intended in the design. For example, the Sampean Weir in Situbondo, which was constructed in
1832, had been totally collapsed before it could be fully utilized. It was only in 1887 the weir was
reconstructed with permanent structure that made it strong enough to perform water diversion till present.
Establishment of the Colonial Ministry of Public Works: To meet the engineering demands for
developing irrigation infrastructures, it was only in 1885 the Colonial Government established the Ministry of
Public Works for dealing with the provision of public infrastructures, including water resources and
irrigation, through the Special Department for Water Resources and Irrigation Development. At the same
year, a Special Irrigation Division was established under the Department of Water Resources to deal with
the construction of special irrigation projects.
In 1889 the Irrigation Division was transformed into a formal structural institution termed as Water
Resources Services or Algemene Waterstaatdienst in Dutch term. With the establishment of the Water
Resources Services, the systematic and comprehensive implementation of water resources as well as
irrigation development and management had gradually become more effective. This institution has been
developed and managed consistently, and later after the countrys independence, it became the Directorate
General of Water Resources, which responsible for water resources and irrigation development and
management under the Ministry of Public Works till present.
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2.4. Irrigation Development for Supporting Transmigration Program

As the follow up of the Ethical Policy goodwill strategy referred to as the Ethische Politiek with the slogan
of three major endeavors: Irrigation; Emigration; and Education; the Dutch Colonial Government
commissioned a study in 1902, to examine the possibility of resolving the problem of over population and
land fragmentation on Java as a potential source of political tension and unrest, by moving people from
Java to the sparsely populated areas in other parts of Indonesia, supported by Irrigation development
program. Accordingly, the first resettlement experiment was carried out three years later by moving 155
families from Java to Lampung, Southern Sumatra by virtue of Irrigation Based Approach. The objective of
the resettlement program was not only to reduce the population pressure on Java but also to contribute to
the development of sparsely populated "Outer Islands" (Geertz, 1963) by providing more manpower for
agricultural development (Gany, A. H.A.; 1993.)
At the follow up stage, irrigation development priorities were set up for the eastern coast of Sumatra, then,
set up for South Sulawesi. Subsequently, the irrigation development priorities were directed toward other
Outer Islands, with special focus on the transmigrant destination areas. Unfortunately, the development
was practically terminated in 1930s due to severe economic crisis. In the mean time, the follow up effort to
recommence the development effort in the middle of the following decade was again hampered by the
break up of the Second World War.
For the Inner Islands, intensification program was directed toward construction of reservoirs at the upper
part of the river basins on the highland areas, which intended to improve the retention capacity of the river
basin during the dry seasons. During the period before the War, several reservoirs ranging from small to
large size were constructed in West Java, Central Java and East Java Provinces. For instance, the
constructed reservoirs with the storage capacity of more than 30 MCM among others were the Malahayu
Dam in Central Java, and the Pacal Reservoir in East Java Province. While the medium sized reservoirs
with the storage capacity between 10 and 30 MCM among others were the Prijetan Reservoir in East Java,
the Gembong reservoir in Central Java, and Situpatok Reservoir in West Java Province.
During the pre-independence period, till the time before the Second World War, several large irrigation
schemes in the northern coast of Java Island as well as in the other parts of the country were also
completed. These were the Ciujung, Cisadane, Citarum-Walahar irrigation schemes in North Coast of Java,
the Setail Scheme in Banyuwangi, the South Jember plain, the Bagelen, and Southern Banyumas Areas. In
addition, the constructed Irrigation schemes on the Outer Islands among others were Simalungun Scheme
in North Sumatra, Klingi and Blitang in South Sumatra, Way Sekampung in Lampung, Saddang and
Jeneberang schemes in South Sulawesi. For the latter case, the irrigation schemes had not been fully
completed, because the construction terminated as the 2nd World War break up. The schemes were only
completed later on through the immediate post independence development program of Indonesian
Government.
2.5. Immediate Post Independence Period

Initial Develoment Initiative: At the earlier stage after Independence, the Government made a series
of irrigation development planning both for short term, medium term as well as long term, with a
special priority on the short term objective, which was the three-year development plan from 1951 up
until 1953. However, under the limited potentential of financial as well as human resources, the short-
term development plan had never been materialized, till the new plan (Five-year Development Plan of
1956-1960) launched. As time passed by, the new five-year development plan came up with the same
position as the previous development plan.
5
The subsequent developmen plan of 1961-1968 also faced the same problems and constraints, which
unable it to be fully implemented. Political and economic uncertainties of Indonesia was then became
more crucial with the emerging issues. During this period, practically no irrigation development was
undertaken till the political situation under the New Order Government had been stabilized.
Five-Year Development Plan: Under the New Order Government, the socio-political condition
gradually became stablized, and the confrontation policy was replaced with the closer economic and
political relationship with the neighbouring countries. During which, the stabilized political condition
brought about new opportunity for the country to conduct new economic development policy.
At the First Five-year Development Plan, water resources development had been prioritized by the
Government of Indonesia. Despite that the development had been given special priority, the budgetary
allocation had only been possible for large projects, and hence, the distribution of irrigation
development has not not been possible to reach the entire parts of the country. The large projects that
had been undertaken during the first five year development implementation including: The Cacaban
Reservoir in Central Java Province. The Darma Reservoir in West Java Province, Selorejo and
Karangkates Reservoirs in East Java Province, the continuation of the notable Jatiluhur Reservoir with
a total irrigation service area of about 240,000 ha, and the Lakbok Irrigation Scheme in West Java
Province. At the same period the flood control project of the south Tulung Agung (Phase-I) in East
Java Province.
Beside the multipurposes functions of the latter water resources and irrigation project, which cover almost
the overall aspects of water resources development, the Jatiluhur Project also considered as the pioneer
project on integrated water resources development in Indonesia. This particularly the case for integrating
the water resources in the north coast of West Java, which are the Ciliwung River in the western part and
Cilalanang River in the East. Most encouraging above all, that the Jatiluhur Multipurpose Project had been
conducted under the full capacity of Indonesian engineer from the planning stage, design up to the
constuction implementation as well as construction supervision.
Under the five year development program, the scope of activities had been included to cover other
multifunctionalities of water resources infrastructures including flood control, water transportation,
environment conservation and water based recreations. These programs have been initiated in two
major river basins, namely the Jatiluhur in West Java Province and the Brantas River Basin in East
Java Province. The two river basin projects have extended their activities, not only for irrigation,
hydropower and flood control, but also for raw water supplies, city flushing, aquaculture
development, as well as water based recreation and sports.
2.6. Multiple Purposes Water Resources and River Basin Development:
In an attempt to make the optimum advantage of water resources development andmanagement, the
project implementations in general has been based upon integrated river basin approach as far as possible.
This approach is especially implemented for river basins that are interdependent or having the same
impacts, or belongs to the shared water ecosystem or environmental impacts from each other for being
served the same areas.
During the first 25 years long term development program (1969-1984) there were seven multiple
purposes and river-basin development projects namely: the Brantas River Basin Project; the
Jratunseluna (Jragung, Tuntang, Serang, Lusi, Juana); Bengawan Solo; Serayu; Citanduy; Citarum;
and Jenebrang River Basin Projects. Following the river basin development projects, the management
of Brantas and Citarum River Basins have been transformed into state owned companies, the Jasa
Tirta-I for Brantas River Basin Project, and Jasa Tirata-II for the Citarum River Basin Project. Both
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state owned companies have been intended for undertaking the sustainable basin water resources
management as the Operating Institutions.
2.7. Irrigation Works:
Approaching the first long-term development program, the physical condition of irrigation in Indonesia had
been under highly deteoriorating condition. Irrigation infrastructures including canals and structures were
practically suffered from severe damages due to the lack of maintenance within the last few years. It was
estimated that the remaining service function of irrigation system was between 40% and 60% of the overall
capacity. During which, Indonesia had been suffered from severe deficit of rice production as the staple diet
of the people.
Under such condition, the effort was concentrated on the implementation of Operation and
Maintenance (O&M) of the existing facilities while pursuing the immediately affordable repairs to
increase the serviceability of the irrigation infrastuctures. In the mean time, the development of new
scheme had been concentrated on quick yielding projects, while extending irrigation areas through
improvement, rehabilitation and upgrading of the already existing schemes.
Lowlands (swamps) Development: Parallel with conventional irrigation schemes, Indonesia posess
a huge lowlands potentials scattered over the country, in particular on Sumatra Island, Kalimantan,
and Irian Jaya (Papua). According to the physical as well as water management, the swamplands
divided into three major categories namely: inland swamps, tidal swamps and barakish water or saline
water swamps.
The development of inland swamps had long been practiced in Indonesia with mostly paddy
cultivation, and occasionally with inland fisheries. So far as the water availability is still accessible,
the water control for agriculture conducted by means of regulating the water level and tidal
movements at the drainage channels.
The tidal swamps also posess a huge potential for agricultural development in Indonesia. Out of the
overall of about 30 million ha of lowland potential Indonesia has, about 15% suitable for agricultural
development. Out of about five million hectares, part which has already been developed for
agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, including the majority of tidal lowlands development in the vicinity
of the coastal areas.
2.8. River Improvement and Flood Control:
River improvement as well as flood control in Indonesia poses variety of categories ranging from regular
repairs to the very urgent works that must be undertaken as soon as possible, such as river improvement
works due to natural disasters, and prevention works for protecting certain objects from severe river
degradations. Particularly for the young geological river formation, degradation occurs quite frequently
along the river channels due to unstable river-bed materials.
Other category of river improvement works associated with the routine maintenance and river protections,
as well as prevention from periodical flood strikes also conducted. Early in 1930s a number of river
maintenance and improvement works were conducted at Citanduy River at the boundary between West
Java and Central Java Provinces, such as stabilization of river flows at the meandering parts of the river.
On the other hand, flood control works usually directed toward specific localities, either for human
settlement in the rural or urban areas or for protecting agricultural areas that are frequently suffered from
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flood disasters. Under the special case for protecting irrigation area, the flood control works usually
included as an integral part of the irrigation area referred to.
Reservoir and Weir: Initially, people suspected that the provision of irrigation infrastructures would resolve
all problems concerning water allocation and distribution for agricultural purposes. With the availability of
irrigation networks, provision of irrigation water would no longer become problematic to meet the farming
demands at appropriate time and quantity. In fact, this presumption would never fully meet their
expectations, owing to the nature of irrigation facilities that also dictated by the dependable river runoff, that
had been determined on the basis of stocastic probability concept.
Early at the beginning of the 1920 s development of reservoirs became more and more demanding,
particularly for supporting sugarcane plantation on Java Island. Among the reservoirs that previously
intended to support water supplies for sugar crop plantation the Gunung Rowo, Gembong, Penjalin,
Malahayu, and Situ Patok were the most popular ones during that period. Later, the provision of
reservoirs for stabilizing irrigation water supplies in non sugarcane areas were becoming increasingly
demanding. At the initial stage, priority was given to irrigation areas at the water scarcity areas such as
Pacal and Prijetan reservoirs in South Bojonegoro District, as well as Tempuran Reservoir in Blora
District. A while before the break up of the Pacific War, a comprehensive plan had been prepared for
construction of major reservoirs such as the Cacaban, Darma, and Cipanas. The Cacaban and Darma
Reservoirs in Central Java were only completed few years after Indonesian independence in 1950 s.
Following this pioneering period, many scattered reservoirs, ranging from small, medium to large
categories have been constructed in Indonesia, not only for irrigation water supplies, but also for other
multifunctionalities of sustainable water resources development and management.
Groundwater Development: Despite the comparative advantage of the utilization of groundwater
relative to the surface water i.e. easily accessible, without too complicated infrastructures, and less
conveyance required however, the development alternative was not feasible. During the time before
the longterm development program, the groundwater exploitation considered to be highly demanding
for sophis-ticated and costly technologies.
The development of groundwater resources began to conduct at the followup stage of the first five year
development program by initiating experimental pilot projects at the water scarce areas such as at Gunung
Kidul in Yogyakarta Special Province and on Madura Island. During which, the groundwater development
was not only limited to agricultural purposes, but also extended to a number of utilizations for the livelihood
of the people for domestic, livestock, and house-yard gardening.
III. HIGHLIGHTS OF IRRIGATION STRUCTURES DEVELOPMENT

3.1. Evidences of the Earliest Infrastructural Heritages
Historical Evidence of Ancient Irrigation Civilization: Based on the historical evidence, the water resources
and irrigation development in Indonesia, one of the earliest irrigation and water resources structure in
Indonesia is Harinjing Structure was developed in the Kepung Village at Brantas River Basin Area in the
year of 808 AD, then followed by reconstruction in the year 921 AD and rehbilitation was conducted in 927
AD. Unfortunately, no more artifact left except a big stone which is believed to be the ruin of structural
foundation of the weir (Angoedi, 1984., p.25). See Figure 1.
The structure is believed to be constructed as a weir in combination with river dyke (harinjing dyke) to
facicilitate irrigated agriculture and flood protection in the vicinity of one of Brantas River tributary area, by
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means of gotong royong or mutual aid system by the people concerned. See Figure 2 (Statuette at
Harinjing Monument illustrating the construction of the Harinjing weir by means of gotong-royong or
mutual aid system.
1 2
Figure 1. The copy of the Harinjing stone inscription at Jombang (Pare) District at Siman Krajan Village.
The original inscription is now kept at the National Museum, registered under No. N. D.173; and Figure 2.
The stauette at Harinjing Monument, illustrating the construction of the Harinjing Weir by means of
gotong-royong or mutual aid system.
Figure 3. The Tugu Stone inscription, The original artifact is currently kept at the National Musium,
registered under No. D.124. (Angoedi, 1984, p.28).
The earlist evidence of ancient hydraulic structure in Indonesia: As far as the historical records that
have been unveiled till up to now, it is clearly apparent from the Tugu Stone inscription that the earliest
ancient hydraulic structure in Indonesia is the Chandra Baga diversion channel near Cilincing River in the
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Vicinity of Jakarta Metrupolitant City now. The channel was believed to be constructed at the year 500 AD
by King Purnawarman for facilitating the flood control of Jakarta land plain. See Figure 3 above.
3.2. Some Stone Relief Concerning the Water Utilization at the Ancient Temples
Inspite of the historical evidence of newly developed technology of irrigation and water resources hiritages
in Indonesia, compared with other countries like Egypt, Iran and China, it is apparent that the Indonesian
ancestors has long been experienced to developed and managed water resources and irrigation
technology as well as environmental water water ecosystem. The ancient ancestors had apparently been
intended to communicate their experiences and expertices in water resources and environmental
technology, by means of engraving the information in the form of picturescues diorama at the wall of
ancient temples scattered in many locations.
From several reliefs found at the Prambanan Temples, it is clearly seen that the civilization of water
technology had already been developed to provide water as well as conservation for sustainable
environmental ecosystem,-- which is clearly illustrate that the water technique is not only intended to
provide water for human livelihood, but also for the sustainability of flora and fauna (See Figure 4 and
Figure 5.).
4 5
Figure 4. The stone relief illustrate the water utilization by implementing the integrated approach between
the provision of water resources infrastructures for livelihood and environment. Figure 5. Indicates the
water utilization not only for human life but also for flora and fauna as well as for supporting the
sustainability of environmental ecosystem.
The ancestral messages concerning culture and irrigation technology for paddy cultivation, for instance,
clearly depicted by the stone reliefs kept at trowulan museum in East Java, in which shown how to
transplant paddy seedlings at the lowland bounded paddy field. This evidence clearly shown upland paddy
cultivation which must apply seed broadcasting technique. Therefore the paddy cultivation shown at the
stone relief must have been representing the utilization of water for softening the land cultivation. And
hence, however simple the technology which were utilized by the ancestor, it indicated that they have
already applied special effort for irrigation water.
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6 7
Figure 6. A stone relief of the temple at Trowulan Museum, shown the paddy cultivation by means of low
land bounded paddy field.
Figure 7. A stone relief from the temple at Trowulan museum depicting the bird eye view of low-land
bounded paddy field at the rural area.
9 10
Figure 9. The relief of Borobudur Temple showing the technology of land preparation by cattle power.
Figure 10. The relief of Borobudur temple showing the farming activities for pest control, including bird and
rats at the ripening stage of the paddy cultivation.
If the relief s, which were perfectly crafted at the massive stone during the era of Borobudur Temple,
Perambanan and others, at the 7-8th century AD, it is obvious that the irrigation or water technology must
had been older than the erection of the ancient temples.
11
3.3. Ancient Technique and Simple Irrigation System:

Design and Construction: During the Hindu Era, construction of medium and large irrigation schemes
were based on the executive order of the King ( dawuhan ); The ancient technique was so simple, making
use of local materials. The local materials are mostly recommended, in such a way that the construction
would not costly, and the rehabilitation as well as repairs would be easily undertaken without necessary to
import construction materials. For instance, many structure of the water weir in the medium and large rivers
were made of loose stone and boulder, in combination with soil and bamboo leaves, branches, or organic
filament, anchored to the bamboo pegs to fill the voids between the stone and bamboo layers. Till present,
the construction technique is still practiced in many remote rural areas, today. And most of them are
implemented in the form of technical heritages from ancient time, and physically identified as simple
irrigation system.
Simple Irrigation System: In realtion with agricultural implementation by means of simple irrigation, The
Indonesian Archipelago posesses quite a large number of ancestral heritages, both in terms software as
well as hardware, including system and institutional aspects of irrigated agricultural heritages which are still
applied in this modern era. For instance, heritage of rice terrace in the Island of Bali, Lombok, Java,
Sumatra, Sulawesi, and other agricultural
11 system scattered over the country. However,
the traditional irrigated agricultural heritages
had been handed over from generation to
generation through oral messages without
any evidence about the time since the
technology had been applied (see Figure 11).
In many places in Indonesia, the simple

irrigation structures (Figure 12 and 13) are
still operated and maintained by the rural
community, because most of them would
easily conduct the repair of the damages due to annual floods, using locally available material, and
participatory approach in terms of mutual aid or gotong royong in terms of local community. Participation
of local community to work together for theirown benefit without payment.
12 13
12
Figure 12 and 13. Example of loose boulder weir in South Sulawesi which have been applied by the local
community since the ancient time, and yet still applied by many traditional community, today.
For illustration, one of the key successess of
14 sustainble irrigated agriculrural implementation
in Subak Syatem in Bali Island is the simplicity
principle, in such a way that the message can be
adapted by the local farmers, however simple their
educational background. As the matter of fact, such
simple technology could be descended down from
generation to generation for hundreds, even
thousands years till the modern era, tiday. See
Figure 14, simple water measurement device (tektek)
invented by Subak in Bali.
Figure 14. Simple water measurement devive (tektek) invented by Subak in Bali.
From the perspective of modern irrigation technology, the accuracy is not least presize in comparirison with
the modren measurement device the people known today. Most significant is that, if for one reason the
simple irrigation device or infrastructure is ruined by flood or other during the rainy season, the farmer
would be easily fix the damaged without any complicated efforts. More significanly is that the farmers would
be highly enthusiastic to undertake the repair efforts through mutual aid system or gotong-royong rather
than conducting continuous operation and maintenance of permanent infrastructures all the year round.
This is perhaps one of the rationale why the artifact of infrastructural heritages had never been uncovered.
Simplicity Principles: Under the traditional management system, irrigation heritages are mostly
sustainable and adaptable by people from generation to generation. The main rationale of the sustainable
practice has been incorporated with the simplicity principles. Most techniques can be adopted without
involving sophisticated learning process. The ancient agricultural calendars will remain appreciated today,
because the application principles accommodate the harmonious relationship between human, cosmic,
nature and reality (DJ; 1979: 69). This heritage, for example, applied to the adjustment of local community
with traditional agricultural calendar, which are still practiced by many rural communities today.
IV. HIGHLIGHT OF TECHNICAL IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURAL HERITAGES

At the beginning, the technical Irrigation during the Dutch Colonial Era, it has been stated that technical
irrigation has only been widely implemented in Indonesia since earlier at the turn of the 20th century. Since
then the technical infrastructures have been operated and maintained following the development capacity
of the government, and the operation and maintenance capacity of the farmers. Following the economic
condition of the country and the development process of water resources and irrigation infrastructures, the
infrastructural heritage have been suffered from severely lack of O&M undertakings, so do the physical
condition. Based upon the structural inventory in 2002, the overall structure of irrigation infrastructural
condition have been represented by a total irrigation area of 7,769,733 ha having servrd with dams, weirs,
and facilities at the main,secondary systems, consisted of large, medium and small structures, scattered
over the provinces in the archypelago. (See the list of irrigation areas that served by infrastructural
heritages in Table 1. below.
13
Table 1. Irrigated paddy field areas served by infrastructural heritages (1994 and 2002), by Province
Average Yield
Area (ha) Cropping Area (ha) Total Yield (ton) *)
Province (ton/ha)
1994 2002 1994 2002 1994 2002 1994 2002
Aceh 315,210 288,574 322,759 322,385 1,315,662 1,347,988 4.08 4.18
North Sumatra 537,264 524,649 715,380 711,589 2,904,484 2,962,457 4.06 4.16
West Sumatra 227,347 229,641 366,604 417,939 1,709,705 1,857,691 4.66 4.44
Riau 220,368 111,935 115,077 108,199 378,994 354,017 3.29 3.27
Jambi 222,068 131,245 139,830 138,323 478,245 499,491 3.42 3.61
South Sumatra 516,210 440,647 320,777 489,730 1,136,041 1,711,514 3.54 3.49
Bengkulu 81,829 83,113 77,213 88,658 281,830 337,421 3.65 3.81
Lampung 281,401 278,135 304,447 397,766 1,321,784 1,755,524 4.34 4.41
Sumatra 2,401,697 2,087,939 2,362,087 2,674,589 9,526,745 10,826,103 4.03 4.05
Jakarta 3,963 2,866 4,803 2,322 22,965 11,303 4.78 4.87
West Java 1,174,861 1,126,917 1,814,794 1,983,649 9,502,006 10,283,358 5.24 5.18
Central Java 1,004,413 991,251 1,433,182 1,581,392 7,552,623 8,283,824 5.27 5.24
Yogyakarta 61,150 58,542 97,643 98,049 542,070 537,955 5.55 5.49
East Java 1,151,912 1,159,592 1,480,221 1,597,767 8,039,187 8,499,460 5.43 5.32
Java 3,396,299 3,339,168 4,830,643 5,263,179 25,658,851 27,615,900 5.31 5.25
Bali 90,310 85,525 150,510 148,025 796,821 809,656 5.29 5.47
West Nusa
191,397 214,576 253,176 274,754 1,148,982 1,283,981 4.54 4.67
Tenggara
East Nusa
88,485 113,276 84,752 105,186 266,717 342,329 3.15 3.25
Tenggara
Bali & Nusa
370,192 413,377 488,438 527,965 2,212,520 2,435,966 4.53 4.61
Tenggara
West Kalimantan 471,537 287,013 209,125 247,787 571,143 784,839 2.73 3.17
Central
278,353 182,556 100,740 86,796 233.326 239,855 2.32 2.76
Kalimantan
South Kalimantan 488,464 415,828 350,515 365,036 1,039,455 1,211,594 2.97 3.32
East Kalimantan 128,166 106,768 62,623 82,232 173,114 282,723 2.76 3.44
Kalimantan 1,366,520 992,165 723,003 781,851 2,017,038 2,519,011 2.79 3.22
North Sulawesi 87,487 83,713 86,330 104,131 369.823 462,872 4.28 4.45
Central Sulawesi 148,247 128,023 126,683 202,907 429,227 780,390 3.39 3.85
South Sulawesi 604,546 661,273 780,525 822,586 3,434,997 3,801,872 4.40 4.62
South-east
64,317 64,075 62,929 72,252 217,024 281,975 3.45 3.90
Sulawesi
Sulawesi 904,597 937,084 1,056,467 1,201,876 4,451,071 5,327,109 4.21 4.43
Maluku - - 4,904 3,469 14,426 10,055 2.94 2.90
Irian Jaya
- - 13,376 19,160 37,069 60,092 2.77 3.14
(Papua)
Maluku & Irian
- - 18,280 22,629 51,495 70,147 2.82 3.10
Jaya
INDONESIA 8,439,305 7,769,733 9,478,918 10,472,089 43,917,720 48,794,236 4.63 4.66
Source: Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 1995 and 2003
*) dry un-husked rice
14
4.1. Example of Some Technical Irrigation Infrastructural Heritages

Batang Mimpi Irrigation Scheme in Western Sumatra: The development of this irrigation scheme with
intake structure was completed 1826 (Figure 15) by the Dutch Colonial Government. To support
Batang Mimpi Weir (2004) Figure 15. Inscription at Batang Mimpi weir stated of its
construction completion in 1826
(Compulsory Agriculture Policy), the Dutch Government constructed a weir in Mimpi River, Darmasraya
Regency, about 200 km from Padang, the capital town of West Sumatra Province. At the beginning, this
weir was constructed as a very simple structure. The purpose was to irrigate 350 hectares of tobacco
belonged to the Dutch Land Lord. With subsequent improvement and rehabilitation, this weir is still
currently being well maintained until now. When independence war was over in 1950, Batang Mimpi weir
didnt receive enough attention from the government, which caused the weir severely damaged (as
pioneering technique).
Rehabilitation of weir and irrigation networks were conducted firstly in PELITA-I (1969) and completed in
1992. Following the rehabilitation work, the irrigation area of Batang Mimpi was gradually expanded. In
1992, it covered some 739 hectares of paddy field. At the same time in1992, the government also included
the scheme into rehabilitation, up-grading, and extension program to expand the command area into 1,034
hectares of paddy fields. The weir has been recorded as the first technical structure to be constructed in
Indonesia, but so far, no evidence has been found on the technical document of the structure, and yet it
has been suffered from luck of O&M efforts.
Pioneering Irrigation Technique: Following the implementation of Compulsory Agricultural Policy, which
was initiated by Johnnes Van den Bosch (1830-1833), the Dutch Colonial Government since then, directly
involved in agricultural management, production and marketing of agricultural products, including the efforts
to improve irrigation infra-structures for supporting the Compulsory Agricultural Policy.
In an attempt to provide for constant availability of irrigation water, the Dutch Colonial Government paid
special attention on the future potential development of fertile agricultural land of the delta Sampean River
in East Java. For this purpose, the Dutch Government dispatched Ir. Van Thiel to Situbondo to erect a weir
in Kali Sampean River in 1832. The construction of this weir made of teakwood framework structure, filled
with stone and boulder. The Total width of the weir was 45 m and the height at eight m. For improvement,
it was replaced by masonry structure in 1847. Up until 1876 many temporary weir had been constructed by
means of Trial-and-Error .
15
In 1850 the Sampean weir could no

longer utilized, as the teakwood
material for routine maintenance had no
longer available. For improvement
purpose, the strengthening work
undertaken by means of masonry
structure early in 1847, but the weir did
not last long (Figure 16.).
Up until 1876 temporary weir structures
had been constructed, and at the same
year the masonry weir completed, but
the weir did not last long as well.
Figure 16. The Old Lengkong Weir preserved as a monument near the
new Lengkong Weir
Through a long development program, the weirs have been improved from time to time, following the
demand for structural improvement as well as irrigation targets as well as adjustment with objectives of the
structural improvement toward sustainable development by means of environmentally friendly operation
and maintenance of the developed infrastructures. The implementation, have been conducted through
routine maintenance, special maintenance and rehabilitation as well as reconstruction as if necessary. This
matter is reflected by the new Lengkong weir, which is at present, come to a stable condition after a total
reconstruction. See the picture below (Figure 17.), the present condition of the Lengkong Weir after a total
reconstruction.
Figure 17. The present condition of the Lengkong Weir after reconstruction.
16
Irrigation infrastructure pioneer under the transmigration program: In 1902 the Dutch Colonial
Government commissioned a study to examine the possibility of resolving the problem of over population
and land fragmentation on Java where the large local population surplus was regarded by the Dutch as a
potential source of political tension and unrest. This study recommended moving people from Java to the
sparsely populated areas in other parts of Indonesia. In response to this recommendation, the first
resettlement experiment was carried out three years later by moving 155 families from Java to Lampung,
Southern Sumatra. This was the start of an unprecedented human resettlement program in Indonesia.
A number of stages can be distinguished in the history of the resettlement program. The first stage started
in 1905 when, under the certificate of approval #46, dated October 19th, 1905, migration was initiated by H.
G. Heytings who, with the help of two assistants and two irrigation water masters, moved 155 families from
Java to Gedong Tataan in the South Lampung District of Southern Sumatra.
The third phase occurred between 1929 and 1941, coinciding with the Great World Depression and the
beginning of the Second World War. In this phase the rate of settlement increased. According to Heeren,
(1967:8), a total of 189,983 people were resettled to the Outer Islands in the period from 1905 to 1941.
In order to catch up the rapid escalation of population , the irrigation development priorities were directed
toward the Outer Islands areas, with special focus on the transmigration program, during which, many
irrigation infrastructures with different kinds of types and models have been constructed, which was meant,
to some extend, more like experimental diversification to accommodate the local requirement, physically as
well as operationally. This is for example can be represented in Way Semah I Lampung Province at the
following picture (Figure 18.).
Figure 18. Way Semah-1 Weir, in Gedong Tataan is amongst the oldest irrigation infrastructures (1905) for
the pioneer transmigrant settlers in Lampung Region
17
4.2. Multi-Purposes Water Resources Development:

Under the 5-Year Development, the role of water resources was expanded to cover not only irrigation but
also flood control, drinking water, sanitation, urban flushing, transportation, environmental conservation and
water based sport & recreation, hydropower etc. During this stage of development many water resources
and irrigation infrastructures were developed. This includes the headwork and reservoirs scattered over the
country. Among the many infrastructures, the Curug Weir in which Sediyatmo Pump is used, at the
Jatiluhur scheme has been considered to be a unique heritage of water resources structures, which
planned and developed with the supervision of Indonesian engineer.
The Curug hydraulic pump system is popularly known as Sediyatmo Pump. The pump was designed by
Prof. Dr. Ir. Sediyatmo in 1956. The Curug Hydraulic Pump System consists of 17 pumps (derived from the
date of Indonesian independence) with a capacity of five m3/second each. Total discharge to be pumped to
West Tarum Canal is 85 m3/second including the water demand for raw water and flushing of the western
part of Jakarta Metropolitan.
Manufacturing of those pumps was
initially offered to a Japanese company,
however, due to some reasons, the
offer was finally taken by a German
Manufacturing Company.
Before Prof. Sediyatmo made the
design of Curug Hydraulic Pumps in
1956, Ir. W.J. van Blommenstein, in the
year 1935, had previously proposed
hydraulic pump to be proposed for
Gambarsari irrigation area in Central
Java. Prior to his proposal, Ir.
Blommenstein conducted a trial model
in Semarang Hydraulic in 1935, where
he worked. Furthering this initiative,
Prof. Sediyatmo made a design for such
hydraulic pump and managed to make it
happened in the curug weir stated
above (see Figure 19).
Figure 19. The bird s air view of Curug Hydraulic Pumps
For further information, see the cross section of Sediyatmo pump as shown in the following Figure 20.
18
Figure 20. Cross section of Sediyatmo Pump
4.3. Integrated River Basin and Water Resources Management
Eighty-five cubic meters per second of water required to supply to West Tarum Canal for the irrigation of
the commanded areas of the canal, and raw water supplies as well as flushing of Jakarta. Part of the 85
m3/second is pumped from Curug Hydraulic Pumps, and other part is diverted from four rivers flowing in the
command area of the canal: Cibeet River; Cikarang River; Bekasi River; and Ciliwung River. In the eastern
part of the area, the integration of basin and water resources management conducted by incorporating
Cilamaya River, Ciasem River, and Cipunegara River. This was apparently one of the earlier integrated
basin water resources management in Indonesia. See the Figure 21 below. In addition, under this system
all of irrigation the single command area of the three main canals, both the existing and the new developed
schemes are also integrated in one management system (see Figure 22. The Walahar Barrage).
19
North Tarum Canal
Walahar Barrage
East Tarum Canal
Curug
West Tarum Canal Hydraulic Pump
Ciliwung
Jatiluhur
Reservoir
Cibeet R.
Cikarang
Bekasi
R.
R.
Citarum R.
Legend:
Weir
Commanded area Figure 21 . Schematic Diagram of Integrated Basin and Water Resources Management
Siphon
Figure 22. The Walahar Barrage
20
4.4. Dam, Reservoir and Headwork:

With the spread of irrigation infrastructural development in Indonesia, the water demands increasingly
important during the first decade of the 20th Century. In an attempt to meet this escalating demand, a
series of dams and reservoirs were constructed. Till 2004, there are 117 large dams and 3,666 small dams
(pond and embung) have been constructed in Indonesia. The total storage capacity is estimated at about 6
km3. The first large dam was built in Central Java in 1914 by the Dutch Colonial Government. Before
independence (1945), a total of 16 large dams were built in Central and East Java for Irrigation purpose.
See Figure 23. below, Location Map of High Dam (higher or equal to 30m high) in Indonesia.
Figure 23. Location Map of High Dam (higher or equal to 30m high) in Indonesia.
Type of the Dam: The dominant type of the dam is fill type of dam consisting of 63 earthfill dams (53.3%)
and 38 rockfill dams (32.5%) due to their cost effectiveness, material availability and suitable geological
condition. There are 11 concrete dams (9.4%) has been built mostly for hydraulic power generation. (See
Table 2. below for the types of dam in Indonesia).
Table 2. List of types of dam in Indonesia.
21
Jatiluhur Reservoir: Among the many dams and reservoirs the largest is Jatiluhur Reservoir was the first
multi purpose reservoir constructed in Citarum River. The construction started in 1958 and completed in
1967. The other two reservoirs which, were constructed after the Jatiluhur were single purpose reservoirs,
i.e. mainly for hydro power generator. For that reason, the two reservoirs were not discussed in this section.
The two reservoirs are: i) Cirata, located just upstream of Jatiluhur Reservoir, having a total capacity of 800
MCM and hydropower generating of about 1,000 MW; and ii) Saguling, with a total capacity 980 MCM and
hydropower generating capacity at about 700 MW.
Construction of Jatiluhur Reservoir gave special experience for Indonesia in terms of large project
implementation. This partly because the project was planned, designed, and constructed during the most
difficult economic condition of the country. In 1950s which was termed as the nations consolidation
period being under the worse and unstable economic as well as political condition. This condition was
further aggravated by the fact all of the Dutch officials have to leave Indonesia in 1957, at the time
Indonesian experts were still far for adequate to conduct large project such as Jatiluhur Multi Purpose
Reservoir.
The main principle attached to the development of Jatiluhur Project was that the water from Jatiluhur River
for various purposes has to be released through three main canals i.e.:
i) West Tarum Main Canal which provides irrigation water for the western part of the project command
area at a total of 80,000 hectares, as well as supply of raw water and flushing for Jakarta municipality;
ii) East Tarum Main Canal which provides irrigation water for the eastern part of the project command
area at a total of 80,000 hectares; and
iii) North Tarum Main Canal for irrigating the northern part of the project area known as Walahar Irrigation
area with a total of 80,000 ha command area.
Water from Jatiluhur Reservoir (Figure 24)

diverted to West Tarum Main Canal and East
Tarum Main Canal through Curug Weir, while
water allocation for North Tarum Main Canal
diverted by Walahar Barrage.
Figure 24. Scenic view of Jatiluhur Dam
During the development period, a large number of dams have been constructed in Indonesia; these among
others are Tango Dams in 1983, Saguling in 1986, and Cirata Dam in 1988 for hydroelectric power, and
Bata Bolin Dam in 2002 mainly for irrigation. (See some pictures at Figure 25). Most of which are located
on Java Island, but since 1980s dam construction has been spread to Outer islands.
22
Cirata Dam,1988
Tangga Arch Dam, 1983
Batu Bulan Dam, 2002
Saguling Dam, 1986
Figure 25. Tangga Dams in 1983, Saguling in 1986, and Cirata Dam in 1988 for hydroelectric power, and
Batu Bulan Dam in 2002 for irrigation.
For just giving illustration on the issues of dam heritage, however, one unique dam construction to mention
is the Way Rarem Dam in Lampung Province, which was planned since 1930s for supporting irrigation
based transmigration program. In fact, the transmigrants have long been waiting for the construction of an
upstream reservoir since 1930s as previously designed for immediately constructed as soon as the
human settlement had been undertaken. However the reservoir (The Batu Tegi Dam, shown in the
photograph) was only completed and fully operated on March 2004 or after 74 years since the
transmigrants had been resettled (see Figure 26).
Figure 26 . Batu Tegi Dam, in South

Lampung, had just completed on March
2004, despite that the irrigation based
Initial application of irrigation technique human settlement in the Central
Lampung had been undertaken since
Irrigation Water Conveyance: 1930s.
23
V. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND DRAWBACKS OF IRRIGATION

INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
5.1. General Drawback of Irrigation Infrastructural Sustainability:
Planning, Design and Construction: Due to the lack of technical experience in the development of
irrigation for agriculture, irrigation planning and construction implementation were undertaken almost
without any basic technical and agro-climatological data. At that time, practically no data on hydrology,
hydrometry, geology, topographical maps as well as laboratories to back up the planning and technical
design available. Most Dutch engineers who we relied to implement the irrigation development had no
experience to work for irrigation, especially in tropical regions. And hence, the technical designs were
merely conducted based on subjective assumptions and by means of trial-and-error.
During after independence, infrastructural planning and technical design, had also been facing critical
situation, where not much data available, partly because during the war, the data collection and
management were also distracted, and hence data availability, especially on hydrology and hygrometry had
almost been non-existence. At the same time, the development acceleration had been urgently pushed by
the government and hence, infrastructural development had been based upon planning by relying data
simulation only. This matter later on become problematic, especially for operation and maintenance of the
infrastructures, because most of the data were no longer met the actual condition, and hence the structures
must be adjusted with the underlying situation. However this situation is not always possible to undertake.
Operation and Maintenance: During the peak acceleration of infrastructural development, most
development engineers were concentrated their effort on construction aspect of the development, and less
attention on sustaining the function as well the structural support to the community. It is not surprising that
the development within 1980s has brought the country into a successful effort to attain self sufficiency in
rice production in 1984. However, with least attention of sustaining the structural function, the successful
achievement had only been lasted for a short time.
It has been experienced that through a long term development implementation the infrastructural heritages,
especially the ones that have been constructed during before the countrys independence, have been
suffered from damages due to inadequate O&M undertakings. And after the independence, the structures
were also suffered from the same problems because the country was concentrating its effort to provide new
infrastructural facilities to meet the post independence accelerating demand. With the down fall of the
countrys economy, it had been evident that the capacity to perform operation and maintenance (O&M) of
the developed infrastructures was continuously lacking behind.
Learning from a series of experiences in irrigation implementation, it gives strong supports that
management of irrigation, drainage, and flood control system is much more important than construction of
facilities per se. This matter has been apparent through the ancient traditional irrigation system that has
been highly sustainable with active participation of local population for hundreds of years without major
problems. In contrast, modern system of major engineering works has not fully achieved the expected
performance some modern irrigation systems, in fact, had been failure to achieve the targets that had
been previously envisaged due to a number of socio-technical constraints, including the lack of community
participation as well as inappropriate O&M.
Under such circumstances, despite the full support from the government, the structural existence of most
irrigation facilities were not only hardly possible to accomplish its practical function but also hardly available
to perform social amenity for the people living around it, although they may not be aware of the value of the
amenity especially of the one constructed long years ago.
24
Although the past development efforts we mostly based on the poor methodology, lacking of data and
technical expertise, it is undeniable, however, that under the intensive irrigation development, we can still
find many well-designed water infrastructures that have been functioning for long years and still remaining
in good shape in terms of physical condition, but this kind of infrastructures especially after the war
were also suffer from degradation due to the absence of appropriate O&M. In addition to the fact that most
community members were suffered from dependency attitude, waiting for assistance from the government,
and almost having no sense of participation and sense of belonging against the public facilities as well as
infrastructures.
Socio-Economic and Institutional aspects: The subsequent problems of irrigation operation and
management are that the farmers, who are expected to participate actively, had yet having adequate
incentive to continuously cultivating food crops. Despite that the institutional and organizational
arrangements of traditional agriculture, has long been set up and managed through regular meeting
amongst the members, due to lack of capacity to maintain sustainable crop production, the farming
circumstances continuously been constrained by a number of non technical aspect, including the poor
market potential, as well as poor agricultural production. At the same time, cultivation of cash crops are
involving sophisticated post-harvest, storage and market processes.
5.2. Sustaining the Infrastructural Condition:

Principle of Sustainability: Learning from traditional irrigation management heritage it has been identified
that the sustainability of irrigated farming practices were based on their capacity to maintain "harmonious-
togetherness among their farming community in addition to their ability to maintain a proper balance , of
relationship between human and nature on reciprocal basis. The basic principles that make their
activities sustainable are due to application of techniques by means of simplicity principles , so that every
member could apply them without sophisticated learning process.
Institutional Arrangement: In order to be able to implement appropriate interrelation ship amongst the
parties involved in infrastructural operation and management, all the organizational concerns, including the
Government, and Non Government Organization must perform effective working relationship and
participatory measures in all aspects of development and management. This has been obvious since the
old days, where management could only implemented successfully when all the partied concerned are
performing their duties and responsibilities through proper institutional arrangement.
For illustration, the Dutch Colonial Government established the Ministry of Public Works In 1854 (MPW).
Then it took many years before the institution had full capacity for construction of irrigation infrastructures.
In 1889, or 35 years later, the Irrigation Division of the MPW was established. This effort has been
continued by the Indonesian government through Policy Reform on O&M of Irrigation in 1987, and
eventually on March 18, 2004, the GOI, enacted the Water Resources Law (UUSDA No.7/2004; then
PP.20/2006), which covers the establishment of Coordination Board on Water Resources Management at
all levels. This law and their subsequent regulations as well as technical and non technical regulatory
instruments must be implemented by institutional arrangement and implementation involving all the related
concerns of water resources and irrigation Infrastructural development and management.
25
Enhance Socio-Cultural and Economic Adaptations: It has been identified through a long term
implementation that the indigenous capacity of the traditional farmers is still conducive to socio-cultural and
economic adaptation. However, the socio-cultural dimensions are continuously impeded by the shift of
values, due to inconsistent socio-cultural adaptation such as the mutual aids culture (gotong-royong),
which no longer exist after the community had a sort of cultural disorientation. This has been particularly
the case due to excessive external supports without adequate consideration on socio-cultural dimensions
and eventually the community suffered from dependency attitude, socially as well economically.
Participatory Approach through Water User Association (WUA) and WUA Federation: Historically, the
ancient farmers organized themselves to manage irrigation canals and infrastructures. Today, in spite of
the absence of mutual aids and sense of belonging as well as sense of participation to the public related
activities, the farmers must organize their activities through Water User s Associations (WUAs) in small
irrigation scheme areas. While in the larger irrigation scheme a number of WUAs formed coordination
mechanism amongst them in terms of Water Users Association Federation (WUAs Federation).
Maintaining Sustainable Environment: With the existence of the substantial impacts of climate change,
many aspects of irrigation operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure should be taken into
consideration, including water saving, and sharing the water for environment or E-Flow, that has become
the issues of maintaining sustainable environment. For example, the implementation of plot-to-plot irrigation
system that have been adopted by many traditional farming community, used to be blamed as wasting
water, but today, from sustainable environmental practice, it has been considered as sustainable and
environmentally friendly water utilization. The ancient works on simple irrigation scheme are still found in
many parts of the archipelago, and found that the techniques are supportive to environmentally friendly
practices.
Structural and Non Structural Approach for Flood Control: Particularly for flood protection works, the
traditional community are often associated the activity with rehabilitation and regular improvement. This
aspect is currently identified as structural flood control works associated with the scattered river damages
that have immediate impacts to human settlement, agricultural or industrial areas. For example provision
and maintenance of flood embankment; River improvement works; Collector drains; Flood ways; and Flood
diversion weirs. Today, Indonesia has even been pursuing structural measures to prevent the primary and
secondary strikes of volcanic eruptions, as well as sediment flow, by constructing a number of sabo dams.
Conservation and Protection of Coastal and River Estuaries: With the absence of appropriate river
basin management, the river mouths currently suffer from sediment blockages, including the quick
accumulation of sediment at the reservoirs. During the dry season, river outlet also frequently blocked with
sand dunes. Due to lacking of budgetary sources, during the development period (1969-1994), only limited
improvement had been undertaken for water resources conservation.
VI. CONCLUSION AND THE WAY FORWARD

Learning from the long journey of irrigation civilization of Indonesias history, the role of irrigation remains
and will continue to be important. As the matter of fact, Irrigation is not only a matter of technical, but also
the matter of social, cultural, economic, religion, beliefs, tradition, ethics, and political concerns. So the
development technology approach that have been implemented for many years, must be shifted to
comprehensive development and management approach, involving all the stakeholders in term of
participatory approach. For present and future approach the indigenous technologies should not be
overlooked in planning, development and management of water resources and irrigation infrastructures.
26
Toward the future sustainability of water resources and irrigation heritages, the following ideas are
advocated:
Allocation of O&M Budget: Despite the costly budgetary investment, the need for consistent improvement
of irrigation techniques without jeopardizing human and nature must be pursued with support of the
government and the beneficiaries concerns. This is a must, that O&M of Infrastructural Heritages must be
fully disbursed in line with the magnitude that had been contributed for making the acceptability feasibility
study, in terms of technical, social, economic, as well as environmental justifications.
Advanced Irrigation Alternatives: The future development must consider irrigation alternatives, (e.g.
Micro irrigation) followed by post production, agro-industries. Also irrigated paddy field, has potentials for
development of other functionalities, such as leisure agriculture, and agro-tourism, therefore the efforts
must be in line with ecological as well as living functions of irrigation.
Key to Sustainable Infrastructural Heritages: Further to the technical efforts, the following aspects will
have to be considered important in the future: (1) Planning must not overlook social, cultural, economic,
religion; (2) Application of participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) approach is essential, including
consideration on maximization of externality function of irrigation; (3) The success or failures of irrigation
also lies on effective institutional arrangement; (4) Participatory of WUAs or WUAFs must be consistent
throughout the entire development and management process; (5) The structural as well as the non-
structural approaches are two sides of a coin which is absolutely inseparable; (6) Flood and drought
management, and water related disasters must be considered in the future Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM); (6) The future prospects of lowland for agricultural development, are highly potential,
however, it needs special scrutiny and gradual process.
VII. RECOMMENDATION
In an attempt to sustain the water resources and irrigation heritages that have been provided with huge
investment, Operation and maintenance aspects must be put as the most urgent priority. If necessary, new
construction must be postponed until the available infrastructures become effective. For putting the
operation and maintenance into actual materialization, at least five components should be secured for
sustaining the function of infrastructural heritages: (1) We have to provide adequacy of numbers and
competency of personnel s, by appropriate recruitment, management as well as training and education
effort; (2) We have to make sure the existence of effective participatory institutions, of all parties concerns,
including the government, non government, stakeholders, and farmer through their association as well as
other water users; (3) Consistent effort to secure adequate operation and maintenance technology
including Environmental aspects, supported by the capacity to manage data base system for supporting
planning and management decision; (4) All activities must be supported with adequate financial support;
and (5) We have to pursue the effective Legal and Regulatory Instruments implementation, and secure the
effective and efficient enforcements.
Despite that the magnitude of operation and maintenance cost have used as one of the determinant factors
(based on economics, technical, and social justification) of construction of infrastructures, in most cases. It
has been found that the O&M budgets have never been fully provided after the construction completed.
Therefore, toward the future sustainability of infrastructural heritages, the magnitude of O & M budget that
contributes the feasibility of Economic, Social, and Environmental Justifications should be disbursed as
such, consistently after the completion of the project till the end of economic time horizon.
27
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Seminar on Heritage of Water Infrastructure

"AN OUTLOOK OF INFRASTRUCTURAL HERITAGES OF IRRIGATION IN INDONESIA:

Key Words: Infrastructural Heritages; Irrigation; Water Resources Infrastructures

II. OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION

2.2. Traditional Agricultural Heritages

2.3. New Irrigation Technique

2.4. Irrigation Development for Supporting Transmigration Program

2.5. Immediate Post Independence Period

2.8. River Improvement and Flood Control:

III. HIGHLIGHTS OF IRRIGATION STRUCTURES DEVELOPMENT

3.3. Ancient Technique and Simple Irrigation System:

In many places in Indonesia, the simple

IV. HIGHLIGHT OF TECHNICAL IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURAL HERITAGES

4.1. Example of Some Technical Irrigation Infrastructural Heritages

In 1850 the Sampean weir could no

4.2. Multi-Purposes Water Resources Development:

Figure 20. Cross section of Sediyatmo Pump

4.3. Integrated River Basin and Water Resources Management

North Tarum Canal

East Tarum Canal

Figure 22. The Walahar Barrage

4.4. Dam, Reservoir and Headwork:

Table 2. List of types of dam in Indonesia.

Water from Jatiluhur Reservoir (Figure 24)

Figure 24. Scenic view of Jatiluhur Dam

Tangga Arch Dam, 1983

Batu Bulan Dam, 2002

Saguling Dam, 1986

Figure 26 . Batu Tegi Dam, in South

V. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND DRAWBACKS OF IRRIGATION

5.2. Sustaining the Infrastructural Condition:

VI. CONCLUSION AND THE WAY FORWARD

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