A Weighted Ofdm Signal Scheme For Pea1

A WEIGHTED OFDM SIGNAL SCHEME FOR PEAK-TO-AVERAGE POWER RATIO REDUCTION OF OFDM
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a transmission technique that
modulates multiple carriers simultaneously. Although their spectra overlap, the transmitted
multiple carriers can be demodulated orthogonally, provided that correct time windowing is used
at the receiver. Since the OFDM-based system has high spectral efficiency and is robust against
inter symbol interference and frequency-selective fading channels, it has been widely chosen for
European digital audio/video broadcasting and wireless local/ metropolitan area network
standards, and now, it is used in most broadband wireless communication systems. However, one
of the major problems of OFDM-based systems is the high peak-to-average-power ratio (PAPR)
of a transmitted signal, which causes a distortion of a signal at the nonlinear high-power
amplifier (HPA) of a transmitter. Thus, the power efficiency of the HPA is seriously limited to
avoid nonlinear distortion; otherwise, the high PAPR results in significant performance
degradation. Because of the practical importance of this problem, a number of algorithms for
reducing the high PAPR have been developed, such as clipping and filtering (C&F), coding,
adaptive symbol selection, such as selected mapping; partial transmit sequence and interleaving,
tone reservation/injection, active signal constellation extension, companding and others.
1.2 Problem outline
A PAPR reduction scheme based on a weighted OFDM signal is proposed to reduce the
PAPR without distortion in removing the weight at the receiver side. This method is motivated
by a circular convolution process, i.e., the modulated OFDM signal is convoluted with a certain
kind of signal for smoothing the peak of the OFDM signal before the HPA. Here, we choose
the signal to satisfy that the Fourier transform
of has no zero on the real line. The
convoluted signal can be written as a simple weighted OFDM signal. When the discrete data
{a k (k ) }N1
k=0
N1
is given, we consider weighted data {a k (k ) }k=0
and form an OFDM signal
with this weighted discrete data. Then, this weighted OFDM signal is the same as the given
convoluted signal. Since weight
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is non-uniform, the bit-error-rate (BER) performance
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could be degraded. In practice, to improve the BER performance, we modify the weight by
adding a suitable positive constant to the original weight. The PAPR of the weighted OFDM
signal with the modified weight is smaller than that of the C&F method, and the BER
performance is improved compared with the C&F method.
1.3 Objectives
The effectiveness of the proposed scheme is evaluated with computer simulations. In
this weighted OFDM method with modified weight, the time duration needed to transmit the
weighted OFDM signal is the same as the time duration for the original OFDM signal. Moreover,
the original discrete data can be recovered completely at the receiver side with additional 2N
complex multiplications of computational complexity without extra cost in transmission.
The weighted OFDM scheme was introduced in, where the Gaussian function, sine
function, and some other functions were used as weighted functions. When the noise is not
present, the PAPR of the weighted OFDM system with Gaussian weight is reduced remarkably.
As mentioned in the conclusion, however, the noise was not also considered for BER
performance. If the additive Gaussian noise is considered, the BER performance of the weighted
OFDM system with Gaussian weight will be even degraded. In this paper, we suggest the
weighted OFDM system with modified weight to improve the BER performance, and we also
provide the condition for a function to be a weight function and a mathematical reason for the
merit of the weighted OFDM system derived from a circular convolution system.
1.4 Thesis outline
The complete thesis of this work is outlined in six chapters:
Chapter1 gives the details about the overview of the project. It also gives the brief description
about the problem formulation and main objectives of proposed work.
Chapter 2 gives the complete details about the literature survey. This chapter describes the details
about the earlier methods proposed on weighted OFDM on PAPR of OFDM.
Chapter 3 gives the complete details about the system model of proposed approach. It also gives
the details about the OFDM system description.
Chapter 4 gives the complete details about design and implementation of proposed weighted
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing method.
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Chapter 5 illustrates the performance evaluation of proposed approach. This chapter gives the
results evaluation of performance comparison of CCDF of the C&F and proposed methods of
different samples. Finally chapter 6 concludes the thesis.
CHAPTER 2
LITRATURE SURVEY
High Peak-to-Average Power Ratio has been recognized as one of the major practical
problem involving OFDM modulation. High PAPR results from the nature of the modulation
itself where multiple subcarriers / sinusoids are added together to form the signal to be
transmitted. When N sinusoids add, the peak magnitude would have a value of N, where the
average might be quite low due to the destructive interference between the sinusoids. High PAPR
signals are usually undesirable for it usually strains the analog circuitry. High PAPR signals
would require a large range of dynamic linearity from the analog circuits which usually results
inexpensive devices and high power consumption with lower efficiency (for e.g. power amplifier
has to operate with larger back-off to maintain linearity).
Various researches had been proposed to reduce this factor. These techniques are
divided in three groups. The complete details about the various approaches proposed previously
are illustrated below.
2.1 PAPR methods
There have been many new approaches developed during the last few years. Several
PAPR reduction techniques have been proposed in the literature. These techniques are divided
into two groups. These are signal scrambling techniques and signal distortion techniques.
PAPR reduction methods can be mainly divided into two domain methods: frequency
domain method and time domain method. The basic notion of frequency domain method is to
increase the cross correlation of the input signal before IDFT and decrease the output of the
IDFT peak value or average value. Selective Mapping (SLM), Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS),
Pre-coding etc. schemes are example of frequency domain method. However, in time domain
method PAPR is reduced by distorting the signal before amplification and added of extra signals
which increase the average power. Clipping and filtering, Peak widowing etc. are examples of
time domain method. It is very simple method because it requires very less computational time
but introduces the distortion, increases out of band radiation and also degrades BER
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performance. On comparing between these two domain methods, frequency domain PAPR
reduction technique is the most efficient one because of its ability to compress the PAPR without
distorting the transmitted signal, no production of in band distortion and out of band radiation in
OFDM signals.
Broadly PAPR reduction techniques are classified into four sections.
Block coding
Selective Level Mapping (SLM)
Partial Transmit Sequences (PTS)
Signal scrambling techniques work with side information which minimized the effective
throughput since they commence redundancy. Signal distortion techniques introduce band
interference and system complexity also. Signal distortion techniques minimize high peak
dramatically by distorting signal before amplification.
The signal distortion techniques are:
Clipping
Peak windowing
Peak cancellation
Peak power suppression
Weighted multicarrier transmission
2.1.1 Signal Scrambling Techniques

2.1.1.1. Pre-distortion technique
The pre-distortion technique is based on the reorientation or spreading the energy of
data symbol before taking IFFT. The pre-distortion scheme includes DFT spreading, pulse
shaping or pre-coding and constellation shaping.
2.1.1.2 Coding technique
The coding technique employed some error correcting codes for the PAPR reduction.
These methods are applied before the generation of OFDM signal (before IFFT). When signals
are added with the same phase, they produce a peak power, which is times the average power.
The basic idea of all coding schemes for the reduction of PAPR is to reduce the occurrence
probability of the same phase of many signals. The coding methods select such code words that
minimize or reduce the PAPR. It causes no distortion and creates no out of band radiation, but it
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suffers from bandwidth efficiency as the code rate is reduced. It also suffered from the
complexity to find the best codes and to store large lookup tables for encoding and decoding,
especially for a large number of subcarriers. The error correcting codes like block codes, cyclic
codes, Golay complementary sequence, Reed-Solomon (RS) code, Reed-Muller (RM) code,
Hadamard code and Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) code can be used.
2.1.1.3 Block Coding Techniques
Coding techniques can be applied for signal scrambling, M sequences, Golay
complementary sequences, Shapiro-Rudin sequences codes can be used to reduce the PAPR
efficiently.
This Block coding technique has been proposed by Wilkinson and Jones in 1965 for the
minimization of the peak to mean envelope power ratio of multicarrier communication system.
The key object in this paper is that PAPR can be minimized by block coding the data. The block
coding techniques have three stages for the development. The first stage works with the
collection of appropriate sets of code words for any number of carriers, any M-ary phase
modulation method, and any coding rate. The second stage works with the collection of the sets
of code words which enable proficient implementation of the encoding/decoding. The third stage
offers error deduction and correction potential.
There different methods for the collection of the sets of code words. The mainly
insignificant method, order to search the peak envelope power (PEP) for all possible code words
for a certain length of given number of carriers. This technique is simple and accurate for short
codes because it needs extreme computation. Natural algorithms are mainly sophisticated
searching techniques. It can be used for the collection of longer code words. A selection of code
words select from searches for encoding and decoding can be performed with a look up table or
using combinatorial logic exploiting the mathematical structure of the codes minimization when
the frame sixe is bigger.
Large PAPR reduction can be achieved if the long information sequence is separated
into different sub blocks, and all sub block encoded with System on a Programmable Chip
(SOPC). There are many likely spaces, where the odd parity checking bits can be put into each
frame to minimize PAPR. For further minimization of PAPR, redundant bit location optimized
sub-block coding (RBLO-SBC) optimizes these locations redundant Combination optimized sub-
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block coding scheme (COSBC) optimizes the combination of the coded sub-blocks, where two
coding schemes instead of one is used to encode the same information source.
2.1.1.4 Block Coding Scheme with Error Correction

This Block coding scheme with Error Correction has been proposed by Ahn and et.al in
to introduce a new block coding proposal for minimization of peak to average power ratio
(PAPR) of an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system. Block coding has
error correction capability. In block coding method, the OFDM symbol can be reduced by
selecting only those code words with lower PAPR. In this paper, the key object of the method is
proposed that properly designed block codes can not only minimize the PAPR, but also give
error correction capability. A k bit data block (e.g. 4-bit data) is encoded by a (n, k) block code
with a generator matrix G in the transmitter of the system. Followed by the phase rotator vector
b to produce the encoded output x=a.G+b(mod 2).
To achieve the accurate generator matrix and phase rotator vector that make sure the
minimum PAPR for the OFDM system, check all the 2n codes and choose only 2k codes that
obtain the minimum PAPR. After that generator matrix G and the phase rotator vector b are
produced; which are used mapping between these symbols combination and input data vector a.
The converse functions of the transmitter are executed in the receiver system. The parity check
matrix H is achieved from the generator matrix G, with an exception that the effect of the
phase rotator vector b is removed before calculations of syndromes.
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Figure 2.1 Block diagram of block coding with error correction scheme
Contrasting the method in, which only presents error detection; this method can
improve the overall system performance and provides error correction capability.
2.1.1.5 Signal scrambling (Probabilistic) technique
Signal Scrambling technique scramble each OFDM symbol with different scrambling
techniques and select the sequence that gives the smallest PAPR value. It includes methods like
Selective Mapping (SLM) and Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS).
2.1.1.6 Selected Mapping (SLM)
Selective Mapping (SLM) approaches have been proposed by Bauml in 1965. This
method is used for minimization of peak to average transmit power of multicarrier transmission
system with selected mapping. A complete set of candidate signal is generated signifying the
same information in selected mapping, and then concerning the most favorable signal is selected
as consider to PAPR and transmitted. In the SLM, the input data structure is multiplied by
random series and resultant series with the lowest PAPR is chosen for transmission. To allow the
receiver to recover the original data to the multiplying sequence can be sent as side
information.
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Figure 2.2 Block diagram of Selected Mapping Technique

One of the preliminary probabilistic methods is SLM method for reducing the PAPR
problem. The good side of selected mapping method is that it doesnt eliminate the peaks, and
can handle any number of subcarriers. The drawback of this method is the overhead of side
information that requires to be transmitted to the receiver of the system in order to recover
information.
2.1.1.7 Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS)
Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS) technique has been proposed by Muller and Hubber in
1997. This proposed method is based on the phase shifting of sub-blocks of data and
multiplication of data structure by random vectors. This method is flexible and effective for
OFDM system. The main purpose behind this method is that the input data frame is divided into
non-overlapping sub blocks and each sub block is phase shifted by a constant factor to reduce
PAPR.
PTS is probabilistic method for reducing the PAPR problem. It can be said that PTS
method is a modified method of SLM. PTS method works better than SLM method. The main
advantage of this scheme is that there is no need to send any side information to the receiver of
the system, when differential modulation is applied in all sub blocks.
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Figure 2.3 Block diagram of PTS technique

2.1.1.8 Interleaving Technique
Interleaving technique has been proposed by Jayalath and Tellambura, for reduction
peak to average power ratio of an OFDM transmission. A data randomization technique has
proposed for the minimization of the PAPR in this paper.
The notion that highly correlated data structures have large PAPR can be reduced, if
long correlation pattern is broken down. Also, this paper proposes an additive method to
minimize the complexity.
The basic idea in adaptive interleaving is to set up an initial terminating threshold.
PAPR value goes below the threshold rather than seeking each interleaved sequences. The
minimal threshold will compel the adaptive interleaving (AL) to look for all the interleaved
sequences. The main important of the scheme is that it is less complex than the PTS technique
but obtains comparable result. This method does not give the assurance result for PAPR
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reduction. In this circumstance, higher order error correction method could be used in addition to
this method.
2.1.1.9 Hadamard Transform
The technique of Hadamard Transform is based upon the relationship between
correlation property of OFDM input sequence and PAPR probability. The average power of the
input sequence represents the peak value of the autocorrelation. Hence the peak value of
autocorrelation depends on the input sequence provided that number of sub carriers remains
unchanged. The block diagram of Hadamard Transform is illustrated below.
Figure 2.4 Block diagram of an OFDM system using Hadamard Transform

2.1.1.10 Dummy Sequence Insertion (DSI)
In Dummy sequence insertion (DSI), before IFFT stage in input data a dummy sequence
is added. The sequences which are used may be complementary, correlation or any other
sequence. Since dummy sequence is not used as side information hence any transmission error
does not increase BER. DSI technique is united with PAPR threshold method. After IFFT, if
PAPR is below specific threshold then signal is transmitted but if it is more than this specific
level then insertion of dummy sequence is done to achieve the required results. The block
diagram of DSI system is shown in figure 2.5
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Figure 2.5 Block diagram of DSI system

The main advantage of this technique is that BER is not degraded due to transmission
errors in the dummy sequence. So far amongst different sequences, use of complementary
sequence produces better results.
2.1.1.11 Additive Corrective Function
As the name suggests additive correcting function, achieves reduction in PAPR through
addition of suitable corrective function in OFDM signal. The amplitude peaks are in this
approach, the amplitude peaks are manipulated in such a manner that after the correction the
amplitude of the signal does not go beyond a specified threshold.
In this method the reduction in PAPR is achieved by manipulation of OFDM signal at
transmit side. The correct functions which can be added include additive Sinc functions and
multiplicative Gaussian function. This technique can be employed for arbitrary number of
carriers without requiring increased redundancy. In this method after correction the out of band
interference is reduced but in band interference is increased leading to increase in band
distortion. Hence the correcting function which is added should have minimal power to keep
interference power within the OFDM band to minimum.
2.1.1.12 Peak Windowing
Peak Windowing, is based upon the fact that frequency of high peaks is infrequent
hence these can be removed by minimal increase in self-interference. In this technique signal
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peaks are multiplied with certain windows. These include Cosine, Hamming, Gaussian shaped
and Kaiser Windows. The used window must be shortest possible in time domain and at the same
time must be narrowband. Another example of PAPR reduction technique which is based upon
self-interference is clipping. The PAPR reduction performance as well as spectral efficiency of
peak windowing technique is better as compared to clipping. The major advantage of peak
windowing is that PAPR reduction is achieved with minimal complexity for any number of sub
carriers. The disadvantages include an increase in out-of-band interference and BER.
2.1.1.13 Envelope Scaling
In envelop scaling, the input envelopes of sub carriers are scaled prior to IFFT. The base
for this scheme is the facts that with PSK modulation all the sub carriers input envelops are
equal. Hence input envelop of some sub carriers is scaled in such a way that minimum PAPR is
achieved at IFFT output. The input which yields minimum PAPR is fed into the system. The
phase information of the input sequence is similar to original however envelops are not the same.
Hence decoding of sequence can be done by receiver without any requirement for side
information. The major drawback of this method is that it can only be used when OFDM is
employing PSK modulation. On the other hand if we use this method when QAM modulation is
implemented by OFDM, then there is severe degradation in BER performance results.
2.1.1.14 Random Phase Updating
The random phase updating technique for reduction of PAPR has been proposed. In this
technique for each carrier the phase is generated randomly and assigned. This process of
updating phases keeps running until the PAPR is reduced below a specified threshold level. The
PAPR reduction performance is independent of number of carriers and depends mostly upon the
chosen threshold level. Although this level can be dynamic however there is an upper limit for
the number of iterations which can be used for updating of phases.
Since the receiver must be provided with the information about change of phases that
are applied, hence the amount of side information which needs to be provided to the receiver
becomes quite significant.
2.1.1.15 Data Bearing Peak Reduction Carriers
Data bearing peak reduction carriers (PRCs) have been proposed to achieve reduction of
PAPR. In this scheme the symbol of lower order modulation is represented by a scheme of higher
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order modulation. Hence the phase and amplitude of these carriers remains inside the
constellation area which represents the data symbols being transmitted.
Amongst drawbacks of PRCs, one is that the overall data transmission efficiency of the
system is compromised if we try to achieve maximum PAPR reduction efficiency. At the same
time the BER performance is also affected adversely because of employing constellation of
higher order for carrying symbols of lower order results in higher probability of error.
2.1.1.16 Companding Technique
Companding technique was proposed, based upon the assumption that the OFDM signal
has Gaussian distribution and occurrence of high peaks is infrequent. In OFDM system on
transmitter side after IFFT, the signal undergoes companding and quantization while on receiver
side the signal is first digitized and then expanded. The block diagram of OFDM system with
companding technique is shown in figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Block diagram of OFDM system with companding

Companding was initially employed for speech processing because of infrequent
occurrence of peaks. Since the OFDM signal also shows infrequent peaks, hence the authors
planned to apply the technique for reduction of peaks in OFDM system. Since frequency of small
signals is much more as compared to large ones hence there is improved quantization resolution
for small signals as compared to large signals.
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The overall BER performance is considerably degraded because the quantization error
is increased notably for large signals. Hence the overall improvement in PAPR which is achieved
by companding is at the cost of BER performance.
2.1.1.17 Tone Reservation (TR)
Tone Reservation (TR) method is proposed for PAPR reduction. The main idea of this
method is to keep a small set of tones for PAPR reduction. This can be originated as a convex
problem and this problem can be solved accurately. The amount of PAPR reduction depends on
some factors such as number of reserved tones, location of the reserved tones, amount of
complexity and allowed power on reserved tones.
This method explains an additive scheme for minimizing PAPR in the multicarrier
communication system. It shows that reserving a small fraction of tones leads to large
minimization in PAPR ever using with simple algorithm at the transmitter of the system without
any additional complexity at the receiver end. Here, N is the small number of tones, reserving
tones for PAPR reduction may present a nonnegligible fraction of the available bandwidth and
resulting in a reduction in data rate. The advantage of TR method is that it is less complex, no
side information and also no additional operation is required at the receiver of the system. Tone
reservation method is based on adding a data block and time domain signal. A data block is
dependent time domain signal to the original multicarrier signal to minimize the high peak. This
time domain signal can be calculated simply at the transmitter of system and stripped off at the
receiver.
2.1.1.18 Tone Injection (TI)
Tone Injection (TI) method has been recommended by Muller, S.H., and Huber, J.B.
This technique is based on general additive method for PAR reduction. Using an additive method
achieves PAPR reduction of multicarrier signal without any data rate loss. Note that Tone
injection (TI) uses a set of equivalent constellation points for an original constellation points to
reduce PAPR. The main idea behind this method is to increase the constellation size. Then, each
point in the original basic constellation can be mapped into several equivalent points in the
extended constellation, since all information elements can be mapped into several equivalent
constellation points. These additional amounts of freedom can be utilized for PAPR reduction.
This method is called Tone Injection method because of replacing the points in the basic
constellation for the new points in the larger constellation which corresponds to injecting a tone
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of the proper phase and frequency in the multi-carrier symbol. The drawbacks of this method are;
need to side information for decoding signal at the receiver side, and cause extra IFFT operation
which is more complex.
2.1.1.19 Active Constellation Extension
Comparable to tone injection active constellation extension (ACE) is another technique
which is used for PAPR reduction. The dynamic extension of data block's outer signal
constellations to periphery of original constellation in such a way that PAPR is decreased, is the
basic theme of this technique. This idea is schematically represented in figure 2.7 and can be
elucidated for multicarrier transmission utilizing QPSK modulation for all sub-carriers. As we
can see that the possible number of constellation points for every sub carrier is four. These points
have equal distance from imaginary and real axes and are positioned one in each quadrant. These
four quadrants delimited by the axis represent the regions of maximum likelihood decision based
upon white Gaussian noise assumption. Hence the decision about the received data symbol
depends upon the quadrant where it is observed. . Compared to nominal constellation points,
those points which are away from decision boundaries result in increased margin, which warrants
a decreased BER. Hence constellation points can be modified beyond nominal constellation
point but inside the quarter-plan without degrading its performance.
Figure 2.7 The ACE Technique for QPSK modulation
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This technique can also be used with MPSK and QAM. The main advantages of
technique include significant reduction of PAPR without compromising data rate and no need for
side information. There is additional slight decrease in BER also. The drawback is that the
technique is useful for larger constellation size modulations only.
2.1.1.20 Other Techniques
There are some other techniques which cannot be categorized in any one class of
reduction techniques. These are briefly described below.
Clustered OFDM technique, clustering of sub carriers into a number of smaller blocks
is done before transmitting them on different antennas. PAPR reduction is achieved because the
number of sub-carriers for each transmitter is reduced. The main disadvantage is that number of
power amplifiers is increased.
Two-dimensional pilot symbol assisted modulation (2D-PSAM) is a distortion free
technique for reduction of PAPR and can also be used for channel estimation. Although the
scheme is complex, however it can be reduced if the sequence used is properly designed.
Carrier-Interferometry OFDM (CI/OFDM) reduces PAPR by utilizing CI phase
codes for transmitting each bit on every N carriers. The phase codes applied to the N carriers
result in one bits power reaching a maximum, when the powers of the remaining N-1 bits are at
a minimum.
Another technique, artificial signals, is based on the fact that data is not carried on all M
frequencies when M-point FFT/IFFT is used by transceiver. Hence few empty carriers are
present in OFDM symbol. Sine waves are added in empty carriers to reduce PAPR of the OFDM
signal. The addition of only two artificial signals can achieve a 6 dB reduction in PAPR for 16
carriers. The disadvantages include additional power for transmission of artificial signals and
increased complexity.
2.1.2 Signal Distortion Techniques
This technique reduces the PAPR by distorting the OFDM signal non-linearly. The
methods like clipping and filtering, peak windowing, and non-linear companding are the
example of this technique. These methods are applied after the generation of OFDM signal (after
the IFFT).
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2.1.2.1 Peak Windowing

The peak windowing method has been suggested by Van Nee and Wild. This method,
proposes that it is possible to remove large peaks at the cost of a slight amount of selfinterference when large peaks arise infrequently. Peak windowing reduces PAPRs at the cost of
increasing the BER and out-of-band radiation. Clipping is a one kind of simple introduces PAPR
reduction technique which is self-interference. The technique of peak windowing offers better
PAPR reduction with better spectral properties. (Peak Windowing technique provides better
PAPR reduction with better spectral properties than clipping).
In peak windowing method we multiply large signal peak with a specific window, for
example; Gaussian shaped window, cosine, Kaiser and Hamming window. In view of the fact
that the OFDM signal is multiplied with several of these windows, consequential spectrum is a
convolution of the original OFDM spectrum with the spectrum of the applied window. Thus, the
window should be as narrow band as possible, conversely the window should not be too long in
the time domain because various signal samples are affected, which results an increase in bit
error rate (BER). Windowing method, PAPRs can be obtained to 4dB which from the number of
independent subcarriers. The loss in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the signal distortion is
limited to about 0.3dB. A back off relative to maximum output power of about 5.5dB is needed
in spectra distortion at least 30dB below the in-band spectral density.
2.1.2.2 Envelope Scaling
The Envelope Scaling technique has been proposed by Foomooljareon and Fernando in.
They proposed a new algorithm to reduce PAPR by scaling the input envelope for some
subcarriers before they are sent to IFFT. In this paper, they used 256 subcarriers with QPSK
modulation technique, so that envelopes of all the subcarriers are equal. The key idea of this
scheme is that the input envelope in some sub carrier is scaled to achieve the smallest amount of
PAPR at the output of the IFFT. Thus, the receiver of the system doesnt need any side
information for decoding the receiver sequence.
This scheme is appropriate for QPSK modulation; the envelopes of all subcarriers are
equal. Results show that PAPR can be reduced significantly at around 4 dB. Finally the system of
single scaling factor and number of clusters equal to number of sub carriers is recommended.
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2.1.2.3 Peak Reduction Carrier

Peak Reduction Carrier has been proposed by Tan and Wassell to use of the data bearing
peak reduction carriers (PRCs) to reduce the effective PAPR in the OFDM system.
This scheme includes the use of a higher order modulation scheme to represent a lower
order modulation symbol. This permits the amplitude and phase of the PRC to be positioned
within the constellation region symbolizing the data symbol to be transmitted.
For example, to use a PRC that employs a 16-PSK constellation to carry QPSK data
symbol, the 16-phases of the 16-PSK constellations are divided into four regions to represent the
four different values of the QPSK symbol.
This scheme is appropriate for PSK modulation; where the envelopes of all subcarriers
are equal. When the QAM modulation scheme will be implemented in the OFDM system, the
carrier envelope scaling will result in the serious BER degradation. To limit the bit error rate
(BER) degradation, amount of the side information would also be excessive when the number of
subcarriers is large.
2.1.2.4 Clipping and Filtering
High PAPR is one of the most common problems in OFDM. A high PAPR brings
disadvantages like increased complexity of the ADC and DAC and also reduced efficiency of
radio frequency (RF) power amplifier.
One of the simple and effective PAPR reduction techniques is clipping, which cancels
the signal components that exceed some unchanging amplitude called clip level. However,
clipping yields distortion power, which called clipping noise, and expands the transmitted signal
spectrum, which causes interfering. Clipping is nonlinear process and causes in-band noise
distortion, which causes degradation in the performance of bit error rate (BER) and out-of-band
noise, which decreases the spectral efficiency.
Clipping and filtering technique is effective in removing components of the expanded
spectrum. Although filtering can decrease the spectrum growth, filtering after clipping can
reduce the out-of-band radiation, but may also cause some peak re-growth, which the peak signal
exceeds in the clip level. The technique of iterative clipping and filtering reduces the PAPR
without spectrum expansion. However, the iterative signal takes long time and it will increase the
computational complexity of an OFDM transmitter.
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But without performing interpolation before clipping causes it out-of-band. To avoid

out-of-band, signal should be clipped after interpolation. However, this causes significant peak
re-growth. So, it can use iterative clipping and frequency domain filtering to avoid peak regrowth.
In the system used, serial to parallel converter converts serial input data having different
frequency component which are base band modulated symbols and apply interpolation to these
symbols by zero padding in the middle of input data. Then clipping operation is performed to cut
high peak amplitudes and frequency domain filtering is used to reduce the out of band signal, but
caused peak re-growth. This consists of two FFT operations. Forward FFT transforms the clipped
signal back to discrete frequency domain. The in-band discrete components are passed
unchanged to inputs of second IFFT while out of band components are null. The clipping and
filtering process is performed iteratively until the amplitude is set to the threshold value level to
avoid the peak out-of band and peak re-growth.
2.2 Factors for selecting the PAPR reduction technique
Several factors should be considered for selecting the technique that can reduce the
PAPR effectively as well as can maintain high quality performance. These following factors are
to be considered as:
Without introducing in-band distortion and out-of-band radiation, PAPR reduction
techniques should be enable to reduce the PAPR.
Low average power: The raise in power requires a high linear operation region in
HPA and hence degrades the BER performance.
No BER performance degradation: The motive of PAPR reduction is to get better
system performance as well as BER than that of the original OFDM system.
Addition power: Power efficiency should be considered while reducing the PAPR.
If the operation of the technique which reduces the PAPR needs more additional power, then it
degrades the BER performance when the transmitted signals are normalized back to the original
power signal.
No spectral spillage: The PAPR reduction technique should not destroy the
inherent feature (orthogonality) of OFDM signal.

The widely used technique of PAPR reduction is amplitude clipping. This technique can
be implemented by clipping parts of the OFDM signals (after IFFT) that are greater than a
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threshold level. If OFDM signals are clipped, it will introduce in-band distortion and out-of-band
radiation (adjacent channel interference) into the communication system as a result BER
performance of the system degrades. Hence, the best solution is to reduce the PAPR before
formation of OFDM symbols as well as prior transmitted OFDM symbols into nonlinear HPA
and DAC.
The most of the factors mentioned above for selecting the PAPR reduction technique
are almost satisfied by frequency domain method (i.e. signal scrambling and pre-distortion
methods) because they are distortionless
Table 2.1 different techniques
2.3 OFDM
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is an attractive technique for
wireless communication applications. However, an OFDM signal has a large peak-to-mean
envelope power ratio, which can result in significant distortion when passed through a nonlinear
device, such as a transmitter power amplifier. Investigate, through extensive computer
simulations, the effects of clipping and filtering on the performance of OFDM, including the
power spectral density, the crest factor, and the bit-error rate. Our results show that clipping and
filtering is a promising technique for the transmission of OFDM signals using realistic linear
amplifiers.
It is shown that repeated clipping and frequency domain filtering of an orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signal can significantly reduce the peak-to-average
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power ratio (PAPR) of the transmitted signal. The technique causes no increase in out-of-band
power. Significant PAPR reduction can be achieved with only moderate levels of clipping noise
2.4 Clipping and Filtering
Iterative clipping and filtering (ICF) is a widely used technique to reduce the peak-toaverage power ratio (PAPR) of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signals.
However, the ICF technique, when implemented with a fixed rectangular window in the
frequency-domain, requires many iterations to approach specified PAPR threshold in the
complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF). In [3], we develop an optimized ICF
method which determines an optimal frequency response filter for each ICF iteration using
convex optimization techniques. The design of optimal filter is to minimize signal distortion such
that the OFDM symbol's PAPR is below a specified value. Simulation results show that our
proposed method can achieve a sharp drop of CCDF curve and reduce PAPR to an acceptable
level after only 1 or 2 iterations, whereas the classical ICF method would require 8 to 16
iterations to achieve a similar PAPR reduction. Moreover, the clipped OFDM symbols obtained
by our optimized ICF method have less distortion and lower out-of-band radiation than the
existing method. A block coding scheme using the maximum-length shift-register sequences (msequences) is suggested for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). The scheme,
with a very simple implementation, can significantly reduce the peak-to-average power ratio of
OFDM signals and provide error-correcting capability at the same time. For any code C defined
over an equal energy constellation, it is first shown that at any time instance, the problem of
determining code words of C with high peak-to-average power ratios (PAPR) in a multicarrier
communication system is intimately related to the problem of minimum-distance decoding of C.
Subsequently, a method is proposed for computing the PAPR by minimum-distance decoding of
C at many points of time. Moreover an upper bound on the error between this computed value
and the true one is derived. Analogous results are established for codes defined over arbitrary
signal constellations. As an application of this computational method, an approach for reducing
the PAPR of C proposed by Jones and Wilkinson (1996) is revisited. This approach is based on
introducing a specific phase shift to each coordinate of all the code words where phase shifts are
independent of the code words and known both to the transmitter and the receiver. We optimize
the phase shifts offline by applying our method for computing the PAPR for the coding scenario
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proposed by the ETSI BRAN Standardization Committee. Reductions of order 4.5 dB can be
freely obtained using the computed phase shifts. Examples are provided showing that most of the
gain is preserved when the computed optimal phase shifts are rounded to quantenary phase-shift
keying (PSK), 8-PSK, and 16-PSK type phase shifts. We present a range of coding schemes for
OFDM transmission using binary, quaternary, octary, and higher order modulation that give high
code rates for moderate numbers of carriers. These schemes have tightly bounded peak-to-mean
envelope power ratio (PMEPR) and simultaneously have good error correction capability. The
key theoretical result is a previously unrecognized connection between Golay complementary
sequences and second-order Reed-Muller codes over alphabets Z 2h. We obtain additional
flexibility in trading off code rate, PMEPR, and error correction capability by partitioning the
second-order Reed-Muller code into cosets such that code words with large values of PMEPR
are isolated. For all the proposed schemes we show that encoding is straightforward and give an
efficient decoding algorithm involving multiple fast Hadamard transforms. Since the coding
schemes are all based on the same formal generator matrix we can deal adaptively with varying
channel constraints and evolving system requirements the first lower bound on the peak-toaverage power ratio (PAPR) of a constant energy code of a given length n, minimum Euclidean
distance and rate is established. Conversely, using a no constructive Varshamov-Gilbert style
argument yields a lower bound on the achievable rate of a code of a given length, minimum
Euclidean distance and maximum PAPR. The derivation of these bounds relies on a geometrical
analysis of the PAPR of such a code. Further analysis shows that there exist asymptotically good
codes whose PAPR is at most 8 log n. These bounds motivate the explicit construction of errorcorrecting codes with low PAPR. Bounds for exponential sums over Galois fields and rings are
applied to obtain an upper bound of order (log n) 2 on the PAPRs of a constructive class of codes,
the trace codes. This class includes the binary simplex code, duals of binary, primitive BoseChaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) codes and a variety of their non-binary analogs. Some open
problems are identified The authors propose a method for the reduction of peak-to-average
transmit power ratio of multicarrier modulation systems, called selected mapping, is presented,
which is appropriate for a wide range of applications. Significant gains can be achieved by
selected mapping whereas complexity remains quite moderate
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The authors propose a very effective and flexible peak power reduction scheme for
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with almost vanishing redundancy. New
method works with arbitrary numbers of subcarriers and unconstrained signal sets. The core of
the proposal is to combine partial transmit sequences (PTS) to minimize the peak-to-average
power ratio distortion. A inter leaver-based technique for improving the peak-to-average power
ratio (PAP) of an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing signal is presented. For this
technique, K-1 random inter leavers are used to produce (K-1) permuted sequences from the
same information sequence. The PAPs of the permuted sequences and the original information
sequence are then computed using K oversampled fast Fourier transforms (OFFTs). The
sequence with the lowest PAP is chosen for transmission. Results show that for 256 subcarriers
and quadrature phase shift keying data symbols, even with K=2, the 0.1% PAP is reduced by 1.3
dB and with K=4 it is reduced by 2 dB. The 0.1% PAP can be reduced by 3 dB and the 0.01%
PAP by 4 dB at a cost of 16 OFFTs and a data rate loss of <0.8% with K=16
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Digital Multi Tone (DMT)
are multicarrier modulation techniques that have been recently proposed in several
communication areas such as transmission over Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) or
wireless transmission in Digital Audio/Video Broadcasting (DAB/DVB) [Sari95, Salt98]. Both
of these techniques split the available transmission bandwidth into several narrowband carriers
which carry different signals simultaneously. The carriers are called frequencies or tones kind of
modulation has been first proposed a long time ago [Wang66] and has the great property of being
able to reconstruct the signal without distortion despite the overlapping carrier spectra.
Moreover, a very attractive aspect of OFDM/DMT modulation is that the de-multiplexing (at the
transmission) and the multiplexing (at the reception) can be efficiently implemented with fast
Fourier transforms. The main drawback of this modulation is the nearly Gaussian behavior of the
data stream that has to be sent through the channel. Unlike other types of data modulation which
have \bounded" constellations, the OFDM/DMT stream exhibits large excursions from its
average power, forcing the amplifiers at the transmitter to operate in their nonlinear region. This
causes severe signal distortion, which must be cancelled or reduced to maintain good detection
performances at the receiver. Because the important advantages of OFDM/DMT modulation in a
lot of practical areas, a growing attention has been given to solve the problem of amplifying
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OFDM/DMT symbols. In this report, we focus on methods which try to reduce the impulsiveness
of the OFDM/DMT process by adding redundancy or signal transformation at the transmitter. In
another report, we will study methods that take into account a model for the nonlinear amplifier,
in order to compensate for its distortions [Decl99b]. We won't study either the techniques
involving coded versions of OFDM, in which the goal is to end codes that exhibit good peaks
properties. Note that those methods that use codes can be jointly implemented with the peak
reduction schemes presented here. The outline of this report is the following. In the first part, we
remind what the OFDM/DMT scheme is, and fully describe its main properties. Then, a
complete study of the Peak to Average Ratio (PAR) is performed. Finally, we present three
methods found in the literature that aim to reduce the PAR of the OFDM transmit data, and
compare their performances with extensive simulations in terms of PAR reduction at the
transmitter. A novel scheme called the selective mapping of partial tones (SMOPT) is addressed
for the reduction of the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) in orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) systems. The SMOPT first produces a set of modified OFDM symbols
with reduced PAPRs by adding a set of mapping symbols designed on peak reduction tones
(PRT) to the original OFDM symbol. The SMOPT then selects the symbol with the lowest PAPR
for transmission among the modified OFDM symbols. When simulated under the IEEE 802.11a
wireless local area network and ETSI EN 300 401 digital audio broadcasting physical layer
models, the SMOPT is observed to have lower sensitivity to PRT positions, lower complexity,
and more design flexibility than the tone reservation scheme.
The high peak-to-average power ratio (PAR) in orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) modulation systems can significantly limit performance. Methods exist
which alter or introduce new signal constellations to combat large signal peaks. It has been
presents an improved PAR-reduction method that dynamically extends outer constellation points
in active (data-carrying) channels, within margin-preserving constraints, in order to minimize the
peak magnitude. This scheme simultaneously decreases the bit error rate slightly while
substantially reducing the peak magnitude of an OFDM transmit block and requiring no side
information. PAR reduction for an approximated analog signal is considered, and a 4.5 dB
reduction is obtained for 256-channel QPSK OFDM. The results show great promise for use in
commercial systems.
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A general companding transform method is proposed to effectively reduce peak-toaverage power ratio (PAPR) of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signals. By
compressing large signals while enhancing small signals along with taking into account their
statistical characteristics, this method can achieve significant reduction in PAPR with low
implementation complexity. Specifically, presents the design criteria of the transform, which
enable effective tradeoff between reduction in PAPR and bit-error rate performance of the
OFDM system. It is shown by simulations that the proposed method may significantly improve
the performance of OFDM systems in radio channels by carefully choosing the companding
form and parameters.
A new nonlinear companding technique, called "exponential companding", is proposed
to reduce the high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) of Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) signals. Unlike the -law companding scheme, which enlarges only small
signals so that increases the average power, the schemes based on exponential companding
technique adjust both large and small signals and can keep the average power at the same level.
By transforming the original OFDM signals into uniformly distributed signals (with a specific
degree), the exponential companding schemes can effectively reduce PAPR for different
modulation formats and sub-carrier sizes. Moreover, many PAPR reduction schemes, such as law companding scheme, cause spectrum side-lobes generation, but the exponential companding
schemes cause less spectrum side-lobes. Computer simulations, which consider a baseband
OFDM system with Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channels and a Solid State Power
Amplifier (SSPA), show that the proposed exponential companding schemes can offer better
PAPR reduction, Bit Error Rate (BER), and phase error performance than the -law companding
scheme.
A peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) reduction technique based on A-law companding
is proposed for a multicarrier modulation (MCM) system. Multicarrier modulation is also known
as orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) or digital multi tone. The symbol error
rate (SER) and spectral property of the companded MCM system are investigated. The SER and
spectral performance of the proposed system are also compared with the uncompanded MCM
system.
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Presents a weighted cyclic prefix orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (WCPOFDM) transceiver as a generalization of traditional cyclic prefix (CP)- OFDM. In time-variant
channels, this multicarrier transmission scheme may mitigate inter-channel interference (ICI)
thanks to the use of non-rectangular pulse shapes. A pre-coding step may be required in order to
reduce the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) at the transmitter output. For instance, a discrete
Fourier transform (DFT) pre-coder leads to a single carrier transmission scheme with frequency
domain equalization. We analyze the consequences of such a pre-coding, in terms of
performances, in the context of a time-frequency selective channel.
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CHAPTER 3
OFDM SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
3.1OFDM
OFDM has become a popular technique for transmission of signals over wireless
channels. OFDM has been adopted in several wireless standards such as digital audio
broadcasting (DAB), digital video broadcasting (DVB-T), the IEEE 802.11a LAN standard and
the IEEE 802.16a MAN standard. OFDM is also being pursued for dedicated short-range
communications (DSRC) for road side to vehicle communications and as a potential candidate
for fourth generation (4G) mobile wireless systems. OFDM converts a frequency-selective
channel into a parallel collection of frequency flat sub-channels. The subcarriers have the
minimum frequency separation required to maintain orthogonality of their corresponding time
domain waveforms, yet the signal spectra corresponding to the different subcarriers overlap in
frequency. Hence, the available bandwidth is used very efficiently. If knowledge of the channel is
available at the transmitter, then the OFDM transmitter can adapt its signaling strategy to match
the channel. Due to the fact that OFDM uses a large collection of narrowly spaced sub-channels,
these adaptive strategies can approach the ideal water pouring capacity of a frequency-selective
channel. In practice this is achieved by using adaptive bit loading techniques, where different
sized signal constellations are transmitted on the subcarriers.
OFDM is a block modulation scheme where a block of N information symbols is
transmitted in parallel on N subcarriers. The time duration of an OFDM symbol is N times larger
than that of a single-carrier system. An OFDM modulator can be implemented as an IDFT on a
block of N information symbols followed by an ADC. To mitigate the effects of ISI caused by
channel time spread, each block of IDFT coefficients is typically preceded by a CP or a guard
interval consisting of G samples, such that the length of the CP is at least equal to the channel
length.
Under this condition, a linear convolution of the transmitted sequence and the channel is
converted to a circular convolution. As a result, the effects of the ISI are easily and completely
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eliminated. Moreover, the approach enables the receiver to use fast signal processing transforms
such as a fast FFT for OFDM implementation. Similar techniques can be employed in single
carrier systems as well, by preceding each transmitted data block of length N by a CP of length,
while using frequency-domain equalization at the receiver.
OFDM systems are attractive for the way they handle ISI, which is usually introduced
by frequency selective multipath fading in a wireless environment. Each sub-carrier is modulated
at a very low symbol rate, making the symbols much longer than the channel impulse response.
In this way, ISI is diminished. Moreover, if a guard interval between consecutive OFDM
symbols is inserted, the effects of ISI can completely vanish. This guard interval must be longer
than the multipath delay. Although each sub-carrier operates at a low data rate, a total high data
rate can be achieved by using a large number of sub-carriers. ISI has very small or no effect on
the OFDM systems hence an equalizer is not needed at the receiver side.
OFDM has many advantages compared with other transmission techniques. One of such
advantages is high spectral efficiency (measured in bits/sec/Hz). The orthogonal in OFDM
implies a precise mathematical relationship between the frequencies of the sub-channels that use
in the OFDM system. Each one of the frequencies is an integer multiple of a fundamental
frequency. This ensures that a sub-channel does not interfere with other sub-channels even
though the sub-channels overlap. This results in high spectral efficiency.
OFDM has been adopted in the IEEE802.11a LAN and IEEE802.16a LAN/MAN
standards.
OFDM is also being considered in IEEE802.20a, a standard in the making for
maintaining high bandwidth connections to users moving at speeds up to 60 mph. The
IEEE802.11a LAN standard operates at raw data rates up to 54 Mb/s (channel conditions
permitting) with a 20-MHz channel spacing, thus yielding a bandwidth efficiency of 2.7 b/s/Hz.
The actual throughput is highly dependent on the MAC protocol. Likewise, IEEE802.16a
operates in many modes depending on channel conditions with a data rate ranging from 4.20 to
22.91 Mb/s in a typical bandwidth of 6 MHz, translating into a bandwidth efficiency of 0.7 to
3.82 bits/s/Hz.
OFDM is frequency-division multiplexing scheme utilized as a digital multi-carrier
modulation method that it has been used successfully in wire-line access applications, such as
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modems and cable modems. Recently, wireless systems such as
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3GPP LTE have also adopted OFDM based transmissions to overcome the challenges of Non
Line Of Sight (NLOS) propagation because OFDM is a technology that has been shown to be
well suited to the mobile radio environment for high rate and multimedia services.
OFDM achieves high data rate and efficiency by using multiple overlapping carrier
signals instead of just one carrier. The key advantage of OFDM over single carrier modulation
schemes is the ability to subdivide the bandwidth into multiple frequency sub-carriers which
carry the information streams, are orthogonal to each other and deliver higher bandwidth
efficiency. Therefore OFDM allows higher data throughput even in the face of challenging
scenarios such as NLOS links suffering from significant degradation because of multipath
conditions. Therefore, a guard time is added in each OFDM symbol to combat the channel delay
spread. The term delay spread describes the amount of time delay at the receiver from a signal
traveling from the transmitter along different paths. The delay induced by multipath can cause a
symbol received along a delayed path to interfere with subsequent symbol arriving at the receiver
via a more direct path. This effect is referred to as inter-symbol interference (ISI).
The guard time may be divided into a prefix (inserted at the beginning of the useful
OFDM symbol and called cyclic prefix (CP)) and a postfix (inserted at the end of the previous
OFDM symbol). The introduction of the CP can eliminate ISI in the time domain as long as the
CP duration is longer than the channel delay spread. The CP is typically a repetition of the last
samples of data portion of the OFDM block that is appended to the beginning of the data payload
and makes the channel appear circular in order to permit low-complexity frequency domain
equalization.
OFDM signal generation consists of multiplexing the original data stream into Nc
parallel data streams; then and each of the data streams is modulated with a different subcarrier
frequency using linear modulation (either PSK or QAM). Then, the resulting signals are
transmitted together in the same band.
Correspondingly, the receiver consists of Nc parallel receiver paths because of the Nc
equally spaced orthogonal subcarriers of OFDM symbol behaves as Nc independent narrowband
flat fading channels. In short, OFDM converts the wideband frequency selective fading channel
into Nc narrowband flat fading channels thus the equalization can be performed in the frequency
domaing by a scalar division carrier wise with the subcarrier related channel coefficients.
Therefore, this fact reduces dramatically the equalization complexity.
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The subcarrier pulse used for OFDM transmission is chosen to be rectangular and this
has the advantage that the task of pulse forming and modulation can be performed by a simple
Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) at the transmitter. In practice, the IDFT is
implemented very efficiently as an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) and the IFFT keeps
the spacing of the subcarriers ortoghonal and not requires intra-cell interference cancellation.
Accordingly at the receiver we only need a FFT to reverse this operation but the receiver and the
transmitter must be perfectly synchronized. Therefore, according to the theorems of the Fourier
Transform, the rectangular pulse shape will lead to a sinc type of spectrum of the subcarriers that
are overlap but the information transmitted can still be separated because of the orthogonality
relation between subcarriers. Figure 3.1 shows the block diagram of a OFDM based transmission
system with only one single antenna at the transmitter and one at the receiver and how to
characterize a multipath radio channel for OFDM systems is described. Then, how to create the
mobile channel models to be used for 3GPP deployment evaluation is explicitly described, where
simplifications in order to reduce the computational cost and the complexity of the simulations
are presented.
Fig.3.1 block diagram of an SISO OFDM based transmission system.

3.1.1 Single Carrier Modulation System
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A single carrier system modulates information onto one carrier using frequency, phase,
or amplitude adjustment of the carrier. For digital signals, the information is in the form of bits,
or collections of bits called symbols, that are modulated onto the carrier. As higher bandwidths
(data rates) are used, the duration of one bit or symbol of information becomes smaller. The
system becomes more susceptible to loss of information from impulse noise, signal reflections
and other impairments. These impairments can impede the ability to recover the information
sent. In addition, as the bandwidth used by a single carrier system increases, the susceptibility to
interference from other continuous signal sources becomes greater. This type of interference is
commonly labeled as carrier wave (CW) or frequency interference.
3.1.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing Modulation System
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) extends the concept of single carrier
modulation by using multiple subcarriers within the same single channel. The total data rate to be
sent in the channel is divided between the various subcarriers. The data do not have to be divided
evenly nor do they have to originate from the same information source. Advantages include
using separate modulation/demodulation customized to a particular type of data, or sending out
banks of dissimilar data that can be best sent using multiple, and possibly different, modulation
schemes.
Current National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) television and FM stereo
multiplex are good examples of FDM. FDM offers an advantage over single-carrier modulation
in terms of narrowband frequency interference since this interference will only affect one of the
frequency sub bands. The other subcarriers will not be affected by the interference. Since each
subcarrier has a lower information rate, the data symbol periods in a digital system will be
longer, adding some additional immunity to impulse noise and reflections. FDM systems usually
require a guard band between modulated subcarriers to prevent the spectrum of one subcarrier
from interfering with another. These guard bands lower the systems effective information rate
when compared to a single carrier system with similar modulation.
3.1.3 Basics of OFDM System
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), is now a popular technique for
MCM (Multi-Carrier Modulation), is deployed in various standards of IEEE, especially in the
wireless systems. OFDM also looks promising for the 4G mobile technologies. OFDM converts
a frequency selective fading channel into a collection of the flat fading sub-channels. The
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wireless channels offers much more unpredictability and other challenges than their wire line
(like twisted wire pairs or coaxial cables) counterparts, due to the presence of multipath, Doppler
spread etc., This difficulty in the wireless channels is mainly due to the frequent change in the
environment and other factors because of the mobility of the user, and presence of different
environment conditions.
3.1.4 OFDM for Multicarrier Transmission
In a wireless communication system, the signal is carried by a large number of paths
with different strengths and delays. Such multipath dispersion of the signal is commonly referred
as channel-induced Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). In fact, the multipath dispersion leads to
an upper limitation of the transmission rate in order to avoid the frequency selectivity of the
channel or the need of a complex adaptive equalization in the receiver.
In order to mitigate the time dispersive nature of the channel, single-carrier serial
transmission at a high data rate is replaced with a number of slower parallel data streams. Each
parallel stream will be then used to sequentially modulate a different subcarrier. By creating N
parallel sub streams, will be able to decrease the bandwidth of the modulation symbol by the
factor of N, or, in other words, the duration of a modulation symbol is increased by the same
factor. The summation of all of the individual sub channel data rates will result in total desired
symbol rate, with the drastic reduction of the ISI distortion. If the FDM system above had been
able to use a set of subcarriers that were orthogonal to each other, a higher level of spectral
efficiency could have been achieved. The guard bands that were necessary to allow individual
demodulation of subcarriers in an FDM system would no longer be necessary.
The use of orthogonal subcarriers would allow the subcarriers spectra to overlap, thus
increasing the spectral efficiency. As long as orthogonality is maintained, it is still possible to
recover the individual subcarriers signals despite their overlapping spectrums. If the dot product
of two deterministic signals is equal to zero, these signals are said to be orthogonal to each other.
Orthogonality can also be viewed from the standpoint of stochastic processes.
Two random processes are uncorrelated, and then they are orthogonal. Given the
random nature of signals in a communications system, this probabilistic view of orthogonality
provides an intuitive understanding of the implications of orthogonality in OFDM. The sinusoids
of the DFT form an orthogonal basis set, and a signal in the vector space of the DFT can be
represented as a linear combination of the orthogonal sinusoids. One view of the DFT is that the
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transform essentially correlates its input signal with each of the sinusoidal basis functions. If the
input signal has some energy at a certain frequency, there will be a peak in the correlation of the
input signal and the basis sinusoid that is at that corresponding frequency. This transform is used
at the OFDM transmitter to map an input signal onto a set of orthogonal subcarriers, i.e., the
orthogonal basis functions of the DFT. Similarly, the transform is used again at the OFDM
receiver to process the received subcarriers.
The signals from the subcarriers are then combined to form an estimate of the source
signal from the transmitter. The orthogonal and uncorrelated nature of the subcarriers is exploited
in OFDM with powerful results. Since the basis functions of the DFT are uncorrelated, the
correlation performed in the DFT for a given subcarrier only sees energy for that corresponding
subcarrier. The energy from other subcarriers does not contribute because it is uncorrelated. This
separation of signal energy is the reason that the OFDM subcarriers spectrums can overlap
without causing interference. In OFDM, the orthogonal subcarriers are separated by a frequency
interval of f = 1/Ts, where Ts is the OFDM symbol duration, as shown in Fig. 3.2.
Fig: 3.2 Frequency spectrum of OFDM transmission

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The frequency spectrum of the adjacent sub channel overlap with one another, but the
orthogonality of subcarriers will eliminate in principle the Inter-Channel Interference (ICI).
3.1.5 Orthogonality of signals
A sinusoidal wave behaves as an Eigen functions for a linear time invariant (LTI)
system and is less susceptible to interference. Hence a sine wave is suitable for transmission on a
multi-tap channel. The sine waves used for transmission should be over sufficiently long
intervals of time in order to preserve the eigen property. Therefore distinct multiple sinusoids of
sufficient duration modulated by data symbols can be used to transmit data with a lesser
degradation in performance. However, adjacent sub-carriers in frequency should be separated by
guard bands to prevent overlap of information between them resulting in poor bandwidth
efficiency.
The main concept in OFDM is Orthogonality of the sub-carriers. Since the carriers are
all either sin or cosine waves, we know that the area under the sine wave or cosine wave is zero
as shown in Figure 3.3
Fig: 3.3 the area under a sine wave over one period
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Fig: 3.4 the area under a cosine wave over one period
Lets take a sine wave of frequency m and multiply it by a sinusoid (sine or cosine) of a
frequency n, where both m and n are integers. The integral or the area under this product is given
by
f ( t )=sin ( mwt )sin ( nwt )
(3.1)
By the simple trigonometric relationship, the equation 2.2.1 is equal to sum of two
sinusoids (n-m) and (n+m), if n>m
1
1
cos ( nm ) cos ( n+m)
2
2
(3.2)
Again these two components are sinusoids each, so the integral over one period is zero
( nm )
1
(t) cos ( ( n+m ) t ) dt
2
0
2
(3.3)
2 cos
0
00=0
3.1.6 DFT
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Though Multi carrier technique was introduced in the 1950, the main reason that
hindered the OFDM expansion for a very long time was practical. As it seemed difficult to
generate such a signal, and even harder to receive and appropriately demodulate such a signal.
Also this technique required a very large array of sinusoidal generators and also a large array of
coherent demodulators to make the system work. Therefore, the hardware solution cant be
practical. As a consequence of the explosive development of digital signal processors (DSP),
which can be used for generating and demodulating an OFDM signal, was to use Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT), a modern DSP technique. FFT merely represents a rapid mathematical method
for computer applications of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The ability to generate and to
demodulate the signal using a software implementation of FFT algorithm is the key of OFDM
current popularity. In fact, the signal is generated using the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
(IFFT), the fast implementation of Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT). There is a
mysterious connection between this transform and the concept of multicarrier modulation.
According to its mathematical distribution, IDFT summarizes all sine and cosine waves of
amplitudes stored in X[k] array, forming a time domain signal
2n
N
2n
X [ k ] .(cos ( )+ jsin( k
)) n=0,1, .. N1
N
k
X [k] .e
jk
2n
N
N 1
(3.4)
=
k=0
N1
[ n]=
k=0
3.1.7 Applications of OFDM

The Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) transmission scheme has the
following applications.
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX).
Terrestrial Digital Audio Broadcasting (DVB-T).
Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN).
IEEE 802.16d.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).
ETSI HiperLAN 2.
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IEEE 802.11a.
IEEE 802.11g.
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB).
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB).
High Definition Television (HDTV).
Broadband Internet Access.
Wireless Networking.
3.2 Advantages of OFDM System

The advantages of OFDM system are given as
Saving of BandwidthThe OFDM system is more bandwidth efficient in comparison to Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM). As shown in figure 3.10(a), in FDM technique numerous distinct carriers
are spaced apart without overlapping where in OFDM system the sub-carrier overlap each other
due to orthogonality features. Due to overlapping of sub-carriers the usage of bandwidth reduced
drastically and also reduced the guard bands for the separation of sub-carriers.
Figure-3.5: Comparison of (a) conventional multi-carrier technique and (b) orthogonal

multi-carrier modulation technique.
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The challenging problem in a MCM system is to implement bank of modulators at the

transmitter side and demodulators at the receiver side. The concept of Data transmission can be
efficiently implemented using IFFT and FFT instead of bank of modulators at the transmitter side
and demodulators at the receiver side respectively.
Easy Equalization-
In a single carrier system, equalization make frequency channel flat but equalization
amplify noise greatly in frequencies domain where channel response is poor. As a result, single
carrier performance is affected due to high attenuation in some bands since all used frequencies
are given equal importance. In OFDM system, wideband channel are divided into flat fading subchannels, it reduces the equalization complexity in the receiver. So, it is possible to use
maximum likelihood decoding with reasonable complexity.
Susceptible to frequency selective fading-
Due to capability of parallel transmission (each sub-carrier has narrow bandwidth to

overall bandwidth of signal) OFDM is highly susceptible to frequency selective fading. OFDM
converts a frequency selective fading channel into several flat fading channels.
Protection against Inter symbol interference-
The extended symbol time (due to lower data rate) makes the signal less susceptible to
effect the channel such as multipath propagation which introduces Inter Symbol Interference
(ISI). The use of cyclic prefix between consecutive OFDM symbols makes it immune to ISI.
Also, it is less sensitive to sample timing offsets than single carrier system.
3.3 Major Problems of OFDM System
Despite of several advantages, the OFDM systems also have some major problems like
High Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) of transmitted signal-
Presence of a large number of subcarriers with varying amplitude results in a high peak to
average power ratio (PAPR) of the system with large dynamic range, which in turn effects
on the efficiency of the RF amplifier.
Synchronization (timing and frequency) at the receiverSymbol Timing Offset (STO) and Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO) affects on the
performance of OFDM system. Correct timing between FFT and IFFT is required at the receiver
side. OFDM system is highly sensitive to Doppler shifts which affect the carrier frequency
offset, resulting in ICI. .
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3.3.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique

OFDM is a very popular multi carrier modulation cum multiplexing technique for
transmission of signals over wireless fading channels. It converts a frequency selective fading
channel into a collection of flat parallel fading sub channels, which mostly simplifies the
structure of the receiver. Even though the signal spectra related to different subcarriers overlap in
frequency domain but the time domain wave form of the subcarriers are orthogonal. So that the
available bandwidth is used efficiently in OFDM systems without the inter carrier interference.
OFDM systems can provide a high data rate with long symbol duration by mixing up multiple
low data rate sub carriers with long symbol duration. That helps to avoid the inter symbol
interference (ISI), which occurs along with signals of a short symbol duration in a multipath
channel of MIMO-OFDM communication system. Here we are listing some major merits and
demerits of the scheme as follows.
Merits of OFDM systems are:
Spectral efficiency is high.
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) implementation makes less complex.
Complexity is very low at the receiver.
This scheme is robust for high data rate transmission over multipath fading
In terms of link adaptation this is highly flexible
Orthogonal frequency division multiple access is low complexity multiple access
channel
scheme
Demerits of OFDM systems are:
Sensitive to phase noise, frequency offsets and timing errors
Relatively high peak to average power ratio compared to single carrier system,
which tends to reduce the power efficiency of the RF amplifier

Though the developments of OFDM technology, there are two considerable
contributions to OFDM which transform the original analog multicarrier system to todays
digitally implemented OFDM. For the implementation of OFDM systems the use of Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) decreased to perform baseband modulation and demodulation which
was eliminated the banks of coherent demodulators and sub carrier oscillators required by
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frequency division multiplexing. DFT based frequency division multiplexing can be fully
implemented in digital baseband. FFT for highly efficient processing, a fast algorithm for
computing DFT, can even further reduce the number of arithmetic operations to NlogN from N2
(N if FFT size).
A guard interval can be used in between consecutive symbols and the raised cosine
windowing in the time domain to combat the ISI and the ICI. But over a time dispersive channel
the system could not maintain perfect orthogonality between subcarriers. This problem was
tackled with the use of cyclic prefix (CP) or cyclic extension. Here they replaced the guard
interval with a cyclic extension of the OFDM symbol. The ISI can be eliminated totally if the
length of cyclic extension is longer than impulse response of the channel. Further, this scheme
well simulates a channel performing cyclic convolution which ensures the orthogonality between
subcarriers over a time dispersive channel. The principle of OFDM system is to divide a single
high data rate bit stream into a number of lower data rate bit streams those are transmitted over
narrower sub channels simultaneously. So it is a modulation (frequency modulation) technique
and also a multiplexing (frequency division multiplexing) technique. The difference between
OFDM and conventional FDM is shown in figure 3.6.
Fig.3.6 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
3.4 Essential Features in PAPR Reduction Technique

A number of factors need to be well thought-out in evaluation of any PAPR reduction
technique.
3.4.1 PAPR Reduction performance
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A vital factor in selection of any technique is its performance as regards to PAPR

reduction. This means how much capable the technique is as regards to reduction of PAPR. This
capability of any technique is algorithm dependent.
For example Inter leaver technique PAPR reduction capability is less than that of SLM.
However this PAPR reduction performance must be judged while giving a cautious thought to
other detrimental effects which may result. Take an instance of clipping technique which has
very high performance as regards to PAPR reduction but the amount of resultant in-band
distortion and out-of-band radiation is intolerable.
3.4.2 Transmit Signal power increase
It is necessary in a number of techniques that the power of transmit signal should be
increased. Take an instance of TR, which needs additional power because PRCs employed in this
technique also need power. The original constellation point is replaced by equivalent
constellation points in TI. These equivalent constellation points need additional power as
compared to original point, hence the power of transmit signal is increased in TI. The
normalization of transmit power to original level, results in degradation of BER performance.
3.4.3 Increased BER at the Receiver
An increase in BER at receiver end is another significant factor. The increase in transmit
signal power and increased BER at receiver are interrelated. For instance in few techniques e.g.
ACE, the BER is increased when transmit power is fixed. BER may also be increased due to
other reasons like errors inside information. For example the error inside information in PTS,
SLM and interleaving can result in loss of entire data block hence a resultant increase in BER.
3.4.4 Data Rate loss
Few techniques while tackling the PAPR result decrease in data rate. As shown in the
previous example, the block coding technique requires one out of four information symbols to be
dedicated to controlling PAPR. In PTS, SLM and interleaving, the loss in data rate is due to
transmission of side information utilizing some of the carriers. Since transmission of side
information without errors is critical for retrieval of data, sometimes channel coding is used to
protect against side information errors which further augments the problem of data rate loss.
3.4.5 Computational Complexity
When considering the most appropriate algorithm for a PAPR reduction technique of
OFDM system the issues of computational complexity, hence power consumption and latency
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involved due to computations, are of major concern and have to be evaluated against potential
increase in data bandwidth. In some schemes the signal processing needed for minimizing PAPR
may be sufficiently complex that even leading edge technology gate arrays would not meet the
speed requirements for broadband data transmission within acceptable battery power and cost
constraints.
PAPR reduction may also incur an additional processor load in the receive path, for
example, where a complex decoding or error-correction scheme is necessitated. So to check the
applicability of any proposed technique employed for reduction of PAPR, it is to be seen that
how much penalty in terms of additional computations it will cost. For example the performance
for PAPR reduction is increased by increasing the number of inter-leavers but with every
Interleaver addition we have additional computational cost. Generally, more complex techniques
have better PAPR reduction capability.
Table 3.1 Comparison of PAPR reduction Techniques
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3.5 Fundamentals of PAPR

There has been momentous progress in the field of wireless communication during last
twenty years. The internet and digital communication evolution has resulted in enormous
increase in methods of personal communication as well as commercial applications. The new
paradigm of information access to everybody everywhere all the time is in making.
To achieve the ever increasing demands of higher data transfer rates for new multimedia
applications, the physical wireless link of wireless communication networks is constantly under
trial. The phenomenon of multipath fading, mobility and the limited availability of bandwidth are
major precincts. Lately, there have been many breakthroughs to triumph over these limitations.
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Many modulation techniques compete for new solutions and future applications.
Modulation schemes can be broadly categorized in to single carrier and multi carrier. Wideband
code division multiple access (W-CDMA) is single carrier modulation scheme. While OFDM,
Multi Carrier Code Division Multiple Access (MC-CDMA) and multi carrier (MC-IDMA) are
multi carrier schemes. W-CDMA which has been adopted by UMTS and it supports up to 2
[Mbit/s] at high mobility and large range. OFDM which is one of the multi-carrier techniques
and digital broadcast systems like digital audio/video broadcasting (DAB/DVB) are already
using this technique. It is also being used in wireless local area network (WLAN).
OFDM is popular for high data rate (broadband) communications because it is immune
to multipath delay spread, it results in low complexity equalizer, and it has high spectral
efficiency. It is also immune to channel behavior and uses efficient modulation/demodulation.
Amongst several disadvantages, high PAPR makes OFDM very sensitive to nonlinear
components like HPA in the transmission path. The HPA causes additional in-band distortion and
adjacent channel interference leading to low power efficiency which is the main impediment to
execution of OFDM especially in low-cost applications.
3.5.1 Fundamentals of OFDM System
OFDM, first introduced in 1966 and patented few years later, is known for high-speed
data transmission. Early on OFDM gained attention because data was sent in parallel on different
sub carriers, hence high speed equalization was no longer required. Other incentives of OFDM
were high spectral efficiency and immunity to the effects of multipath fading.
In 1971 the idea of using the discrete Fourier transform in the modulation/demodulation
process was introduced. Prior to this breakthrough, OFDM systems were prohibitively complex
because arrays of sinusoidal generators and coherent demodulators were necessary in the
implementation. With special-purpose Fast Fourier transform (FFT) chips, now it became
possible to implement the entire OFDM system digitally and efficiently.
Lately, OFDM has been put into practice in DAB, digital television and high definition
television (HDTV)[13], high-bit-rate digital subscriber lines (HDSL), very high-speed digital
subscriber lines (VHDSL), asymmetric digital subscriber lines (ADSL), and mobile wideband
data transmission (IEEE 802.11a, Hiperlan II). It is also used in the IEEE 802.16 WiMAX
standard.
Table 3.2 different standards
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In spite of all the advantages, OFDM still has its shortcomings. One problem is
vulnerability to carrier frequency estimation errors. Error rate can increase drastically due to
small frequency offset because it leads to loss of orthogonality between the sub carriers. The
second problem is that OFDM signals suffer from high PAPR. High PAPR requires a system to
accommodate an instantaneous signal power that is much larger than the signal average power,
necessitating low operating power efficiency.
3.5.2 Mathematical Model of OFDM System
In an OFDM system, data is modulated in the frequency domain to N adjacent sub
carriers. These N sub carriers span a bandwidth of B Hz and are separated by a spacing of f =
B/N. The continuous-time base band representation of this is
Figure 3.7 is a block diagram of an OFDM system. The serial input bit stream is sent to
a constellation encoder which outputs N parallel constellations point representing the data. The
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IFFT of these N samples is used to create the OFDM discrete-time symbol. The parallel timedomain samples are then converted to a serial stream and the CP is added. Next the sequence is
up sampled, filtered, and converted to an analog signal, up converted to the carrier frequency,
amplified and transmitted.
Fig. 3.7OFDM block diagram

3.5.3 Cause of large Envelop Variations
The OFDM is a multi-carrier scheme. It uses IFFT for modulation. In IFFT operation,
the sub-carriers are added after being multiplied by sinusoidal functions. Addition of these subcarriers may result in high peak if all sub carriers add coherently. This coherent addition occurs
very rarely. The overall average power of the OFDM signal is quite low. But once large number
of sub carriers adds coherently they cause peak which results in high PAPR of the signal to be
transmitted. The ill effects of high PAPR are described below which give justification for its
reduction.
3.5.4 Envelope Variation Metrics
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As mentioned in the introduction, the power efficiency of a system suffers when signal
that have large envelope variations is transmitted. There have been several metrics proposed that
quantify peaky behavior. Lei, Li and Tang pointed out that in practical systems, signals are
frequently clipped to some low level even after envelope peaks have been minimized.
Accordingly, they propose that the envelope variation of a signal be measured by the clipping
noise power generated at some clipping level. Another metric to quantify the large envelop
variation is Peak to Average Power Ratio. Intuitively, using some normalized measurement of the
peak of a signal is appealing. This is the idea behind the peak-to-average ratio and is described in
detail in the next section.
3.6 PAPR as Metric of envelope variation
The most popular quantification metric of envelope variation is the Peak-To- Average
Power Ratio (PAPR)1. Rightfully so, PAPR captures the most important aspect of a signal that
has to pass through a peak-power limited device which is the peak power. The use of PAPR in
communications signals is a result of the use of PAR in radar applications. A radar system shares
certain similarities with a communications system; namely, they both have to transmit an
amplified radio signal of a certain spectrum. For radar, the spectrum shape is often the only
signal constraint, which makes waveform shaping that minimizes peaks a relatively
straightforward problem. However, in an OFDM communication system there is the additional
constraint that each sub carrier (Fourier coefficient of the spectrum) is modulated with an
information bearing complex number. This additional degree of constraint significantly
complicates the problem.
3.6.1 PAPR Curve by CCDF
OFDM systems combine multiple sub-carriers which causes increase in PAPR. The
increase in PAPR is related to the number of sub carriers and their order of modulation.
Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function (CCDF) curves present vital information
regarding the OFDM signal to be transmitted. The CCDF curves are applied for many other
design applications such as to combine several signals through systems components, visualize
the effects of modulation formats, evaluate spread spectrum systems, and design and test RF
components. These curves also provide the PAPR data needed by component designer. The main
use of power CCDF curves is to identify the power characteristic of the signals which are
amplified, mixed and decoded.
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The plot of relative power levels of signal against their probability of occurrence is
called CCDF curve. This curve illustrates the amount of time the signal remains at or above a
given power level. The ratio between power level and the average power is expressed in dB.
Figure 2.2 shows all possible symbols for 8-carriers BPSK OFDM signal. The plot shows power
levels of the symbols and the dotted horizontal line depicts the average power. The probability of
occurrence for any power level is percentage of time that signals spends at or above that level.
Figure 3.8 A waveform to show a specific power level above the average.
Figure 3.9 is a plot of the PAPR of x [N] for different values of modulation order. It is
obvious that at all probability levels the PAPR increases with modulation order.
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Figure 3.9 CCDF of the discrete-time PAR for various modulation orders.
For the derivation of cumulative distribution function (CDF) few assumptions are made
considering only Nyquist sampled analog signal in the discrete-time case. Consider that discretetime domain signal has a complex Gaussian distribution assuming that the number of sub carriers
N is large enough. It result in Chi- Squared distributed instantaneous power of the samples.
3.7 Factors Effecting PAPR
Factors effecting PAPR are as follows:
3.7.1 Number of sub carriers
In Multi-Carrier Systems the complex base band signal for one symbol in an OFDM For
moderately large numbers of m-PSK sub carriers the quadrature components of x (t) each tend
towards a Gaussian distribution (giving the sum of their power amplitude a Rayleigh
distribution). Consequently, whilst the peak value possible is N times the individual sub carrier
peak, the probability of any value close to that peak occurring is very low. For example, with
only 24 sub carriers, the probability of the PAPR exceeding 4dB is 10-2 and of exceeding 8dB is
only 10-4.
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3.7.2 Modulation Order

High data bandwidth efficiency (in terms of b/s/Hz) may be achieved by using higher
order modulations based, for example, on QAM. When the sub carriers modulation is a higherorder QAM type, the PAPR of the summed OFDM signal is increased by the PAPR of the QAM
constellation used. However, the probability of these higher peaks occurring is correspondingly
less. Moreover, since among advantages of OFDM one is that sub carriers can have their
modulation independently varied to adapt to channel conditions, the combined PAPR in any
system using this technique may be difficult to predict and control.
PAPR for an unfiltered base band signal is listed in the following Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 PAPR for selected modulation formats
3.7.3 Constellation shape

The last entry in Table 3.3 is for a constellation obtained by modifying 256- QAM to
reduce PAPR. This modified constellation shape is shown in figure 3.10. However, there is an
additional processor load associated with encoding and decoding this constellation.
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Figure 3.10 256-QAM constellations: (a) regular and (b) modified mapping to reduce
PAPR
3.7.4 Pulse Shaping
In terrestrial communications it is common to apply pulse shaping to the base band
signal, to reduce the bandwidth of the transmitted spectrum, but this causes overshoot and could
increase the PAPR of the modulating signal by 4-5dB.
3.8 System Description
Orthogonal multicarrier modulation is an efficient method of data transmission over
channels with frequency-selective fading. This method has a relatively simple implementation
based on the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT).
The simplified block diagrams for an OFDM system with the convolution scheme and
the proposed weighted scheme are shown in Fig. 3.11. As described in Fig. 3.11(a), the
modulated data stream is carried on the multi carriers by the IFFT, and the convolution block
reduces the PAPR of signal, which is corresponding to the weight block of the proposed scheme,
as shown in Fig. 3.11(b). In the following block, the cyclic prefix is added before the HPA.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.11 Simplified block diagrams for an OFDM system with (a) convolution scheme
and (b) proposed weighting scheme.
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For a discrete data
N1
{a k }k=0
, multicarrier-modulated signal
x N ( t)
on [0,NT] is
represented by
x N ( t )=
1
N
N 1
ak e j 2 f t
k
(3.4)
k=0
where N is the number of subcarriers, T is the original symbol period, f =1/ NT and
f k =k f , k=0, , N1
xN
f = 1/NT. The PAPR of
over the time interval [0,NT] is
defined by
2
PAPR ( x N )=
max 0 t N | x N (t )|
T
E(|x N (t )| )
(3.5)
where E() denotes the expectation operator.
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CHAPTER 4
WEIGHTED ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY-DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING SYSTEM
Here, we provide the weighted OFDM signal, where the weight is derived from a
suitable band limited signal having no zero on the real line. This method is motivated by a
convolution method. Taking the circular convolution between the multicarrier-modulated signal
xN and a suitable signal having compact support, the PAPR of the convoluted signal can be
reduced. In fact, for p R with 1 p, from Youngs in equality ,
x Np x N1p ,
.
and
x N
belongs to
Lp although
xN L
p
p
space L ={f :f p < } . For p > 1, since L
f p =(|f ( x)| dx )
, where
1
p
is more tempered than
and the
L1 , essentially, the
PAPR of the convoluted signal can be reduced. Simultaneously, we should consider carefully
to sustain the size of the expectation of
x N
First, we consider the convolution method and then derive the corresponding weighted
OFDM signal.
4.1 Convolution Method
The Fourier transform
F [f ] of f is defined by
.
F [ f ] ( ) f (x) e jx dx
(4.1)
if the integral exists. The inverse Fourier transform

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F [ F]
of F is defined by
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.
1
F [ F ] ( x ) F() e jxd
2x R
1
provided that the integral exists. Then
(4.2)
F1 [ F [ f ] ] =f , when f and
F [f ]
are
integrable, and
~
F [ F [ f ] ] =2 f
(4.3)
~
where f ( x )=f (x) .
We consider signal as
( x )=
1sinc(x)
2 x2
(4.4)
Where
sincx=
sinx
,x 0
x
1, x=0
By direct computation, the Fourier transform F [] of is given by
||
1
( )= 2 (1 ) ||
0, ot h erwise .
The signal is a band limited signal with bandwidth , has no zero on the real line, and
~
=
(4.5)
For more information about , see the Appendix at the end of this paper.
Consider the circular convoluted signal as follows:
yN ( t )
1
1
x N ( t )=
x ( t ) ( ) d .
2
2 N
(4.6)
Taking the Fourier transform in (4.6), we have by (4.3) and (4.5) that
F [ y N ]=
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F [ x N ] F [ ]=F [ x N ]
2
55
(4.6)
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where
F [ xN ]
and
F [ yN ]
are the Fourier transforms in the sense of distribution.
N1
Since
2 / a k ( 2 f k ) ,
has no zero on the real line and
k=0
we can recover the
F [ x N ] ( )=
discrete data so that. for k = 0, . . . , N 1, we have
ak =
N F [ x N ] (2 f k ) N F [ y N ] (2 f k )
=
2 (2 f k )
(4.7)
4.2 Weighted OFDM System

We show that the convoluted signal in (4.6) can be written as a simple weighted OFDM
signal yN.
Observing by (4.3), (4.5) and (4.6) that
e j 2 f (t ) ( ) d=2 (2 f k )e j 2 f t
k
the convoluted signal in (4.5) can be expressed as the following weighted OFDM signal:
y N ( t )=
1
N
N 1
ak ( 2 f k ) e j 2 f t , 0 t NT
k
k=0
(4.8)
4.3. Weighted OFDM System With Modified Weight

The demerit of the weighted OFDM signal in (4.8) is the degradation of BER
performance since the weight
is non-uniform. To overcome this obstacle, we consider the
modified weight with a positive constant as follows:

( x )= ( x )+ /logN
(4.9)
where is a shift parameter, and logN is obtained by experiment. Then,

the weighted OFDM signal in (4.8), we replace weight
with
0 .
=0 .
In
for a suitable positive
constant to get the weighted OFDM signal, i.e.,

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z N ( t )=
1
N
N 1
ak ( 2 f k ) e j 2 f t , 0 t NT
k
(4.10)
k=0
as a transmitted signal instead of
xN
(2 f k ) is imposed on the discrete data ak, k = 0, . . . , N
In system (4.10), weight
1, and we form an OFDM signal with the weighted discrete data
1
{ k (2 f k )}Nk=0
to get
weighted OFDM signal zN. We transmit weighted OFDM signal zN for the same time duration
[0,NT] as the original OFDM signal.
We note that weight
is positive on the real line; therefore, the modified weight
is positive on the real line. Since (2 f k ) 0
for any k = 0, . . . , N 1, the discrete
N1
data {a k }k=0 can be completely recovered.
The PAPR of the weighted OFDM signal
zN
is given by
2
PAPR ( z N )=
max 0 t N | z N (t )|
T
E(|z N (t )| )
(4.11)
In the following, we provide the simulation results showing that the PAPR of the
weighted OFDM signal with modified weight
is smaller than that of the C&F method, and
the BER performance of the weighted OFDM system with modified weight
is improved
compared with the C&F method. We note that as increases, due to the modification of weight,
the BER performance is improved, whereas the complementary cumulative distribution function
(CCDF) grows slightly.
In (4.10), we can recover discrete data
N 1
{a k (2 f k ) }k=0
of the OFDM system. Since by dividing the given discrete data by
by the conventional method

(2 f k )
we can obtain
the original discrete data, the weighted OFDM system is not expected to cause any
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computational complexity in recovering the original discrete data. In fact, 2N complex

multiplications are additionally needed compared with the original OFDM method.
~
We note that a sufficient condition for a signal to be a proper weight is that
~
(2 f k ) 0
for any k = 0, . . . , N 1.We expect that the performance of the weighted
OFDM system corresponding to
depends on the smoothness of the Fourier transform of
~
.
CHAPTER 5
SIMULATIONS RESULTS
The performance of this proposed scheme is analyzed through the simulations. In the
simulations, 103 quadratic-phase-shift-keying (QPSK)-modulated OFDM symbols were
randomly generated. Fig. 5.1 shows the CCDFs of the C&F method and the proposed method for
N = 128, 256, 1024. The proposed method is simulated with a fixed shift parameter = 0.03, and
several C&Fs are simulated with various clipping ratios CR = 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, respectively. As
shown in the figure, the proposed scheme can reduce the PAPR around 3 Db for N = 128 and 2
dB for N = 1024, respectively, at the 1% of the CCDF, compared with the C&F scheme. Note
that the PAPR of the original OFDM signal exceeds 14.8 dB for N = 128 and 16 dB for N =
1024, respectively. In Figs. 5.1 and 5.2, since the results induced by quadratic-amplitude
modulation mapping are almost the same as those induced by QPSK mapping, here, we provide
only the results induced by QPSK mapping.
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Fig. 5.1. CCDF of the C&F and proposed methods for N = 128, 256, 1024.
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Fig. 5.2. CCDF and BER of the C&F and proposed methods for N = 128.
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
A PAPR reduction scheme based on a weighted OFDM signal has been proposed to
reduce the PAPR without data distortion in removing the weight at the receiver side in the
mathematical view. To reduce the peak of the OFDM signal, a band limited signal , which is not
zero on the set
N1
{2 f k }k=0
, is introduced, and we form weight
=+ /logN
for a
suitable positive constant . We consider a weighted discrete data to form a weighted OFDM
signal, which is defined on the same time interval as the original OFDM signal, before the HPA,
where the weights are imposed by using signal
. It is shown that the PAPR of this weighted
OFDM method is smaller than that of the C&F method, and the BER performance is improved
compared with the C&F method.
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CHAPTER 7
FUTURE SCOPE
To reduce the Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM system using Genetic
Algorithm (GA) based approach and also reduce its complexity by the reducing the number of
iteration. Basically OFDM has several attributes for high speed wireless communication.
However the increased PAPR of the signal is main drawback of OFDM signal which restricts the
efficiency of transmitter. So this paper is focused in the domain PAPR reduction of OFDM
signals by using weighted OFDM signal scheme in future use.
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REFERENCES
[1] X. Li and L. J. Cimini, Jr., Effects of clipping and filtering on the performance of OFDM,
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[3] Y.-C. Wang and Z.-Q. Luo, Optimized iterative clipping and filtering for PAPR reduction of
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error correction, Electron. Lett., vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 554555, Mar. 1997.
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A WEIGHTED OFDM SIGNAL SCHEME FOR PEAK-TO-AVERAGE POWER RATIO REDUCTION OF OFDM

of has no zero on the real line. The

and form an OFDM signal

is non-uniform, the bit-error-rate (BER) performance

Selective Level Mapping (SLM)

Partial Transmit Sequences (PTS)

Peak power suppression

Weighted multicarrier transmission

2.1.1 Signal Scrambling Techniques

2.1.1.4 Block Coding Scheme with Error Correction

Figure 2.2 Block diagram of Selected Mapping Technique

Figure 2.3 Block diagram of PTS technique

Figure 2.4 Block diagram of an OFDM system using Hadamard Transform

Figure 2.5 Block diagram of DSI system

Figure 2.6 Block diagram of OFDM system with companding

Figure 2.7 The ACE Technique for QPSK modulation

2.1.2.1 Peak Windowing

2.1.2.3 Peak Reduction Carrier

But without performing interpolation before clipping causes it out-of-band. To avoid

Without introducing in-band distortion and out-of-band radiation, PAPR reduction

techniques should be enable to reduce the PAPR.

HPA and hence degrades the BER performance.

No BER performance degradation: The motive of PAPR reduction is to get better

inherent feature (orthogonality) of OFDM signal.

Fig.3.1 block diagram of an SISO OFDM based transmission system.

Fig: 3.2 Frequency spectrum of OFDM transmission

3.1.7 Applications of OFDM

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX).

Terrestrial Digital Audio Broadcasting (DVB-T).

Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN).

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).

Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB).

Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB).

High Definition Television (HDTV).

Broadband Internet Access.

3.2 Advantages of OFDM System

Figure-3.5: Comparison of (a) conventional multi-carrier technique and (b) orthogonal

Easy to implement modulation and demodulation

The challenging problem in a MCM system is to implement bank of modulators at the

Susceptible to frequency selective fading-

Due to capability of parallel transmission (each sub-carrier has narrow bandwidth to

Protection against Inter symbol interference-

High Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) of transmitted signal-

3.3.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique

Spectral efficiency is high.

Fast Fourier transform (FFT) implementation makes less complex.

Complexity is very low at the receiver.

In terms of link adaptation this is highly flexible

Orthogonal frequency division multiple access is low complexity multiple access

Sensitive to phase noise, frequency offsets and timing errors

which tends to reduce the power efficiency of the RF amplifier

Fig.3.6 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

3.4 Essential Features in PAPR Reduction Technique

A vital factor in selection of any technique is its performance as regards to PAPR

3.5 Fundamentals of PAPR

Fig. 3.7OFDM block diagram

3.7.2 Modulation Order

3.7.3 Constellation shape

For a discrete data

f = 1/NT. The PAPR of

over the time interval [0,NT] is

where E() denotes the expectation operator.

is more tempered than