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OG-Registered Document

REPORT OP 99-30287
31/05/99

FLOW MEASUREMENTS
BEST PRACTICES GUIDE FOR THE SELECTION
OF FLOW DEVICES

Accounts code

--

Author(s)

D.C. Bruinzeel (TAIE/145) SNR Pernis, the Netherlands


A.J. de Visser (TAIE/1x1)

Edited by

F. Albers

OGBH/6

D.A. Schuurman

OGBH/6

SNR Pernis, the Netherlands

Fresco folder

Instrumentation - flow

Fresco keyword

Instrumentation - flow equipment

Distribution

See list included (last page)

The copyright of this document is vested with Shell International Oil Products B.V., The Hague, the Netherlands. All rights
reserved. Neither the whole nor any part of this document or software may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, reprographic, recording or otherwise) without the prior written
consent of the copyright owner.

SHELL INTERNATIONAL OIL PRODUCTS B.V.


SHELL GLOBAL SOLUTIONS, THE HAGUE

31/05/99

Document History

Rev. --

Document History
DATE

May 31, 1999

REASON FOR
CHANGE

Original

AUTHOR

APPROVED

Name
Ref. indicator

Name
Ref. Indicator
Signature

D.C. Bruinzeel
(TAIE/145), SNR Pernis,
the Netherlands

Yuen Heng Seng


SIOP-OGBH/6

A.J. de Visser (TAIE/1x1),


SNR Pernis, the
Netherlands

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Table of Contents

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Table of Contents
1. PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND......................................................................................14
2. PREFACE..........................................................................................................................15
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................15
2.2 Velocity head devices .........................................................................................................15
2.3 Turbine and positive displacement flow meters .....................................................................15
2.4 Abbreviations and Terms ....................................................................................................15
3. CALIBRATION METHODS..............................................................................................16
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................16
3.2 In-line calibration method....................................................................................................16
3.3 Off-line calibration method..................................................................................................16
3.4 Factors to be considered .....................................................................................................17
4. VELOCITY PROFILES .....................................................................................................18
4.1 Velocity profile dependent flow meters.................................................................................18
4.2 Velocity profile independent flow meters ..............................................................................18
4.3 Fully Developed Velocity Profile..........................................................................................18
4.4 Asymmetric velocity profile.................................................................................................19
4.4.1 General...........................................................................................................................19
4.4.2 Asymmetric velocity profile with swirl...............................................................................19
4.5 Effect of concentric reducer ................................................................................................19
5. EFFECT OF VELOCITY PROFILES ON FLOW METERS................................................21
5.1 Vortex meters ....................................................................................................................21
5.1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................21
5.1.2 Additional test results .......................................................................................................21
5.1.3 Recap.............................................................................................................................21
5.2 Ultrasonic meters ...............................................................................................................21
5.2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................21
5.2.2 Additional information......................................................................................................22
5.2.3 Recap.............................................................................................................................22
5.3 Electric Magnetic (Magnetic inductance) meters ....................................................................22
5.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................22
5.3.2 Additional information......................................................................................................22
5.3.3 Recap.............................................................................................................................22
5.3.4 References......................................................................................................................23

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6. CALIBRATED METER RUNS .......................................................................................... 27


6.1 Purpose............................................................................................................................. 27
6.2 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 27
6.3 Possible construction types ................................................................................................. 27
6.3.1 Option 1......................................................................................................................... 27
6.3.2 Option 2......................................................................................................................... 28
6.3.3 Option 3......................................................................................................................... 28
6.3.4 Option 4......................................................................................................................... 28
7. GENERAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS............................................................... 30
7.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 30
7.2 Liquid service .................................................................................................................... 30
7.3 Gas service........................................................................................................................ 30
7.4 Vibration ........................................................................................................................... 30
7.5 Flange alignment tolerances................................................................................................. 30
7.6 Type of gasket................................................................................................................... 31
7.7 Pressure tapping/thermowell................................................................................................ 31
7.8 Heat insulated/traced pipes.................................................................................................. 31
8. STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIREMENTS IN GENERAL .................................................. 32
8.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 32
8.2 Control valves.................................................................................................................... 32
8.3 Reduced size meters........................................................................................................... 32
8.4 Line size meters ................................................................................................................. 32
8.5 De-swirl devices................................................................................................................. 32
8.6 Interference of fluid oscillations/vibration ............................................................................. 33
8.6.1 Audible frequency range (FR < 20 kHz) ............................................................................ 33
8.6.2 Ultrasonic frequency range (20 kHz < FR < 100 kHz) ........................................................ 33
9. MULTIPLE PHASE FLOW............................................................................................... 37
9.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 37
9.2 Multiple phase flow regimes................................................................................................ 37
9.2.1 Bubble flow .................................................................................................................... 37
9.2.2 Plug & Slug and Churn flow............................................................................................. 38
9.2.3 Annular flow................................................................................................................... 38
9.2.4 Stratified flow ................................................................................................................. 38
9.2.5 Mist flow........................................................................................................................ 38

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10. PIPE LINE versus FLOW METER VELOCITY................................................................39


10.1 Liquid service...................................................................................................................39
10.2 Gas service ......................................................................................................................39
11. VORTEX SHEDDING FLOW METER.............................................................................40
11.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................40
11.1.1 General.........................................................................................................................40
11.1.2 Flow variations (oscillating flow) .....................................................................................40
11.1.3 Mechanical vibration ......................................................................................................40
11.1.4 Pressure drop ................................................................................................................41
11.2 Principle of operation........................................................................................................41
11.3 Meter characteristics .........................................................................................................42
11.3.1 General.........................................................................................................................42
11.3.2 Calibration ....................................................................................................................42
11.3.3 Principles of frequency sensing .......................................................................................43
11.3.3.1 Differential pressure sensors ........................................................................................43
11.3.3.2 Thermistor sensors......................................................................................................44
11.3.3.3 Piezo-electrical sensors................................................................................................44
11.3.3.4 Variable capacitance sensors ........................................................................................44
11.4 Electronic part..................................................................................................................44
11.5 Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation............................................................................44
11.6 Pressure and temperature correction...................................................................................46
11.6.1 Pressure correction ........................................................................................................46
11.6.2 Temperature correction ..................................................................................................46
11.7 Application notes ..............................................................................................................47
11.7.1 General.........................................................................................................................47
11.7.2 Flow oscillations/mechanical vibration..............................................................................48
11.7.3 Two meters in series ......................................................................................................48
11.8 Engineering notes .............................................................................................................48
11.8.1 Sizing ...........................................................................................................................48
11.8.2 Pressure and temperature based density compensation ......................................................49
11.8.3 Fluid oscillations ............................................................................................................50
11.8.4 Pipe vibration ................................................................................................................50
11.8.5 Instrumented Protective Functions (IPFs) ........................................................................50
11.9 Installation notes...............................................................................................................50
11.9.1 General.........................................................................................................................50
11.9.2 Pipe vibration ................................................................................................................50

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11.10 Make-specific comments................................................................................................. 51


11.10.1 Make: Yokogawa (YEWFLO Style E)........................................................................... 51
11.10.1.1 General.................................................................................................................... 51
11.10.1.2 Shedder bar.............................................................................................................. 51
11.10.1.3 Sensors .................................................................................................................... 52
11.10.1.4 Electric noise abatement features................................................................................ 52
11.10.1.4.1 Noise balance

52

11.10.1.4.2 Noise detection circuit

52

11.10.1.4.3 High frequency noise filter

52

11.10.1.5 Combination of control and instrumented protective functions....................................... 52


11.10.1.6 Back flow ................................................................................................................ 53
11.10.1.7 Remote vortex meter flow converter........................................................................... 53
11.10.1.8 Electric power supply ................................................................................................ 53
11.10.1.9 Re-number correction................................................................................................ 53
11.10.1.10 K factor curve fitting............................................................................................. 53
11.10.2 Other Makes ............................................................................................................... 53
12. SWIRL FLOW METER ................................................................................................... 54
12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 54
12.1.1 General......................................................................................................................... 54
12.1.2 Flow variation (oscillating flow) ...................................................................................... 54
12.1.3 Mechanical vibration...................................................................................................... 54
12.2 Principle of operation........................................................................................................ 54
12.3 Meter characteristics......................................................................................................... 56
12.3.1 Calibration .................................................................................................................... 56
12.3.2 Principles of frequency sensing....................................................................................... 57
12.3.2.1 Thermistors................................................................................................................ 57
12.3.2.2 Piezo-electric crystal ................................................................................................... 57
12.4 Electronic part.................................................................................................................. 57
12.5 Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation ........................................................................... 57
12.6 Pressure and temperature correction .................................................................................. 57
12.6.1 Pressure correction ........................................................................................................ 57
12.6.2 Temperature correction.................................................................................................. 57
12.7 Application notes.............................................................................................................. 57
12.7.1 General......................................................................................................................... 57
12.7.2 Flow oscillations/mechanical vibration ............................................................................. 57
12.8 Engineering notes ............................................................................................................. 58
12.8.1 Sizing ........................................................................................................................... 58

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12.8.2 Pressure and temperature based density compensation ......................................................59


12.8.3 Fluid oscillations ............................................................................................................59
12.8.4 Pipe vibration ................................................................................................................59
12.8.5 Instrumented Protective Functions (IPFs) ........................................................................59
12.9 Installation notes...............................................................................................................59
12.9.1 General.........................................................................................................................59
12.9.2 Fouling service ..............................................................................................................59
12.9.3 Pipe vibration ................................................................................................................60
12.10 Make-specific comments .................................................................................................60
12.10.1 Make: Elsaq Bailey Hartmann & Braun (formerly Fisher & Porter) ..................................60
12.10.1.1 General ....................................................................................................................60
12.10.1.2 Pressure take off for pressure compensation................................................................60
12.10.1.3 Re-number dependability ...........................................................................................60
12.10.1.4 Straight length requirements .......................................................................................61
12.10.2 Other Makes ...............................................................................................................61
13. ULTRASONIC TRANSIT-TIME FLOW METER.............................................................62
13.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................62
13.1.1 General.........................................................................................................................62
13.1.2 Clamp-on meters ...........................................................................................................63
13.1.3 In-line meters ................................................................................................................63
13.1.3.1 General......................................................................................................................63
13.1.3.2 Number of interrogation paths......................................................................................64
13.1.3.3 Number of traverses....................................................................................................65
13.1.4 Flow variations (oscillating flow) and mechanical vibration ................................................65
13.1.5 Pressure drop ................................................................................................................66
13.2 Principle of operation........................................................................................................66
13.2.1 General.........................................................................................................................66
13.2.2 Principle of transit-time ultrasonic flow meter (leading edge)..............................................66
13.2.3 Transit-time Principles ...................................................................................................68
13.2.3.1 Time difference (Leading Edge) technique ....................................................................68
13.2.3.2 Modified time t1 and t2 and time difference (Time Shift) technique ..................................70
13.2.3.3 Frequency difference (Sing-around) technique ...............................................................70
13.2.3.4 Phase difference (Phase Comparison) technique ............................................................70
13.3 Meter characteristics .........................................................................................................70
13.3.1 General.........................................................................................................................70
13.3.2 Calibration ....................................................................................................................71
13.3.3 Interrogation path(s).......................................................................................................71

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13.3.3.1 Laminar/turbulent region ............................................................................................. 71


13.3.3.2 Asymmetrical velocity profile ....................................................................................... 72
13.3.3.3 Swirl.......................................................................................................................... 72
13.3.3.3.1 Parallel paths at mid radius

73

13.3.3.3.2 Cross over paths at mid radius

73

13.4 Electronic part.................................................................................................................. 73


13.5 Pressure drop/loss ............................................................................................................ 74
13.6 Pressure and temperature correction .................................................................................. 74
13.6.1 Pressure correction ........................................................................................................ 74
13.6.2 Temperature correction.................................................................................................. 74
13.6.2.1 Cross-sectional error ................................................................................................... 74
13.6.2.2 Path length error......................................................................................................... 75
13.6.2.3 Transit-time error ....................................................................................................... 75
13.7 Application notes.............................................................................................................. 76
13.7.1 Clamp-on ultrasonic meters ............................................................................................ 76
13.7.2 In-line ultrasonic meters ................................................................................................. 76
13.7.2.1 Multiple traverse......................................................................................................... 76
13.7.2.2 Acoustic crosstalk ....................................................................................................... 76
13.7.2.3 Acoustic shortcut ........................................................................................................ 77
13.7.2.4 Ultrasound beam scattering/dispersion .......................................................................... 77
13.7.2.5 Ultrasound beam deflection ......................................................................................... 78
13.7.3 Mechanical vibration...................................................................................................... 78
13.7.4 Molecular weight compensation ...................................................................................... 78
13.8 Engineering notes ............................................................................................................. 79
13.8.1 General......................................................................................................................... 79
13.8.2 Sizing ........................................................................................................................... 79
13.8.3 Response time............................................................................................................... 79
13.8.4 Pressure and temperature based density compensation...................................................... 79
13.8.5 Number and location of paths/traverses ........................................................................... 80
13.8.5.1 General...................................................................................................................... 80
13.8.5.2 Single traverse, two parallel paths, mid radius................................................................ 80
13.8.5.3 Single cross-over paths, mid radius............................................................................... 81
13.8.5.4 Multiple traverse, two paths......................................................................................... 81
13.8.5.5 Single traverse, single path, mid radius.......................................................................... 81
13.8.5.6 Multiple traverse, single path, centre line....................................................................... 82
13.8.5.7 U-form meters ......................................................................................................... 82
13.8.6 Buffer rods/crystal frequency ......................................................................................... 82

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13.8.7 Instrumented Protective Functions ..................................................................................83


13.9 Installation notes...............................................................................................................83
13.9.1 General.........................................................................................................................83
13.9.2 Nozzle orientation..........................................................................................................83
13.9.3 Flanged transducers .......................................................................................................83
13.9.4 Extended buffer rods......................................................................................................84
13.9.5 Split delivery of parts .....................................................................................................84
13.10 Make-specific comments .................................................................................................85
13.10.1 Make: Panametrics.......................................................................................................85
13.10.1.1 General ....................................................................................................................85
13.10.1.2 Spool piece configurations..........................................................................................85
13.10.1.3 Flow profile factor (Kre).............................................................................................85
13.10.1.4 Transducers..............................................................................................................86
13.10.1.5 Electronics................................................................................................................86
13.10.1.6 Software features ......................................................................................................86
13.10.1.7 Split delivery.............................................................................................................86
13.10.2 Make: Krohne .............................................................................................................86
13.10.2.1 General ....................................................................................................................86
13.10.2.2 Electronics................................................................................................................86
13.11 Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas....................................................87
13.11.1 Nomenclature ..............................................................................................................87
13.11.2 MW calculation ...........................................................................................................87
13.11.3 Relation between specific heat ratio (k) and MW for refinery fuel gas ...............................88
14. ELECTRIC MAGNETIC FLOW METER ........................................................................92
14.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................92
14.1.1 General.........................................................................................................................92
14.1.2 Flow variations (oscillating flow) .....................................................................................92
14.1.3 Mechanical vibration ......................................................................................................92
14.1.4 Pressure drop ................................................................................................................92
14.2 Principle of operation........................................................................................................92
14.2.1 General.........................................................................................................................92
14.2.2 Stray voltages................................................................................................................93
14.2.3 Magnetic field excitation voltage......................................................................................93
14.2.3.1 Alternating voltage (50/60 Hz)......................................................................................93
14.2.3.2 Pulsed DC and switched voltage...................................................................................94
14.3 Meter characteristics .........................................................................................................95
14.3.1 General.........................................................................................................................95

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14.3.2 Calibration .................................................................................................................... 95


14.4 Electronic part.................................................................................................................. 95
14.5 Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation ........................................................................... 96
14.6 Pressure and temperature correction .................................................................................. 96
14.6.1 Pressure correction ........................................................................................................ 96
14.6.2 Temperature correction.................................................................................................. 96
14.6.2.1 Cross-sectional error ................................................................................................... 96
14.6.2.2 Electrode spacing error................................................................................................ 96
14.7 Application notes.............................................................................................................. 97
14.7.1 General......................................................................................................................... 97
14.7.2 Corrosion/erosion aspects............................................................................................... 97
14.7.2.1 Liner ......................................................................................................................... 97
14.7.2.2 Edge protectors .......................................................................................................... 98
14.7.2.3 Electrodes .................................................................................................................. 98
14.7.3 Fouling service .............................................................................................................. 98
14.7.4 Multiple phase flow ....................................................................................................... 99
14.7.4.1 Bubble flow ............................................................................................................... 99
14.7.4.2 Stratified flow............................................................................................................. 99
14.8 Engineering notes ............................................................................................................. 99
14.8.1 General......................................................................................................................... 99
14.8.2 Sizing ........................................................................................................................... 99
14.8.3 High temperature meters ................................................................................................ 99
14.8.4 Instrumented Protective Functions .................................................................................. 99
14.8.5 Electric supply............................................................................................................. 100
14.9 Installation notes ............................................................................................................ 100
14.9.1 Orientation of wetted electrodes.................................................................................... 100
14.9.2 Stress free installation .................................................................................................. 100
14.9.3 Gaskets ...................................................................................................................... 100
14.9.4 Bolt tensioning ............................................................................................................ 101
14.9.5 High temperature meters (steam traced)......................................................................... 101
14.9.6 Earth connection and invariable use of earth rings........................................................... 101
14.9.7 Ingress of moisture ...................................................................................................... 101
15. CORIOLIS MASS FLOW METER ................................................................................ 102
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 102
15.1.1 General....................................................................................................................... 102
15.1.2 Flow variations (oscillating flow)................................................................................... 102
15.1.3 Mechanical vibration.................................................................................................... 102

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15.1.4 Pressure drop .............................................................................................................. 103


15.2 Principle of operation...................................................................................................... 103
15.3 Meter characteristics ....................................................................................................... 105
15.3.1 General....................................................................................................................... 105
15.3.2 Calibration .................................................................................................................. 105
15.3.3 Uncertainty in reading .................................................................................................. 106
15.4 Electronic part................................................................................................................ 106
15.5 Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation.......................................................................... 106
15.6 Pressure and temperature correction................................................................................. 106
15.6.1 Pressure correction ...................................................................................................... 106
15.6.2 Temperature correction ................................................................................................ 106
15.7 Application notes ............................................................................................................ 107
15.7.1 General....................................................................................................................... 107
15.7.2 Tube arrangement........................................................................................................ 107
15.7.2.1 Fouling service.......................................................................................................... 107
15.7.2.1.1 Homogeneous fouling

107

15.7.2.1.2 Non homogeneous fouling

107

15.7.2.2 Plugging................................................................................................................... 107


15.7.3 Corrosion and erosion aspects....................................................................................... 108
15.7.4 Fluid oscillations .......................................................................................................... 108
15.7.5 Mechanical vibration .................................................................................................... 108
15.8 Engineering notes ........................................................................................................... 108
15.8.1 General....................................................................................................................... 108
15.8.2 High temperature meters .............................................................................................. 109
15.8.3 Zero adjustment .......................................................................................................... 109
15.8.4 Electric supply ............................................................................................................. 109
15.8.5 Instrumented Protective Functions ................................................................................ 109
15.9 Installation notes............................................................................................................. 109
15.9.1 Stress free installation................................................................................................... 109
15.9.2 High temperature meters (steam traced)......................................................................... 109
15.9.3 Zero adjustment .......................................................................................................... 110
15.9.4 Transport lock............................................................................................................. 110
15.9.5 Installation line-ups ...................................................................................................... 110
15.9.5.1 General.................................................................................................................... 110
15.9.5.2 Services below 150 C .............................................................................................. 110
15.9.5.3 Services of 150 C and above .................................................................................... 110
15.9.5.4 Services requiring self draining capability..................................................................... 110

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16. THERMAL DISPERSION MASS FLOW METER ......................................................... 114


16.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 114
16.1.1 General....................................................................................................................... 114
16.1.2 Flow variations (oscillating flow)................................................................................... 114
16.1.3 Mechanical vibration.................................................................................................... 114
16.1.4 Pressure drop.............................................................................................................. 114
16.2 Principle of operation (CTA method) ............................................................................... 115
16.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 115
16.2.2 Sources of systematic errors ......................................................................................... 117
16.2.2.1 General.................................................................................................................... 117
16.2.2.2 Heat conductivity coefficient () of gas....................................................................... 117
16.2.2.3 Viscosity of gas () ................................................................................................... 117
16.2.2.4 Differential temperature (ts - ta).................................................................................. 117
16.2.2.5 Probe orientation ...................................................................................................... 117
16.3 Meter characteristics....................................................................................................... 118
16.3.1 General....................................................................................................................... 118
16.3.2 Calibration .................................................................................................................. 118
16.4 Electronic part................................................................................................................ 118
16.5 Pressure drop/loss .......................................................................................................... 119
16.6 Pressure and temperature correction ................................................................................ 119
16.6.1 Pressure correction ...................................................................................................... 119
16.6.2 Temperature correction................................................................................................ 119
16.7 Application notes............................................................................................................ 119
16.7.1 General....................................................................................................................... 119
16.7.2 Fouling service ............................................................................................................ 119
16.8 Engineering notes ........................................................................................................... 120
16.8.1 General....................................................................................................................... 120
16.8.2 Sizing ......................................................................................................................... 120
16.8.3 Probe length................................................................................................................ 120
16.8.4 Instrumented Protective Functions (IPFs) ...................................................................... 120
16.9 Installation notes ............................................................................................................ 120
16.9.1 General....................................................................................................................... 120
16.9.2 Horizontal lines ........................................................................................................... 120
16.9.3 Vertical lines ............................................................................................................... 120
16.9.4 Meters in series ........................................................................................................... 120
16.10 Make-specific comments............................................................................................... 121

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16.10.1 Kurz Instruments Inc. ................................................................................................ 121


16.10.1.1 Electronics.............................................................................................................. 121
16.10.1.2 Response time ........................................................................................................ 121
16.10.2 Other Makes ............................................................................................................. 121
Original distribution ............................................................................................................ 122
APPENDICES
1. LINER AND ELECTRODE MATERIAL SELECTION TABLE FOR ELECTRIC MAGNETIC
FLOW METERS.

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1.

Purpose and background

Rev. --

PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND

In this report, the authors have frozen their profound knowledge and experience with the selection,
start-up, operation, trouble shooting and maintenance of modern flow meters in a refinery and
petro-chemical industrial environment, for future reference. The report was finished just prior to their
retirement and includes lessons learned from recent projects, in particularly lessons learned from the
PER+ project. It is written in the form of practical notes.
This report was initially intended for use by SNR/SNC in the Netherlands only. Its content was
however considered to be of great value to other parties of the Shell Group. Shell Global Solutions
have compared the content and the recommendations of the report to the design and execution of
flow measurements in other Shell companies and is of the opinion this report reflects a Best Practice
on flow measurements.
Shell Global Solutions acknowledge the contribution of the authors in sharing their valuable
experience and knowledge with colleagues around the world.

The Hague, May 1999.


SIOP - OGBH/6.

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Preface

2.

PREFACE

2.1

Introduction

31/05/99

As compared with the previous release (issue April 1992), this release describes in more detail the
operating principles of the meters dealt with, since it is of major importance to know what they can
and cannot do to arrive at the optimum choice for a particular application.
Furthermore, this release has been extended with common factors to be considered in relation to the
selection of flow devices (Sections 3 through 8 and 10). Application and engineering notes have been
enhanced with the facts from Lessons Learned PER+ project.

2.2

Velocity head devices

For the selection of orifice and venturi type flow meters the reader is referred to the Shell flow meter
engineering handbook, 2nd Edition 1985, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V.

2.3

Turbine and positive displacement flow meters

The use of these kinds of meters in process lines is not advocated. Due to their rotating internals they
are susceptible to wear and tear, which adversely affects their calibration. Hence they require
regularly re-calibration. On top of that they require in-line filters to avoid mechanical damage of their
internals.

2.4

Abbreviations and Terms


CPA
CTA
EM meter
FDVP
PTVP
Re-number
Space bend
VOS

Constant Power Anemometer


Constant Temperature Anemometer
Electric Magnetic meters
Fully Developed Flow Profile
Plug Type Velocity Profile
Reynolds number
A space bend consists of two consecutive bends installed in a line
in different planes
Velocity-of-sound

Pernis, The Netherlands, November 1998,


D.C. Bruinzeel

(TAIE/145)

A.J. de Visser

(TAIE/1x1)

NOTE:

A pre-release of this report had a limited distribution as drawing R-63205, rev A, November 1998.

Acknowledgements:

Authors acknowledge the contribution of Mr. L.C. Lynnworth, Panametrics USA, for his valuable comments on Sections 3 through 9 and 13.
Authors acknowledge the contribution of Mr. R. Le Rtte, Fluor Daniel, for making the majority of the pictures, albeit in a two-dimensional
drawing programme.

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Calibration methods

3.

CALIBRATION METHODS

3.1

Introduction

Rev. --

Normally, flow meters have to be calibrated to establish the flow versus output relationship.
There are a few exceptions where direct calibration is not carried out. In most of their applications,
orifice meters such as square edge orifice plate, venturi tubes and the like, the relationship between
flow and differential pressure generated is calculated from a general set of data obtained by laboratory
experiments under reference conditions.
Another example is the clamp-on ultrasonic flow meter, which is often applied as a non-calibrated
flow device. Most other flow devices such as vortex, ultrasonic (other than clamp-on), turbine,
magnetic inductance and Coriolis mass flow meters, will require calibration by means of a calibration
method (volumetric/gravimetric).
Calibration methods can be distinguished into in-line and off-line methods. In-line calibration is rarely
used. Off-line calibration will be normally carried out.

3.2

In-line calibration method

With the in-line calibration method, sometimes referred to as the in-situ method, the flow meter
concerned is calibrated under operation conditions, i.e. calibrated in its actual position (in-situ),
exposed to the process fluid under actual pressure and temperature conditions.
This method is very expensive and time consuming and will be applied for very high accuracy
measurements, where actual circumstances (flow profile, viscosity, density etc.) play a significant role
and where the uncertainty in meter reading should be very low indeed.
NOTE:

Sometimes it will be possible, depending on the actual layout of the plant, to use another meter which is or can be
put in series as a master meter. The meter concerned is then calibrated in-situ against the master meter.
As an example (practised in the PER+ Demin Plant) one can think of a blender with a meter for the total flow as
well. The total flow meter will be ordered with a higher accuracy than the meters for the component flows. During
commissioning the component meters (lower accuracy) will be calibrated in-situ using the total flow meter (higher
accuracy). By doing so, the component meters will exhibit a (far) better accuracy than originally.

Typical applications are/were custody transfer measurements and leak detection measurements on
pipe lines by means of turbine or positive displacement meters.

3.3

Off-line calibration method

The off-line calibration method is the most widely accepted calibration method currently in use. Most
flow meter Manufacturers have their own calibration facilities as a part of their production line.
Independent research bodies in the field of flow engineering have calibration facilities to perform
research and development activities. The latter calibration facilities often exhibit special features with
respect to size, calibration fluids and reference conditions such as upstream straight length, line
pressure and temperature.
The main point of concern with the off-line calibration method is the question:
How do we establish that the conditions at the time of calibration on the flow rig are in agreement, as
far as the relevant parameters are concerned, with those to which the flow meter will be exposed to,
once installed in the Plant ?
As a consequence of the above, we need to know for a particular meter what its relevant parameters
are.

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Calibration methods

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If a too large unpredictable error is introduced by deviating too much from the reference conditions at
the off-line flow rig, one could make use of a calibrated meter-run, instead of calibrating the meter
alone.
NOTE:

3.4

For velocity profile dependent meters it will be of major interest to know the velocity profile the meter was exposed
to at the time of calibration. Especially for large rigs it is common usage to adapt the size of the rig to the size of
the meter by using concentric reducers/enlargers. By doing so, the velocity profile is not fully developed but plug
type (see Section 4: Velocity profiles).

Factors to be considered

The following factors, amongst others, may be of concern in connection with the use of flow meters:
single/multiple phase flow;
velocity profile;
turbulence intensity (Re-number);
friction coefficient of pipe wall;
pressure;
temperature;
viscosity;
density;
Velocity Of Sound (VOS);
mechanical vibration;
response/sample time;
average molecular weight (especially for gases).

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Velocity profiles

4.

Rev. --

VELOCITY PROFILES

Depending on the measuring principle, most flow meters will be more or less dependent on the
velocity profile they will be exposed to. Velocity profile dependent meters require certain straight
lengths at their upstream and downstream side.
Normally, they require a so-called Fully Developed Velocity Profile to avoid systematic errors.
Depending on their measuring principle and upstream pipe configuration, the required length of
straight pipe is expressed in a number of inner pipe diameters (D). Since the downstream pipe
configuration will influence the upstream velocity profile by retroaction, straight length requirements
for the downstream piece (expressed in D) are given as well and should be adhered to.

4.1

Velocity profile dependent flow meters

The following flow meters are dependent on the velocity profile they are exposed to:
Orifice/venturi devices;
Turbine meters;
Vortex meters;
Ultrasonic meters;
Electric Magnetic meters;
Thermal mass flow meters;
Swirl meters (less dependent).

4.2

Velocity profile independent flow meters

The following flow meters are independent of the velocity profile they are exposed to:
Positive displacement meters;
Coriolis mass flow meters.

4.3

Fully Developed Velocity Profile

As a reference condition for velocity profile, the so-called Fully Developed Velocity Profile (FDVP)
is often referred to. An FDVP is defined as a flow profile that exhibits:
no changes in velocity profile and turbulence intensities in consecutive cross-sections of the pipe.
The FDVP is further characterised by the fact that the ratio of the axial velocity at the centre line
(Uc/l) over the axial averaged velocity (Uav) equals approximately 1.2 (see figure 5.1 in Section 5).
NOTES:

1.

The shape of the FDVP is related to the Reynolds number (Re-number). As the Re-number is increased the
shape will be flatter. For very high Re-numbers the velocity profile approaches the plug type velocity profile
(refer to Section 4.5: Effect of concentric reducers).

2.

With reference to H. Schlichting (ref. H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, Pergamon Press Ltd., London
1955, pages 402 & 403) one finds by inverting Schlichtings equation (20.7):
U c / l ( + 1 ) ( 2 + 1 )
=
U av
22
where varies slightly with Reynolds number. Table 4.1 (Schlichtings table 20.1) shows that for between 6
and 10 (Re-number between 4000 and two or three million), 1.2 is not a bad approximation. However, it is
strictly true, for a power law distribution, only for that satisfies:
( + 1 ) ( 2 + 1 )
= 1.2
2 2
which is the case for = 7.82.

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Velocity profiles

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The relationship Uc/l over Uav for various values of is given in the following table, which is readily derived
from Schlichtings table 20.1

TABLE 4.1: UC/L OVER UAV RELATIONSHIP FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF


(Table based on Schlichting's Table 20.1)

Re from figure 20.3

4000

1.1 * 10

Uc/l over Uav

1.264

1.224

8
5

9
6

< 10

1.195

10
2 to 2.3 * 10

1.174

1.156

Furthermore, for turbulent flow, a FDVP is deemed to be present after the fluid has passed a length
of straight pipe equal to or larger than 100 times the inner diameter (100D).

4.4

Asymmetric velocity profile

4.4.1

General

If a fluid having a FDVP enters a pipe bend, it will leave the bend with an asymmetric velocity
profile. As the turbulent fluid passes on through the straight pipe, the asymmetric velocity profile then
gradually converts into a FDVP. After a length of 100D of straight pipe it has reached an FDVP again
(refer to figure 5.2 in Section 5).

4.4.2

Asymmetric velocity profile with swirl

An asymmetric velocity profile afflicted with a swirl will appear after a so-called space bend. A
space bend consists of two consecutive bends in a different plane. The pitch (distance covered per
rotation) of the swirl is dependent on the length of straight pipe between the consecutive bends.
If the length of the straight pipe is larger than 10D, the pitch of the swirl is very high (slow swirl). As
the length of the straight pipe is shortened (<10D), the pitch of the swirl will decrease (fast swirl). For
reference see figure 5.4 in Section 5.
NOTE:

4.5

Slow swirls, as a result of a straight length greater than 10D between two consecutive bends in a different plane,
will have a minimal effect on velocity profile dependent flow meters.

Effect of concentric reducer

From the study carried out by TNO and Delft Hydraulics (see reference 1 in Section 5.3.4) with air
and water, it became known that a concentric reducer with a constriction factor ([Dmeter / Dpipe ] 2) of
0.44 converts an asymmetric velocity profile into an almost symmetric velocity profile (asymmetry <
2%).
The flow profile leaving the concentric reducer has the shape of a plug, with a ratio of the axial
velocity at the centre line (Uc/l) over the averaged velocity (Uav) of 1.05 (see figure 5.3 in Section 5),
and as such it deviates substantially from an FDVP.
At a distance of 5D downstream of the concentric reducer, the shape of the
Plug Type Velocity Profile(PTVP) appeared to be consistent over the measured Re-number ranges
of 50,000 to 250,000 for air and 20,000 to 500,000 for water.
Furthermore, it was noticed that the PTVP downstream of the concentric reducer, located 5D
downstream of the bend, was independent of asymmetric velocity profile variations at the inlet of the
bend.
With respect to the swirl introduced by a space bend, no significant improvement was observed. So,
at 5D downstream of the reducer a uniform PTVP exists, but the swirl is still present.

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NOTE:

Velocity profiles

Rev. --

The length of the de-swirl device, often referred to as flow straightener, depends on the pitch of the swirl. A high
pitch swirl (slow swirl) requires at least a length of 6D to eliminate the swirl (refer to Section 8: Straight Length
Requirements in General).

Recapitulation:
Firstly:
A concentric reducer with sufficient constriction appeared to have a strong remedial effect as far as
asymmetry and uniformity of the velocity profile is concerned, irrespective of the velocity profile
upstream of the concentric reducer.
Secondly:
A concentric reducer has no remedial effect in respect of swirls, introduced e.g. by space-bends.
Remark:
It must be stressed that the improving effect on the velocity profile holds good only for concentric
reducers. Use of eccentric reducers will result in substantial deviations of velocity profiles.

Concentric

eccentric
F IGURE 4.1: REDUCERS

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Effect of velocity profiles on flow meters

5.

EFFECT OF VELOCITY PROFILES ON FLOW


METERS

5.1

Vortex meters

5.1.1

Introduction

31/05/99

Vortex meters demand certain straight lengths, since their reading uncertainty is dependent on the
velocity profile.

5.1.2

Additional test results

Four makes of vortex meters (see reference 2, Section 5.3.4) were subjected to various tests in
respect of installation conditions. In one test, the effect of two consecutive bends in the same plane
was investigated on two different makes of meters. The results at installation locations downstream of
the last bend at 2D, 5D, 10D and 20D were compared with the readings at the location of 30D. For
the 10D-location, errors were reported ranging from minus 0.5% up to plus 0.7% of reading. At the
location of 20D, errors were reported to be within +/- 0.1% of reading.
Although not mentioned in reference 2 of Section 5.3.4, the effect of a reducer has also been
investigated at the same premises, as we received written information of such a test from Yokogawa.
Tests were carried out at 5D, 10D, 20D, 30D, 42D and 55D downstream of the reducer. Readings
were compared with the installation at 100D (FDVP). Tests were carried out with water at
Re-numbers of 300,000 and 600,000. At 5D, the errors were reported to be 0.00% and 0.4% of
reading at the respective Re-numbers. At 10D, the errors were reported to be minus 0.1% and plus
0.1% of reading respectively.
NOTE:

5.1.3

Within SNRs instrument department similar behaviour was observed at 5D and 10D downstream of a concentric
reducer on a flow rig as well, using a make of vortex meters other than those used in reference 2 (Section 5.3.4).

Recap

Test results as indicated in reference 2 (Section 5.3.4) confirm the susceptibility of vortex meters to
asymmetric velocity profiles. As indicated under Section 5.1.2, with the use of a concentric reducer
with sufficient constriction, i.e. Ddownstr./Dupstr. 0.7, only a minor additional uncertainty can be
expected, smaller than +/-0.1% of reading, providing the meter is installed at a location of 5D up to
10D downstream of the reducer.
Hence, by using a concentric reducer as indicated, the upstream straight length can be reduced to a
distance of 5D downstream of the reducer.
NOTE:

For downstream straight length requirements, refer to Section 8.3 (Straight Length Requirements in General,
reduced size meters).

5.2

Ultrasonic meters

5.2.1

Introduction

Ultrasonic meters are by their nature dependent on the velocity profile they are exposed to.
Especially, single beam ultrasonic meters having their beam axis intersecting the centre line of the pipe
are vulnerable to changes in the velocity profile. Dual beam meters with symmetrical parallel beams,
located at a distance of radius of the centre line, are less sensitive to velocity profile variations.

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5.2.2

Effect of velocity profiles on flow meters

Rev. --

Additional information

The experience of Shell Pernis instrument department with respect to dual beam (at radius of
centre line) ultrasonic meters is that the additional uncertainty in reading for meters, installed at 5D to
10D downstream of a concentric reducer, can be expected to be in the same order as that of vortex
meters (within +/- 0.1% of reading).

5.2.3

Recap

What holds good for a vortex meter (Section 5.1.3), holds good for a dual beam (at radius of
centre line) as well.
So, as indicated under Section 5.2.2, by using a concentric reducer with sufficient constriction, i.e.
Ddownstr./Dupstr. 0.7, only a minor additional uncertainty can be expected, smaller than +/-0.1% of
reading, providing the meter is installed at a location of 5D up to 10D downstream of the reducer.
Hence, by using a concentric reducer as indicated, the upstream straight length can be reduced to a
distance of 5D downstream of the reducer.
NOTE:

For downstream straight length requirements, refer to Section 8.3 ( Straight Length Requirements in General,
reduced size meters).

5.3

Electric Magnetic (Magnetic inductance) meters

5.3.1

Introduction

Depending on their design, Electric Magnetic (EM) meters, are more or less vulnerable to the velocity
profile they are exposed to. In general, they are less susceptible to an asymmetric velocity profile than
vortex meters and ultrasonic meters are.
Meters provided with a built-in conical entrance and outlet piece (e.g. make Krohne, series IFS 5000)
are less sensitive to an asymmetric velocity profile than those having a straight pipe. This is as
expected, since it is in agreement with reference 1 (Section 5.3.4).

5.3.2

Additional information

From Krohnes calibration department, the following information has been received in relation to their
magnetic inductance meters: a meter calibrated on a FDVP and installed at 5D to 10D downstream of
a concentric reducer with a Ddownstr./Dupstr. ratio equal or smaller than 0.7, will exhibit an additional
uncertainty of +/- 0.1% in most cases however, it will not exceed +/- 0.2% of reading.

5.3.3

Recap

What holds good for a vortex meter (section 5.1.3) and dual beam US meter at radius of centre
line (Section 5.2.3) holds good in most cases for a magnetic inductance meter as well. In some cases
the additional uncertainty might be higher, but will still remain within +/- 0.2% of reading.
So, as indicated under (Section 5.2.3), with the use of a concentric reducer with sufficient
constriction, i.e. Ddownstr./Dupstr. 0.7, only a minor additional uncertainty can be expected not
exceeding +/-0.2% of reading, providing the meter is installed at a location of 5D up to 10D
downstream of the reducer.
Hence, by using a concentric reducer as indicated, the upstream straight length can be reduced to a
distance of 5D downstream of the reducer.
NOTE:

Page 22

For downstream straight length requirements, refer to Section 8.3 (Straight Length Requirements in General,
reduced size meters).

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5.3.4

Effect of velocity profiles on flow meters

31/05/99

References

Reference 1.

Hand-out Nieuwe inzichten flowmeterinstallatie as presented by Ir. J. Teijema


of Delfts Hydraulics, at the seminar; FLOWMETING; NU EN MORGEN, on
October 31, 1990 at Delft, Holland.

Reference 2.

VDI Berichte 768, with respect to the 5th . International IMEKO conference on
flow measurements FLOMEKO, held on October 9-10, 1989 at Duesseldorf,
Germany.

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Effect of velocity profiles on flow meters

Rev. --

FULLY DEVELOPED VELOCITY PROFILE (FDVP)

CL

U CL
Uav

= 1.2

FIGURE 5.1

CL

BEND INTRODUCES AN ASYMMETRIC VELOCITY PROFILE

FDVP
ASYMMETRIC PROFILE

100D

FIGURE 5.2

TA403C24 AJdV
File: flwappn1.vsd

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REDUCER 5D DOWNSTREAM OF BEND CHANGES AN


ASYMMETRIC VELOCITY PROFILE INTO A SYMMETRIC
PLUG PROFILE

DR

FDVP

CL

5DR

PTVP
U CL

5D

Uav

= 1.05

FDVP
UCL
Uav

= 1.2

100DR

FIGURE 5.3

TA403C24 AJdV
File: flwappnt.vsd

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Effect of velocity profiles on flow meters

Rev. --

FOR A < 10D,


A SPACE BEND WILL CREATE A SWIRL

CL

FIGURE 5.4

PITCH

PITCH

A << 10D

A < 10D

TA403C24 AJdV

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Calibrated meter runs

6.

CALIBRATED METER RUNS

6.1

Purpose

31/05/99

Meter run configuration to be such that the velocity profile to which the meter is exposed in the plant
is practically equal to the velocity profile during calibration on the rig.
To be used for instruments employed in custody transfer applications. For lower grade applications, a
calibrated meter run is to be considered depending upon required accuracy and/or location of meter.

6.2

Introduction

Meter runs consist of :


Upstream pipe piece.
Meter.
Downstream pipe piece.
Remark:
All pressure retaining parts of the run (incl. meter) must meet the mechanical specification
associated with the pipe class concerned.
Construction details (e.g. castings, welds, welding procedure, acceptance criteria, NACE
requirements etc.) are subject to the written approval of the Mechanical/Piping department
prior to the release of construction of meter and run.
De-swirl device (flow straightener) and concentric reducer/enlarger (to match the meter size with the
pipe size) shall be an integral part of the meter run. If a meter and control valve are installed in series,
the downstream enlarger can usually be omitted since the control valve will have the same nominal
size as the meter.
If a de-swirl device is required to eliminate swirls, it shall be located upstream of the concentric
reducer.
NOTE:

Generation of swirls to be avoided as much as possible by designing sufficient length (> 10D) between consecutive
bends of a space bend, rather than making use of a de-swirl device with its inherent internals.

6.3

Possible construction types

For large sizes, exotic body materials and/or high pressure ratings, the flanges will be a substantial
part of the hardware cost. Furthermore, the absence of flanges will reduce the possibility of diffusive
leaks in case of toxic or noxious fluids.
NOTE:

Beware of different materials between meter run pieces and pipe work. If so, dissimilar welding will be the result,
which has to be agreed upon with the Mechanical department (welding expert) in advance.

6.3.1

Option 1

Both meter and meter run pipe pieces are provided with butt welded ends.
To minimise hardware cost and diffusive leaks, preference to be given to option 1 (all butt welded
ends). However, with this option it is mandatory that internals/wetted parts can be removed and
replaced in-situ.
NOTE:

1.

The calibration of the meter run on a flow rig will normally be done at low pressure using a safe medium
(water/air), hence the meter run will be hydraulically clamped using rubber pads/cuffs. Before ordering meter
runs the above clamping method is to be checked with the Supplier.

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Calibrated meter runs


2.

Rev. --

In-situ removal/replacement of meter internals (shedder bar of vortex meter or wetted parts of buffer rods of
ultrasonic meter) will be required during line flushing/cleaning to remove debris/line junk after new
construction/revamp activities. Furthermore, this is required to allow inspection of the shedder bar/buffer rods
in connection with possible damage after a lengthy period of operation(fouling, erosion, corrosion, mechanical
damage). During line flushing, the holes of shedder bar in body (vortex meter) or transducer nozzles (ultrasonic
meter) to be blinded off with a blind flange. If special flanges are required to blind off hole(s), blind
flanges/gaskets to be ordered with meter.

If flanges for the hydraulic test at the factory are required, factory testing to be waived. Instead,
meter run to be hydraulically tested as part of the on site hydraulic test of the pipe work.
NOTE:

6.3.2

Replacing the hydraulic test at the factory by in-situ testing during test of pipe work is to be discussed and agreed
upon prior to ordering with Mechanical department and with meter run and meter Supplier.

Option 2

Meter provided with flanged ends, meter run pipe pieces provided with butt welded ends. If option 1
cannot be chosen (e.g. shedder cannot be removed/replaced in-situ) or if meter body and flanges are
cast/forged in one piece, next preference will be option 2.
NOTE:

6.3.3

During line flushing/cleaning, meter to be replaced by spool piece. Alternatively, depending on the flushing
operation meter body to be removed and flushing loop to start/end at meter body counter flanges. In the latter case
no spool piece will be required.

Option 3

Both meter and meter run pipe pieces provided with flanged ends. This allows the replacement of the
meter by a spool piece during line flush/cleaning operations. Furthermore, meter and meter run pipe
pieces can be hydraulically tested in advance at the factory. If meter run pipe pieces and meter are
not delivered by the same Manufacturer, the mating flanges shall avoid flow pattern disturbance.
NOTE:

6.3.4

If the flushing loop starts/ends at meter body counter flanges no spool piece will be required.

Option 4

Meter provided with butt welded end, meter run pipe pieces provided with flanged ends.
Could be used for quicker mounting of meter run by avoiding field welds.
NOTE:

Page 28

This may be preferable if the meter has to be calibrated at an elevated pressure which does not allow hydraulic
clamping of the meter run on the rig.

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Calibrated meter runs

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APPENDIX 6.1: CALIBRATED METER RUNS


CONSTRUCTION TYPES

L1

L2

BEVELLED TO ANSI B16.25 AT BOTH ENDS


(TYPICAL)

Upstream
piping

METER

Downstream
piping
DETAIL 'A'
(TYPICAL)
TRANSITION AT WELDED JOINT FOR
UNEQUAL THICKNESS

T2

T1

OPTION 1

CL
TO BE MADE SMOOTH

L
L 4(T2-T1)

TO BE MACHINED OUT
BEFORE WELDING
TOGETHER

OPTION 2

NOTES:
1. ALL REDUCERS/ENLARGERS SHALL HAVE DIMENSIONS
AND FORM IN ACCORDANCE WITH ANSI B16.9

OPTION 3

2. FOR UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM LENGTHS,


L1 AND L2 RESPECTIVELY, REFER TO REQUISITION OF
FLOWMETERS.
3. REQUIRED 'OPTION' SHALL BE SPECIFIED IN THE
REQUISITION OF THE FLOWMETERS.
4. ALL METER RUNS SHALL BE MARKED 'UPSTREAM' AND
'DOWNSTREAM' CONSISTENT WITH THE FLOWMETERS.
IF THE FLOWMETERS ARE INDICATED TO BE
BI-DIRECTIONAL THEN THEY SHALL NOT BE MARKED.

Remark:
All pressure retaining parts of run and meter
must meet mechanical specification
associated with pipe class concerned.
Construction details (e.g. castings,welds,
welding procedure, acceptance criteria,
NACE requirements, etc. are subject to
approval by mechanical/piping dept. prior to
the release of construction of meter and run.

OPTION 4

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General installation requirements

Rev. --

7.

GENERAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

7.1

General

Installation of meters in vertical pipe lines is preferred to installation in horizontal lines.

7.2

Liquid service

In vertical lines flow must be upward.


NOTE:

With downward flow in liquid service (at low flow rates) the pipe may not be completely filled with liquid, hence
creating two phase (liquid/gas) flow.

Meters not to be installed in horizontal lines at a high point in the piping (e.g. thermal expansion
loops) where (non condensable) gases are likely to collect and be hard to remove.
NOTES:

1.

For batch operations pipe should remain full at nil flow to provide for a stable zero point. If this is not possible
and the line will purged by gas for one reason or another, ultrasonic and magnetic inductance meters to be
provided with an empty pipe detection facility.

2.

During start-up of all or part of a liquid pipe system non condensable gas (air/nitrogen) could be present if the
system is not properly filled with liquid and vented. If this cannot be avoided an automatic vent system
(upstream of meter) to be installed to get rid of non condensable gas.

7.3

Gas service

Meters not to be installed in horizontal lines at a low point in the piping, where in case of unexpected
wet gas, liquid will collect and be hard to remove.
For wet gas applications (gas with entrained liquid) or gas containing particles, flow direction to be
downward.
Meters in services where condensable gases during abnormal operation (e.g. stagnant conditions) will
change into liquid may suffer from plug & slug / churn flow and the meter internals (e.g. shedder bar
of vortex meter) may become severely damaged, once put into operation again. In those cases pipe
system to be provided with automatic drains to avoid forming of liquid slugs. Or, alternatively, at (re)start-up of line, liquid to be drained first by hand operated drip legs.
NOTE:

Drains/drip legs to be connected to the appropriate drain system.

7.4

Vibration

Choose a location with minimum pipeline vibration. If necessary, support the pipe at either end of the
meter to prevent excessive movement.

7.5

Flange alignment tolerances

Tolerances on flange connections between in-line flow meters


and associated piping at ambient temperature shall be as follows:
Flange rating

B maximum

150 #

0.2 mm

300 - 2500 #

0.15 mm

Deviation between centre lines of instrument flange and


piping flange A = 3 mm maximum.

F IGURE 7.1: F LANGE ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES

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7.6

General installation requirements

31/05/99

Type of gasket

Type of gasket to be such that it will be centred by its outer ring. An inner ring should prevent (soft)
material from protruding into the line during tensioning, causing flow pattern disturbance.

7.7

Pressure tapping/thermowell

Pressure measurement should be placed at one pipe diameter (1D) upstream and temperature should
be measured at least 5D downstream of the flow meter.
NOTE:

7.8

In case of bi-directional flow measurements skin type TC or RTD to be used.

Heat insulated/traced pipes

Only the body or pipe spool of the meter to be provided with heat insulation/tracing. Extensions
meant to keep the electronics and transducers at a lower temperature (near ambient) must not be heat
insulated/traced.

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Straight Length Requirements in general

Rev. --

8.

STRAIGHT LENGTH REQUIREMENTS IN


GENERAL

8.1

General

The minimum straight length requirements as given in the following tables are based upon velocity
profiles. They shall be adhered to in order to avoid too much deviation from the Fully Developed
Velocity Profile (FDVP) or Plug Type Velocity Profile (PTVP) for line size meters or reduced size
meters respectively.
For line size meters the upstream straight length requirements depend on the upstream pipe work
configuration, i.e. bends (90), consecutive bends (90), T-pieces, on/off valves and the like. For
reduced size meters (see Section 4: Velocity profiles), a concentric reducer with a sufficient
constriction factor will shorten the upstream straight length requirements to 5D.
To eliminate the effect of downstream devices on the velocity profile (retroaction), 5D of straight
downstream length is required for both line and reduced size meters.
NOTE:

8.2

To determine the straight length, the diameter (D) to be taken as the inner diameter immediately
upstream/downstream of the meter. Hence in the case of a reduced size meter the straight length is the number
times 'D' of the reduced pipe.

Control valves

For downstream control valves a minimum downstream straight length requirement of


5D + concentric reducer or 7D straight pipe without a concentric reducer has proven to be successful
for control valves operating under non-critical operating conditions (no cavitation and no flashing in
liquid service, no sonic velocity in gas service).
Control valves operating under critical operating conditions, however, will generate (excessive) fluid
oscillations/mechanical vibration in the audible frequency range with possible interference on the flow
meter, depending on its working principle.
Remark:
Unless additional measures are taken to avoid such audible frequency noise interference, an additional
pipe length (not necessarily straight length) of 25D shall be taken into account. For adequate
measures to avoid audible noise interference refer to Section 8.6 (Interference of fluid
oscillations/vibration).

8.3

Reduced size meters

Use of concentric reducers for velocity dependent meters is highly recommended and is to be
regarded as Best Practice. For reference refer to Table 8.1(Reduced size meters).

8.4

Line size meters

Where no reducers can be used for reasons of pressure loss, minimum straight length requirements as
given in the table shall be adhered to. For reference see Table 8.2 (Line size meters).

8.5

De-swirl devices

For the use of de-swirl devices refer to Table 8.3 (De-swirl devices to eliminate swirls owing to too
close a space bend).

Page 32

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Straight Length Requirements in general

8.6

Interference of fluid oscillations/vibration

8.6.1

Audible frequency range (FR < 20 kHz)

31/05/99

Apart from the velocity profile effect, the possible interference of fluid oscillations/vibration on the
primary sensing elements, introduced by e.g. control valves operating under critical conditions, has to
be taken into account for flow devices equipped with piezo-electric/inductive/capacitive sensors
working in the audible frequency range, i.e. vortex, swirl and Coriolis flow meters.
NOTE:

Frequency range of vortex, swirl and Coriolis meters will not exceed 2 kHz.

Control valves operating under critical conditions (cavitation, flashing, critical pressure ratio in gas
service) shall be equipped with proper trims to avoid excessive vibration.
NOTES:

1.

Such trims are, apart from avoiding interference with flow meters, required to obtain a reasonable life time of
the valve with its internals and accessories.

2.

Valves subject to cavitation require a special anti-cavitation trim, or in the worse case two control valves in
series with an anti-cavitation trim. Valves in flashing service should have an increased outlet size (reduced
trim). Valves exposed to a critical pressure ratio (gas service) require proper Lo-dB trims, which will reduce the
sound generated and thus vibration. Moreover, they will shift the dominant frequencies outside the audible
range (>20 kHz).

By using proper trims to abate the vibration under critical operating conditions the minimum
downstream straight length requirement of 7D will be normally sufficient, as experienced in practice.
NOTES:

8.6.2

1.

To eliminate possible interference of frequencies outside the working frequency range, the high frequency filter
to be set active.

2.

The above does not mean that control valves may not be located further downstream of the flow meter in order
to be confident that interference of vibration is ruled out. The additional downstream length of pipe (above 5D or
7D) need not be straight since only distance plays a role.

Ultrasonic frequency range (20 kHz < FR < 100 kHz)

Lo-dB trims used in control valves for gas service will shift the dominant frequencies from the
audible frequency range (< 20 kHz) to the ultrasonic frequency range, i.e. above 20 kHz but not
higher than 100 kHz.
For the combination of an ultrasonic meter and a downstream control valve in gas service, equipped
with a Lo-dB trim, the working frequency shall be taken well above the 100 kHz (e.g. 200 kHz). If
not, an additional pipe length between meter and control valve of at least 25D to be taken into
account to avoid frequency interference.
NOTE:

For liquid service the working frequency of ultrasonic meters will normally lie well above 100 kHz. So as far as
cavitation and/or flashing service is concerned, no additional length is required.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 33

31/05/99

Straight Length Requirements in general

Table 8.1: REDUCED SIZE METERS

Dmeter /D pipe =< 0.7


Additional length in 'D'
for downstream control
valves
X

STRAIGHT LENGTHS IN 'D'

DEVICE
'A'

Rev. --

MOUNTING
ALWAYS
SUPPORT
REQ'D

VERT. LINE

HORZ. LINE

VORTEX 1)

25

NO

YES

YES

SWIRL

25

NO

YES

YES

30

YES

YES

YES

CORIOLIS

NOT APPLICABLE

ULTRA SONIC 1)
THERMAL

1)

MAGNETIC 1)
LEGEND:

refer to note

NO

YES

YES

not applicable

NO

YES

YES

not applicable

YES 2)

YES

YES

'D' = ACTUAL DIAMETER OF PIPE OR DUCT

NOTES:

1)

SPACE
BEND

10D

2)

STRAIGHT LENGTHS ONLY APPLICABLE FOR


TURBULENT FLOW
FOR CERAMIC SPOOL OR LINER ONLY

'A'

5D

'A'

5D

'A'

5D

CV
'A'
GATE

GLOBE

'A'

'A'

OPEN

5D

C+2D

CV

'A'

OPEN

5D

C
5D

ULTRASONIC METERS:
For critical flow conditions in valve (sonic
velocity, flashing/cavitating conditions)
Working freq. >= 200 kHz; X= 0D
Working freq. <= 100 kHz; X= 25D
TRY TO AVOID
TW

CV
'A'

'A'

'A'

5D
5D

If unavoidable, it is strongly recommended to make the


straight length between the upstream concentric reducer
and the flow meter as long as possible.
Although no quantative statement can be given about the
additional error introduced by this configuration, it is
assumed that the additional error will be minor if 50D is used
between the upstream reducer and the flow meter.

Page 34

2D

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

VORTEX/SWIRL/CORIOLIS
METERS:
It must be ensured that pump
vibrations do not interfere with working
frequency of meter.

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Straight Length Requirements in general

TABLE 8.2: LINE SIZE METERS

Dmeter /Dpipe = 1
Additional length in
'D' for downstream
control valves

STRAIGHT LENGTHS IN 'D'

DEVICE
'A'

31/05/99

MOUNTING
ALWAYS
SUPPORT
REQ'D

VERT. LINE

HORZ. LINE

VORTEX 1)

10

10

20

10

15

20

25

NO

YES

YES

SWIRL

25

NO

YES

YES

30

YES

YES

YES

CORIOLIS

NOT APPLICABLE

ULTRA SONIC 1)

20

10

10

20

20

20

30

refer to note

NO

YES

YES

THERMAL 1)

20

10

20

20

20

20

30

not applicable

NO

YES

YES

MAGNETIC 1)

10

10

10

15

15

not applicable

YES 2)

YES

YES

'D' = ACTUAL DIAMETER OF PIPE OR DUCT

SPACE
BEND

10D

10D

NOTES:
1) STRAIGHT LENGTHS ONLY APPLICABLE FOR
TURBULENT FLOW
2) FOR CERAMIC SPOOL OR LINER ONLY

'A'

'A'

'A'

CV
'A'

GLOBE

GATE

'A'

'A'
C+2D

OPEN

OPEN

ULTRASONIC METERS
For critical flow conditions in valve (sonic
velocity, flashing/cavitating conditions)
Working freq. >= 200 kHz; X= 0D
Working freq. <= 100 kHz; X=25D
NOT ALLOWED
TW

'A'

CV

'A'

'A'
L

C
If it appears unavoidable to install a flow meter
downstream of a control valve, install a
concentric reducer upstream of the flow meter,
as shown in Table 8.1.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

VORTEX/SWIRL/CORIOLIS
METERS:
It must be ensured that pump
vibrations do not interfere with working
frequency of meter.

Page 35

31/05/99

Straight Length Requirements in general

Rev. --

TABLE 8.3: DE-SWIRL DEVICES TO ELIMATE SWIRL OWING TO TOO CLOSE A SPACE BEND
Additional length in 'D' for
downstream control valves

STRAIGHT LENGTHS IN 'D'

DEVICE
'A'
VORTEX 1)

MOUNTING
ALWAYS
SUPPORT
REQ'D

VERT. LINE

HORZ. LINE

25

NO

YES

YES

SWIRL

NOT APPLICABLE

25

NO

YES

YES

CORIOLIS

NOT APPLICABLE

30

YES

YES

YES

NO

YES

YES

ULTRA SONIC 1)
THERMAL

1)

MAGNETIC 1)
LEGEND:

refer to note

not applicable

NO

YES

YES

not applicable

YES 2)

YES

YES

'D' = ACTUAL DIAMETER OF PIPE OR DUCT NOTES:1)


2)

STRAIGHT LENGTHS ONLY APPLICABLE FOR


TURBULENT FLOW
FOR CERAMIC SPOOL OR LINER ONLY

5D

< 10D

DE-SWIRL DEVICE
(STRAIGHTENER)

6D

<10D

'A'
'A'

'A'
CV

5D

6D

'A'

CV
'A'

X
C

CV
X

CV

'A'

X
C+
2D

ULTRASONIC METERS:
Critical flow conditions in valve (sonic velocity,
flashing/cavitating conditions)
Working freq. >= 200 kHz; X= 0D
Working freq. <= 100 kHz; X= 25D

LIQUID AND DRY GAS

Page 36

WET GAS

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Multiple phase flow

9.

MULTIPLE PHASE FLOW

9.1

Introduction

31/05/99

Flow regimes can be single phase or multiple phase. Single phase means that the fluid will be either in
the gas or liquid phase. Multiple phase flow means that gas and liquid phase will be present
continuously or alternately.
Basically flow meters can only handle a single phase flow, i.e. gas or liquid flow. Depending on the
multiple phase flow they are exposed to, the effect can range from a systematic error in the reading to
severe mechanical damage.
NOTE:

9.2

Because the cross-section of the pipe is not fully filled with a single phase fluid (gas or liquid) a cross-sectional
related error will be introduced. Note that this has a quadratic impact, causing the meter to produce too high a
reading in liquid service and too low a reading in gas service.
For liquids, the actual density under reference conditions as compared with the reference density used for
correlation to mass flow will be too low, which will work out as too high a reading on a mass flow basis. For gas
service it will be the other way around.

Multiple phase flow regimes

In literature one often finds the following descriptions:


Bubble flow.
Gas phase is divided into bubbles and liquid; the bubbles have the velocity of the liquid.
Plug and Slug flow.
When the amount of gas increases, the bubbles unite forming bullet shaped plugs and slugs
(alternating passing of gas slugs and liquid bullets).
Churn flow.
When the amount of gas increases further, the plug and slug shapes break, leading to a very
unstable form of flow (for some time mostly gas, then suddenly lots of liquids, very irregularly).
Annular flow.
The liquid flows as a thin film along the pipe wall and the gas flows at high speed in the centre.
Stratified flow.
In a horizontal pipe the phases are completely separate from each other due to gravity. If the
speed of the gas increases, waves will form on the surface of the liquid.
Mist flow.
Almost all the liquid is in (fine) droplets moving together with the gas.

9.2.1

Bubble flow

With bubble flow a flow meter could still have a reading depending on its measuring principle, but it
will be afflicted with an unknown systemic error. For example, vortex meters, magnetic inductance
meters and Coriolis mass flow meters could handle a certain, albeit difficult to predict, amount of
bubbles in the liquid flow. Ultrasonic meters based upon the transit-time principle will soon behave
erratically, losing now and then their signal as the sound beam is absorbed and/or reflected by the
bubbles.
Exception: Ultrasonic meters using the Doppler or TransFlection [1] principle will survive since they need (small) bubbles or
particles in the stream according to the way they work. With no bubbles or particles they will not give a reading.
[1] Registered Trade Mark of Panametrics USA.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 37

31/05/99

Multiple phase flow

9.2.2

Rev. --

Plug & Slug and Churn flow

No meter can handle these flow regimes.


Intrusive meters like vortex meters and ultrasonic meters with wetted sensors protruding in the pipe
could become severely damaged by the impact of the liquids slugs (water hammer effect). Coriolis
meters having bent pipes will be damaged by the water hammer effect.
NOTE:

Plug & slug flow may occur in liquid service during start-up of a pipe line system that is not properly vented. The
same will happen in gas/steam systems unless condensed liquids are properly drained from the line before
start-up.

9.2.3

Annular flow

Vortex meters in gas service will survive and produce a reading. Swirl meters will handle the annular
flow better than vortex meters. Ultrasonic meters with wetted sensors flush with the wall will
presumably not, since the liquid film will absorb/disperse the sound beam.
NOTES

1.

Presumably means that no data is available at the present time to support or to dispute this statement.

2.

Ultrasonic meters with protruding wetted sensors will possibly survive.

The effect on Coriolis mass flow meters is unknown.


NOTE:

9.2.4

For Coriolis meters having bent measuring tubes, the annular flow will probably not be maintained due to
centrifugal forces, resulting in erratic behaviour of the meter.

Stratified flow

With a small gas gap, vortex meters in liquid service will give a reading. As long as their electrodes are
submerged in the liquid phase the magnetic inductance meter will give a reading.
NOTE:

Meters for partially filled pipes are commercially available; refer to Electric Magnetic flow meters.

The same holds good for ultrasonic meters as long as there is one interrogation path through the
liquid.

9.2.5

Mist flow

Vortex meters can handle a certain amount of liquid entrained as a mist (e.g. wet steam). The
percentage of moisture allowed is not known.
NOTE:

If used at high velocities possible damage may occur in the long run as a result of erosion of the shedder bar.

Ultrasonic flow meters working according to the transit-time principle will soon behave erratically
as a result of beam scattering. Swirl meters can handle wet gases. Thermal mass flow meters can
only handle very little mist flow.
NOTE:

Page 38

Thermal mass flow meters of make Kurz Instruments can be used in air measurements at ambient conditions (e.g.
combustion air) even under heavy fog conditions as has been demonstrated in a test rig by TNO (refer to TNO
report HEC-RPT-940082 concerning model 455Jr, single point Insertion Mass Flow Meter, make Kurz Instruments
Inc. USA).

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

PIPE LINE versus FLOW METER VELOCITY

31/05/99

10.

PIPE LINE versus FLOW METER VELOCITY

10.1

Liquid service

Process designers will normally design pipe lines for liquids so that the average velocity at normal
design flow rate will be typically between 1 and 5 m/s. The target velocity will be around 1.5 m/s. In
large pipe lines, velocities above the target value of 1.5 m/s may be chosen (depending on pressure
loss) to reduce size and thus cost and weight of pipes.
The above mechanical design constraints are in conflict with the typical velocity range as required for
most flow meters, as reflected in the picture below.

LlQUID SERVICE

ultrasonic

electric-magnetic
vortex

piping constraints
target value

10

12

14

m/s

F IGURE 10.1: TYPICAL LIQUID VELOCITIES IN METERS AND PIPES

In order to have sufficient Turn Down Ratio (operating window) the velocity at normal flow rate
conditions has to be increased by using flow meters with a smaller size. Pipe line size to be swaged
down by using concentric reducers.
NOTES:

1.

The size of a flow meter could be well two steps smaller than pipe line size (e.g. pipe size 8 inch (DN 200),
meter size 4 inch (DN 100)).

2.

For an existing pipe line (20 inch, DN 500) used by Oil Movements, a meter size of 8 inch (DN 200) had to be
chosen in order to achieve the required Turn Down Ratio.

As a consequence of the above, the optimum meter size will in most applications be smaller than the
pipe size.
If this is not the case, the meter size should be reconsidered.

10.2

Gas service

In gas service much higher velocities are maintained than in liquid service. Maximum velocity at
normal design flow rate in gas service will normally not be higher than 50 m/s. Consequently, the pipe
line velocity is better matched to the flow meter velocity.
The maximum velocity through the flow meter at maximum flow (e.g. during abnormal/emergency
conditions) is to be checked against its maximum allowable velocity.
NOTES:

1.

The maximum allowable velocity for Yokogawa vortex meters in gas/steam service is 80 m/s.

2.

The maximum allowable velocity for ultrasonic meters will be lie between 30 to 70 m/s, depending on the
Velocity Of Sound (VOS) and path length (beam blowing-off effect).

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 39

31/05/99

Vortex shedding flow meter

11.

VORTEX SHEDDING FLOW METER

11.1

Introduction

11.1.1

General

Rev. --

Vortex meters can be used on a wide range of fluids, i.e. liquids, gases and steam. They are to be
seen as a first choice, subject to verification, to cover the requirements of a particular application.
Vortex meters are essentially frequency meters, since they measure the frequency of the vortices
generated by a fixed obstruction indicated as bluff body or shedder bar. Vortices will only occur
from a certain velocity (Re-number) onwards, consequently vortex meters will have an elevated zero
referred to as the cut off point. Before the velocity becomes nil, the meter output will be cut to
zero.
NOTE:

The low cut off point is of particular relevance for meters used in (closed) control loops and will introduce instability
(hunting) at the cut off point. As its measured value becomes nil and its set point will not, the controller will
response to its error signal by increasing the flow rate. As soon as its measured value is above its set point, the
controller will reduce the flow (below the cut off point) and hunting will be the result.
It goes without saying that in such a case a meter size shall be chosen that gives the lowest possible cut off point.
The cut off point value is to be discussed with and approved by the Process Control engineer.
As a last resort, if the cut off point of the already installed vortex meter appears to be too high, the control valve
could be used as a flow rate estimator to avoid the hunting problem at the low flow region below the cut off point.

Vortex meters are uni-directional velocity profile dependent flow meters.


NOTE:

At a certain back-flow (above cut off point) some vortex meters could produce an output signal, which could lead to
a false interpretation.

Vortex meters are actual volume flow meters (like orifice meters). Since actual volume flow is not
generally relevant for plant operating purposes, their output is correlated to mass flow assuming a
fixed actual density (reference density) under operating conditions. Deviations in actual density will
cause a misreading in mass flow which is inversely proportional to the difference between the actual
and the assumed (reference) density.
NOTE:

Orifice meters are actual volume flow meters as well, but by correlating their output to mass flow, the effect of
variations in actual density (as compared with the reference density) is less since they are not linearly dependent
on the actual density but on the square root of the actual density.

Depending on the make, the shedder bar (and sensing wing/vane) can be permanently fixed into the
meter body or removable (e.g. make Yokogawa). The same holds good for the sensors.

11.1.2

Flow variations (oscillating flow)

Vortex meters are very susceptible to continuous flow variations (oscillating flow). If the oscillating
frequency (and higher harmonics) falls into the vortex frequency range, the measurement will become
afflicted with substantial errors, resulting in entirely wrong meter readings.
NOTE:

As soon as the flow oscillations approach the vortex frequency they tend to dominate.

Consequently, care should be taken with fluids transported by positive displacement pumps without
suction and discharge dampers. With the use of centrifugal pumps, a dominant oscillating flow could
occur at a frequency equal to the revolving speed of the rotor.

11.1.3

Mechanical vibration

Vortex meters are susceptible to mechanical (pipe) vibration. As with oscillating flows, pipe vibration
could be dominant at a frequency equal to the revolving speed of the rotor (centrifugal pumps) or to
the revolving speed of the crankshaft (positive displacement pumps).

Page 40

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Vortex shedding flow meter

11.1.4

31/05/99

Pressure drop

Vortex meters, being intrusive meters like orifice meters, will cause the pressure to drop (pressure
gradient) as the flow is increased, resulting in a permanent pressure loss. Consequently, liquids near
their boiling point, could introduce cavitation as the pressure across the meter drops below the vapour
pressure of the liquid (forming of vapour bubbles). As soon as the pressure recovers above the
vapour pressure the bubbles will implode. Cavitation causes the meter to malfunction and should be
avoided at all times.

11.2

Principle of operation

A fluid flowing with a certain velocity and passing a fixed obstruction generates vortices. The vortices
are generated alternately on opposite flanks of the obstruction, grow in size and are subsequently
shed from the obstructive element. As they flow along with the fluid as it moves downstream (refer
to figure 11.1 below), they will grow in size, culminate and then subside.

F IGURE 11.1: G ENERATION OF VORTICES (KARMANS VORTEX STREET)


NOTE:

The culmination point will be at approximately 1.2D downstream of the shedder bar/bluff body.
Some Manufacturers make use of the above phenomenon by using, apart from the shedder bar, a sensing
wing/vane located at the culmination point to measure the frequency.

Strouhal discovered that as soon as a stretched wire starts vibrating in an air flow, its frequency will
be directly proportional to the air velocity. As a formula:
St = f * d/Vo (without dimension)

with:
St
f
d
Vo

= Strouhals number.
= frequency of the wire.
= diameter of the wire.
= velocity.

This phenomenon is known as vortex shedding and the train of vortices is known as
Karmans vortex street, as he discovered a fixed relationship between the width (W) and distance of
the vortices (x).
The frequency of vortex shedding is a direct linear function of fluid velocity. Hence, in a pipe with a
fixed cross-section, this frequency is a measure of the actual volume flow. In the range covered by a
particular flow meter, the vortex frequency is independent of specific gravity, viscosity, pressure and
temperature of the fluid being measured. The vortex frequency depends upon the shape of the
obstructive element (bluff body/shedder bar) and its face width. Since the ratio between the face
width of the shedder bar and the inner diameter of the pipe will be more or less constant, the
frequency is given by the expression:
f = (St * V)/c*D

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 41

31/05/99

Vortex shedding flow meter

where:
f
St
V
D
c
d
NOTES:

= Vortex frequency
= Strouhals number or shape factor
= Fluid velocity at the shedder bar
= Inner diameter of the pipe
= Constant (ratio d/D)
= Face width of shedder bar

:
:
:
:
:
:

Rev. --

Hz
without dimension
m/s
m
without dimension
m

1.

For most vortex meters, the d/D ratio will vary between 0.22 to 0.26. Consequently, the vortex frequency (at
the same fluid velocity) will be dependent on the size of meter: The larger the size, the lower the frequency.

2.

For vortex meters of make Yokogawa, the frequency (Hz) per unity of velocity (m/s) will range from 62.7
(Hz/m/s) for size DN 15 (1/2 inch) to 3.37 (Hz/m/s) for size DN 300 (12 inch).

The maximum diameter of a vortex meter is restricted, as at lower frequencies the resolution of the
meter could become a problem for control purposes. To overcome this problem use can be made of
on-board digital multipliers, which will multiply the vortex frequency (unscaled frequency) without an
additional error (phase locked digital multipliers).

11.3

Meter characteristics

11.3.1

General

Vortex meters are unaffected by the fluid as long as it is in single phase. Below a certain minimum
Re-number they cease to operate.

11.3.2

Calibration

The calibration factor (K factor) of a vortex meter defines the relationship between input (actual
volumetric flow) and output (frequency) and is expressed as the number of pulses per unit of actual
volume (e.g. pulses per litre). When the K factor is measured for a given meter at various flow rates
and plotted against pipes minimum Reynolds number, a meter curve (K factor versus Re-number)
will be obtained for that flow meter.
As can be seen from the K factor meter curve in figure 11.2, there is a certain minimum Reynolds
number below which no pulse output is generated. Furthermore, from a Re-number of 40,000
onwards, the K factor is seen to be almost constant and, in addition, is not dependent on the kind of
fluid.

+1%

0%
-1%

102

103

104

105

106

----> pipe Re - number

F IGURE 11.2: TYPICAL METER CURVE OF A VORTEX METER

Page 42

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. -NOTE:

Vortex shedding flow meter

31/05/99

1.

The K factor, determined for a vortex meter on a test rig with water, is valid for hydrocarbon fluids as well as
for gas/steam service.

2.

The pipe Reynolds number (Re) is expressed as:


V D
Re = 1000 D

where:
Re
= Reynolds number (without dimension)
VD
D

= Mean pipe velocity (m/s)


= Inner pipe diameter (mm)
= Kinematic viscosity (cSt)

The minimum flow which can be measured is determined by one of the following factors:
The Reynolds number at which the vortex shedding phenomenon ceases.
The point at which the sensors can no longer distinguish between the frequency signal and the
background noise (signal/noise ratio too low).
Note by the SIOP editor:
In addition to the two factors mentioned above, a minimum velocity is required. Especially for
larger meter sizes this may become the decisive factor. The Manufacturer should be consulted for
minimum velocity requirements.
Example: Manufacturer Emco has specified a minimum velocity of 0.3 m/sec for a certain
DN 150 meter, corresponding to a Re-number of 50,000 in water service.
NOTE:

Below a Re-number of 40,000, the K factor starts to deviate in the plus direction. According to Yokogawa, the
additional error will be independent of the fluid and could be corrected by using some type of curve fitting. In their
vortex meter, model YF100, the microprocessor has a look-up table on board with correction factors versus
Re-numbers. Use of these correction factors will adversely affect the accuracy. The larger the correction, the larger
the effect on accuracy. This facility is to be employed with caution.

The upper limit is restricted by the maximum velocity of the fluid (dynamic forces) or, in the case of
liquids, by cavitation resulting from too high a pressure differential across the meter. Also, the
dynamic behaviour of the sensors determines this limit.
The calibration factor (K factor) will be determined by the Manufacturer or Supplier on a test rig
using water or air. This can be a standard calibration over the total range of the meter. Normally, the
K factor will be determined at three flow rates. Specific calibration over part of the meter range
and/or at additional flow rates (e.g. 5 or 10) has to be ordered for.
NOTE:

11.3.3

If an application deals with a different fluid than used during the calibration by the Manufacturer/Supplier, which will
often be the case, the Re-number range for the real fluid could be derived from the operational data.
As a next step, calculate the actual flow rate with calibration fluid which corresponds to the same Re-number
range.
By doing so, the meter will be calibrated on the Re-number range as it will work under actual operating conditions
(the Re-number range should commence at 40,000).

Principles of frequency sensing

Various methods of sensing the frequency generated by the vortex formation have been developed.
11.3.3.1

Differential pressure sensors

Some Manufacturers use differential pressure sensors. It can be readily appreciated that with the
shedding of a vortex from one side of the shedder bar, the fluid velocity on that side will increase,
which in turn will decrease the pressure. A velocity decrease and pressure increase will occur on the
opposite side of the shedder bar and as the next vortex is shed, the whole process is reversed. So the
velocity and pressure distribution around the shedder bar will change with the same frequency as the
shedding frequency.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 43

31/05/99

11.3.3.2

Vortex shedding flow meter

Rev. --

Thermistor sensors

Another method is to make use of a pair of thermistors placed in the shedder bar. These cool quickly
if the fluid velocity is high and less quickly if the velocity is low resulting in an alternating change of
electrical resistance, so creating a pulse train with a frequency linearly proportional to the velocity of
the fluid.
11.3.3.3

Piezo-electrical sensors

A pair of piezo-electrical crystals is built into the shedder bar. As the shedder bar will be subject to
alternating forces caused by the shedding frequency, so will the piezo crystals.
11.3.3.4

Variable capacitance sensors

A pair of variable capacitance sensors is built into the shedder bar. As the shedder bar will be subject
to alternating micro movements caused by forces as a result of the shedding frequency, the capacitors
will change their capacitance accordingly.

11.4

Electronic part

The electronic part can be an integral part of the vortex meter or a separate part (remote type) to be
mounted at a distance (e.g. for hot applications).
Depending on the make the electronics of a vortex meter will contain in general the following parts:
pick-up elements;
AC-pre-amplifiers;
AC-amplifier with filters;
noise abatement features;
Schmitt trigger;
microprocessor (CPU).
NOTE:

11.5

The Schmitt trigger converts the sinus signal into a rectangular pulse. As soon as the input signal exceeds the
trigger level, a pulse will be output. The trigger setting will affect the low cut off point: The higher the setting, the
higher the low cut off point.

Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation

Manufacturers of vortex meters will indicate the permanent pressure drop in their technical
information sheets. Furthermore, they will indicate pressure conditions in liquid service to be adhered
to, to avoid cavitation.
NOTE:

The permanent pressure loss across the flow meter can be calculated with the following formulae:
2
Q lps f
For liquids : P = 1.13
D4
For gases : P = 1.13

For steam : P = 1.13

Page 44

2
2
Q NCMH
b
D4 f
2
KPH
D4 f

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Vortex shedding flow meter


where:
P
Qlps
QNCMH
QKPH

31/05/99

=
=
=
=
=

Permanent pressure loss in bar.


Liquid flow rate at flowing conditions in m3/h.
Gas flow rate at base conditions of 15 C and 1.013 bar (abs) in standard m3/h.
Steam flow rate in kg/h.
Density at flowing conditions in kg/m3.

Density of gas at base conditions of 15 C and 1.013 bar (abs) in kg/m3.

Flow meter bore diameter in mm.

1.25 * Pv
Pv

5
Distance in D

Pmin = 3.2 * P + 1.25 * Pv

3.2 * P

4.2 * P

Pressure in Bara

The pressure loss gradient across the vortex meter will have a similar shape to that of an orifice
meter. The lowest point in pressure will be at the shedder bar or closely downstream of it
(comparable with the vena contracta for orifice meters). Downstream of this point the pressure will
recover gradually, finally resulting in the permanent pressure loss. To avoid cavitation, the pressure
loss at the vena contracta is of interest.

C
L

Vortex Shedder Bar

F IGURE 11.3: P RESSURE LOSS GRADIENT OF A VORTEX FLOW METER


NOTE:

The minimum back pressure required to ensure that cavitation does not occur is:
Pmin = 3.2 * P + 1.25 * Pv
where:
Pmin
P

= Minimum required pressure at five pipe diameters downstream of the flow meter in bar (abs).
= Calculated permanent pressure loss in bar.

PV

= Vapour pressure at operating temperature in bar (abs).

Note by the SIOP editor:


The pressure profile of the vortex meter depends on the geometry and size of the shedder bar.
Consult the Manufacturer for information on the applicable formulae and pressure loss profile for a
selected vortex meter model.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 45

31/05/99

Vortex shedding flow meter

Rev. --

11.6

Pressure and temperature correction

11.6.1

Pressure correction

The influence of pressure on the increase of the cross-section is negligible in normal applications.

11.6.2

Temperature correction

Thermal expansion creates an increase in area for a given cross-section. This results in a lower
average velocity, thus a lower frequency and hence reduces the K factor.
The following formula is to be used to correct the K factor. Manufacturer to recalculate and
confirm this correction.
Ko = Kr *

1
1 + * (t o t r )

where:
Ko
= K factor at operation temperature;
Kr
= K factor at reference temperature;

= area expansion coefficient.


NOTE:

to
tr

= operating temperature;
= reference temperature;

The cross-sectional area at an operating temperature (to) can be found by following formula:

Ato = Atr 1+ a(to tr )

(1)

where:

Ato
Atr
tr
to

= cross-sectional area at operating temperature (t o);


= cross-sectional area at reference temperature (t r);
= reference temperature;
= operating temperature;
= area expansion coefficient.

The change in area owing to an operating temperature as compared with the reference temperature will be:

A = Ato Atr

(2)

A = At r 1 + a(to tr ) At r = *(to tr )* Atr

(3)

The flow rate (Q) equals the reciproke of the K factor (K) times the frequency (f) hence:

Q=

(4)

Consequently, for the reference temperature conditions:

Qr =

1
* fr
Kr

(5)

and for the operating temperature conditions:

Qo =

1
* fo
Ko

(6)

At a constant flow rate (Q), (Qr) equals (Qo) hence:

1
1
* fr =
* fo
Kr
Ko

(7)

Making (Ko) explicit:

f
Ko = Kr * o
f
r

(8)

The flow rate (Q) equals the cross-sectional area (A) times the average velocity (Vav) as well:

Page 46

1
*f
K

Q = A*Vav

(9)

Consequently, for the reference temperature conditions:

Qr = Atr *Vavr

(10)

and for the operating temperature conditions:

Qo = Ato *Vavo

(11)

At a constant flow rate (Q), (Qr) equals (Qo) hence:

Atr *V avr = Ato *Vavo

(12)

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Vortex shedding flow meter

Making the term

Vavr
Vavo

31/05/99

Vavr Ato
=
Vavo At
r

explicit yields:

(13)

Since the average velocity is directly proportional to the frequency, equation (13) can be written as:

fr
=
fo

At
o
At
r

(14)

Substituting equation (14) into equation (8) yields:

Ko = Kr *

Substituting for (

At
r
At
o

(15)

At ) equation (1) into equation (15) yields:


o

At
1

r
Ko = Kr *
= Kr *

1+ *( to tr )
At * 1+ *( to tr )
r

(16)

The following area expansion coefficients are to be used:


Carbon steel
Stainless steel 304/316
Stainless steel AISI 410
Monel
Hastelloy C
Inconel

3.42 x 10-5.
4.88 x 10-5.
4.15 x 10-5.
:
3.76 x 10-5.
3.17 x 10-5.
3.42 x 10-5.

:
:
:
:
:

Attention has to be paid to the fact that the area expansion coefficient may differ, if different
materials are used for shedder bar and body. Manufacturer has to advise.
Example:
This example calculation is based on an area expansion coefficient of stainless steel AISI 304/316
which is 4.88 x 10-5, an operating temperature of 300 C and a calibration (reference) temperature of
20 C.
Ko = Kr *

1
1 + * (t o t r )

Ko = Kr *

1+ 488
. *10 5 * 300 20

Ko = 09865
.
* Kr
NOTE:

Some makes (e.g. Yokogawa) will have an algorithm on board that will calculate the temperature corrected
K factor once the operational temperature has been entered. So far, no makes are as yet available which provide
continuous correction using a temperature sensor.

11.7

Application notes

11.7.1

General

The proper choice of the construction of the shedder bar in the meter housing, its detection system
and the intelligence of the electronics greatly determine the performance of a vortex meter in a
particular application. Problems may arise owing to flow oscillations, line vibration, poor signal to
noise ratio and debris build-up at the shedder bar.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 47

31/05/99

Vortex shedding flow meter

Rev. --

From extensive experiments, it has been established that the performance of vortex meters can be
significantly influenced by:
Change in shedder bar geometry owing to erosion;
Change in shedder bar geometry owing to deposits, such as wax layers;
Corrosion of upstream piping;
Change in position of the shedder bar owing to not properly secured position;
Hydraulic noise.
NOTES:

1.

D.C. Bruinzeel reports in Paper S201 (6th Shell Instrument Engineering Meeting, 1986) a deviation, owing to
simulated erosion (rounding off of sharp edges) of the shedder bar, of 7% of actual reading.

2.

For fouling (wax layer of 2 - 5 mm on the upstream edge of the shedder bar ) a deviation of 3% or more of
actual reading is stated in Paper S201.

Vortex meters are to be regarded as the workhorse in flow applications, just as the orifice meter
used to be in the past.
One aspect which should not be overlooked is viscosity in liquid applications. During not normal
operation (start-up, shut down, off-spec situations) the viscosity for some liquids (e.g. DIPA, oil) will
be drastically increased owing to a lower temperature (logarithmic relationship!), resulting in lower
Re-numbers, which in turn may raise the cut off point drastically, even beyond a low trip setting, thus
causing a nuisance trip.

11.7.2

Flow oscillations/mechanical vibration

Care should be taken with fluids transported by positive displacement pumps without suction and
discharge dampers, especially in liquid applications.
With the use of centrifugal pumps, dominant oscillating flow/pipe vibration could occur at a
frequency equal to the revolving speed of the rotor.

11.7.3

Two meters in series

If two meters are installed in series, the Manufacturer is to be contacted about the required (straight)
length between the meters.

11.8

Engineering notes

11.8.1

Sizing

The size of the vortex meter chosen should be optimum to accommodate the operational range within
the instruments working range. The optimum size will for most (liquid) applications be smaller than
the pipe diameter:
If this is not the case, the meter size should be reconsidered.
As a consequence thereof, the optimum size for a vortex meter will be some nominal diameters
smaller than the pipe diameter (e.g. a DN 80 or DN 50 vortex meter in a DN 100 pipe). If the
optimum vortex meter size is equal to the pipe size, this would mean that the velocity in the pipe (and
thus the pressure loss) has been chosen higher than is normal. A check with process designers should
confirm this.
As the output will be mass flow correlated, maximum and minimum actual VOLUME flows in
gas/steam service related to actual pressure and temperature range shall be taken into account.
For all cases (start-up, normal operation, shut down, operational modes) the size of the vortex meter
and its associated permanent pressure loss shall be calculated. The results for the various cases are to
be discussed with and approved by the process engineer and by the process control engineer.
NOTE:

Page 48

Lessons learned from (recent) projects within the Shell Group (STAR-Tabangao, RAYONG-Thailand, PER+ Pernis)
showed that a lot of vortex meters were oversized, since the above had not been observed. As a consequence, a
lot of vortex meters had to be re-sized after plant start-up to provide the plant with proper operating windows.

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Vortex shedding flow meter

31/05/99

Be reluctant to deviate from the optimum choice. If you have to, do not ignore the following
engineering rules, which are to be considered as minimum requirements:
Re-number at minimum flow preferably not to be lower than 40,000 and definitely not lower than
20,000.
Addition by SIOP editor: the minimum velocity requirements, as specified by the Manufacturer,
should be met.
Maximum flow to be accommodated should not be less than 35% of the range of size chosen.
Trigger adjustment should be taken as worst, i.e. at its highest value.
Low alarm/trip functions should be equal to or larger than 10% of Meters Available Range
(MAR), given by the minimum flow (trigger adjustment = highest) and maximum flow capable to
be handled by the meter size.
High alarm/trip functions should not exceed 95% of the maximum flow capable of being handled
by the meter size.
meter's available range (MAR)

max. flow setting:


95% of max flow
of meter

min. flow setting:


10% of MAR

min. adj range: 35% of


max. flow of meter

100%
max flow of meter

flow cut off


@ max.
trigger adj.

F IGURE 11.4: METER RANGE SELECTION

11.8.2

Pressure and temperature based density compensation

To compensate for variations in actual density introduced by temperature (liquids) or by temperature


and pressure (gases/steam) the reading of vortex meters can be compensated by measuring the
pressure and/or temperature of the fluid in the (microprocessor based) control/Instrumented
protective system. By computing and subsequent compensation, the systematic error can be
drastically reduced.
NOTE:

The formula for orifice meters, in which all relevant parameters at the vena contracta are referenced to the
upstream conditions (e.g. pressure for gas applications), does not hold good for vortex meters. For vortex meters,
the pressure at the shedder bar is of direct relevance, not the upstream pressure. Consequently, by measuring the
upstream pressure and using this right away to compensate for the systematic error in actual density, a flow rate
related systematic deviation will still be present. At lower line pressures, this remnant error will become relatively
more dominant.
To reduce this effect of the remnant error, the pressure at the shedder bar shall be calculated from the upstream
conditions making use of the formula for permanent pressure loss across the meter (see Section 11.5). The value
obtained for the permanent pressure loss is to be multiplied by a factor of 4.2, since it is assumed that the
pressure loss at the vena contracta, with respect to the upstream pressure, will be approximately 4.2 times the
permanent pressure loss.
Remark by the SIOP editor:
The pressure profile of the vortex meter depends on the geometry and size of the shedder bar. Consult the
Manufacturer for information on the applicable formulae and pressure loss profile for a chosen vortex meter model.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 49

31/05/99

11.8.3

Vortex shedding flow meter

Rev. --

Fluid oscillations

For pumped systems, check whether the dominant oscillating fluid frequency falls into the frequency
working range of the meter. Try to avoid this by using a different size. As the size is reduced the
working frequency will increase.

11.8.4

Pipe vibration

As for fluid oscillations, check whether the dominant vibration frequency falls into the frequency
working range of the meter. Try to avoid this by using a different size. As the size is reduced the
working frequency will increase.
NOTE:

11.8.5

For positive displacement pumps, the ripple frequency of the fluid at the discharge will be the principal factor in
fluid oscillations. For mechanical vibration, the revolving speed of the crankshaft will be relevant. For centrifugal
pumps the frequency at the revolving speed of the rotor will be relevant and to a lesser extent the frequency
obtained by multiplying the number of rotor blades by the revolving speed of the rotor. This information could be
obtained from the Rotating Equipment Engineer.

Instrumented Protective Functions (IPFs)

For combined control functions and IPFs, two (2) independent, fully segregated output signals have
to be generated. Only the shedder bar may be used as a shared element, as is the case with an orifice
meter using separate impulse lines and differential pressure transmitters for the control function and
IPF.
NOTE:

If no corresponding flow measurement for indication, recording or control is available, the vortex meter serving the
IPF shall be designed as described above to allow for automatic Measurement Validation and Comparison (MVC).

11.9

Installation notes

11.9.1

General

Refer also to Section 7 (General Installation Requirements).


Generally, the orientation of the vortex meter in the pipe (shedder bar horizontal or vertical) is not
critical. For most makes the electronics housing can be rotated through 360 (in 90 increments) with
respect to the body to position the cable gland at the lowest point to avoid water ingress.
NOTE:

11.9.2

See also Section 11.10 (Make-specific comments).

Pipe vibration

Adjacent pipe ends to be rigidly supported.


NOTE:

Page 50

Large pipes cannot be easily fixed to eliminate vibration sufficiently. A check with the Structural engineer is
required to arrive at a sound solution.

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Vortex shedding flow meter

11.10

Make-specific comments

11.10.1

Make: Yokogawa (YEWFLO Style E)

31/05/99

Specific comments of this Section apply to the following models:


Model YF100 vortex flow meter (integral and remote type).
Model YFA11 vortex flow converter (remote type).
11.10.1.1

General

For the PER+ project, Yokogawa had been awarded an umbrella agreement for vortex meters.
Meters have proven to operate successfully in all plants (SGHP, HCU, PSU, PGP and SARU).
11.10.1.2

Shedder bar

The shedder bar is removable from the body. It is flange-mounted at the top. At its bottom the
shedder bar rests on a spine which is welded into the body.
NOTES:

1.

The spine is placed slightly out of centre (eccentric) to ensure a good reproducible and fixed contact with the
shedder bar.

2.

With the above eccentric placement of the shedder bar, it is said that the susceptibility to fouling at the bottom
part of the shedder bar will be negligible. Nevertheless for the PER+ project all vortex meters in horizontal lines
were placed with their shedder bar in horizontal position or, in case of lack of space, moved away from the
lowest position as much as possible.

The required torque for the flange bolts as given by the Manufacturer shall be strictly adhered to,
since it will determine the required tension force of the shedder bar on the spine.
NOTE:

If the tension of shedder bar is too low, it will start to move, soon resulting in a worn out spine. A worn out spine
can only be cured by replacing the total body.

Removal and replacement of a shedder bar will slightly affect the accuracy, but not by more than
+/- 0.2% of reading.
NOTE:

When replacing the shedder bar a new gasket must always be installed.

Shedder bars can be made of various materials. As a standard, Yokogawa makes use of a duplex
stainless steel (DCS1). It should be noted however that duplex stainless steels will suffer from
embrittlement, if used above a temperature of 280 C. As the material will become more and more
brittle as time passes, mechanical shocks (even light shocks) may lead to mechanical failure. Hence
for operating temperatures above 280 C duplex stainless steel (DCS1) should not be used.
NOTE:

The above came up during the detail engineering phase of the PER+ project. As a consequence of not using the
DCS1 material above 280 C, Yokogawa can deliver (for small sizes below DN 150) shedder bars of Hastelloy C.
For sizes of DN 150 and above, shedder bars can be delivered out of AISI 316L. Note that high temperature vortex
meters have a smaller turn down ratio.

Fouling aspects
The clearance between upper part of the shedder bar and body (refer to figure 11.5 below) must be
maintained to allow micro movements.
retaining ring

gasket
body
shedder bar
clearance

F IGURE 11.5: CLEARANCE BETWEEN UPPER PART OF THE SHEDDER BAR AND BODY

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 51

31/05/99

Vortex shedding flow meter

Rev. --

If this clearance is filled up by hard deposits obstructing movement of the shedder bar, substantial
misreading will be the result.
NOTE:

The clearance may get filled up with very fine powder/crystals as experienced by Shell Chemicals - Pernis,
resulting in erroneous readings.

11.10.1.3

Sensors

Yokogawa uses non wetted piezo-electric crystals embedded into the shedder bar to sense the
frequency. The shedder bar is equipped with an additional set of piezo crystals to eliminate as much
pipe vibration as possible by adjusting the noise balance.
If the shedder bar or its sensors are damaged, it shall be replaced by a new shedder bar.
Consequently, to replace the shedder bar the line has to be taken out of service, de-pressurised,
cooled down and cleaned, if necessary.
NOTE:

At the time of the engineering of the PER+ project (4th Q,1993), Yokogawa quoted a mean time between failure
(MTBF) of 228 years based upon failed shedder bars returned to their factory. Post mortem analysis learned that
they had suffered from fatigue resulting in cracks in the shedder bar at the transient area shedder bar/connection
flange. As a result the component was redesigned to avoid too high a stress in that region. For their electronics
they quoted a MTBF figure of 76 years. So, the total MTBF was derived as 72 years.

11.10.1.4

Electric noise abatement features

The following aspects are of particular interest as they have to be adjusted for each particular
application.
11.10.1.4.1 Noise balance

Can be adjusted to eliminate (to a certain extent) pipe vibration.


NOTE:

To adjust the noise balance the use of an oscilloscope is mandatory to observe the frequency signal and the effect
of the adjustment. Be careful: too rigorous an adjustment will cause the signal to be over-suppressed, leading to
errors.

11.10.1.4.2 Noise detection circuit

Will judge whether the signal originates from vortices or is to be regarded as noise.
The amplitude of the vortex signal is proportional to 0.5**v2, where is the actual density and v
is the velocity of the fluid.
NOTE:

Yokogawa uses a double set of piezoelectric crystals in anti parallel configuration (180 degrees phase shift). Both
signals will be added via an electronic adder, hence the amplitude of the signal from the adder will be proportional
to *v2.

By entering min, the circuit will calculate the amplitude using the above formula (*v2). A signal with
an amplitude lower than the calculated value will be ignored and the output cut to zero.
NOTES:

1.

It goes without saying that it is of paramount importance that the value of min is correctly chosen. An incorrect
choice (resulting in too high a min) will mistakenly cut the output signal to zero.

2.

It is recommended to choose the setting some 10% lower than the lowest possible min.

11.10.1.4.3 High frequency noise filter

Will be used (set active) to eliminate high frequency noise in gas or steam service.
11.10.1.5

Combination of control and instrumented protective functions

For constructional reasons, the shedder bar cannot be equipped with a dual set of sensors to serve the
control function and IPF. As an alternative Yokogawa has delivered a spool piece with two shedder
bars, the second bar at a distance of about 1.2D downstream of the first bar.
NOTE:

Page 52

The second bar senses the vortices generated by the first bar. This configuration has been successfully applied in
the PER+ project.

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Vortex shedding flow meter

11.10.1.6

31/05/99

Back flow

At a certain back flow (above cut off point), an output signal will be produced, which could lead to
wrong interpretation.
NOTES:

11.10.1.7

1.

For the PER+ project, in order to measure bi-directional flows in steam balancing lines, two vortex meters
were used in series in opposite flow direction. Signal selection by using a high selector between the two
output signals failed since the vortex meter exposed to back flow does not always produce a lower signal than
the vortex meter used in its normal flow direction. As a remedial action, after start-up, a differential pressure
measurement across both vortex meters had to be installed to select the correct output signal.

2.

In steam (balancing) lines (bi-) directional ultrasonic flow meters are to be used.

Remote vortex meter flow converter

The electronic head of the vortex meter shall be properly grounded to the electronic earth of the
remotely placed converter using a separate ground lead (insulated from the protective ground) in
between.
NOTE:

11.10.1.8

Normally, the electronic ground, i.e. the cable shielding, is not connected to the transmitter but taped back to
avoid ground loops. However, if this is done with a remote converter the electronic head of the vortex meter is not
connected to the electronic ground, resulting in erratic behaviour.

Electric power supply

Transmitter is powered (24 VDC) via its signal output. It requires a relatively high voltage at its
terminals to function properly.
NOTE:

11.10.1.9

Power loss over cable length to be calculated. For the PER+ project an external dual power supply (make Delta)
had to be used.

Re-number correction

The microprocessors in YF100 vortex meters have a look-up table on board with correction factors
for Re-numbers below 40,000 (Re-numbers 5,500 - 20,000). Use of these correction factors will
adversely affect the accuracy. The larger the correction, the larger the effect on accuracy. This
facility is to be employed with caution.
11.10.1.10 K factor curve fitting

K factor curve fitting is on board by means of a 4 line segment approximation.

11.10.2

Other Makes

No information is available on other makes.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 53

31/05/99

Swirl flow meter

12.

SWIRL FLOW METER

12.1

Introduction

12.1.1

General

Rev. --

Swirl meters can be used on a wide range of fluids (gas, liquid and steam). Although they generate
vortices like vortex meters do, their operating principle is entirely different.
NOTE:

As far as known, only Elsaq Bailey Hartmann & Braun (formerly Fisher & Porter) have a swirl meter in their
production line.

Swirl meters are uni-directional flow meters. Their dependency on the velocity profile is far less than
for other meters as given in Section 8 (Straight Length Requirements in General).
NOTE:

12.1.2

An upstream length of 3D and a downstream length of 1D will be sufficient.

Flow variation (oscillating flow)

Like vortex meters, swirl meters are susceptible to continuous flow variations (oscillating flow).

12.1.3

Mechanical vibration

Swirl meters, equipped with piezo-electric crystals sensors are susceptible to mechanical vibration.
Swirl meters equipped with thermistors are in principle not vulnerable to mechanical vibration
NOTE:

Swirl meters delivered by Elsaq Bailey Hartmann & Braun are no longer equipped with thermistors.

Swirl meters, being intrusive meters, will cause the pressure to drop (pressure gradient) as the flow is
increased, resulting in a permanent pressure loss.

12.2

Principle of operation

The swirl flow meter is a quite a different meter to the vortex meter. It makes use of the precession
rotation speed of vortices.
NOTE:

Page 54

The phenomenon is rather complicated and difficult to depict. For more details refer to the following literature:
Reference 1:

Der Dralldurchflussmesser, eine Stroemungsmessgeraet ohne bewegliche Teile fur Fluessigkeiten


und Gase, K Lipowski, Fisher & Porter GmbH, Goettingen, presented on a seminar held on
November 23, 1972 at Antwerp, Belgium.

Reference 2:

The Swirlmeter - An Universal Flow Measuring Instrument, M. Ricken, Goetttingen, VDI Berichte
pp 295 - 303.

Reference 3:

Stroming en debietmeting van niet samendrukbare vloeistoffen - Basisprincipes, A.G. Schaake, 2nd
edition February 10, 1993.

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Swirl flow meter

31/05/99

Basically it consists of a fixed vane wheel (swirler) and acceleration section, extension pipe (nozzle),
enlarger (destabilisation section) and de-swirler (straightener), as shown in the picture below.
SENSOR
SWIRLER

DIFFUSER
DESWIRL

swirler and
acceleration
section

nozzle

straightener
destabilisation
section

F IGURE 12.1: P RINCIPLE OF SWIRL METER


(PICTURE TAKEN FROM REFERENCE 2)

In the swirler, the fluid is forced to rotate and since it contracts as well the fluid will be accelerated.
Consequently, in the nozzle a symmetric swirl is present. At the enlarger (destabiliser) the swirl starts
swinging round, i.e. it will have in addition a secondary rotation, called the precession rotation. Finally
in the de-swirler (straightener) the swirl and the swing round are killed.
As a result of the precession rotation the vortex core is forced into the direction of the wall.
Consequently, there will be a back flow to fill up the area of lower pressure in the middle.

Sensor
VA

effective area for


forwardflow

Housing

dp
dr

VA= 0
VA=0
VA

W2
r2

W1
r1

r1

r2
W1

backflow

W2

VA

W1.r1
VA=0

angular
Velocity
Profile
r= Local Radius
VA= Axial Velocity of Flow
W= Angular Velocity
Profile
p= Static Pressure

VA

W2.r2

Diameter of
non used area
Stagnation Point

forward flow
backflow

F IGURE 12.2: SIMPLIFIED PICTURE OF THE FLOW DISTRIBUTION IN A SWIRL METER


(PICTURE TAKEN FROM REFERENCE 2)

Recapitulation of the above: in the enlarger section the fluid rotates twofold, i.e. primary rotation with
the swirl rotation speed and secondary rotation with the precession rotation speed.

Report OP 99-30287

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31/05/99

Swirl flow meter

Rev. --

The precession rotation speed is picked up by the sensor as a frequency, which is linear with the
precession rotation speed as depicted below:
SENSOR

SENSOR

SENSOR

SENSOR

precession rotation speed

F IGURE 12.3: P RECESSION ROTATION

In the effective area the forward flow (VA) is linearly proportional to the precession rotation speed .
Hence, the actual flow through the meter is: Qact = Aeff * VA or Qact = Aeff * *C
where:
Qact =
actual volumetric flow (m3/s).
Aeff =
effective area for forward flow (m2).
VA
=
forward flow in effective area (m/s).

=
precession rotation speed (m/s).
C
=
constant.
If a sensor is placed at the pipe wall of the enlarger section, it will measure the number of revolutions
of the precession rotation per time unit, i.e. frequency. Hence the precession swirl can be considered
as an imaginary rotor of a turbine meter, which will rotate faster as the fluid velocity increases and
vice versa.
As for turbine meters, the actual volume per rotation will be constant, i.e. independent of the
instantaneous flow rate.
NOTE:

The foregoing holds only good for a swirl meter operating within its linear limits.

The foregoing leads to the general formula:

Qact =

where:
Qact
k
f

=
=
=

12.3

Meter characteristics

12.3.1

Calibration

1
f
k

actual volumetric flow (m3/s).


calibration factor (counts/m3).
frequency (Hz = counts/s)

The swirl meter requires calibration on a flow rig using water or air. By calibrating the meter, the
relationship is determined between input (actual volumetric flow) and output (frequency).
The meter will operate properly from a Re-number of 10,000 onwards. Between Re=10,000 and
Re=1,000,000, the K factor of a swirl meter will stay within a band width of +/- 1% of reading (see
note 1 below)
NOTE:

Page 56

1.

Based on: Stroming en debietmeting van niet samendrukbare vloeistoffen - Basisprincipes, A.G. Schaake, 2nd
edition February 10, 1993.

2.

The frequency of swirl meters will decrease as its size increases.

3.

The typical frequency range for gas meters will vary for size inch to size 16 inch from 1200 Hz to 150 Hz.

4.

The typical frequency range for liquid meters will vary for size inch to 16 inch from 100 Hz to 13 Hz.

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Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Swirl flow meter

12.3.2

Principles of frequency sensing

12.3.2.1

Thermistors

31/05/99

As the core of the vortex passes the thermistor, it will cool down and warm up again after the core
has passed.
12.3.2.2

Piezo-electric crystal

The crystal senses the pressure fluctuation as the core of the vortex passes.

12.4

Electronic part

The swirl meter consists of the meter body and the head containing microprocessor based electronics
(integral mounting). Remotely (field) mounted electronics are available as an option for high
temperature applications.

12.5

Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation

Manufacturer will indicate the permanent pressure drop in his technical information sheets.
Furthermore, the Manufacturer will indicate downstream pressure conditions in liquid service to be
adhered to, to avoid cavitation.

12.6

Pressure and temperature correction

12.6.1

Pressure correction

The influence of pressure on the increase of the effective area is negligible in normal application.

12.6.2

Temperature correction

Thermal expansion creates an increase in the effective area, resulting in a lower K factor (refer to
Section 11: Vortex shedding flow meter) or a lower reading (refer to Section 13: Ultrasonic
transit-time flow meter).
NOTE:

Consult the Manufacturer.

12.7

Application notes

12.7.1

General

So far, swirl meters have not been used very often at Shell Pernis. They will come into consideration
because of their relative short straight length requirements and since they can handle wet fouling gas.
NOTE:

12.7.2

With a piezo-electric crystal as pick-up element they can be applied in dirty gas service like wet sour gas. At the
Pernis site only a few swirl meters (less than 10 units) are in operation, mainly on wet sour gas service (Sulphur
Recovery Units). The initial meters, being vortex meters which failed due to FeS fouling, have been successfully
replaced by swirl meters with piezo-electric crystals.
A few swirl metres are successfully in use on wet hydrogen gas at Shell Pernis crude distillers (CD 5/6). Six (6)
units are successfully in use at SNCs Di-Phenol Propane plant (DPP) in (liquid) Di-Methyl Ketone (DMK) streams.

Flow oscillations/mechanical vibration

Care should be taken with fluids transported by positive displacement pumps without suction and
discharge dampers. With the use of centrifugal pumps, a dominant oscillating flow/pipe vibration
could occur at a frequency equal to the revolving speed of the rotor or revolving rotor speed times the
number of vanes.
Piezo-electric crystals are vulnerable to mechanical vibration. Thermistors, in principle, are not.
The use of piezo-electric crystal(s) requires vibration free mounting of the meter.

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Swirl flow meter

12.8

Engineering notes

12.8.1

Sizing

Rev. --

The size of the swirl meter chosen should be optimum to accommodate the operational range within
the instruments working range.
As the output will be mass flow correlated, maximum and minimum actual volume flows in gas/steam
service, related to the actual pressure and temperature ranges, shall be taken into account.
For all cases (start-up, normal operation, shut down, operational modes) the size of the swirl meter
and its associated permanent pressure loss shall be calculated. The results for the various cases are to
be discussed with and approved by the process engineer and the process control engineer.
Be reluctant to deviate from the optimum choice. If you have to, do not discard the following
engineering rules, which are considered as minimum requirements (same as for vortex meters):
Re-number at minimum flow preferably not to be lower than 40,000 and definitely not lower than
20,000.
Maximum flow to be accommodated should not be less than 35% of the range of size chosen.
Trigger adjustment should be taken as worst, i.e. at its highest value.
Low alarm/trip functions should be equal to or larger than 10% of Meters Available Range

(MAR), given by the minimum flow (trigger adjustment = highest) and maximum flow capable to
be handled by the meter size.
High alarm/trip functions should not exceed 95% of the maximum flow capable of being handled

by the meter size.

meter's available range (MAR)

max. flow setting:


95% of max flow
of meter

min. flow setting:


10% of MAR

min. adj range: 35% of


max. flow of meter

100%
max flow of meter

flow cut off


@ max.
trigger adj.

F IGURE 12.4: METER RANGE SELECTION

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12.8.2

Swirl flow meter

31/05/99

Pressure and temperature based density compensation

To compensate for variations in actual density introduced by temperature (liquids) or by temperature


and pressure (gases/steam), the reading of swirl meters can be corrected by measuring the
temperature and/or pressure of the fluid in the (microprocessor based) control/Instrumented
protective system. By computing and subsequent compensation, the systematic error can be reduced
drastically.
NOTE:

The formula for orifice meters, in which all parameters of relevance at the vena contracta are referenced to the
upstream conditions (e.g. pressure for gas applications), does not hold good for swirl meters. For swirl meters the
pressure at the location of the pick-up sensor is of direct relevance and not the upstream pressure. Consequently,
by measuring the upstream pressure and using this right away to compensate for the systematic error in actual
density, a flow rate related systematic deviation will still be present. At lower line pressures, this remnant error will
become relatively more dominant.
For further reference, refer to Section 11 (Vortex shedding flow meters).

12.8.3

Fluid oscillations

For pumped systems, check whether the dominant oscillating fluid frequency falls into the frequency
working range of the meter. Try to avoid this by using a different size. As the size is reduced the
working frequency will increase.

12.8.4

Pipe vibration

As for fluid oscillations, check whether the dominant vibration frequency falls into the frequency
working range of the meter. Try to avoid this by using a different size. As the size is reduced the
working frequency will increase.
NOTE:

12.8.5

For positive displacement pumps the ripple frequency of the fluid at the discharge will be the principal factor for
fluid oscillations. For mechanical vibration the revolving speed of the crankshaft will be of relevance. For centrifugal
pumps the frequency at the revolving speed of the rotor will be of relevance, and to a lesser extent, the frequency
given by multiplying the number of rotor blades by the revolving speed of the rotor. The above information could be
obtained from the Rotating Equipment Engineer.

Instrumented Protective Functions (IPFs)

For combined control functions and IPFs, two (2) independent, fully segregated output signals have
to be generated. Only the body of the swirl meter may be used as a shared element, as is the case
with an orifice meter using separate impulse lines and differential pressure transmitters for the control
function and IPF.
Consequently, the body of the swirl meter has to be equipped with two pick-up elements having each
their dedicated electronics and power supply.
NOTE:

If no corresponding flow measurement for indication, recording or control is available, the swirl meter serving the
IPF shall be designed as described above to allow for automatic Measurement Validation and Comparison (MVC).

12.9

Installation notes

12.9.1

General

Refer also to Section 7 (General Installation Requirements).


The orientation of the swirl meter in the pipe is not critical. It can be installed in vertical, horizontal,
and sloping lines. In vertical lines the flow can be upwards or downwards.

12.9.2

Fouling service

In fouling service the meter is to be installed vertically with flow downwards.

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Swirl flow meter

12.9.3

Rev. --

Pipe vibration

Adjacent pipe ends to be rigidly supported.


NOTE:

Large pipes cannot be easily fixed to eliminate vibration sufficiently. A check with the Structural engineer is
required to arrive at a sound solution.

12.10

Make-specific comments

12.10.1

Make: Elsaq Bailey Hartmann & Braun (formerly Fisher & Porter)

12.10.1.1

General

At Shells refinery in Pernis swirl meters with the older type of electronics are in use. For Shell
Chemicals in Pernis (DPP plant) swirl meters with modern electronics are used.
NOTE:

If use is made of remote electronics, it is Best Practice to use the SM-version in a field mounted housing,
equipped with a pre-amplifier, to reduce the possibility of signal interference between swirl meter head and remote
electronics.

12.10.1.2

Pressure take off for pressure compensation

Swirl meters have a pressure tapping as a standard (screwed hole) at the bottom of the body.
Please note that such a screwed pressure take off point is not allowed by the Mechanical department.
If such a pressure tapping is used for pressure compensation it shall be made as a welded tapping
having a flange (1/2 inch RF) for connection of an isolation valve and standard lap joint adapter.

press.
con.
flanged

F IGURE 12.5: P RESSURE TAKE OFF FOR PRESSURE COMPENSATION


NOTE:

If a welded flanged tapping cannot be delivered proceed as for vortex meters, i.e. the pressure at the location of the
sensor shall be calculated from the upstream conditions making use of the formula for permanent pressure loss
across the meter. For the correction factor pertaining to the pressure at the sensor location, consult the
Manufacturer.

If a flanged pressure tapping will not or cannot be provided on the meter body it shall be explicitly
stated in the requisition that the meter shall not be delivered with a screwed take-off point.
NOTE:

The Mechanical department does not allow a screwed hole to be blinded off by means of a (seal welded) plug in
pressure-retaining parts of in-line equipment.

12.10.1.3

Re-number dependability

For liquid service, the Manufacturer claims that below a size of 3 inch (DN 80), a minimum
Re-number of less than 10,000 is allowed.
NOTES:

Page 60

1.

Reference is made to Manufacturers publication leaflet SWIRL 4 TI 1.3-01/e-1/96.

2.

SNCs experience (DPP-plant) has indicated that swirl meters do not work properly below a Re-number of
20,000.

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Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

12.10.1.4

Swirl flow meter

31/05/99

Straight length requirements

Manufacturer claims (refer to publication leaflet mentioned in Section 12.10.1.3) or at least gives the
impression, that swirl meter may be installed 5D downstream of a throttling control valve.
No field experience is available at Shell Pernis to support the above.
NOTE:

12.10.2

Apart from the distorted flow profile, the influence of which on the swirl meter may be negligible as a result of the
forced swirl regime in the meter, mechanical vibration could be highly disruptive if piezo-electric sensors are used.
This includes control valves in critical service (cavitation, critical pressure ratio) which generate associated noise
and hence mechanical vibration over a wide frequency spectrum.

Other Makes

No information is available on other makes.

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31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

13.

ULTRASONIC TRANSIT-TIME FLOW METER

13.1

Introduction

13.1.1

General

Ultrasonic flow meters can be used on a wide range of fluids, i.e. liquids, gases and steam. The
transit-time or time-of-flight meters are basically time difference meters, as they are based on
time difference measurements of acoustic waves that are transmitted in opposite directions through
the flow. This time difference is directly proportional to flow rate.
NOTE:

At high Mach numbers ( 0.1) time difference meters are no longer exactly linear.

Note by the SIOP editor:


Reference is made to British standard BS ISO/TR 12765, titled: Measurement of fluid flow in closed
conduits - Methods using transit-time ultrasonic flow meters, published after the SNR authors had
completed this document.
To generate sound, transducers equipped with high frequency piezo-electric crystals are normally
used. To measure the time difference, transducers A/B of an interrogation path will alternately be
switched into transmitting and receiving mode respectively. Sometimes ultrasonic sound is launched
simultaneously in both directions.
Depending on the application (gas or liquid service), the working frequency will be adapted in order
to optimise the acoustic coupling (crystal/fluid and fluid/crystal interfaces) and penetration through the
fluid to arrive at a sufficient signal strength to perform a reliable flow measurement. Signal attenuation
is also dependent on the interrogation path length and viscosity of the fluid.
Since particles or bubbles in the fluid will scatter/disperse the sound beam, this principle can basically
only be successfully applied to single phase and clean fluids.
Product layering in the pipe as a result of different (immiscible), not fully mixed components can
cause erratic behaviour of the meter.
Ultrasonic meters are volume flow meters. Since volume flow is in most cases not relevant for plant
operation purposes, their output is correlated to mass flow assuming a fixed actual density
(reference density) under operating conditions. Deviations in actual density will cause a misreading in
mass flow which is inversely proportional to the deviation compared with the reference density.
NOTE:

Orifice meters are actual volume flow meters as well, but by correlating their output to mass flow, the effect of
variations in actual density as compared with the reference density is smaller since they are not linearly dependent
on the actual density but on the square root of the actual density.

Apart from measuring the actual volume flow they will measure the propagation velocity of the
ultrasonic sound of the fluid, often referred to as Velocity Of Sound (VOS).
NOTE:

Since the VOS is a characteristic property of a fluid, the VOS output signal in conjunction with the temperature
and pressure of the fluid can be used as a measure/indication of:

actual flowing density;

concentration (e.g. for fluids consisting of two distinctive components);

molecular weight (if pressure, temperature, Cp/Cv ratio and compressibility are known).

Furthermore, deviations of the VOS signal/range will indicate a change in fluid composition, which could indicate
different plant operating conditions and/or feed stock changes.
In brief, the VOS signal can be employed with caution for better insight into plant/unit operation.
Since the signal strength will also be measured, deviations in signal strength could indicate viscosity changes, an
increased level of solids (crystal formation, catalyst carry over) and/or bubbles (flashing off of dissolved gases
under changed pressure/temperature conditions) in the fluid.

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

31/05/99

Two kinds of meter installation methods are available:


Clamp-on meters;
In-line meters.
NOTE:

In-line meters are sometimes called wetted meters, meaning that the transducers are in touch with the fluid.
There are also hybrids where the buffer rods are in touch with the fluid but the transducer is externally mounted,
not wetted, and may be removed while the buffer rods remain in place.

13.1.2

Clamp-on meters

Transducers are clamped on the (bare) pipe using a suitable bonding agent and strapping technique.
Couplant

FLOW

. Solid
. Gel
. Other

Clamp-on
transducers

F IGURE 13.1: CLAMP-ON METER

With clamp-on meters, transducers are of the non wetted type. The high frequency sound generated
by the piezo crystal will be conducted by the pipe wall which in turn will convey the ultrasonic wave
into the fluid and vice versa. As a consequence of this concatenated path of interfaces, signal strength
will soon be exhausted.
Currently, clamp-on transducers using the transit-time principle can mainly be used on liquids since in
gas service the acoustic coupling between gas/pipe is mostly too inefficient.
In some designs either the transducer itself or the pipe wall are utilised in such a way that the sound
beam will be relatively broad.

13.1.3

In-line meters

13.1.3.1

General

With in-line meters, transducers are fitted with the use of pipe nozzles on a spool piece.
Consequently, they have so-called wetted sensors. To conduct the ultrasound into the fluid, a
metallic window or buffer rod (flush mounted with pipe wall or slightly protruding into pipe) will
preferably be used to avoid direct contact between the piezo crystals and the fluid. By doing so,
crystals can be replaced if they fail without the need to de-pressurise the line.
Where, for reasons of ultra sound energy conveyance into the fluid, buffer rods/windows cannot be
used, the piezo crystal will be mounted directly in the fluid by means of a pipe with the crystal
mounted at the bottom. In order to replace a faulty crystal without the need to de-pressurise the line,
the pipe insertion piece has to be made retractable under operating conditions.
NOTES:

1.

Gas applications, having a low density, suffer from inefficient ultrasound conveyance. Hence buffer
rods/windows cannot be used in such applications.

2.

Although with the use of buffer rods/windows the crystals are not in direct contact with the fluid, the
expression wetted sensors is still commonly used.

Nozzles for the buffer rods and/or pipe insertion piece can be perpendicular to the pipe or at a certain
angle (tilted nozzle).
For high temperature applications, meters will be equipped with extended buffer rods between the
inner rod inside the pipe nozzle and piezo-electric crystal in order to cope with the maximum
allowable temperature of the crystal.

Report OP 99-30287

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

NOTE:

Rev. --

Using crystals in direct contact with the fluid will limit the operating temperature: if the maximum allowable
temperature of the crystal is exceeded it will become faulty. Besides curie point or other temperature limits
peculiar to a particular piezo-ceramic, the cyclic and long term limits of adhesives or other materials used in the
proximity of the piezo-ceramic have to be examined.
Protection pipe

Extension length

BWT transducer
Couplant

Inner Buffer /
Raised Face Coupler
Tag plate
Junction Box

F IGURE 13.2: EXAMPLE OF A BUFFER ROD WITH OUTSIDE ROD EXTENSION FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE
NOTES:

1.

Picture taken from Panametrics USA drawing No. 533-094, rev. 3, date 7/11/96.

2.

For further reference refer to Buffer waveguides for flow measurement in hot fluids, by Yi Liu, L.C. Lynnworth,
M.A. Zimmerman, Ultrasonics 36 ELSEVIER (1998) pp. 305-315.

For small pipe sizes, the spool piece may have an U-form design with the buffer rods protruding
coaxially at the centre line of the meter pipe.
FLOW INLET

FLOW OUTLET

(FLOWPATTERN) A

(FLOWPATTERN) B

F IGURE 13.3: U-FORM ULTRASONIC FLOW METER


NOTES:

13.1.3.2

1.

Due to their size and design, U-form ultrasonic flow meters (flow cells) are particularly vulnerable to
mechanical deformation due to thermal expansion, which could lead to misalignment of the transducers.
Consequently, adjacent piping should be well supported to avoid stress on the meter body.

2.

The use of lower frequency ultrasound waves makes flow cells less susceptible to alignment.

Number of interrogation paths

Meters can be designed as single path or multiple path meters. Multiple paths meters are used to
make the volume flow measurement less susceptible to the velocity profile as compared with single
path meters.
NOTE:

Currently, use is made of single or dual path meters. Meters having more paths (e.g. quadruple path meters or
even with five paths) are used for special applications such as custody transfer or for very large
diameters (e.g. > 24 inch).

The interrogation path(s) can be designed as single or multiple traverse paths.

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Rev. --

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

13.1.3.3

31/05/99

Number of traverses

With single traverse meters, the transducers are in line with each other. With meters having dual
traverse the pipe wall will be used to reflect the ultra sound beam once, thus the path looks like a V.
B
C
L

View B-B
as installed
TOP

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.4: V PATH METER

With meters having quadruple traverse the pipe wall will be used to reflect the ultra sound beam three
times, thus the path looks like a W.

B
C
L

View B-B
as installed
TOP

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.5: W PATH METER

One reason for using multiple traverse paths is to increase the path length and hence the flight time of
the beam, which in turn will increase the time difference to be measured.
NOTES:

1.

Comment by Mr. L.C. Lynnworth, Panametrics, USA: additionally, an even number of traverses tends to
immunise the flow meter from effects of cross flow and possibly swirl too, depending on the exact path relative
to secondary flows.

2.

Using multiple traverse design, the alignment of the transducers will be more difficult as compared with single
traverse. A disadvantage of multiple traverse design is that the amount of reflection and the reflection angle
may change as a result of (pit) corrosion of the pipe wall. To avoid this, sometimes a flat reflector (mirror) of
corrosion resistant metal at the bouncing spot will be mounted. Furthermore, only paths over the centre line of
the pipe can be used, hence paths located at mid radius chords of the pipe are not possible without the use of
flat reflectors mounted in the pipe wall.

Ultrasonic meters can be used to measure uni-directional and bi-directional flows. As they are
velocity profile dependent meters, in the latter case the straight length requirements for both flow
directions should be met.
NOTE:

13.1.4

If bi-directional flow is to be measured, this shall be indicated at the time of the BDEP (Basic Design &
Engineering Phase).

Flow variations (oscillating flow) and mechanical vibration

Ultrasonic meters are not susceptible to continuous flow variations (oscillating flow) since their
working frequency (100 kHz to 5000 kHz) allows fast sampling (e.g. 100 Hz to 1000 Hz), far above
the oscillating frequency of the flow.
Ultrasonic flow meters are in general not susceptible to mechanical (pipe) vibration, but care should
be taken with devices (e.g. valves) generating ultra high noise which could interfere with the working
frequency of the meter.
NOTE:

In gas service, the flow meter should be operated at or above 200 kHz to avoid the interference with noise
generated by valves operating under critical pressure conditions.

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13.1.5

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

Pressure drop

Line-size ultrasonic flow meters will cause negligible pressure drop.

13.2

Principle of operation

13.2.1

General

The ultrasonic meter measures the averaged velocity over the interrogation path(s) of a fluid through
a pipe/duct and calculates the actual volume flow rate by multiplying that velocity by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe/duct. Depending on the product, the ultrasonic sound propagates at a
distinct velocity, which is usually not a function of the frequency of the ultrasonic wave.
Each fluid, given its physical state, exhibits a specific ultra sound wave transmission speed called the
Velocity of Sound (VOS). The VOS is a function of the fluids chemical nature, temperature,
pressure and density.
Since, in addition to the transit times, the VOS is determined as well, the changes in fluid properties
do not appear to influence the calculated averaged velocity, nor the flow rate.
NOTE:

As fluid properties influence the velocity profile, there are indeed some effects. Also, temperature (VOS) gradients
and velocity profiles bend the sound waves. This too influences the accuracy.

Most makes provide a separate output for the VOS.

13.2.2

Principle of transit-time ultrasonic flow meter (leading edge)

L
t1

t2

Lp

F IGURE 13.6: P RINCIPLE OF TRANSIT-TIME ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

The upstream (counter flow direction) and downstream (flow direction) transit times are respectively:
L
L
t1 =
and t2 =
Co V cos
Co + V cos

where:
t1
t2
L
Co
V

Page 66

=
=
=
=
=
=

Upstream transmission time (counter flow direction) (s).


Downstream transmission time (flow direction) (s).
Length of ultrasonic transmission path (m).
Relative velocity of sound of the fluid (m/s).
Average fluid velocity over path length L (m/s).
Sensor angle with fluid velocity (degrees).

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

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In the following table the VOS is shown for several common fluids at 15 C and at atmospheric
pressure:
Table 13.1: VOS for various fluids
Fluid
Water
Fuel oil
Air
Natural gas
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
NOTE:

VOS (m/s)
1,460
1,360
320
400
1,280
351
328

Further data can be found in:


API handbook (Gray, 1957);
Mason, 1950 (pp. 335-337);
Ultrasonic measurement for Process Control, L.C. Lynnworth, 1989 (pp. 233 - 234).

VOS dependability
The VOS is independent of the ultrasound frequency, except in carbon dioxide gas service.
With increasing density, the VOS will increase too.
With increasing temperature, the VOS will decrease for liquids and increase for gases.
Exception:
Water has a discontinuity in its relationship between VOS and temperature: For water below a
temperature of 74 C, the VOS will increase with increasing temperature. Above 74 C the VOS
will decrease if the temperature increases.

VOS, m/s

VOS, m/s

gases

water

liquids

74
density

temperature, deg. C

G RAPH 13.1: VOS DEPENDABILITY

Ultrasound waves are generated by applying pulse voltages to both sides of ceramic piezo-electric
crystals. Identical pairs of crystals, usually termed transducers, work alternately in emitting and
receiving mode. The emitting frequency of a transducer is determined by its thickness and the
chemical nature of its material. The choice of the ceramic frequency is based on the specific fluid to
be measured, operating conditions of the fluid, wall thickness and diameter of the pipe, desired
accuracy and other factors.
The selection should be made so that optimum transmission conditions can be achieved which will
depend on:
Fluid homogeneity/heterogeneity;
Damping rate of the sound energy by the fluid;
Interrogation path length.

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

To reduce absorption of the sound by the fluid, the ultrasound frequency is selected according to the
fluid being measured and may range from 5000 kHz for low absorption fluids to 100 or 50 kHz for
gas.

13.2.3

Transit-time Principles

This principle measures the difference in transit-time between two ultrasonic beams transmitted in the
flow direction and counter direction. In operation, a set of two ultrasonic transducers transmit and
receive alternately ultrasonic sound at an angle across the pipe. The angle which can be chosen to
create a longer transmission path can vary between 20 and 70 degrees.
The flow fluid adds velocity to the signal transmitted in the flow direction (downstream signal) and
subtracts velocity from the signal transmitted in the counter direction of the flow (upstream signal).
The resulting time difference between transmission and receipt of the ultrasound signal in the
upstream and downstream direction is directly proportional to flow rate.
The transit-time principle comprises the following basic techniques:
Table 13.2: Overview of Ultrasonic Transit-Time Flow Meter Techniques
Technique
a.

Time difference t

b.

Velocity Equation

Analogue Output

V=

2
Co
t
2 L cos

2
V = K Co t

Modified time t1 & t2 &


time difference t

V=

L
* t
2 cos t1 t2

V = K t tt
1 2

c.

Frequency difference
f

V=

L f
2 cos

V = K f

d.

Phase difference

V=

2
Co

2 L cos 2 f o

2
V = K Co
fo

where:
V
Co
L

K
fo
f
t
t1
t2

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Average fluid velocity (m/s).


Relative velocity of sound of the fluid (m/s).
Length of ultrasonic transmission path (m).
Angle between ultrasound vector and velocity vector (degrees).
Phase difference (degrees).
Meter constant.
Ultrasonic frequency (Hz).
Frequency difference (Hz).
Time difference (s).
Upstream transmission time (counter flow direction) (s).
Downstream transmission time (flow direction) (s).

Techniques as given under a and b are commonly used. Techniques as given under c and d are
rarely used. The various techniques are discussed below.
13.2.3.1

Time difference (Leading Edge) technique

The time difference in transmission time between an ultrasonic burst of pulses fired in the flow
direction and those in the counter flow direction is proportional to the flow velocity. In order to
measure the time difference, a fast clock or ramp measures the time between the first positive leading
edge of both sets of bursts.

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As the leading edge of the first received pulse is used to trigger the electronic timing circuitry, it should be very
sharp. Certain absorptive fluids such as crude oil or viscous fluids as well as gas are difficult for ultrasonic sound to
penetrate. In those cases the ultrasonic frequency has to be reduced with the result that the location of the leading
edge is less defined.
There are three main advantages with the leading edge technique:

Between the individual measurements, time can be allowed for the ultrasonic echoes to dampen down;

Each measurement stands alone, so measurements outside a band of tolerance can be rejected, making the
technique less sensitive to distortion;

It is possible to measure t1 and t2 over the same transmission path, using the same transducers so the effect
of drift in multiple sensors and difference in the transmission path is avoided.

The average transit time is also measured and will be used to calculate the velocity of sound.
NOTE:

For applicable formulae see below:


Upstream transit time (counter flow direction):

t1 =

L
Co -V *cos

(1)

Downstream transit time (flow direction):

t2 =

L
Co +V *cos

(2)

Hence time difference:

t = t 1 - t2 = L(

1
1

Co - V *cos Co +V *cos

t
2*V *cos
=
L Co 2 V 2 *cos2

After reduction:

(3)

(4)

Since the term V*cos is much smaller than Co, it can be ignored, resulting in:
t
2*V *cos
=
L
Co 2
V=

By making V explicit:

Co 2
t
2*L*cos

(5)

(6)

Since cos will be equal to the projected path length (LP) divided by the path length (L), hence:
cos =

Lp
L

(7)

Equation (7) substituted in equation (6) yields:

V=

Co2
t
2*Lp

(8)

Equation (1) can also be written as:

1 Co V *cos
=
t1
L

(9)

Equation (2) can also be written as:

1 Co + V *cos
=
t2
L

(10)

Summing equation (9) and (10) yields:

1 1 Co V *cos Co + V *cos 2*Co


+ =
+
=
t1 t 2
L
L
L

(11)

Making (Co) explicit from equation (11):

Co =

Report OP 99-30287

L t1 + t2

2 t1 t2

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

(12)

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13.2.3.2

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

Modified time t1 and t2 and time difference (Time Shift) technique

With this method, the transit times are measured in the flow direction and in the counter flow
direction. The fluid velocity calculated is independent of the velocity of sound in the fluid.
NOTE:

For applicable formulae see below:


Equation(1) for the upstream transit time (counter flow direction) can also be written as:
Co - V *cos =

L
t1

(13)

Equation(2) for the downstream transit time (flow direction) can also be written as:
Co + V *cos =

13.2.3.3

L
t2

(14)
L
L

t2
t1

Subtracting equation (13) from (14) yields:

(Co + V *cos ) (Co - V *cos ) =

Making V explicit from equation (15):

V=

L
t
2*cost1 t 2

(16)

Substituting equation (15) into equation (16) yields:

V=

L2
t
2 Lp t1 t 2

(17)

(15)

Frequency difference (Sing-around) technique

If a burst of pulses is fired in and against the flow direction, the number of pulses which arrive in a
given time period will be different by a number proportional to flow rate. The sing-around system is a
frequency comparison which is independent of the VOS in the fluid.
As soon as a burst is completed, a burst in the opposite direction is triggered, hence the term
sing around. As L and cos are constant for a particular meter, the relation between fluid velocity
and the measured difference is a frequency, and f is linear and independent of the velocity of
sound of the fluid.
The advantage of this technique is that if the time delay in the sensors and the electronics is
negligible, no additional arithmetic function is required. Hence the signal f is directly proportional to
flow rate.
13.2.3.4

Phase difference (Phase Comparison) technique

This is similar to a leading edge technique, but instead of looking at the spacing between the first
rising edge of pulses in and against the flow direction, the shift in phase is measured. This is normally
done by comparing zero crossings.

13.3

Meter characteristics

13.3.1

General

Being a time difference meter only the precision of its electric clock (crystal oscillator) is of interest.
The minimum measurable velocity is directly related to the resolution of its clock, which in the
modern commercial meters lies in the nanoseconds range (10-9 second ).
NOTE:

The actual clock frequency may be >> 10 Hz.

As a consequence thereof, the meter is independent of fluid properties, as long as the transmitted
ultrasonic sound with sufficient strength can unambiguously be detected in the receiving mode of the
transducer.
The transducer nozzle alignment is critical and will normally be done using laser techniques.
NOTE:

Page 70

Lower ultrasonic frequencies are more tolerant with regard to nozzle misalignment.

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13.3.2

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

31/05/99

Calibration

In-line ultrasonic flow meters will normally be calibrated by the Supplier on a flow rig using water or
air. By calibrating the meter, its relationship is determined between input (actual volumetric flow) and
output and is expressed as volume per time unit (e.g. m3/h or m3/d).
NOTE:

The velocity profile distortion resulting from flush mounted buffer rods/windows will be negligible for most
applications, except for high accuracy measurements such as custody transfer. Hence by measuring the average
inner pipe diameter of the pipe section between the transducers at a steady ambient temperature the average
cross-section of the pipe can be determined at reference temperature. By doing so, calibration on a flow rig will be
not necessary.

It should be noted that off-line calibration of a meter on a flow rig using water or air will give limited
information about the ultrasonic sound parameters under operating conditions. Normally, one has to
rely on the experience of the Manufacturer for similar cases.
NOTE:

13.3.3

If the application is to be seen as a borderline case (not sufficient data available with respect to the ultrasound
parameters), tests under actual pressure and temperature conditions (at no flow) have to be conducted to reveal
the ultrasound parameters at operating conditions in order to judge whether the application will be successful.

Interrogation path(s)

The performance and reliability of ultrasonic meters are dependent on the location and number of
interrogation paths.
13.3.3.1

Laminar/turbulent region

The location of the path(s) should be at mid radius in order to cope with velocity profiles in the
laminar and turbulent region. The feasibility of using the mid radius location is dependent on the size
of the pipe spool. Below a size of 3 inch, the mid radius location for a pipe spool will be troublesome.
NOTE:

As the ultrasonic beam travels through the intersection of the pipe it will be subjected to the velocity profile in the
intersection. As a consequence, the velocities over the intersection will be integrated.
In order to determine the flow rate, the average velocity over the pipe cross-section is required. Hence, the ratio
between the average velocity in the intersection and the average velocity over the pipe cross-section will be
needed:
K=

average velocity in intersection


average velocity in pipe cross section

In order to express K mathematically, the velocity profile needs to be fully developed. For a fully developed
laminar velocity profile, H.L. Spoor/ D.M. Oldenziel [*] arrived for the Kla value at the following equation:
4
Kla = (1 bo 2)
3

where bo = the relative distance of the intersection line in relation to centre point (R=0) and diameter (R=1), and
hence will vary between 0 and 1.
For fully turbulent flow, the Ktur value is described by them as:

Ktur = 1 +

5
(
4

2*(1 bo 2)
f
) (1 + 2 * ln(
)

2
bo

1
(1 bo 2)

ln(

1+ (1 bo 2)
) )

bo

-3

Where is the Fanning friction factor: = 1.40 * 10

-0.32

+ 0.125 * Re

Both formulae for K tend to be unity (=1) for bo = 0.5. For a plug type velocity profile K tends to be 1 as well.
[*] Reference: On the Ultrasonic Flow Measurement in relation to the Reynolds Number and Finite Sensor Sizes,
H.L. Spoor, D.M. Oldenziel, VDI-Berichte (1989) pp 353 - 360.

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13.3.3.2

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

Asymmetrical velocity profile

One of the advantages of two interrogations paths at mid radius (shown below) is that they will (to a
certain extent) compensate for velocity profile asymmetry.
Single Traverse, Two Path, Parallel, Mid Radius

View B-B
as installed
B

C
L

TOP

30

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.7: TWO INTERROGATIONS PATHS AT MID RADIUS


13.3.3.3

Swirl

The vulnerability to swirl flow is difficult to establish, i.e. the systematic error introduced in the
reading of the meter is hard to quantify otherwise than by experiments. Owing to the lack of such
experiments, only a qualitative statement can be given.
NOTE:

For the phenomena of swirl and associated velocity profile refer to the Section 12 (Swirl flow meter).

With symmetrical swirl flow, the medium moves like a revolving cylinder through the pipe. The
radial velocity profile shows a velocity gradient over the distance centre line and pipe wall.
NOTE:

For the swirling fluid, the velocity gradient is in the opposite direction as for a revolving cylinder, refer to the
Section 12 (Swirl flow meter).

At the interrogation paths this will work out as a helical movement. In figure 13.8 an attempt has
been made to depict such a helical movement.
V(swirl)
Vrad

Vax

Vax

Vrad
V(swirl)

Probe at
Bottom

Probe at
Top

Top

Bottom

F IGURE 13.8: HELICAL MOVEMENT

In order to investigate the effect of the helical movement of the fluid, the swirl velocity V(swirl) has to
be decomposed in the axial and radial direction giving Vax and Vrad respectively.
NOTE:

If a flow starts swirling (apart from the axial velocity there will be a radial velocity component), it does so at the
expense of the axial velocity. Hence the pipe length as well as the friction factor will be increased resulting in
additional energy loss.
In view of the above, swirl flow should be avoided.

Consequently, the projection of Vax and Vrad on the beam axis influences the ultrasound beam.

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

13.3.3.3.1

31/05/99

Parallel paths at mid radius

As a consequence of this path location, the effect Vrad for the upper and lower path is basically in the
counter direction.
V(swirl)
Vrad

Vax

Vax

Vrad
V(swirl)

F IGURE 13.9: P ARALLEL PATHS AT MID RADIUS

However, since Vrad is not constant with respect to the distance between the centre and pipe wall, the
fore-going could only lead to the qualitative conclusion that such a location will be less vulnerable
to swirl.
NOTE:

If swirl is not axi-symmetrical, its effect on symmetrical chords, including parallel chords, will be unequal.

13.3.3.3.2

Cross over paths at mid radius

As a consequence of this path location, the effect Vrad for the upper and lower path is basically in the
same direction, as depicted in the figure below.
V(swirl)
Vrad

Vax
Vax

Vrad
V(swirl)

F IGURE 13.10: CROSS OVER PATHS AT MID RADIUS

Consequently, the above will lead to the qualitative conclusion that such a location will be
vulnerable to swirl (as compared with parallel path arrangement).

13.4

Electronic part

The electronic part can be an integral part of the ultrasonic flow meter (electronics and spool piece
form one part) or a separate part (remote type) to be mounted at a short distance away from the
spool piece.
Depending on the make the electronics will in general contain the following parts:
transducers;
buffer rods;
pre-amplifiers;
coax cabling.
microprocessor (CPU)
Most makes have two signal outputs, one for the flow signal and an auxiliary output used for the
measured Velocity Of Sound.
NOTE:

Electronics require a separate supply connection (230 VAC or 24 VDC).

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

In order to minimise signal interference (e.g. spikes) most makes will make use of a coded pulse train
and correlation technique to recognise the pulse train at the receiver as depicted below:

tdn

CODED SIGNALS
t

tup

CORRELATION
GOOD CORRELATION

Signal Quality

BAD CORRELATION

F IGURE 13.11: CODED PULSE TRAIN AND CORRELATION TECHNIQUE


Picture taken from Panametrics release; PCI Product Line Presentations File Index, 2/19/97

In addition to the above technique, a time window (width adjustable) is used. Only received signals
falling within the time window will be considered as valid signals. Signals falling outside the time
window will not be seen by the electronics, hence they are ignored.
NOTE:

The width of time window is dependent of the total transit time between both transducers (incl. the time required to
travel through the buffer rods), i.e. related to the range of VOS to be covered, allowable beam deflection and path
length. A too narrow adjustment of the time window may cause the meter to cease operation. Hence the full
operational data of all cases to be covered should be taken into account.

Flow rate can be determined from one or multiple interrogations using a running average. With
multiple path meters, the flow rate will normally be determined from both paths (taking the average).
If one path becomes erratic, some makes allow automatic switch-over to single path. As soon as the
erratic path is healthy again, it will switch back, using both paths again to calculate the flow.
NOTE:

13.5

A higher number of interrogations needed to calculate the flow rate results in a longer response time.

Pressure drop/loss

Ultrasonic in-line flow meters with their buffer rods or windows flush mounted with the pipe wall are
non-intrusive meters. Consequently, the pressure drop and permanent pressure loss for line size
meters will be minimum. If the size of the spool piece is smaller than line size, the pressure loss will
slightly increase.
NOTE:

The above does not hold good for so-called U-form meters.

13.6

Pressure and temperature correction

13.6.1

Pressure correction

The influence of pressure on the increase of the cross-section is negligible in normal applications.

13.6.2

Temperature correction

13.6.2.1

Cross-sectional error

Thermal expansion of the spool piece will increase its cross-section. This will result in lower
instrument readings.

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Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

31/05/99

The cross-sectional area at an operating temperature of to can be found by following formula:

Ato = Atr 1+ a(to tr )


where:

Ato
Atr

= Cross-sectional area at operating temperature (t o).


= Cross-sectional area at reference temperature (t r).

tr
to

= reference temperature.
= operating temperature.
= area expansion coefficient.

If the range is not corrected for the difference between operating and reference temperature, the systematic error
() in percentage of the range will be:
=

At r At o
Atr

100% or = a t 100%
-5

For carbon steel having an area expansion coefficient of 3.42 * 10


100 C difference will be encountered.

13.6.2.2

, a systematic error of minus 0.342% per

Path length error

Owing to the operating temperature, both the path length L and projected length Lp are increased by
the same factor (1 + *t).
NOTE:

is the linear expansion coefficient.

The effect on equation (16) (see Section 13.2.3.2) is that the velocity V is calculated too low by a
factor (1 + *t).
NOTE:

If the range is not corrected for the difference between operating and reference temperature, the systematic error
() in percentage of the range will be:
=

V V *(1+ t )
100% or = t 100%
V

The area expansion coefficient () is approximately twice the linear expansion coefficient (), hence =2
1
2

-5

or = . For carbon steel having an area expansion coefficient of 3.42 * 10 , a systematic error of minus
0.171% per 100 C difference will be encountered.

13.6.2.3

Transit-time error

The total transit time (t1 and t2) is composed of the run times through the buffer rods and the run time
through the fluid: Ttot = Tbr + Tfluid + Tbr.
Since the propagation velocity of ultrasound through the metal buffer rods (Tbr) will alter as their
temperature rises or falls, deviations in buffer rod temperature in respect of the reference value
(during calibration), if not corrected for, will cause systematic errors.
NOTE:

The propagation velocity for metals will decrease as their temperature increases and vice versa. Panametrics USA
[*] gives as a numerical example in steel; C/C minus 10% as temperature increases from 20 to 500 C.
[*] Technical Application note: BWT
(BWT

TM

TM

(Bundled Waveguide Technology

TM

) System, April 28, 1998, page 10.

= Trade Mark of Panametrics, USA)

Since the propagation velocity of ultrasound through the metal buffer rods will become lower as their
temperature rises, the run time through the buffer rods will increase.
With reference to equation (17) (see Section 13.2.3.2):

V=

L2
t
2 Lp t 1 t 2

, the effect on t will be

cancelled out. However, at an elevated temperature t1 and t2 will be calculated too high, which in turn
results in a velocity calculated too low. The measurement error will be directly proportional to the
2*T

ratio k = T br .
fluid

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NOTE:

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

In services operating well above/below ambient temperature, the buffer rods will exhibit a temperature gradient over
their length, hence the deviation in actual run time of the ultrasound as compared with the reference run time at
ambient conditions (during calibration) is hard to determine by calculation. The appropriate way to correct
automatically for variation in Tbr is to measure during an interrogation cycle the total transit time Ttot and in addition
Tbr and then calculate Tfluid, or alternatively once in a while, if it takes too much processing time to do this every
interrogation cycle.

13.7

Application notes

13.7.1

Clamp-on ultrasonic meters

The current State of the Art is that these meters can only be used for liquid service.
Exceptions:

Air or other gases in plastic pipe.

Gas in steel pipe if pressure (density) is sufficiently high, e.g. P 100 bar (ga).

An important disadvantage of clamp-on meters is the fact that owing to differences in sound velocity
in different materials (transducer, pipe wall, fluid) and the effect of temperature on the velocity of
sound, the refraction angle of the ultrasonic beam at the various boundaries is not steady, which
results in an inconstant ultrasonic path which in turn has an adverse effect on accuracy.
NOTES:

1.

Accuracy of clamp-on meter applications will vary, depending on the situation, between +/- 5% and +/- 10% of
their velocity range. For pipes having a temperature above 150 C, the commercially available bonding agents
will slowly degrade (their more volatile components will evaporate) causing the meter to become erratic and
eventually cease to operate. To be successful, special high temperature bonding agents are to be used
containing no components which will evaporate at the operating temperature.

2.

At SNCs Versatic plant it was found that, although the pipe temperature did not exceed 80 C, the bonding
agent had a life time shorter than 2 years, owing to moderate pipe vibration.

In general, clamp-on meters cannot be used on lined pipe.


Exception: Glass/enamel lined pipe.

For applications involving pipes suffering from heavy scaling or fouling (e.g. brine cooling water lines
with shell-fish attached to the pipe wall), clamp-on meters will not work.

13.7.2

In-line ultrasonic meters

With the use of in-line ultrasonic flow meters the following factors have to be considered and taken
care of.
13.7.2.1

Multiple traverse

For meters with multiple traverse using the pipe wall as a reflection means, no scaling and/or (pit)
corrosion shall occur in the spool piece, since these phenomena will adversely affect the beam
reflection.
13.7.2.2

Acoustic crosstalk

If the ultrasonic sound travelling through the fluid (measuring path) and the ultrasonic sound travelling
through the metal parts of the spool piece (stray path) coincide as far as timing is concerned, and if
these two components of the resulting composite wave are of similar strength, or if the signal (S) is
weaker than the stray path noise (N), no flow measurement will be possible. This is the case where
the signal to noise ratio 1.
As a remedy, flanged instead of welded transducers should be used. By varying the gasket material or
thrust force on the packing, the paths can be time-shifted to avoid coincidence of the signals arriving
at the receiving transducer.
Alternatively, avoid direct contact between transducer/buffer rod and housing. By applying a coating
that does not transmit ultrasound, isolation may be improved.

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13.7.2.3

31/05/99

Acoustic shortcut

In fouling services, acoustic shortcut will be possible because a build-up of debris between buffer rod
and inner wall of the nozzle tube could bridge the gap, resulting in an acoustic shortcut of the
ultrasonic sound. This problem, or potential problem, is more likely to occur in buffer designs that are
of too simple construction, i.e. those that allow significant acoustic energy to be present at their
periphery.

To avoid acoustic shortcut, the acoustic shortcut resistant buffer rods shall, to some extent,
protrude into the pipe in order to ensure that the flowing fluid keeps the tip of the rod clean and
hence minimises bridging between tip and nozzle/pipe wall.

F IGURE 13.12: B UFFER ROD PROTRUSION


NOTES:

1.

Distance s to vary from 2 mm (less fouling) to 20 mm (heavy fouling).

2.

If fouling cannot be fully excluded (e.g. as a result of misoperation) it is recommended to keep dimension s at
2 mm minimum.

3.

The inherent distortion of the velocity profile will result in an unknown additional error, which can only be
eliminated by calibration on a flow rig.

4.

If the fouling consists of very fine dust, as was the case at the HCU plant where nickel sulphide (particle size
10 m) had been formed as a result of an operational mishap at the SGHP plant, protruding of the sensor tip
may not cure the fouling problem. A literature study undertaken by Prof. B. Abedian of Tufts University,
Medford, MA., USA at the request of Panametrics, USA revealed that it is very likely that in the HCU case, the
protruding of the sensors into the flow stream will give no remedial effect. On the contrary, the fouling rate at
the tip will increase. Overall conclusion: it is assumed that under such conditions the probe tips will foul
anyhow. At the HCU plant, the probes were cleaned by dismounting them and wiping off the loose dust.

5.

At the HCL plant of Shell Chemicals, protruding the sensors into the flow remedied the fouling of the tips by
small particles of scaling.

Consequently, make use of acoustic shortcut resistant buffer rods. If such a design is not suitable
for the application, consider the use of crystals in direct contact with the fluid. In order to clean the
probe tips during operation, consider retractable probes with nitrogen as a buffer/flushing gas, as used
for flare gas measurements. However, the use of retractable probes at high pressures (>60 bar (ga)) is
not advocated for safety reasons.
NOTES:

13.7.2.4

1.

The maximum operating temperature of the crystal may be the limiting factor. In gas applications with a
relatively high dew point, the nozzles will become a cold spot if not properly heat traced. Hence liquid may
collect in the nozzle causing acoustic short cut.

2.

Nitrogen is used as a buffer/flushing gas to keep the pipe nozzles clean and avoid product leakage to
atmosphere during retraction of the probes.

Ultrasound beam scattering/dispersion

As soon as the fluid ceases to be single phase, beam scattering may occur under bubble flow or mist
flow conditions. Beam scattering may also occur if the fluid contains too many particles (crystals,
catalyst particles).
Bubble flow could appear with liquids operating close to their boiling point. Merely a marginal
pressure decrease could cause the liquid to evaporate forming bubbles.
Another flashing off phenomena (not so well recognised as boiling off) will occur if gas is dissolved in
liquid. Generally, as the pressure decreases or the temperature rises, the amount of gas dissolved can
no longer be contained in the liquid and will flash off until a new equilibrium is reached.

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NOTE:

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

Typical examples of gases soluble in liquid are:


H2S in water;
H2S in DIPA (di-iso-propyl-amine);
CO/CO2 in water;
CO2 in methanol.

In order to prevent the meter to being exposed to bubble flow, it should be moved in the line to a
location with a higher pressure, e.g. downstream of a pump. If such a location is not available,
ultrasonic meters working according to the transit-time principle shall not be used.
Beam scattering may also occur in immiscible mixtures (e.g. water/oil). In immiscible mixtures it must
be assured by thorough upstream agitation that no oil droplets in water or water droplets in oil are
present at the meter.
Product layering as a result of poorly mixed products may also introduce beam scattering. Product
layering is also likely to occur at locations where cold and hot streams are mixed and should be
avoided by proper mixing.
NOTE:

13.7.2.5

Directly downstream of a tie-in of a cold stream with a hot stream of the same product, layering will most likely
occur as a result of density differences. To avoid product layering, the fluid is to be mixed thoroughly upstream of
the meter using appropriate devices such as reducers (d/D= <0.7) or static mixers.

Ultrasound beam deflection

The ultrasonic beam will be deflected by the flowing fluid. High fluid velocities in combination with a
fluid having a relative low Velocity Of Sound could result in too great a misalignment (beam is blown
away) between the transmitting and receiving transducer, causing the meter to cease operation.
The beam blowing off effect is of particular relevance for bi-directional measurements, as the
velocity range could be twice as large as in uni-directional measurements since the velocity has to be
measured in the flow and counter flow direction.
NOTE:

13.7.3

One way to counteract the beam blowing off effect is to choose a shorter path length, e.g. over a short pipe chord.
Other remedies involve choice of frequency, shape of radiator, angle of interrogation and other means. Consult the
Manufacturer.

Mechanical vibration

Ultrasonic flow meters are in general not susceptible to mechanical (pipe) vibration, providing their
pipe nozzles with mounted transducers (buffer rods) have been properly fixed/supported to avoid
excessive mechanical vibration and possible damage owing to metal fatigue. However, care should be
taken with devices (e.g. valves) generating ultra high noise which could interfere with the working
frequency of the meter.
NOTE:

13.7.4

Investigation together with a valve Manufacturer (Neles-Jamesbury) indicated that noise produced by valves with a
Lo-dB trim will have a shifted frequency spectrum (not exceeding 100 kHz). Consequently, for those applications
the working frequency should be chosen well beyond 100 kHz, e.g. 200 to 500 kHz.

Molecular weight compensation

The VOS signal can be inter alia used to determine the molecular weight.
An important application is the measurement of refinery fuel gas to furnaces, which (at Pernis for
example) does not have a constant composition. By use of the MW signal, fuel gas mass flow and air
demand can be compensated. For further reference refer to Section 13.11 (Application note on MW
calculation for refinery fuel gas).

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13.8

Engineering notes

13.8.1

General

31/05/99

It is essential that all operational cases (start-up, catalyst preparation mode, normal operation, shut
down, possible variation in feed stock and abnormal operational modes) including fluid composition
and corresponding fluid properties are given in the requisition.
NOTE:

Be aware of the fact that the VOS range greatly influences the time window width and possible beam blow-off
effect.

For liquid applications it is mandatory that no bubble flow will occur as a result of vapour flash-off
(liquid starts to boil owing to a decrease in pressure) or flashing off of dissolved gas.
Warning:
If the absence of bubble flow is not assured, an ultrasonic flow meter working according to the
transit-time principle must not be used.
In immiscible mixtures (e.g. water/oil) it must be ensured by thorough upstream agitation that no oil
droplets in water or water droplets in oil can be formed to avoid beam scattering. This holds also
good for a meter measuring the mixture of cold and hot liquid streams.

13.8.2

Sizing

The size of the ultrasonic meter chosen should be optimum to accommodate the operational range
within the instruments working range by taking into account minimum measurable fluid velocity
(minimum measurable time difference) and maximum fluid velocity (beam blow-off effect).
NOTE:

In bi-directional flow measurement, full operational data shall also be given for the back flow case(s).

To cover the operational working range as symmetrically as possible within the range of the flow
meter make use of concentric reducers/enlargers, provided the additional pressure loss can be
tolerated.
For minimum and maximum measurable fluid velocity, the Manufacturer is to be consulted.
NOTE:

13.8.3

1.

Current limit for minimum velocity for single traverse meters, not being U-form type, will be in the range of 0.3
to 0.5 m/s. Cut-off point will be at 0.05 m/s or below. Maximum fluid velocity, which is related to the beam
deflection, will vary between 30 and 70 m/s depending on VOS-range and path length.

2.

For U-form type, dual traverse (V-path) and quadruple traverse (W-path) meters, the minimum velocity can
be as low as some cm/s).

Response time

Depending on the number of calculations required and the performance of the CPU employed, the
expected response times of meters in fast control loops and meters used for Instrumented Protective
Functions (IPFs) are to be checked against the requirements.

13.8.4

Pressure and temperature based density compensation

To compensate for variations in actual density introduced by temperature (liquids) or by temperature


and pressure (gases/steam), the readings of ultrasonic flow meters can be compensated by measuring
the pressure and/or temperature of the fluid in the (microprocessor based) control/Instrumented
protective system. By computing and subsequent compensation, the systematic error can be reduced
drastically.
With use of the VOS signal, molecular weight compensation will be possible. For reference refer to
Section 13.11 (Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas).
NOTE:

If a short response time is required and calculations are performed in the DCS, fast operating slots are to be
considered.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 79

31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

Since the pressure gradient across the spool piece will be negligible, the pressure measured at 1D
upstream of meter does not require any compensation (as is the case with vortex meters) and can be
directly used. The latter does not hold good for U-form spool pieces.
NOTE:

As the output will be mass correlated, maximum and minimum actual volume flows in gas/steam service related to
pressure, temperature and molecular weight range shall be taken into account in meter sizing.

13.8.5

Number and location of paths/traverses

13.8.5.1

General

For meters used in control and/or instrument protected functions or in measuring functions for
custody transfer, dual path meters are to be chosen for redundancy reasons.
NOTE:

If one interrogation (horizontal) path becomes erratic (e.g. owing to temporarily stratified flow or bubble flow) meter
could still be operated on the other path by (automatic) switch-over.

For other functions single path meters should be considered.


Make preferably use of a single-traverse, two-path arrangements, unless this is not possible owing to
the size of the spool piece (size < 3 inch).
13.8.5.2

Single traverse, two parallel paths, mid radius

The optimum arrangement will be single traverse, two parallel paths, located at mid radius as shown
below:
View B-B
as installed
B
C
L

TOP

30

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.13: SINGLE TRAVERSE, TWO PATH, P ARALLEL, MID RADIUS

For smaller pipe spools with parallel paths, the paths have to be shifted apart to make space for
flanges:

View B-B
as installed

B
C
L

TOP

30
45

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.14: SINGLE TRAVERSE, TWO PATH, P ARALLEL-SHIFTED, MID RADIUS


NOTE:

Above arrangements give the best results for:


laminar/turbulent region;
asymmetric velocity profile;

Page 80

symmetric swirl (less vulnerable, the effect of Vrad is counter directed for both paths).

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

13.8.5.3

31/05/99

Single cross-over paths, mid radius

If no swirl is present, the paths could be arranged as cross-over paths instead of parallel paths as
shown below:

View B-B
as installed

B
C
L

TOP

30
TOP

45

Top View

F IGURE 13.15: SINGLE TRAVERSE, TWO PATH, CROSS-OVER, MID RADIUS


NOTE:

The cross-over path arrangement is to be chosen if the spool size is too small to allow ample space between the
nozzle flanges for the parallel path arrangement. It will give the best results for:
laminar/turbulent region;
asymmetric velocity profile.
The effect of a symmetric swirl will be amplified since Vrad will be in the same direction for both paths.

13.8.5.4

Multiple traverse, two paths

For smaller flows, the multiple traverse, two path arrangement at the centre line could be chosen:
View B-B
as installed

B
C
L

TOP

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.16: DUAL TRAVERSE, TWO V PATHS , CROSS-OVER @ CENTRE LINE


NOTE:

This arrangement will give errors in reading if subjected to:


laminar/turbulent flow;
asymmetric velocity profile.
This arrangement is vulnerable to swirl flow, as Vrad works in the same direction for both paths.

13.8.5.5

Single traverse, single path, mid radius

For less essential meters, single traverse, single path can be chosen:

TOP

C
L

TOP

30

30

45

TOP

S
Top View

View B-B
as installed

View B-B
as installed

Gas Service

Liquid Service

F IGURE 13.17: SINGLE TRAVERSE, SINGLE PATH, MID RADIUS


NOTE:

This arrangement is a low-cost version (single path) and will give errors in reading if subjected to:
asymmetric velocity profile;
symmetric swirl.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 81

31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

13.8.5.6

Rev. --

Multiple traverse, single path, centre line

For small flows, multiple traverse, single path at the centre line can be chosen:
View B-B
as installed

View B-B
as installed

C
L

TOP

C
L

TOP

TOP

TOP

45

45

B
Top View

B
Top View

V-path

W-path
F IGURE 13.18: MULTIPLE TRAVERSE, SINGLE PATH, CENTRE LINE

NOTE:

13.8.5.7

These arrangements are low-cost versions (single path) and will give errors in reading if subjected to:
laminar/turbulent flow;
asymmetric velocity profile;
symmetric swirl.

U-form meters

For very low flows, the U-form meters are sometimes used as shown below:
FLOW INLET

FLOW OUTLET

(FLOWPATTERN ) A

(FLOWPATTERN ) B

F IGURE 13.19: U-FORM ULTRASONIC FLOW METER


NOTE:

13.8.6

The accuracy depends on the length to diameter ratio and other factors. Alternatives such as in-line axial path or
stream line designs will sometimes be available. Consult the Manufacturer.

Buffer rods/crystal frequency

Make preferably use of acoustic short cut resistant buffer rods and flanged transducers with the tip
of the buffer rods protruding into the pipe (refer to Section 13.7.2.3).
In order to avoid interference by high frequency generated noise (e.g. Lo-dB trims in control valves)
use a crystal frequency well above 100 kHz.
Remark:

For essential meters always make use of the option to have, apart from the flow output,
an auxiliary analogue output for the VOS. Record the VOS output in the DCS, which
will facilitate post mortem studies and/or give a better insight in plant
behaviour/performance.
Signal strength is another useful diagnostic indicator.

Page 82

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

13.8.7

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

31/05/99

Instrumented Protective Functions

For combined control functions and IPFs, two (2) independent fully segregated output signals have to
be generated. Consequently, two ultrasonic flow meters are to be arranged in series. In order to avoid
additional flanges one spool piece is to be used:
View B-B
as installed
B
C
L

TOP

30
45

TOP
45

B
Top View

F IGURE 13.20: SINGLE TRAVERSE, 2 X TWO PATH, P ARALLEL, MID RADIUS


NOTE:

If no corresponding flow measurement for indication, recording or control is available, the ultrasonic flow meter
serving the IPF shall be designed as described above to allow for automatic Measurement Validation and
Comparison (MVC).

13.9

Installation notes

13.9.1

General

Refer also to Section 7 (General Installation Requirements).


Although the US flow meter with remote electronics could look like an ordinary piece of (heavy) pipe
with some nozzles on it, do not forget that it is an instrument which can easily become damaged by
ill treatment. Bumping of nozzles against other objects during lifting (to get the spool piece in place)
will easily lead to misalignment.
Take care that extended buffer rods are not used by construction personnel as climbing footholds.

13.9.2

Nozzle orientation

For meters in a horizontal line, nozzles shall be in the horizontal plane as well to avoid the collection
of debris in the gap between nozzle wall and buffer rod.

F IGURE 13.21: NOZZLE ORIENTATION

13.9.3

Flanged transducers

Gasket material will be delivered by the Supplier and requires approval by the Mechanical
department. If gasket material is changed at the request of the Mechanical department, this requires
approval by the meter Manufacturer.
NOTE:

Non-approved gasket material by Manufacturer may introduce acoustic cross talk (refer to Section 13.7.2.2).

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 83

31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

Rev. --

The bolt tension torque figures specified by the Manufacturer, should be strictly adhered to.
NOTE:

13.9.4

Over-torquing could easily lead to acoustic cross talk.

Extended buffer rods

Extended buffer rods for hot and cold services (below ambient temperature) must not be insulated.

13.9.5

Split delivery of parts

If the construction of the meter so allows, it is advisable to arrange separate delivery of the spool
piece and transducers. During plant flushing/cleaning, the transducer nozzles are to be blinded off.
After flushing/cleaning, transducers to be mounted by the Supplier.
NOTE:

Page 84

Split delivery and transducer mounting after flushing/cleaning will considerably reduce the risk of instrument
damage.

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

13.10

Make-specific comments

13.10.1

Make: Panametrics

13.10.1.1

General

31/05/99

Panametrics can deliver clamp-on as well as in-line ultrasonic flow meters, working in accordance
with the transit-time principle.
NOTE:

Panametrics states that their clamp-on meters, originally developed for liquids, have been successfully used to
measure air flow in plastic pipes and gases under very high pressure in steel pipes.

Their in-line meters are suitable for gas, steam and liquid service.
Furthermore, they have an electronic version available (known as flare gas meter) to calculate from
the VOS the molecular weight as well. To calculate the molecular weight, the unit has to be equipped
with an additional pressure and temperature transmitter.
NOTE:

The software used has been developed in co-operation with Exxon and is not freely accessible. Hence details will
not be provided by Panametrics, other than what has been published in Smalling et al., US Patent No.
4,754,65(July 5, 1988), figure 3 therein.

Panametrics flare gas meter is an accepted standard within the Shell Group.
In addition they have a clamp-on meter based upon the TransFlection TM principle. The word
TransFlection TM comes from the combination of Transit Time and Reflection, and illustrates that
velocity is determined by measuring the change in transit time of ultrasonic signals reflected by
moving bubbles or particles. In essence it boils down to measuring the velocity of bubbles/particles in
flowing liquid. It works on the basis of a quick scan correlation technique, i.e. as soon as minimum
correlation is found the velocity of the bubble can be calculated. To perform the quick scan
correlation technique, a powerful co-processor is required for iterative calculations.
NOTE:

1.

If no bubbles or particles are present this principle will not work. For the PER+ project some clamp-on
TM

TransFlection
meters were successfully used since the in-line meters according to the transit-time
principle failed as a result of bubble flow (flashing off of dissolved gas) or oil droplets in water (bad oil/water
separation).
2.

13.10.1.2

Such a clamp-on meter can also be used to detect whether bubble flow is present.

Spool piece configurations

Each spool piece is tailor made by Panametrics for its application. Hence the client has a certain
freedom as far as the configuration of nozzles, buffer rods and location of interrogation path(s) is
concerned.
13.10.1.3

Flow profile factor (Kre)

For meters with one or more interrogation paths located on the centre line of the spool piece,
Panametrics uses its proprietary formula:
V = Kre * Vaxis
For the laminar region Kre = 0.75;
For the transitional region Kre = 0.85;
For the turbulent region Kre varies from 0.91 - 0.99 ( Kre =

1
).
a blog Re

Coefficients a and b are proprietary to Panametrics.


NOTE:

In the turbulent region, Panametrics assumes a Fully Developed Velocity Profile, hence for a Plug Type Velocity
Profile, Kre must be set at 1. If the interrogation path is located at mid radius, Kre to be set at 1 as well.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 85

31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit-time flow meter

13.10.1.4

Rev. --

Transducers

Transducers are available in welded and flanged design.


Acoustic shortcut resistant transducers are available using patented bundled waveguide
technology TM (BWT) TM system. They can be used in gas, steam and liquid service.
NOTES:

13.10.1.5

TM

1.

BWT

= Trade Mark of Panametrics, USA.

2.

BWT
buffer rods are built from a bundle of slender rods having (sometimes) a diameter of approx. 1 mm,
rigidly held together by a thin walled tube into which they are welded. This proprietary design is almost free of
acoustic short cut since only 2% of the ultrasonic energy passes through the thin walled tube.

3.

For hydrogen service, wall thickness to cope with pressure build-up in case of hydrogen diffusion, if depressurised to atmosphere.

TM

Electronics

Their electronics, provided with 230 VAC supply, have as an option a riding through facility in
order to survive a power gap of <= 250 ms.
NOTE:

13.10.1.6

This option to be ordered for essential meters if 230 VAC supply comes from an Automatic Change-Over (ACO)
distribution board.

Software features

Automatic switch-over from two interrogation paths to one path and vice versa is available.
NOTE:

Employ this feature with caution: It is only feasible for very strong signals and low noise levels, otherwise the meter
may trigger on nuisance spike(s), resulting in spurious measurements.

Window tracking, no fixed time window set, i.e. meter will search to find the receiving signal.
NOTE:

13.10.1.7

Employ this feature with caution: Window tracking will degrade the response time.

Split delivery

The design of the current line of spool pieces, transducers and electronic parts allows split delivery.
Hence the spool piece can be delivered first and the transducers and electronics can be delivered later
for mounting and commissioning.

13.10.2

Make: Krohne

13.10.2.1

General

Krohne can deliver clamp-on as well as in-line ultrasonic flow meters, working in accordance with the
transit-time principle. Their in-line meters are suitable for gas, steam and liquid service.
Furthermore, they have a package available for refinery fuel gas measurement, consisting of an
ultrasonic flow meter and a microprocessor to calculate the molecular weight from the VOS. For the
method and formulae used refer to Section 13.11 (Application note on MW calculation for refinery
fuel gas).
13.10.2.2

Electronics

Their electronics with 230 VAC supply are not provided with a riding through facility to survive a
power gap of <= 250 ms.
NOTE:

Page 86

For essential control functions and IPF, 24 VDC supply is to be used.

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Ultrasonic transit time flow meter

31/05/99

Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas

13.11

Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas

13.11.1

Nomenclature
TABLE 13.3: NOMENCLATURE

13.11.2

Symbol

Description

Dimension

a, b
Co
k
kav

constants
velocity of Sound
specific heat ratio
average specific heat ratio

m/s
-

K0 , K1
K2 , K3
MW
MWav
MWcalc
MWcor
P
Pc
Pcav

R
T
Tc
Tcav
Z
Zav

constants
constants
molecular weight
average molecular weight
calculated molecular weight
corrected molecular weight
absolute pressure
critical pressure
average critical pressure
density
universal gas constant
absolute temperature
critical temperature
average critical temperature
compressibility factor
average compressibility factor

Pa (N/m2)
Pa (N/m2) absolute
Pa (N/m2) absolute
kg/m3
8314.41 J/(kmol K)
Kelvin
Kelvin
Kelvin
-

MW calculation

From public literature it is known that the VOS (C) and density () for an ideal gas are related by the
Co = kP
(21)
following formula:
The density () is:

= MW P
Z RT

(22)

From (21) and (22) it can be derived that:


MW = k RT Z
2
Co

(23)

Since the composition of the gas mixture will not be constant, its specific heat ratio (k) is not constant
either. For gases other than H2, C2H6 and C3H8, the specific heat ratio (k) will vary substantially with
the percentage of the components in the gas mixture. One way of dealing with this is to approach the
relationship between the specific heat ratio (k) and the molecular weight (MW) as a first order
polynomial:
kav = a + b * MWav

(24)

Constants a and b have to be determined by experiment. For refinery fuel gas, a has been
derived as 1.428 and b as minus 0.006062 (see Section 13.11.3), which results in:
kav = 1.428 - 0.0060602 * MWav

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

(25)

Page 87

31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit time flow meter

Rev. --

Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas


NOTE:

For each application it should be verified whether the factors given above are valid. If not, they have to be
determined for that case.

Substituting equation (25) into equation (23) yields:


MWav =

1.428
(Co2 /RT Z ) + 00060602
.

(26)

For the equation of the compressibility factor, the equation of Roberts and Miller is used, being:

T 2 T

c
9
P

Z = 1+ * 1 6 * c
64 Pc
T T

(27)

Here again there is the problem that Pc and Tc vary with the composition of the gas mixture. To
calculate the average values (Pcav and Tcav ), use can be made of a method developed by Gasunie,
which is known as the Eykman Molecular Refraction (EMR) method.
NOTE:

For the EMR method refer to Gasunie publication: Physical Properties of Natural Gases, issue June 1988,
Section 2, pages 35 to 44.

Consequently, equation (27) will now read:

T
Zav = 1+ 9 P * 1 6* c av

64 Pcav
T

2
T cav

(28)

To allow a correction in the field for the MWav as calculated by equation (28), the following
polynomial is used for final tuning:
2
3
MWcor = K 0 + K1 MWcalc + K2 MWcalc + K3 MWcalc

(29)

For MWcor = MWcalc , constants to be set at: K0, K2, K3 = 0 and K1 = 1


NOTE:

The field correction using equation (29) has been introduced for the sake of transparency so that in the event of
deviations the original parameters of the approximation formulae need not be changed. This covers deviations of
the constants K0, K1, K2 and K3 from the reference case (K0, K2, K3 = 0 and K1=1).

13.11.3

Relation between specific heat ratio (k) and MW for refinery fuel
gas

In order to derive the constants in the first order polynomial kav = a + b MWav (24) for refinery fuel
gas for furnaces, the following assumptions are made:
The refinery fuel gas will mainly consist of hydrogen (H2) and paraffins (Cn H2n+2);
If the refinery fuel gas composition varies, such variation will mainly affect the hydrogen and the
paraffins C2H6 and C3H8. Other components will be far less affected.
NOTE:

If the composition of the refinery fuel components other than H2, C2H6 and C3H8 varies considerably, substantial
errors could occur in the k av approximation.

Page 88

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Ultrasonic transit time flow meter

31/05/99

Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas

Typical refinery fuel gas taken as reference case:


Table 13.4: Refinery fuel gas reference case
Component

Mol. Weight in %

k = Cp/Cv

MW

max.

min

average
time
weighted

H2

69.60

35.00

52.30

1.41

2.02

CH4

8.58

10.40

9.49

1.31

16.04

CO2

0.19

0.30

0.245

1.30

44.01

N2

1.45

4.10

2.775

1.40

28.01

Sub total

79.82

49.80

64.81

C2H6

6.03

17.10

11.565

1.255

30.07

C3H8

2.64

17.30

9.97

1.14

44.1

C4H10

10.73

11.70

11.215

1.09

58.22

C5H12

0.48

1.20

0.84

1.07

72.14

Sub total

19.88

47.30

33.59

Total

99.70

97.10

98.4

The average molecular weight will be calculated as follows:


984
. MWav = % H 2 MWH 2 +

(%C2H 6 + %C3H 8)( MWC2H 6 + MWC3H 8 )


+ ( MW (i)others%(others )
2
i

(30)
Furthermore:

Report OP 99-30287

%C2H 6 + %C3H 8 = % MWtot .average % H 2 %(others )

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

(31)

Page 89

31/05/99

Ultrasonic transit time flow meter

Rev. --

Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas

Table 13.5: Components other than H2 , C2 H6 and C3 H8


Component

Mol. Weight in %
max.

k = Cp/Cv

min

average
time
weighted

MW

MW

MW

X
average
time
weighted

X
k = Cp/Cv

152.2196

12.4319

CH4

8.58

10.4

9.49

1.31

16.04

CO2

0.19

0.3

0.245

1.30

44.01

10.78245

0.3185

N2

1.45

4.1

2.775

1.40

28.01

77.72775

3.885

C4H10

10.73

11.7

11.215

1.09

58.22

652.9373

12.22435

C5H12

0.48

1.2

0.84

1.07

72.14

60.5976

0.8988

954.2647

29.75855

Total

24.565

Hence, the term %(others) equals: 24.565. Substitution thereof in (31) yields:
% C 2 H 6 + % C 3 H 8 = 98 .4 % H 2 24.565

(32)

or:
% C 2 H 6 + % C 3H 8 = % H 2 + 73.835

(33)

Substitution of equation (33) into equation (30) yields:


. )(30.07 + 441
. ) + 9542647
984
. MWav = % H 2202
. + (% H 2 + 73835
.
2

(34)

Reduction of equation (34) yields:


MWav = 3751
. 03564
.
% H2

(35)

In a similar way kav can be expressed as:


984
. kav = % H 2 kH 2 +

(%C2H 6 + %C3H 8)(kC 2H 6 + kC3H 8)


+ (k(i)others%(others )
2
i

(36)

Substituting of equation (33) into equation (36) yields:


. )(1255
.
+ 114
. ) + 29.75855
984
. kav = % H2141
. + (% H 2 + 73835
2

(37)

Reduction of equation (37) yields:


kav = 1201
. + 000216
.
% H 2

(38)

Making the term %H2 explicit from equation (38) yields:


.
% H 2 = kav 1201
000216
.

(39)

Substitution of equation (39) into equation (35) yields after reduction:


kav = 1428
. 0006062
.
MWav

Page 90

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

(40)

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Ultrasonic transit time flow meter

31/05/99

Application note on MW calculation for refinery fuel gas

Verification of approximation formula: kav = 1428


. 0006062
.
MWav (40) related to pure gas:
Table 13.6: Verification
Component

Mol. Weight

kav [*]

(kav -k)/k
*100%

H2

2.02

1.415758

1.41

0.41

CH4

16.04

1.330794

1.31

1.59

CO2

44.01

1.161291

1.30

-10.67

N2

28.01

1.258254

1.40

-10.12

C2H6

30.07

1.24577

1.255

-0.74

C3H8

44.1

1.160745

1.14

1.82

C4H10

58.22

1.075175

1.09

-1.36

C5H12

72.14

0.990817

1.07

-7.40

[*] kav = 1.428-0.0060602*MW


NOTE:

For pure gases H2, CH4, C2H6, C3H8 and C4H10, the approximation fits within +/- 2%.
For pure gases C5H12 and above, the approximation gives significantly larger errors.
For non-combustible pure gases CO2 and N2, the approximation gives errors of minus 10% to minus 11%.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 91

31/05/99

Electric Magnetic flow meter

14.

ELECTRIC MAGNETIC FLOW METER

14.1

Introduction

14.1.1

General

Rev. --

Electric Magnetic flow meters (EM meters) can only be used in liquid service with sufficient electric
conductivity (typically > 5 S/cm). They operate according to Faradays law of magnetic induction.
With the new electronics, which enables electric magnetic field switching using direct current, they
have become more accurate and reliable.
NOTES:

1.

Electric Magnetic meters are also referred to as Magnetic Inductance meters (MI-meters) or as
Magnetic Inductance Devices (MIDs).

2.

S/cm equals mho/cm.

3.

In fact the concept of measuring the volumetric flow of a liquid with sufficient electric conductivity using a
magnetic field is fairly old and dates back to the late 1930s.

EM meters are bi-directional velocity profile dependent volume flow meters.


Since volume flow is in most cases not relevant for plant operation purposes, their output is
correlated to mass flow assuming a fixed actual liquid density (reference density) under operating
conditions. Deviations in actual density will cause a misreading in mass flow which is inversely
proportional to the deviation compared with the reference density.
NOTE:

14.1.2

Orifice meters are actual volume flow meters as well, but by correlating their output to mass flow, the effect of
variations in actual density as compared with the reference density is smaller since they are not linearly dependent
on the actual density but on the square root of the actual density.

Flow variations (oscillating flow)

If the oscillating frequency is close to the excitation frequency of the magnetic field, the measurement
will become afflicted with substantial errors, resulting in entirely wrong meter readings.
Flow oscillations shall be well below magnetic field excitation frequency to avoid errors in reading.

14.1.3

Mechanical vibration

EM meters are in general not susceptible to mechanical (pipe) vibration.

14.1.4

Pressure drop

EM meters are non-intrusive meters and line-size meters will cause negligible pressure drop.

14.2

Principle of operation

14.2.1

General

The principle of operation is based on Faradays law of magnetic induction which states that the
Electric Magnetic Force (EMF) induced in a conductor, as it moves in a magnetic field in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, is proportional to the velocity of that conductor
(Vc), its length in the magnetic field (Lc) and the magnetic flux () crossed. Hence expressed in
formula:
EMF = Vc * Lc *

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The EM meter, as depicted in figure 14.1, consists of a pipe of non magnetic, electrically
non conductive material, two magnet coils to generate the magnetic field and two insulated electrodes
to measure the induced voltage.
Legend:
Es
B
D
V

= induced signal voltage.


= magnetic flux.
= electrode spacing.
= average velocity of fluid.

Magnet Coil

Meter Tube
Measurement Electrode
V

B
D
E

x
ES

F IGURE 14.1: EM METER


(Picture taken from leaflet D184B002U08 (06/94) of Fisher & Porter GmbH)

In accordance with Faradays law of magnetic induction, the induced signal voltage will be:
Es = V * D * B
NOTE:

The pipe must be made of non magnetic material, otherwise the major part of the magnetic field will run through
the pipe instead through the fluid. It must be of electrically non conductive material to avoid a short cut of the
generated voltage. If electrically conductive material is used, the inner wall of the pipe and (raised face part)
surface of flanges have to be provided with an electrically insulating liner.
As a non magnetic material, stainless steel will often be used with an insulating liner.

Since the average velocity (V) of the fluid is proportional to the volume flow rate Qv
(Qv = /4 * D2 * V), the induced signal voltage is proportional to the volume flow rate: Es Qv.
NOTE:

14.2.2

It has been found that the velocity profile affects the induced voltage Es. Velocities closer to the electrodes have a
greater weight factor than velocities in the middle of the pipe. By modelling the magnetic field this effect can to a
certain extent be eliminated. Nevertheless, EM meters are velocity profile dependent.

Stray voltages

The induced voltage will be influenced by the following electric noise sources:
Static voltage between fluid and liner generated by the flowing fluid as it is rubbing the liner;
Galvanic voltage between electrodes and fluid.
NOTE:

14.2.3

Static voltage to be kept low by limiting the fluid velocity.

Magnetic field excitation voltage

To avoid polarisation effects (owing to the induced voltage between the electrodes, the fluid will
break down into positive and negative ions, which will move to the positive/negative electrode
depending on their electric charge), the excitation voltage shall be an alternating voltage.
14.2.3.1

Alternating voltage (50/60 Hz)

In earlier commercial EM meters the field excitation voltage was directly derived from the mains
supply voltage (110/220 VAC, 50/60 Hz). The induced signal voltage was simply rectified and
converted into an analogue output (4-20 or 10-50 mA).

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Electric Magnetic flow meter

Rev. --

As a consequence thereof these meters were susceptible to:


variations in mains supply voltage;
variations in frequency;
variations in stray voltage resulting in relatively large zero errors.
NOTE:

1.

In todays EM meters using alternating voltage, an auxiliary reference voltage is used derived from the mains
supply and compared with a constant voltage. By determining the ratio between the reference voltage and the
constant voltage the induced signal voltage can be compensated electronically for variations in the excitation
voltage.

2.

Variations in frequency will also introduce an error since the alternating current through the magnetic coils is
frequency dependent, and as the magnetic field strength is related to the current times the number of coils,
the magnetic field strength will vary with frequency.

14.2.3.2

Pulsed DC and switched voltage

Using this technique, error sources can be eliminated to a large extent. A voltage regulated DC unit is
used to keep the magnetic flux constant at the measuring sample time. To avoid the polarisation
effect, the polarity of the DC voltage is periodically reversed.

Magnetic
Flux

Time

Voltage
between
electrodes

Es

Vm1

Vs
S1

Vs

Vs =Stray
voltage

Time

Es

Vm2

S2
Sample time

F IGURE 14.2: P ULSED DC AND SWITCHED VOLTAGE


(Picture taken from; Technisch Handboek voor Electrischmagnetische Doorstromingsmeters,
Rev.3., by A.J. Westendorp/L.P. Groenenboom, Elsag Bailey Hartmann & Braun)

By switching on the DC voltage, it will take some time (rise time) to build up the magnetic field. After
the rise time, the induced voltage is integrated over the sample time (S1) and the averaged measured
voltage (Vm1) is determined. After the sample time, the DC voltage is reversed and as a result the
polarity of the magnetic field will be reversed as well. Again, after the magnetic field has reached its
maximum value, the induced voltage is measured and integrated over the sample time (S2) and
subsequently its average is determined (Vm2 ).

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Electric Magnetic flow meter

31/05/99

The next step is that Vm2 is subtracted from Vm1. By doing so the stray voltage will be cancelled out
and the induced voltage will be doubled.
NOTE:

Vm1 = Es + Vs
Vm2 = -E s + Vs
Vm1 - Vm2 = (E s + Vs ) - (-E s + Vs )

2*Es .

By reversing the flow direction, the end result will be: minus 2*Es , so by observing the sign of the induced voltage
forward and backward flow can be detected.

The frequency of the pulsed DC voltage is normally derived from the mains frequency, using a digital
divider block. Hence, for a mains frequency of 50 HZ, the pulsed DC voltage frequency could be 25,
12.5 or 6.25 Hz depending on the rise time of the magnetic coils.

14.3

Meter characteristics

14.3.1

General

EM meters can handle all kinds of liquids, slurries, pastes, pulps etc. as long as the fluid has sufficient
electric conductivity.
Depending on the nature of the magnetic field excitation (alternating or pulsed DC voltage) and on the
electrode used (wetted/non wetted type) the minimum required electric conductivity and maximum
velocity will typically be:
Table 14.1: Typical values for minimum electric conductivity and maximum velocity
Magnetic field
excitation

Electrodes

Min. req. elec.


conductivity

Max. velocity (refer


to note 2 below)

230 VAC, 50/60 Hz

wetted

> 20 S/cm

10-12 m/s

230 VAC, 50/60 Hz

wetted

> 0.5 S/cm

1 m/s

Pulsed DC voltage

wetted

> 5 S/cm

10-12 m/s

Pulsed DC voltage

non wetted

> 0.05 S/cm

1 m/s

NOTES:

14.3.2

Remarks

with preamplifier

with capacitance
electrodes

1.

For minimum required electric conductivity, consult the Manufacturer.

2.

Maximum liquid velocity is limited in order to limit static voltage generated as a result of friction of the liquid
against the liner.

3.

Meters with Pulsed DC voltage having wetted electrodes have been used most.

Calibration

EM meters will normally be calibrated by the Supplier on a flow rig using water. By calibrating the
meter, the relationship is determined between its input (actual volumetric flow) and output and is
expressed as volume per unit time(e.g. m3/h).
NOTE:

14.4

For flow rigs using water the electric conductivity of the water will be normally be 800 S/cm.

Electronic part

The electronic part can be an integral part of the EM meter or a separate (remote type) to be
mounted at a distance (e.g. hot applications).

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Electric Magnetic flow meter

Rev. --

Electronic earth and liquid measured shall have the same electric potential, consequently the meter
body, steel pipe and electronic earth of the (remote) electronic part are to be connected to each other
by an earth wire.
If steel piping is provided with a liner as well, which acts as an electric insulation, or if the pipe is of
non electric conducting material, the use of earth ring(s) is mandatory.
NOTE:

1.

Requirements for earth connections, as indicated by the Manufacturer, shall be strictly adhered to.

2.

Earth connections to be protected against corrosion.

N.B.: Input circuits have a high impedance and the length of cable delivered by the Manufacturer for
connection between meter head and remote electronics could influence the minimum required electric
conductivity of the fluid. Do not change the cable length between meter head and remote electronics
without the (written) consent of the Manufacturer.

14.5

Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation

EM meters will have a very low pressure loss. Use of concentric reducers to increase velocity to
achieve a better Turn Down Ratio (operating window) will increase the permanent pressure loss.
Cavitation to be avoided.

14.6

Pressure and temperature correction

14.6.1

Pressure correction

The influence of pressure is negligible in normal applications.

14.6.2

Temperature correction

14.6.2.1

Cross-sectional error

Thermal expansion of the pipe spool will increase its cross-section. This will result in lower
instrument readings.
NOTE:

The cross-sectional area at an operating temperature of to can be found by following formula:

Ato = Atr 1+ a(to tr )


where:

Ato
Atr
tr
to

= Cross-sectional area at operating temperature (t o).


= Cross-sectional area at reference temperature (t r).
= reference temperature.
= operating temperature.
= area expansion coefficient.

If the range is not corrected for the difference between operating and reference temperature, the systematic error
() in percentage of the range will be:
=

At r At o
Atr

100% or = a t 100%
-5

For stainless steel (AISI 440) having an area expansion coefficient of 4.15 * 10
0.415% per 100 C difference will be encountered.

14.6.2.2

, a systematic error of minus

Electrode spacing error

Owing to the operating temperature, the electrode spacing (D) is increased by the factor (1 + *t).
NOTE:

is the linear expansion coefficient.

The effect on the general equation (Es = V * D * B) is that the induced voltage (Es) is increased by a
factor (1 + *t).

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Electric Magnetic flow meter

31/05/99

If the range is not corrected for the difference between operating and reference temperature the systematic error ()
in percentage of the range will be:
=

Es *(1+ *t ) E s
100% or = t 100%
Es

The area expansion coefficient () is approximately twice the linear expansion coefficient (), hence =2
1
2

-5

or = . For stainless steel (AISI 440) having an area expansion coefficient of 4.15 * 10

, a systematic error

of + 0.208% per 100 C difference will be encountered. The combined temperature effect will be: minus 0.415% +
0.208% = minus 0.208% per 100 C difference.

14.7

Application notes

14.7.1

General

The size of EM meters ranges from 1/8 inch (DN 3) to 120 inch (DN 3000). The low cut off point
for meters with wetted electrodes will be typically at 1% of the maximum fluid velocity (10 - 12 m/s).
The weak point of EM meters is their liner, installed to avoid electric short cut of the electrodes.
Even a pin hole in the liner will have a drastic impact. The same is true of wetted electrodes, i.e.
fouling will introduce an error. Severe fouling could eventually be cause the meter to cease operation.
EM meters are not to be installed adjacent to massive steel structures, which will lead to a
disturbance of the magnetic field, causing errors in reading.

14.7.2

Corrosion/erosion aspects

The material choice for the wetted parts (liner for electric insulation and the wetted electrodes) is of
paramount importance. Both shall be chemically resistant to the fluid to be measured. Furthermore,
for fluids containing hard solids particles, liner and electrode material to be resistant against abrasive
working of particles.
For the choice of liner and electrode material, consult the Manufacturer.
NOTE:

14.7.2.1

For liner and electrode material refer to Appendix 1. Appendix 1 is to be used as a guideline only. The corrosion
engineer to approve materials chosen for liner and electrodes.

Liner

Typical materials for liners are:


Rubber
Neoprene, natural rubber and other rubbers. Widespread use in water service containing no hard
particles (e.g. sand, pebbles). Resistance against erosion is poor.
PTFE
Frequently used. Cannot be permanently fixed to a pipe spool, hence not to be used for
sub-atmospheric pressures. If inadvertently exposed to sub-atmospheric pressures, the liner will
collapse. Resistance against erosion is moderate.
PFA
PFA to be used with stainless steel wiring as reinforcement in order to become dimensionally
stable. PFA has an increased resistance against erosion.
NOTE:

To minimise the wear effect of abrasive fluids on rubber, PTFE or PFA, the limitation of maximum velocity (e.g.
below 3.5 m/s) and use of edge protectors (see below) are to be considered. By limiting the maximum velocity the
low cut off point remains the same, resulting into a smaller Turn Down Ratio (operating window).

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Electric Magnetic flow meter

Rev. --

Ceramic
Fused aluminium oxide. Pipe spool can be of solid ceramic or made of stainless steel with a
ceramic liner. Because of its excellent dimensional stability, it is suitable for very high pressures
and temperatures. Excellent resistance against erosion.
All ceramics are fragile, hence vulnerable to thermal/mechanical shock and stresses (stress free
installation is mandatory).
NOTE:

Ceramics have a very low expansion coefficient, hence the associated temperature error will be low.

14.7.2.2

Edge protectors

The inner diameter of the liner can be smaller than the mating pipe flanges (not flush mounted).
Moreover, as a result of the force exerted by the flange bolts, the soft liner will protrude in the flow
path even further. As consequence of the above, the liner at the meter flange will be exposed to direct
impact of hard solids and will, at that spot, erode at an increased rate.
To avoid this happening, Shell Pernis makes use of edge protectors. In fact, the edge protectors used
are earth rings with a cylindrical extension as depicted below:

Earth ring with protecting


edge

F IGURE 14.3: EARTH RING WITH PROTECTING EDGE


NOTES:

1.

Home-made edge protectors have been successfully applied at Shell Pernis to protect rubber liner in erosive
services.

2.

Screwed-on metal protector (earth) rings are optionally available as well.

14.7.2.3

Electrodes

Typical materials for wetted electrodes are stainless steel (DIN 1.4571), titanium, tantalum, Hastelloy
C and platinum.
Electrodes are normally fixed mounted. Retractable electrodes are available which can be removed
and cleaned or replaced without the need to de-pressurise and empty the process line.
NOTES:

1.

Removal of electrodes at high pressures (>60 bar (ga)) is not advocated.

2.

Depending on the process liquid (toxicity of fluid) de-pressurise first, prior to removal of electrodes.

14.7.3

Fouling service

In fouling service, the fouling of the wetted electrodes is the major threat. Fouled electrodes will
cause erroneous readings and eventually cause that the meter to cease operation.
In such cases non wetted electrodes or retractable wetted electrodes are to be used.
NOTES:

Page 98

1.

If severe fouling requires the pipe work to be regularly cleaned by a cleaning procedure using an agent, be sure
that the agent will not attack the liner and electrode material and that electrodes will be cleaned as well.

2.

Alternatively, electrodes can be cleaned by applying a high voltage and burning them clean (ref. SNCs latex
plant). Consult the Manufacturer for such a procedure.

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Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Electric Magnetic flow meter

14.7.4

Multiple phase flow

14.7.4.1

Bubble flow

31/05/99

EM meters will continue to operate with bubble flow, provided the proportion of gas is within 5
volume % of total flow and bubbles are homogeneously distributed.
NOTE:

14.7.4.2

Can be used if dissolved gases are flashing off from the liquid owing to a slight decrease in pressure. Mounting in
vertical line to be preferred for equal distribution of bubbles. Consult Manufacturer on the possible effect on the
minimum required electric conductivity.

Stratified flow

As long as the electrodes are fully submerged by the liquid, the EM meter will continue to operate.
NOTE:

Meters for partially filled pipes, being a combination of an EM meter with its electrodes in the lower half of the pipe
(10% from the bottom) and a level meter, using capacitance type probes to measure the height of the liquid in the
pipe, are available (e.g. make Krohne, type TIDAFLUX IFM 4110 PF). So far, no experience is available at
Shell Pernis.

14.8

Engineering notes

14.8.1

General

Since the prerequisite for proper functioning of the EM meter is sufficient electric conductivity of the
fluid to be measured, it shall be assured that in all operational cases the minimum requirements for
electric conductivity will be met.
NOTE:

14.8.2

In some water processing applications it may occur that during plant start-up, the water run down of a plant
contains insufficient contaminants to meet the requirements for electric conductivity. If so, the use of an EM meter
will mean that during this stage operations are running blind.

Sizing

Process designers will normally design pipe lines for liquids so that the velocity will be typically
between 1 and 5 m/s. The target velocity will be approx. 1.5 m/s. In large pipe sizes, higher velocities
in the range of 1- 5 m/s may be chosen (depending on pressure loss) to reduce size and thus the cost
and weight of pipes.
As the minimum velocity of EM meters will be typically 0.3 - 0.5 m/s concentric reducers may be
required to increase the velocity in order to achieve the required Turn Down Ratio (operating
window).

14.8.3

High temperature meters

If high temperature meters require (steam) heat tracing, the tracing pipes should be coiled around the
instrument casings using spacers, as the meters have no steam jacket.
Meters provided with a ceramic spool or liner require special care when put into operation.
NOTE:

14.8.4

Meters with a ceramic spool or liner are costly. Moreover they require a stress free mounting (refer to Section 14.9:
Installation Notes). Hence, for high temperature applications an ultrasonic meter may be a commercially better
solution.

Instrumented Protective Functions

For combined control functions and IPFs, two (2) independent, fully segregated output signals have
to be generated. Consequently, two EM meters to be arranged in series.
NOTE:

If no corresponding flow measurement for indication, recording or control is available, the EM meter serving the IPF
shall be designed as described above to allow for automatic Measurement Validation and Comparison (MVC).

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14.8.5

Electric Magnetic flow meter

Rev. --

Electric supply

Electric supply of 24 VDC is preferred. If a supply voltage of 230 VAC is used, note that a power
gap of max. 250 ms may be introduced by the Automatic Switch-Over (ACO) device of the ACO
board.
NOTE:

14.9

For essential meters having 230 VAC supply, a riding through facility is to be provided in order to survive a power
gap of 250 msec.

Installation notes

Refer also to Section 7 (General Installation Requirements).

14.9.1

Orientation of wetted electrodes

EM meters to be mounted so that the axis of electrodes is in horizontal position, to counteract fouling
and the accumulation of gas bubbles at the location of the electrodes.

F IGURE 14.4: ORIENTATION OF WETTED ELECTRODES

14.9.2

Stress free installation

To ensure stress free installation, as required for EM meters having a ceramic spool or liner, the ends
of process pipe are to be rigidly supported using pipe stanchions or double clamped cradle/pipe shoe
supports for lined pipe.

F IGURE 14.5: P IPE STANCHION

F IGURE 14.6: CRADLE/PIPE SHOE

DEP 31.38.01.29-Gen. : Pipe supports


supports

DEP 31.38.01.29-Gen. : Pipe

Furthermore to have a stress free installation, a flanged spool piece for pipe flange alignment is to be
used.

14.9.3

Gaskets

To avoid damage by imprints in the (soft) liner, spiral-wound metal gaskets must not be used.
Graphite gaskets must not be used either, because under certain conditions a graphite layer, which is
electrically conductive, may be deposited on the inside wall of the meter.
Instead, gaskets are to be used which will not make imprints in the liner, e.g. PTFE envelope gaskets.

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14.9.4

Electric Magnetic flow meter

31/05/99

Bolt tensioning

To avoid damaging the liner, the bolt torquing procedure indicated by the Manufacturer shall be
strictly adhered to.
NOTE:

14.9.5

If liner cracks, the meter will become useless and will have to be replaced by a new one.

High temperature meters (steam traced)

Before the instrument is put into operation, the instrument shall be heated up slowly by gradually
supplying steam. Normally, the temperature rise should not exceed 100 C per hour in order not to
damage the ceramic spool or liner during heat-up.

14.9.6

Earth connection and invariable use of earth rings

Correct earth connections are a prerequisite for the proper functioning of EM meters (refer to Section
14.4: Electronic part). Consequently the Manufacturers guidelines shall be strictly adhered to.
To avoid problems with gaskets and earth connections as mentioned above, it may be sensible to
specify the use of earth rings for each EM meter application. By doing so, it shall be ensured by
proper instruction and supervision of the installation contractor that no gaskets are used between the
earth rings and liner of meter flanges. One way to avoid the accidental use of the wrong kind of
gasket and consequential damage of the liner is to order meters with screwed-on (earth) rings, which
are available as an option.
NOTE:

For all large and expensive meters, screwed-on (earth) rings are to be considered.

F IGURE 14.7: SCREWED-ON METAL PROTECTOR (EARTH) RING

14.9.7

Ingress of moisture

Since the electronic input circuit is of a high impedance type, ingress of moisture will cause
malfunction.

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Coriolis mass flow meter

Rev. --

15.

CORIOLIS MASS FLOW METER

15.1

Introduction

15.1.1

General

Coriolis mass flow meters can be used on a wide range of liquids and gases. In gas applications a
minimum actual density (typical 4.5 kg/m3) is required in order to generate sufficient magnitude of
Coriolis force, which is mass related.
Note by the SIOP editor:
In the past, Suppliers application guidelines called for a minimum gas density of 4.5 kg/m3. Tests
have however shown, that this figure is too restrictive and that no hard density limit is known. The
size of the meter and loss of accuracy may become prohibitive as the flowing density becomes lower.
NOTE:

Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis (1792 - 1843) a French engineer, discovered and calculated the acceleration force
exerted on mass in an orbit while moving it away from/to its centre of rotation, as being:
Fc = -2 * m * *V.
where:
Fc
m

M
=
=
=
=

V
ANGULAR VELOCITY

Coriolis force (N)


Mass (kg)
Angular velocity (rad/s)
Velocity (m/s)

Fc

F IGURE 15.1: ACCELERATION FORCE

Coriolis mass flow meters measure directly the mass flow rate. To generate the Coriolis force the
fluid has to be exposed to an angular velocity () and a velocity (V) from/to the centre of rotation. To
fulfil this requirement, a tube having an U or shape is generally used and brought into vibration
at its natural frequency.
Since the natural frequency of a body (tube) is directly proportional to the square root of its mass, the
actual density can be determined as well by measuring the natural frequency of the fluid filled tube.
Hence most Coriolis mass flow meters will have as an option a second output for actual density.
Coriolis mass flow meters are bi-directional, velocity profile independent mass flow meters. Being
velocity profile independent they require no straight length requirements up/downstream of the meter,
as required for velocity profile dependent meters.

15.1.2

Flow variations (oscillating flow)

If the oscillating frequency (and higher harmonics) falls within the natural frequency range of the
vibrating tube the measurement will become afflicted with substantial errors, resulting in entirely
wrong meter readings.

15.1.3

Mechanical vibration

Coriolis meters are extremely susceptible to mechanical vibration interfering with the natural
frequency of the tube(s). Absolute stress and vibration free installation of the meter is a must.

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15.1.4

Coriolis mass flow meter

31/05/99

Pressure drop

U and shaped Coriolis flow meters cause the pressure to drop (pressure gradient) as the flow is
increased, resulting in a permanent pressure loss. Consequently, liquids near their boiling point could
introduce cavitation as the pressure across the meter drops below the vapour pressure of the liquid
(forming of vapour bubbles). As soon as the pressure recovers above the vapour pressure the bubbles
implode.
Cavitation will cause the meter to malfunction and this should be avoided at all times.
NOTE:

15.2

The cross-section of the tube(s) is normally smaller than the cross-section of the line pipe to increase the velocity
(v) in order to create higher Coriolis forces. The latter holds good for Coriolis meters with straight measuring tubes
as well. Consequently, the pressure drop will increase accordingly.

Principle of operation

In the figure below, an U-shaped tube is shown, consisting of a rigid base and a thin walled tube.
The tube is brought into vibration at its natural frequency by the use of a pot and driving coil device.
Consequently, it is vibrating around axis O - O.
FLOW

L
mV

F2

r2
mV

r1

F1

F IGURE 15.2: P RINCIPLE OF OPERATION


(Picture taken from Fisher-Rosemount Product Data sheet NL-MM1 3/95)

If the tube is filled with fluid, the fluid is vibrating too, hence tube and fluid are exposed to a certain
partial orbit. Under no flow conditions (V=0), no Coriolis force will be present.
NOTE:

Fc = -2 * m * * V; with V =0, Fc will be zero.

Consequently, the filled tube is just vibrating at its natural frequency as depicted below.

O
R

deviation
O

F IGURE 15.3: VIBRATING TUBE


(Picture taken from Fisher-Rosemount Product Data sheet NL-MM1 3/95)
NOTE:

The tube deviation with respect to its O - O axis is sinusoidal, hence the angular velocity () is co-sinusoidal thus
the maximum velocity will occur at a deviation equal to zero. The maximum deviation will be in the order of
magnitude of approximately 1 mm.

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Coriolis mass flow meter

Rev. --

As soon as the fluid commences to flow (V 0), Coriolis forces will be generated. The Fc will be
perpendicular to the flow direction. Furthermore, the Coriolis forces in both legs of the U will be in
opposite directions, because the flow direction is counter directed in both legs.
In the figure below the above has been depicted:
FLOW

FLOW

DIRE

CTIO

Fc

DIRE

CTIO

Fc

tube movement

F IGURE 15.4: CORIOLIS FORCES


(Picture taken from Fisher-Rosemount Product Data sheet NL-MM1 3/95)

Under the influence of the counter directed Coriolis forces (Fc) the tube is subjected to momentum M
being:
M = 2 * Fc * r ; hence M = 4 * m * V * * r
As a result of the momentum M, the tube starts to twist around its axis R - R, as depicted below:
Vt

sensor

X
sensor

TWIST ANGLE

TWIST ANGLE

Fc

Fc
tube movement

F IGURE 15.5: TUBE TWISTING


(Picture taken from Fisher-Rosemount Product Data sheet NL-MM1 3/95)
NOTE::

In the picture above, the twist angle is maximum. Angular velocity () is maximum at axis X - X (deviation is zero).

Since the twist angle () is proportional to the twisting momentum (M) divided by the tubes torque
4 mV
constant (Tc), ( = M ), equals:
r
Tc

Tc

Hence the twist angle is proportional to the mass (m), velocity (V) and angular velocity ().
NOTE:

So by just measuring the twist angle, the meter reading will be dependent on the angular velocity as well, i.e.
natural frequency related, thus density related.

Instead of measuring the twist angle, the time difference is measured between the passage of the legs
at the X - X axis. It appears that the tangential velocity (Vt) is related to the time difference (t) by
following formula:
sin = Vt t
2*r
NOTE:

Owing to time measurement precisely at the X - X axis, misalignment of the sensors (not stress free installation)
will result in a zero error.

Furthermore, the tangential velocity is equal to the product of radial velocity () and the distance
from the centre of rotation (L), thus:
Vt = * L

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Coriolis mass flow meter

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and substitution of the above formula yields:


sin = L t
2*r

Since for very small angles the value of the sinus of the angle approaches the value of the angle in
radials, another reduction can be made yielding:
= L t
2*r

Since the twist angle of a tube is equal to the momentum divided by the torque constant of the tube:
= M
Tc

and as M is equal to the Coriolis forces times the lever arm, the twist angle will be equal to:
= 4mV r
Tc

From both formulae for the twist angle (), i.e. = L t and = 4mV r , t can be made
2*r

Tc

explicit. By doing so, the following formula is derived:


t = 8*m*V *r
Tc

2
Tc

or t = 8r mV

From the formulae above, it is noticed that the angular velocity () has been cancelled out. Hence, t
is directly proportional to the term [m * V]. Thus by calibrating the Coriolis meter on a flow rig, its
relationship between output and mass flow rate can be established.
The fluid flow direction can be determined by observing which sensor at the X - X axis detects the
passage of its associated leg first, e.g. right hand leg first and then left hand leg. If the flow direction is
reversed, the passing sequence will be reversed as well, i.e. left hand leg first and then right hand leg.
Coriolis flow meters can be equipped with a single tube (small meters) or with two tubes. With two
tubes, tubes can be arranged in series or in parallel. In the parallel arrangement the measuring range
of the meter will be doubled.
For the proper working of a Coriolis mass flow meter it is essential that the fluid and tube are
vibrating with the same frequency with no phase lag between tube and fluid. The foregoing does not
hold good for two phase flow (gas/liquid or liquid/gas). As a result, two phase flow will result in
erratic behaviour of the meter and shall be avoided.

15.3

Meter characteristics

15.3.1

General

Coriolis mass flow meters are unaffected by the viscosity of the fluid, which makes them suitable to
measure slurries and emulsions. As long as the actual density is within the limits of the instrument,
Coriolis mass flow meters are not affected by density either.

15.3.2

Calibration

To establish the relationship between input (mass flow) and output of a Coriolis mass flow meter, the
meter has to be calibrated on a mass flow rig. For mass flow meters used in liquid service, water will
be normally used as a test medium. At various mass flow rates the mass delivered will be measured
using a weighbridge.
NOTE:

Using a weighbridge the mass is measured in air. For the absolute mass (related to mass measured in vacuum) a
correction factor is needed to compensate for the buoyancy force exerted by the surrounding air.

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For meters in gas service, flow rigs will be used with air or natural gas as a test fluid at an elevated
pressure level in conjunction with a density meter. During calibration, the mass flow rate as well as
the actual density reading of the meter will be determined.
NOTE:

15.3.3

The density reference meter to calibrate the density reading of the meter and used to calculate the mass will
determine the absolute density (density in vacuum), hence no correction is required.

Uncertainty in reading

Coriolis mass flow meters will measure the mass flow rate and actual density accurately irrespective
of the nature of the fluid as long as the flow is single phase and the fluid is homogeneous. Being
accurate, they are often used in custody transfer and critical reactor feed (ratio) controls and also in
streams where large variations in fluid composition will occur, which otherwise could not be
measured.
A weak point is their requirement for zero adjustment at operation conditions. The zero adjustment is
easily upset by not fully stress free installation of the meter.
The importance of the zero adjustment is also demonstrated in the formula for the uncertainty in the
reading of the meter, expressed as:
[(zero stability /flow rate)* 100]% x%,
where x varies between 0.10 and 0.30 % depending on the design of the meter.
NOTE:

15.4

Before the meter is taken in operation, a zero adjustment is required at operating conditions (pressure and
temperature). Consequently, facilities have to be provided (e.g. hand valves) so that under truly zero flow conditions
and with the meter completely filled, the zero of the meter can be adjusted. Otherwise the above formula given for
the uncertainty in reading is not true.

Electronic part

The electronic part can be an integral part of the Coriolis meter or a separate part (remote type) to be
mounted at a distance (e.g. hot applications). Most makes have a dual output, for flow rate and actual
density.
NOTE:

15.5

Electronics require a separate power supply connection (230 VAC or 24 VDC).

Pressure loss and avoidance of cavitation

Manufacturers will indicate the permanent pressure loss in their technical information sheets.
Furthermore, they will indicate the pressure conditions in liquid service to be adhered to, to avoid
cavitation.

15.6

Pressure and temperature correction

15.6.1

Pressure correction

The influence of pressure is dependent on the size of the tubes. Meters of size 2 inch and above in
high pressure applications could require pressure correction to compensate for deformation of the
tubes. Consult the Manufacturer.

15.6.2

Temperature correction

Both measurements (mass flow rate and actual density) require temperature correction. For the mass
flow rate the torque constant is temperature dependent and requires correction to avoid a systematic
error. In the determination of the actual density, the elasticity modulus (mechanical parameter) of the
tube(s), which is temperature dependent, exerts an influence.

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To perform both temperature corrections, a temperature sensor is mounted on the tube(s) to measure
its temperature. Temperature corrections will be automatically carried out by the instruments
microprocessor.

15.7

Application notes

15.7.1

General

At the current state of the art, the maximum size of Coriolis mass flow meters is restricted to 6 inch
(DN 150). They can handle pressures up to 100 bar (ga) over a temperature range of -240 to
+200 C.
High pressure/high temperature versions are commercially available to handle pressures up to 100
bar (ga) and temperatures up to 360 C, however with a restricted size of 3 inch (DN 80).
To match the required mass flow range of an application, some makes of Coriolis mass flow meters
allow the tubes to be arranged in parallel, but fouling/plugging aspects of the fluid to be measured, as
given below, must be taken into account.

15.7.2

Tube arrangement

Tubes can be arranged in series or in parallel. In parallel mode the instrument range will be doubled.
In principle, series arrangement is preferred for the reasons given below:
15.7.2.1

Fouling service

Fouling of the tubes can be twofold: homogeneous, i.e. the tube wall will be covered by a deposit
layer, or non homogeneous, i.e. no layer is formed but particles adhere to wall forming a heap.
15.7.2.1.1

Homogeneous fouling

In the event of homogeneous fouling of the tubes arranged in series, no error will be involved, as far
as the flow rate reading is concerned, since in both tubes the fluid velocity will be the same. As
fouling will increase over time, the pressure drop across the tubes will also increase, which in turn
may lead to cavitation of the liquid being measured.
NOTES:

1.

With parallel tubes fluid velocity per tube could be different leading to errors in the flow rate reading in the event
of significant difference in flow through both tubes.

2.

The actual density reading will be afflicted with an error for both tube arrangements (in series/parallel), since
the mass of the tube(s) will change accordingly as the tube(s) become(s) fouled.

15.7.2.1.2

Non homogeneous fouling

In the event of non homogeneous fouling, the meter reading will become afflicted with an error.
NOTE:

Such a case happened at the Propylene Oxide plant of Shell in Pernis with a catalyst flow, i.e. liquid with catalyst
particles in suspension.

15.7.2.2

Plugging

If severe fouling causes (partial) plugging of the tubes, the instrument (and pipe work) should be
cleaned by a proper flushing/purging procedure with a cleaning agent. With tubes in series the
instrument could stay in the line as part of the pipe work.
NOTE:

With tubes in parallel arrangement, the instrument should be removed from the line and cleaned as a separate
item.

To reduce their vulnerability to fouling, the tubes and manifold of the instrument can be made
smoother by micro-peening or electro-flash to reduce adhesive forces.
NOTES:

1.

Micro-peening is a process using glass pearls/pellets at high velocity to hammer the surface. By doing so, the
roughness peaks are hammered into the valleys, hence creating a very smooth surface.

2.

Electro-flash is a process using high tension voltage to flash off/burn off the roughness peaks.

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15.7.3

Rev. --

Corrosion and erosion aspects

Since Coriolis mass flow meters are equipped with thin wall tubes, no erosion/corrosion allowance is
taken into account during their design. Hence the material of the tubes is of paramount importance
for ensuring that no corrosion and/or erosion will take place in a particular application. Written
approval by the corrosion engineer will be required to confirm the proper choice of tube material in
respect of corrosion and/or erosion aspects of the application.
NOTES:

1.

For the corrosion rates of tube materials in various fluids, refer to Manufacturers corrosion guide. Such a
document is to be used as a guideline only.

2.

As erosion/corrosion progresses the wall thickness will deteriorate leading to too high a mechanical stress
level causing metal fatigue of the tubes in the long run, which could, depending on the design, lead to loss of
containment.

3.

Stainless steel metering tubes shall not be used for fluids containing halogens, even if only traces are involved,
otherwise stress corrosion will occur. Hastelloy tubes to be specified for applications containing halogens
(fluorine, chlorine, bromine etc.).

15.7.4

Fluid oscillations

If the oscillating frequency (and higher harmonics) fall within the (small) natural frequency range of
the meter, the measurement will become afflicted with substantial errors, resulting in entirely wrong
meter readings.
NOTES:

1.

Fluid variations well below the natural frequency range of the meter, e.g. those of small displacement pumps
without pulsation dampers used for injection of additives, can be measured accurately, since the sampling rate
of the meter will normally be sufficiently high to scan the fluid pulsation. Generally, Coriolis meters do not
require pulsation dampers to measure low frequency fluid pulsation.

2.

For precise dosing of additives using positive displacement pumps with variable stroke or digital stroke control,
no pulsation dampers are to be used, to avoid post injection by means of liquid accumulated in the damper
under pump discharge pressure.

15.7.5

Mechanical vibration

Coriolis mass flow meters are highly vulnerable to mechanical vibration. They shall be mounted
vibration free on rigid supports. Each piping end shall have two supports as given under
Section 15.9 (Installation notes). No matter what other installation information is provided, even by
Manufacturers, this type of rigid supporting is strongly advocated as it has proved to be successful for
all applications (more than 400) in use at Shell Pernis.

15.8

Engineering notes

15.8.1

General

The size of the meter with tubes in series arrangement should be optimum to accommodate the
operational range. For discontinuous flows (e.g. injection pumps) the maximum velocity through the
tubes, which must lie within the meters capabilities, is to be determined.
NOTES:

1.

As compared with volume flow meters, the sizing of Coriolis mass flow meters will be much easier since they
measure directly the mass flow. Nevertheless, appropriate sizing will still be required.

2.

For meters in gas service make sure that the minimum required actual density (typically 4.5 kg/m , but to be
confirmed by the Manufacturer) is not transgressed in any application.

Note from the SIOP editor:


3
In the past, Suppliers application guidelines called for a minimum gas density of 4.5 kg/m . Tests have
however shown that this figure is too restrictive and that no hard density limit is known. The size of the meter
and loss of accuracy may become prohibitive as the flowing density becomes lower.

For meters with tubes arranged in parallel, as well as for parallel meters, observe the application notes
given for fouling/plugging service.

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15.8.2

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High temperature meters

If high temperature meters require (steam) heat tracing, the tracing pipes should be coiled around the
instrument casings using spacers, as the meters have no steam jacket.
Meters provided with a high temperature resistant cement, which has the disadvantage that it is
hygroscopic, require special care when put into operation.

15.8.3

Zero adjustment

In order to adjust the zero under pressure and temperature conditions, the instrument must be
completely filled with fluid and the flow must be truly zero. To satisfy this requirement, a
(downstream) tight shut off hand valve adjacent to the meter is to be incorporated in the design
phase.

15.8.4

Electric supply

Electric supply of 24 VDC is preferred. If a supply voltage of 230 VAC is used, note that a power
gap of max. 250 ms may be introduced by the Automatic Switch-Over (ACO) device of the ACO
board.
NOTE:

For essential meters having 230 VAC supply, a riding through facility is to be provided in order to survive a power
gap of 250 msec.

15.8.5

Instrumented Protective Functions

For combined control functions and IPFs two (2) independent fully segregated output signals have to
be generated. Consequently, two Coriolis mass flow meters are to be arranged in series.
NOTES:

1.

Some makes can be delivered equipped with two sets of pick-ups for segregated outputs. The tubes are then
shared elements. So far, no experience with such a configuration is available within Shell Pernis.

2.

If no corresponding flow measurement for indication, recording or control is available, the Coriolis mass flow
meter serving the IPF shall be designed as described above to allow for automatic Measurement Validation
and Comparison (MVC).

To avoid interference between meters adhere to the line-up described for two meters in series in
Section 15.9 (Installation notes).

15.9

Installation notes

Refer also to Section 7 (General Installation Requirements).

15.9.1

Stress free installation

In order to have a stress free installation, a flanged spool piece shall be used for pipe flange
alignment.

15.9.2

High temperature meters (steam traced)

Before the instrument is put into operation, the instrument shall be heated up slowly by gradually
supplying steam. Normally, the temperature rise should not exceed 100 C per hour in order not to
damage the tubes, coils and sensors during heat-up.
For instruments having high temperature cement as electric insulation material ( 200 C), the
temperature rise should not exceed 25 C per hour, to drive out moisture slowly in order to avoid
cracking of cement.

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Coriolis mass flow meter

15.9.3

Rev. --

Zero adjustment

In order to zero the instrument under operating pressure and temperature a (downstream) tight shut
off hand valve is to be present to keep the instrument full of fluid at operating conditions and at zero
flow. The hand valve is to be outside of the line-up of the meter, having its own pipe end(s) support.

15.9.4

Transport lock

Be aware that most makes will have a facility to secure the tubes in a fixed position to avoid damage
during transport. This transport lock is to be removed before instrument is put into operation.
NOTE:

For heat insulated instruments, the lock to be removed before heat insulation is fitted.

15.9.5

Installation line-ups

15.9.5.1

General

The hand valve (downstream of meter) required for zero adjustment of the completely filled meter
under operating conditions at zero flow is to be located outside the line-ups described. The hand
valve to be adjacent to the meter line-up.
If use is made of bellows to guarantee an absolutely stress and vibration free mounting, the piece
between the meter and the hand valve is to be of pipe. Bellows to be placed both upstream of the
first pipe support of the meter (in the normal flow direction) and downstream of the hand valve.
NOTE:

The use of bellows, being weak spots in the line as far as pipe line integrity aspects are concerned (loss of
containment), is not advocated. So far, no bellows have been used at Shell Pernis with Coriolis mass flow meters.
With the installation procedures as given below all applications could be managed without the use of bellows.

Services below 150 C

15.9.5.2

Refer to figure 15.6.


Services of 150 C and above

15.9.5.3

Refer to figure 15.7.


NOTES:

15.9.5.4

1.

The outer pipe stanchions are replaced by cradle/pipe shoes with bolted clamps to accommodate the thermal
stress in the pipe work. The inner pipe stanchions are provided to keep the meter free from mechanical
vibration. The thermal stress as a result of the expansion of the rigid meter manifold piece is to be
accommodated by the pipe stanchions.

2.

This way of supporting has been successfully applied, even in applications with a temperature of 300 C
(SGHP plant, feed oil to reactors).

Services requiring self draining capability

Refer to figure 15.8.


NOTE:
Flow direction for liquids to be upward.
Flow direction for slurries to be upward.
Flow direction for gases to be downward.

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FIGURE 15.6: INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS FOR CORIOLIS FLOWMETERS


Service temperature below 150 C

Small Sizes

Concrete Wall / Column


or Welded to steel structure

small sizes

Pipe stanchion
DEP 31.38.01.29-Gen.
Pipe supports

Large Sizes

large sizes
Single meter
L
L
L

Concrete or
Steel Structure
(Heavy duty H-Beam)

L
L

L
L
L

Concrete or
Steel Structure
(Heavy duty H-Beam)

2 Meters in Series

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FIGURE 15.7: INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS FOR CORIOLIS FLOWMETERS


service temperature 150 C and above

Small Sizes

Concrete Wall / Column


or Welded to steel structure

small sizes
Pipe stanchion
DEP 31.38.01.29-Gen.
Pipe supports

Large Sizes
L

Single meter

large sizes

L
L

Concrete or
Steel Structure
(Heavy duty H-Beam)

Cradle/pipe shoe
DEP31.38.01.29-Gen.
Pipe supports

L
L

L
L
L

Page 112

2 Meters in Series
Concrete or
Steel Structure
(Heavy duty H-Beam)

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FIGURE 15.8: INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS FOR SELF DRAINING CORIOLIS


FLOWMETERS
Service temperature below 150 C

Small sizes
Concrete Wall / Column or welded to steel
structure

small sizes

Large sizes
Pipe stanchion
DEP 31.38.01.29-Gen.
Pipe supports

Single Meter

large sizes

Concrete or
Steel Structure
(Heavy duty H-Beam)

slo
pe

pe
slo

L
L

slop
e

pe
slo

slo
pe

pe
slo

L
L

Concrete or
Steel Structure
(Heavy duty H-Beam)

slo
pe

2 Meters in Series
Note:
Casing of meters to be
supported by adjustable
pipe stand to avoid torque
on meter flanges

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Thermal dispersion mass flow meter

Rev. --

16.

THERMAL DISPERSION MASS FLOW METER

16.1

Introduction

16.1.1

General

The use of thermal dispersion mass flow meters is very limited. They are used at Shell Pernis for
clean homogeneous gases e.g. air for combustion and/or cooling purposes.
They can work according to measuring principles known as:
Constant Power Anemometer (CPA)
Constant Temperature Anemometer (CTA)
CPA
Such meters tend to be rather sluggish in their response (20 - 60 seconds). Moreover, their zero point
stability is poor owing to the heat transfer by natural convection at low velocities and the relatively
high temperature of the heating element (constant power input). The use of meters working according
to the CPA method is not advocated and consequently not dealt with in this document.
CTA
Such meters have a relatively quick response (depending on the heat capacity of the internals) with a
rise time (90%) ranging from 1 to 3 seconds. Their zero stability is much better than that of meters
operating according to the CPA method. Owing to the effect of natural convection they exhibit a
slight zero error of approximately 0.1 m/s gas velocity.
Thermal mass flow meters are uni-directional velocity profile dependent mass flow meters. According
to their operating principle they cannot distinguish between forward and backward flow.

16.1.2

Flow variations (oscillating flow)

Thermal dispersion mass flow meters are not susceptible to flow oscillations. The heat capacity of the
probes will dampen the oscillations thus providing an average reading.

16.1.3

Mechanical vibration

Thermal dispersion mass flow meters are in general not vulnerable to mechanical vibration, providing
the frequency and magnitude will not damage the instruments internals by means of metal fatigue.

16.1.4

Pressure drop

Being a probe for spot measurement the pressure drop will be negligible.

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16.2

Principle of operation (CTA method)

16.2.1

Introduction

The CTA method is based on the principle of keeping the heat dissipation probe (Rp) at a fixed
differential temperature (typically 60 C ) above the surrounding gas temperature, measured by the
resistance type temperature probe (Rtc). Both electrical resistance type probes are configured into a
Wheatstone bridge, as depicted below:

Op- Amp

Rtc

18 - 24 VDC

Current sense voltage

Rp

200 - 500 mA
Temp.probe (Rtc)

Heating probe (Rp)

F IGURE 16.1: CTA TYPE THERMAL DISPERSION MASS FLOW METER


(Pictures taken from Introductie Thermal Mass Flowmeters,
by J. Weselius, 31/03/96, Kurz Instruments Inc.)

If there is equilibrium between the heat dissipated into the heat probe and heat removed by the
flowing gas, the Wheatstone bridge will be in equilibrium. As soon as more heat is removed from the
heating probe (Rp) by an increase of gas flow, its temperature will drop and its electrical resistance
will decrease and the Wheatstone bridge loses equilibrium. As a counter measure the Op-Amp will
increase the current to the bridge until it regains equilibrium. In the event of a decrease in gas flow the
process will be reversed.
If the gas temperature is changed, the resistance of the temperature probe (Rtc) will change
accordingly. The Op-Amp will restore equilibrium by increasing or decreasing the current to the
bridge to keep the heating probe at a fixed temperature differential above the gas temperature.

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The heat removed by the gas from the cylindrical heating probe in cross-flow is approximated by
Kings law [1]:
Q = As B + C * Re
ds

{ }n](ts ta )

Q = As B + C * t vt ds
ds

or

}n](ts ta )

where:
Q

heat removed

heat conductivity constant

ts

sensor temperature

heat conductivity coefficient of


gas

actual density of gas

ta

gas temperature

As

heated surface of heating probe

vt

gas velocity

Re

Reynolds number

ds

diameter of heating probe

gas viscosity

natural convection constant

constant varying between 1/3 and 1/2 for high and low velocity respectively

th

[1]

ISA 1992, 47 annual symposium, pages 107 - 113, by J. Kurz, characteristics and applications of industrial
mass flow transmitters.

NOTE:

In the formulae above the Prandtls number term (Pr ) is taken as a constant factor (for gases, the Prandtls term
is approximately 0.7 and does not vary much with temperature).

Pr =
where:
m =
=
Cp =
=

*C p

coefficient.
gas viscosity.
specific heat of gas.
heat conductivity coefficient of gas.

The heat dissipated into the heating probe is:


Q = I 2 * Rp

where Q = dissipated heat, I = heating current and Rp = resistance of heating probe.


Since the heat removed by the gas is equal to the heat dissipated by the current, Q can be eliminated
from both foregoing equations yielding:

} n] ts

As B + C * t vt ds

I = ds
Rp

ta )

If the gas velocity is zero (vt = 0), there will still be an electrical current present, being:
I=

As B( t t )
s a
ds
Rp

This residual current is caused by natural convection and results in a zero error of approx. 0.1 m/s. If
we assume that apart from the actual density of the gas (t) and gas velocity (vt) all the other
parameters are constant, the electrical current (I) is proportional to the square root of the product
kg
(t*vt). This product represents the mass flux per unit of time kg3 m
s = 2 .
m

m s

Multiplying the mass flow flux by the net cross-section of the pipe will yield the mass flow:
M f = t * v t * An
where Mf = mass flow, t = actual gas density, vt = gas velocity and An = pipe net cross-section.

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16.2.2

Sources of systematic errors

16.2.2.1

General

31/05/99

The foregoing assumption that apart from the actual density of the gas (t) and gas velocity (vt) all
other parameters are constant is not true in practice.
16.2.2.2

Heat conductivity coefficient (


) of gas

The heat conductivity coefficient differs from one gas to another. For a particular gas the heat
conductivity will be dependent on its temperature and to a lesser extent on its pressure. Hence the
main sources of systematic errors will be the variation in gas composition and the variation of the gas
temperature.
16.2.2.3

Viscosity of gas (
)

The viscosity differs from one gas to another. For a particular gas the viscosity will be dependent on
its temperature and on its pressure. Since however the variation in the heat conductivity coefficient
outweighs the variation in viscosity, any variation in viscosity will result in systematic errors of the
second order.
16.2.2.4

Differential temperature (ts - ta)

The differential temperature between the heating probe and gas has to be kept steady under both
steady and dynamic conditions. Consequently, the time constants of both probes shall be equal.
16.2.2.5

Probe orientation

The orientation of the probe does not influence the reading as long as the rotation and tilt position of
the probe is within +/- 20 degrees, which is extremely important for flow applications having severe
turbulence.
TILT
FLOW
20

20

FLOW

20

20

F IGURE 16.2: P ROBE ORIENTATION


(Pictures taken from ISA 1992, 47th annual symposium, pages. 107 - 113,
by J. Kurz, characteristics and applications of industrial mass flow transmitters)

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16.3

Meter characteristics

16.3.1

General

Rev. --

Thermal dispersion mass flow meters are prone to systematic errors as a result of their dependency
on the heat conductivity of the gas (composition) to be measured. Furthermore, as the heat
conductivity of a gas (mixture) varies with the temperature, they can only be used over a certain
temperature range (as specified by the Manufacturer) to keep the temperature related errors within
acceptable limits.

16.3.2

Calibration

Thermal dispersion mass flow meters require calibration for the gas service they will be used for. By
calibrating the meter the relationship is determined between its input (actual mass gas flow) and
output and is expressed as mass per unit time (e.g. kg/h or ton/day)
Normally, the probes are calibrated against air by the Manufacturer. Calibration against natural gas
can be performed by test facilities of Gasunie in Holland.
NOTE:

During calibration in the gas as actually used in the application, the influence of the Prandtls number term is
eliminated under reference conditions.

A typical calibration curve (air at 24 C ) is shown below:

CSV (volt)

Current Sense Voltage (CSV)


versus
gas velocity
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0

10

20

30

Gas velocity (m/s)

G RAPH 16.1: A TYPICAL CALIBRATION CURVE


(Graph taken from Introductie Thermal Mass Flowmeters,
by J. Weselius, 31/03/96, Kurz Instruments Inc.)

16.4

Electronic part

The electronic part can be an integral part of the probe type flow meter (electronics and probe form
one part) or a separate part (remote type) to be mounted at a short distance away from the probe.
NOTE:

Electronics require a separate supply connection (230 VAC or 24 VDC).

The lead wires between the meter head and remote electronics form part, as far as their resistance is
concerned, of the Wheatstone bridge, hence they must not be extended or shortened, to avoid
systematic errors.

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Most electronics are equipped with a microprocessor which provides a linear output (4 - 20 ma)
versus the mass flow rate. Moreover, they can calculate the mass velocity and actual density
providing a reference density is entered.

16.5

Pressure drop/loss

Being probe (sting) type flow devices the associated pressure drop will be negligible.

16.6

Pressure and temperature correction

16.6.1

Pressure correction

Although possible in principle, pressure correction is not normally applied.

16.6.2

Temperature correction

Temperature compensation will be possible but requires calibration curves at various gas
temperatures. These calibration curves then have to be entered into the microprocessor. By means of
an interpolation procedure the mass flow can be corrected for the gas temperature.
NOTE:

The additional calculations to correct for the gas temperature may degrade the response time of the meter.

16.7

Application notes

16.7.1

General

The use of thermal dispersion mass flow meters will be limited to clean gas services. Composition of
gas (mixture) to be constant and homogeneous. Temperature range of gas to be within
Manufacturers specification.
Typical applications are air measurements for cooling and/or combustion purposes. Measurements in
natural gas service can also be considered.
NOTE:

Natural gas may be available in different qualities. If calibrated on a different quality of natural gas than actually
used in the plant, the calibration curve is to be corrected. Consult the Manufacturer.

Owing to the fact that the heating probe will be approximately 60 C above the ambient gas
temperature, meters can be used to measure the mass flow of air at ambient conditions, even under
foggy conditions.
NOTE:

Refer to TNO-report no. HEC-PRT-940082 concerning model 455Jr, single point Insertion Mass Flow Meter, make
Kurz Instruments Inc. USA.

16.7.2

Fouling service

Thermal dispersion mass flow meters are not suitable for dirty gas applications. As soon as the dirt
forms deposits on the heater and temperature element, the heat transfer rate will be affected, leading
to systematic errors. Moreover, there will be a fair chance that the time constants of both probes will
start to deviate from each other as the depositing process occurs.
One way of preventing the adhesion of deposits on the probes is to provide them with a
PTFE coating. This coating can only be used for moderate gas temperatures.
NOTES:

1.

Thermal dispersion mass flow meters (make Kurz) mounted in unheated combustion air inlets of the furnaces
of the Thermal Gasoline cracker Unit (TGU) and Hydro Cracker Unit (HCU) suffered from fouling (salt deposit)
after some time. The use of PTFE coating did not fully solve the fouling problem. The probes still have to be
cleaned after some time, but the PTFE coating did increase the cleaning time interval.

2.

The best location in such applications is downstream of the air pre-heater. At this location no systematic
errors will be introduced by possible false air intake due to leakage over the pre-heater internals. At the Pernis
site where meters are located downstream of the air pre-heater, no errors have so far been observed due to
fouling of the instruments internals.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 119

31/05/99

Thermal dispersion mass flow meter

16.8

Engineering notes

16.8.1

General

Rev. --

As explained under Application notes above, the use of thermal dispersion mass flow meters is
limited. A single probe assembly is only to be used in applications with a Fully Developed Velocity
Profile (FDVP) or Plug Type Velocity Profile (PTVP) as explained under Section 4 (Velocity
profiles).
It shall be guaranteed that no condensation takes place under any operating condition, since the meter
will behave erratically as soon a droplet strikes the sensitive parts of the probe.

16.8.2

Sizing

Note that the probe (sting) type instrument is a spot measurement and that the actual velocity to
which the probe will be exposed depends on the velocity profile. The use of a concentric reducer to
enforce a Plug Type Velocity Profile (PTVP) will be beneficial as the variation in velocity over the
cross-section of the pipe will be kept to a minimum.

16.8.3

Probe length

The probe length shall be in accordance with the velocity profile. Consequently, for large pipe/ducts
the use of a concentric reducer will be beneficial to shorten the probe length.

16.8.4

Instrumented Protective Functions (IPFs)

For combined control functions and IPFs, two (2) independent, fully segregated output signals have
to be available. Consequently, two thermal dispersion mass flow meters have to be arranged in series.
NOTE:

If no corresponding thermal mass flow meter for indication, recording or control is available, two thermal mass flow
meters for the IPF shall be used in series as described above to allow for automatic Measurement Validation and
Comparison (MVC).

16.9

Installation notes

16.9.1

General

The probe assembly should be placed with the axis of the assembly intersecting at the centre line of
the pipe/duct. In large pipes/ducts the sensitive parts of the probes should extend at least 50 mm
(2 inch) into the flowing gas stream.

16.9.2

Horizontal lines

To facilitate the accessibility, the probe assembly is to be mounted horizontally (side mounting).

16.9.3

Vertical lines

Upward flow is preferred to avoid liquid/condensate striking the sensitive parts of the probe
assembly.

16.9.4

Meters in series

A second meter is to be installed at least 5D downstream of the first meter to avoid retroaction (flow
profile disturbance) of the second meter on the first meter. The insertion length of second meter, for
similar readings over the required flow range, is to be determined empirically at site.

Page 120

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

Rev. --

Thermal dispersion mass flow meter

16.10

Make-specific comments

16.10.1

Kurz Instruments Inc.

16.10.1.1

Electronics

31/05/99

Their electronics are provided with 230 VAC supply and have no riding through facility to survive a
power gap of 250 msec.
NOTE:

16.10.1.2

For essential control and/or Instrumented Protective Functions, use 24 VDC power supply.

Response time

The rise time (90%) will be 3.2 seconds, which is sufficient for most applications.

16.10.2

Other Makes

No information is available on other makes.

Report OP 99-30287

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Page 121

31/05/99

Original distribution

Rev. --

Original distribution
Authors

D.C. Bruinzeel (ex. TAIE/145);


A.J. de Visser (ex. TAIE/1x1).

SIOP The Hague

All in OGBH/6
Central report OGT/3.

Others

Pre-release copy holders at SNR:


H. Beerling

SNR-RIPC/1;

H. van Dijk

SNR-RAP/14;

E. Solkesz

SNR-RIPC/31;

G. van Zee

SNR-SCP.

Updates of this list will not be issued.


The latest information is available from the SIOP editor / custodian or ORTFA/13.

Page 122

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid

Acetic anhydrite
Acetone
Alum
Aluminium chloride

Aluminium sulfate

Page 1

Concentration
%
5
5
10
10
50
50
80
80
Conc.
Conc.
100
10
10
10
25
25
80
10
10
15
20

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
Rt
Rt
100
60
100
S
Rt
S
50
55

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
B
A
B
A
C
C
C

A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Aluminium sulfate

Ammonia, ammonium
hydroxide

Ammonium bromide
Ammonium carbonate

Ammonium chloride

Page 2

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE

Concentration
%
25
50
55
57

Temp.
deg. C

10
10
20
25
Conc.
10
10 to 20
30
30
40
50
Sat.
Sat.
10
10
25
25
50

Rt
S
S
S
Rt
25
S
80
S
S
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt

S
S
40
120

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C

B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

A
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Ceramic

PTFE

Natural
rubber

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Ammonium chloride

Ammonium fluoride
Ammonium hydroxide
Ammonium nitrate

Ammonium sulfate

Concentration
%
50
Sat.
Sat.
20
28
10
20
20
50
50
all
all

Aniline
Arsenic acid
Barium chloride
Barium hydroxide
Benzene
Benzoic acid
Benzene sulfonic acid
Boric acid
Page 3

20
20
Sat.
Sat.
all
5
10

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
S
Rt
S
80
20 to 60
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
100
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
70
S

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
B
B
B
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A

A
A
A

A
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A

A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A

A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber

A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Boric acid
Brine

Concentration
%
50
technical

Bromine

dry

Butyric acid

100
100

Butyl acetate
Butyl alcohol
Calcium bisulfate
Calcium hypochlorite
Calcium nitrate
Calsium sulfate

20
1 to 5
10

Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetra chlorine
Chlorine

Chlorate
Chlorine benzene
Page 4

dry

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
40
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
70
100
50
20

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
B
B
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
C

A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
C
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C

Natural
rubber

A
A
A
C
C
A
A
C
A
A
B
C
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C

PFA

A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Chlorine benzene
Chloracetic acid

Concentration
%
50
70
100
100

Chlorosulfonic acid
Chromic acid

Citric acid

Copper (II), chloride

Copper sulfate
Page 5

10
10
50
50
5
5
25
25
50
50
20
20
40
50
Sat.
5

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
S
20
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
S
Rt
S
Rt

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
B
C
C
C
C
C
A
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
C
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Copper sulfate

Cyanide
Dichloroethane
Dichloroethylene
Dichloromethane
Dioxane
Diphenyl
Ether
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl chloride
Fatty acid

Ferric (II), chloride

Page 6

Concentration
%
5
25
50
all
10
100

technical
technical
100
100
100
100
30
10
30

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
S
S
S
S
Rt
50
S
Rt/S

Rt
Rt
Rt
Rt
100
150
Rt
S
135
315
100
S
Rt

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
B

A
B
A
A

A
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber

C
C
C
C
C
A
C
B
B
B
B
B

A
A
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
C
C
C
C
C
C

A
A
A

B
B
B

PFA

A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Ferric (II), chloride


Ferric (III), per chloride

Ferrous nitrate
Ferrous (II), sulfate

Concentration
%
50
Sat.
5
10
15
45
50
50
all
10
all

Ferrous (III), sulfate


up to 30
Fluosilicicacid
Formaldehyde
Formic acid

Page 7

30
all
10
10
10
20 to 40
50
50
60

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
50
100
25
65
25
25
50
S
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
up to 65
Rt
30
up to S
Rt
65
S
65
Rt
S
65

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C

C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
C
A
A
B
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
B

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
B
A
B
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C
B
A
C
B

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

Natural
rubber
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Formic acid

Concentration
%
80
80
80
90
Conc.
Conc.

Glycerol
Hydrochloric acid

Page 8

0.5
0.5
5
5
5
10
10
10
15
15
20
20
30
30
37

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt
65
S
100
Rt
S
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
60
150
Rt
50
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
C
C
C
A
C
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

B
C

A
B
C
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
C
A
C
C
C
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
B
C
C
A
C
A
A
A
C
A
C
C
B
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
C

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
B
C
B
B
C
B
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
B

Natural
rubber

PFA

B
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
B
C
B
B
C
B
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
B

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Hydrochloric acid
Hydrocyanic acid
Hydrogen bromide
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrobromic acid
Hydrofluoric acid

Lactic acid

Lead acetate
Magnesium chloride

Magnesium sulfate
Page 9

Concentration
%
37

0 to 50
1
40
40
50
100
100
1.5
1.5
10
10
Conc.
all
10
20
30
42
10

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
150
Rt
Rt
Rt
100
S
Rt
Rt
50
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
S
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C

A
C
A
A
C

C
A
A
A

A
A
A
C
B

C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A

B
B
B
B
A

A
A
A
A
A

C
C
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

C
A

A
A

A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

C
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
C
B
B
B
C
B
B
B
C
B
C
C
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber

PFA

C
B
C
C
C
C
B
B
C
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Magnesium sulfate

Maleic acid

Malic acid
Manganous chloride

Manganous sulfate
Mercury

Methanol
Monochloracetic

Naphthalene
Nickel chloride
Page 10

Concentration
%
25
50
Sat.
10
10
50
u/t 50
5
20
50
all

all
all
50
70
100
100
10

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
S
50 u/t S
Rt u/t 80
u/t 80
S
100
Rt
S
100
100
100
Rt
20
50
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
60

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
A
A

A
A
B
B
B
A
B
B
B
A
B
B
C
B
C
A
B

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

Natural
rubber

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
C
C
C
C
C
A

A
A
C
C
C
C
C
A

PFA

A
A
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Nickel chloride

Nickel nitrate
Nickel sulfate
Nitric acid

Nitro benzene
Page 11

Concentration
%
10
20
30
80

7
7
10
10
25
25
37
37
50
50
65
65
70
100
100
100

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
S
Rt
S
95
Rt
80
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
100
Rt
50 u/t 70
S

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
B

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
C
C
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

C
A
C
C
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
C

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A

Natural
rubber
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Oleum

Oxalic acid

Ozone
Perchloroethylene
Phenol
Phosphoric acid

Page 12

Concentration
%
10
10
25
25
5
5
10
10
25
25
50
50
Sat.
Sat.
liquid

pure
1
1
1
10

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C

Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S

Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
140
Rt

B
B
A
A
A
A

A
C
A
C

C
C
C
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
B
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C
A

A
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
B
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber

Neoprene
rubber
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A

C
C
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A
A
A
Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Phosphoric acid

Potassium chloride

Potassium cyanide
Potassium hydroxide

Page 13

Concentration
%
10
30
30
45
45
80
80
80
90
90
Conc.
Conc.
10
10
20
30
Sat.
10
10
10
20
20
28

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
60
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
S
S
S
100
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
A
B
A
A
A
C

B
C
B
B
B
B
B
A
B
B
B
B
B

C
A
C
B
C
B
B
C
B
C
B
C
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Potassium hydroxide

Potassium hypochlorite

Potassium nitrate

Potassium perchlorate

Potassium permanganete
Potassium sulfate

Page 14

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE

ConcenTemp.
St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
tration
deg. C DIN1.4571
C
%
28
S
B
A
A
40
u/t S
B
A
A
50
Rt
B
A
A
A
50
S
B
A
A
20 g Cl/l
u/t 40
B
A
A
A
130 g Cl/l
Rt
C
A
A
A
130 g Cl/l
150
C
A
A
A
25
Rt
A
A
A
A
A
25
S
A
A
A
A
A
40
Rt
A
A
A
A
A
40
S
A
A
A
A
A
50
Rt
A
A
A
A
A
50
S
A
A
A
A
A
Sat.
Rt
A
A
A
A
A
Sat.
S
A
A
A
A
A
25
25
A
A
A
50
25
A
A
A
75
25
A
A
A
all
Rt
A
A
A
A
all
S
A
A
A
A
10
Rt
A
A
A
A
A
20
u/t 50
A
A
A
A
A
50
Rt to 60
A
A
A
A
FLOW MEASUREMENTS

LINER
Ceramic

PTFE

B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C

Natural
rubber

PFA

A
A
A
A
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C

A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Pyridine
Sea water
Sodium bicarbonate

Sodium bisulfate

Sodium carbonate

Sodium chlorate
Sodium chorine

Page 15

Concentration
%
50
100
10
20
all
10
10
Sat.
Sat.
50
50
10
20
20
50
50
Sat.
Sat.
5
5
pure
pure

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt to 60
Rt to 60
Rt
u/t 5
40 u/t S
all
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
S
Rt
50 u/t S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
B
B
B

B
B

B
B

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Sodium chlorite

Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hypochloride

Sodium nitrate
Sodium nitrite

Page 16

Concentration
%
5
5
10
10
10
20
20
34
34
50
50
60
70
10 g Cl/l
10 g Cl/l
20 g Cl/l
20 g Cl/l
120 g Cl/l
120 g Cl/l

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
-150
Rt
-150
Rt
-150
Rt
-150
-150
-150
Rt
50
Rt
40
Rt
S
Rt
100
70
100

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
B
C
B
A
A
A
A
A
C
B
B
C
C

B
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
B
C
C
A
A
A
A

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Sodium peroxide
Sodium sulfate
Sodium sulfide

Sodium sulfite

Sodium thiosulfate
Sulfuric acid

Page 17

Concentration
%
10
10
Sat.
Sat.
25
25
50
50
Sat.
25
25
50
50
25
25
2
2
5
5
10
10
25
25

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
B
A
C
A
C
A
C
C
C

C
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
C

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
C
C
C
C

Natural
rubber
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
B
A
B
C
C
C
C

PFA

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Sulfuric acid

Concentration
%
50
50
60
60
77
77
80
80
85
85
90
90
96
96

Sulfur monochloride
Sulfurous acid
Tannic acid

Tartaric acid

Page 18

Sat.
10
10
50
50
all
all

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
150
Rt
S
Rt
Rt
S
50
S
Rt
S

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

A
C
A
C
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
C

B
C
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B
B
B
B
B
A
A

Natural
rubber

PFA

C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B
B
B
B
B
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Report OP 99-30287

31/05/99

Appendix-1

Rev. --

Liner and electrode material selection table for Electric Magnetic flow meters
Note:
To be used as a guideline only.
Corrosion department to approve
materials chosen for liner and
electrodes.

Legend:
A
= Absolute resistant
B
= Sufficient resistant
C
= Not resistant
Rt
= Room temperature

FLUID DESCRIPTION
Fluid name

Tin chloride
Trichloroethylene
Uric acid
Zinc chloride

Page 19

Concentration
%
all
all

10
10
20
20
60
60
100

S
= Boiling liquid
Conc. = concentrated
Sat. = Saturated

ELECTRODE
Temp.
deg. C
Rt
150
Rt
Rt
Rt
S
Rt
S
Rt
S
S

LINER

St.St.
Titanium Tantalum Hasteloy Platinum
DIN1.4571
C
B
C
B
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B

FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Ceramic

PTFE

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Neoprene
rubber
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Natural
rubber
A
A
C
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

PFA

Report OP 99-30287

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