SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LESSON NOTES
UEGEA13 INTEGRATED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

VELTECH Dr.RR & Dr.SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

SYLLABUS

INTEGRATED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

LTPC
3003

OBJECTIVE:
To facilitate the acquisition of the foundation skills in the process- tools and techniques in
the Integrated Product Development area of the Engineering Services industry.
To provide the requisite understanding towards application of academic topics from
engineering disciplines into real world engineering projects
UNIT I: FUNDAMENTALS OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Global Trends Analysis and Product decision: Types of various trends affecting product
decision - Social Trends-Technical Trends- Economical Trends- Environmental Trends- Political/
Policy Trends- PESTLE Analysis.
Introduction to Product Development Methodologies and Management: Overview of
Products and Services- Types of Product Development- Overview of Product Development
methodologies - Product Life Cycle - Product Development Planning and Management .
UNIT II

: REQUIREMENTS AND SYSTEM DESIGN

Requirement Engineering: Types of Requirements- Requirement Engineering- Analysis

-Traceability Matrix and Analysis- Requirement Management
System Design & Modeling: Introduction to System Modeling- introduction to System
Optimization- System Specification-Sub-System Design- Interface Design.
UNIT III: DESIGN AND TESTING

Conceptualization -Industrial Design and User Interface Design- Introduction to Concept

generation Techniques-Concept Screening & Evaluation- Concept Design- S/W ArchitectureHardware Schematics and simulationDetailed Design: Component Design and Verification- High Level Design/Low Level Design of
S/W Programs- S/W Testing-Hardware Schematic- Component design- Layout and Hardware
TestingUNIT IV: IMPLEMENTATION & INTEGRATION

Prototyping: Types of Prototypes -Introduction to Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Manufacturing.

System Integration- Testing- Certification and Documentation: Introduction to
Manufacturing/Purchase and Assembly of Systems- Integration of Mechanical, Embedded and
S/W systems- Introduction to Product verification and validation processes - Product Testing
standards, Certification and Documentation.
UNIT V: SUSTENANCE ENGINEERING AND BUSINESS DYNAMICS
Sustenance -Maintenance and Repair- Enhancements

Product End of Life ( EoL ): Obsolescence Management-Configuration Management- EoL

Disposal.
The Industry - Engineering Services Industry overview- Product development in Industry
versus Academia
The IPD Essentials- Introduction to vertical specific product development processes- Product
development Trade-offs- Intellectual Property Rights and Confidentiality- Security and
configuration management
TOTAL: 45 periods
TEXT BOOKS:
1. NASSCOM students handbook "Foundation Skills in Integrated Product Development
REFERENCES:
1. Anita Goyal, Karl T Ulrich, Steven D Eppinger, Product Design and Development , 4th
Edition, 2009, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN-10-007-14679-9
2. George E.Dieter, Linda C.Schmidt, Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill International Edition,
4th Edition, 2009, ISBN 978-007-127189-9
3. Kevin Otto, Kristin Wood, Product Design, Indian Reprint 2004, Pearson Education,ISBN
9788177588217
4. Yousef Haik, T. M. M. Shahin, Engineering Design Process, 2nd Edition Reprint, Cengage
Learning, 2010, ISBN 0495668141
5. Clive L.Dym, Patrick Little, Engineering Design: A Project-based Introduction, 3rd Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-22596-7
6. Product Design Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product Development, KEVIN
OTTO & KRISTIN WOOD, Pearson Education (LPE), 2001.
7. The Management and control of Quality-6th edition-James R. Evens, William M Lindsay
Pub:son south-western(www.swlearning.com)
8. Fundamentals of Quality control and improvement 2nd edition, AMITAVA MITRA, Pearson
Education Asia, 2002.
9. Montgomery, D.C., Design and Analysis of experiments, John Wiley and Sons, 2003.
10. Phillip J.Rose, Taguchi techniques for quality engineering, McGraw Hill, 1996.
11. G.B.Reddy, Intellectual Property Rights and the Law, Gogia Law Agency, 7th Edition Reprint, 2009.
12. N.R.Subbaram, Demystifying Intellectual Property Rights,
LexisexisButterworthsWadhwa,First Edition, 2009

UNIT : 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

PESTLE
Political factors:
The stability and structure of a countrys government gives a basis for
interpreting future changes in the
regions political environment. Policy at the local or federal level can differ
dramatically. These refer to
government policy such as the degree of intervention in the economy. The
analyses of the factors give rise to the following questions
What goods and services does a government want to provide?
To what extent does it believe in subsidizing firms?
What are its priorities in terms of business support?
Political decisions can impact on many vital areas for business such as the
education of the workforce, the health of the nation and the quality of the
infrastructure of the economy such as the road and rail system.
Some of these Political factors include
Bureaucracy
Corruption
Environmental Law
Freedom of the Press
Government Type
Government Stability
labour Law
Political Change
Economic factors:
Economic indicators such as GDP, GNP, interest rate, consumer sentiment
and others provide the way to the business people to understand the risks
and opportunities available within the region.
These include interest rates, taxation changes, economic growth, inflation
and exchange rates. For example:
Raise of price in terms of foreign money makes exporting more difficult
Higher wage demands from employees and cost raise due to inflation
Demand for a firm's products is boosted by higher national income growth.
Some of the economic factors include
Business cycles
GNP trends (Gross National product)
GDP(Gross domestic Product)
Interest rates
Inflation
Unemployment
Disposable income
Globalization
Government private sector relationships

Social factors:
In an organization, the top management people have strict definitions or
policies between professional
positions and responsibilities within a company. People with lower hierarchy
are considered as democratic.
Individualism indicates their members to make decisions independently
and valuing their independence.
Masculinity and femininity compare the cultures emphasis on the quantity
versus the quality of life.
Long term orientation reveals the cultures focus on the distant future
rather than the short term
orientation view of stressing the importance of the immediate present and
past.
Changes in social trends can impact on the demand for a firm's products and
the availability and
willingness of individuals to work. Attitudes towards health, career and
environmental issues should be considered. For example,
In the UK, the population has been ageing. This has increased the costs for
firms who are committed to pension payments for their employees because
their staffs are living longer. Ads have started to recruit older employees to
tap into this growing labour pool for some firms.
The ageing population also has impact on demand: For example,
Demand for sheltered accommodation and medicines have increased
whereas demand for toys is falling.
Some of the social factors include
Population demographics
Income distribution
Social mobility
Lifestyle changes
Attitudes to work and leisure
Consumerism
Levels of education and training
Technological factors:
The level of technological advancement in a region can positively or
negatively affect the opportunities
available for a business. Consumers react to new technologies in different
ways. The product diffusion curve, that segments technology consumers by
their risk tolerance levels, is one tool that can be used to determine the
likelihood of a product being adopted by the mainstream population. It
segments the groups into five groups: innovators, early adopters, early
majority, late majority, and laggards. New technologies create new products
and new processes like MP3 players, computer games, online gambling and
high definition TVs are all created by technological advances. Online
shopping, bar coding and computer aided design are all improvements of

better technology. Technology can reduce costs, improve quality and lead to
innovation. These developments can benefit consumers as well as the
organizations providing the products.
Some of the technological factors include
New discoveries
ICT developments
Speed of technology transfer
Rates of obsolescence
Research and Development
Patents and licenses
Environmental factors:
Environmental analysis involves aggregating and analysing weather patterns
and climate cycles.
Environments vary drastically in different areas of the globe depending on
the ecosystem of the region.
A rainy season in a region can affect the transportation systems which are
active. Sometimes roadways and train lines are restricted in order to
minimize damages to vehicles from mudslides, falling rocks or flooding. In
developing countries, these cyclic weather patterns are more common where
transportation infrastructure has to be modernized. Environmental factors
include the weather and climate change. Changes in temperature can impact
on many industries including farming, tourism and insurance. This external
factor is becoming a significant issue for firms to consider because of major
climate changes occurring due to global warming and with greater
environmental awareness. The growing desire to protect the environment is
having an impact on many industries such as the travel and transportation
industries (for example, more taxes being placed on air travel and the
success of hybrid cars) and the general move towards more environmentally
friendly products and processes is affecting demand patterns and creating
business opportunities. Some of the Environmental factors include
Environmental impact
Environmental legislation
Energy consumption
Waste disposal
Contamination
Ecological Consequences
Infrastructure
Cyclic Weather
Legal factors:
In order to ensure that all laws and regulations are followed in an
organization, it is better to consult an legal representative when doing
business. Legal environments change between the district, city,
state/province and national levels. Complexities within certain industries can
have a strong influence on the ease of doing business, complicating

administrative, financial, and regulatory processes, among others. These are

related to the legal environment in which firms operate.
In recent years in the UK there have been many significant legal changes
that have affected firms' behaviour.
For example,
The introduction of age discrimination and disability discrimination
legislation,
An increase in the minimum wage and greater requirements for firms to
recycle.
Some of the laws or legal factors followed in an organization are as follows
Antitrust Law
Consumer Law
Discrimination Law
Employment Law
Health and Safety Laws
Industry/Domain specific laws and certifications
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Different categories of law include:
Consumer laws; these are designed to protect customers against unfair
practices such as misleading
descriptions of the product
Competition laws; these are aimed at protecting small firms against
bullying by larger firms and
ensuring customers are not exploited by firms with monopoly power
Employment laws; these cover areas such as redundancy, dismissal,
working hours and minimum
wages. They aim to protect employees against the abuse of power by
managers
Health and safety legislation; these laws are aimed at ensuring the
workplace is as safe as is reasonably
practical. They cover issues such as training, reporting accidents and the
appropriate provision of safety
equipment
Patent Litigation between Apple and Samsung:
Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. was the first of a series of ongoing
lawsuits between Apple Inc. and Samsung Electronics regarding the design of
smartphones and tablet computers; between them, the companies made
more than half of smartphones sold worldwide as of July 2012. In the spring
of 2011, Apple began litigating against Samsung in patent infringement
suits, while Apple and Motorola Mobility were already engaged in a patent
war on several fronts. Apple's multinational litigation over technology
patents became known as part of the mobile device "smartphone patent
wars": extensive litigation in fierce competition in the global market for
consumer mobile communications. By August 2011, Apple and Samsung

were litigating 19 ongoing cases in nine countries; by October, the legal

disputes expanded to ten countries.By July 2012, the two companies were
still embroiled in more than 50 lawsuits around the globe, with billions of
dollars in damages claimed between them. While Apple won a ruling in its
favor in the U.S., Samsung won rulings in South Korea, Japan, and the UK. On
June 4, 2013, Samsung won a limited ban from the U.S. International Trade
Commission on sales of certain Apple products after the commission found
Apple had violated a Samsung patent, but this was vetoed by U.S. Trade
Representative Michael Froman.
______________________________________________________________________________
QFD and different phases involved
Quality Function Deployment (QFD):
To design a product well, a design teams needs to know what it is they are
designing, and what the end-users will expect from it. Quality Function
Deployment is a systematic approach to design based on a close awareness
of customer desires, coupled with the integration of corporate functional
groups. It consists in translating customer desires (for example, the ease of
writing for a pen) into design characteristics (pen ink viscosity, pressure on
ball-point) for each stage of the product development (Rosenthal, 1992).
Ultimately the goal of QFD is to translate often subjective quality criteria into
objective ones that can be quantified and measured and which can then be
used to design and manufacture the product. It is a complimentary method
for determining how and where priorities are to be assigned in product
development. The intent is to employ objective procedures in increasing
detail throughout the development of the product(Reilly, 1999).
Quality Function Deployment was developed by Yoji Akao in Japan in 1966.
By 1972 the power of the approach had been well demonstrated at the
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Kobe Shipyard (Sullivan, 1986) and
in 1978 the first book on the subject was published in Japanese and then
later translated into English in 1994

To prioritize spoken and unspoken customer wants and needs.

To translate these needs into technical characteristics and specifications.
To build and deliver a quality product or service by focusing everybody
toward customer satisfaction.
Since its introduction, Quality Function Deployment has helped to transform
the way many companies:
Plan new products
Design product requirements
Determine process characteristics
Control the manufacturing process
Document already existing product specifications

QFD uses some principles from Concurrent Engineering in that crossfunctional teams are involved in all phases of product development. Each of
the four phases in a QFD process uses a matrix to translate customer
requirements from initial planning stages through production control (Becker
Associates Inc, 2000). Each phase, or matrix, represents a more specific
aspect of the product's requirements. Relationships between elements are
evaluated for each phase. Only the most important aspects from each phase
are deployed into the next matrix. The four phases of QFD are as follows
Phase 1, Product Planning:
Phase 1 is to build the House of Quality. Led by the marketing department,
Phase 1, or product planning, is also called The House of Quality. Many
organizations only get through this phase of a QFD process. Phase 1
documents
customer
requirements,
warranty
data,
competitive
opportunities, product measurements, competing product measures, and the
technical ability of the organization to meet each customer requirement.
Getting good data from the customer in Phase 1 is critical to the success of
the entire QFD process.
Phase 2, Product Design:
This phase 2 is led by the engineering department. Product design requires
creativity and innovative team ideas. Product concepts are created during
this phase and part specifications are documented. Parts that are determined
to be most important to meeting customer needs are then deployed into
process planning, or Phase 3.
Phase 3, Process Planning:
Process planning comes next and is led by manufacturing engineering.
During process planning,
manufacturing processes are flowcharted and process parameters (or target
values) are documented.
Phase 4, Process Control:
And finally, in production planning, performance indicators are created to
monitor the production process, maintenance schedules, and skills training
for operators. Also, in this phase decisions are made as to which process
poses the most risk and controls are put in place to prevent failures. The
quality assurance department in concert with manufacturing leads Phase 4.
______________________________________________________________________________
1. Write about product definition and process involved in defining the
product

A product can be described as an object which the producer or supplier offers

to potential customer in exchange of something (conventionally money
which is exchangeable as store of value). The product may be goods or
service and this can be the next breakthrough computer chip, or a new
holiday package built together by a travel agent.In earlier days the exchange
system was known as barter system. But in any case in order to exchange to
occur there must be adequate demand for the product. With the existence of
demand, the producers get an opportunity to supply the required object/
product to the market and potential markets can be developed where buyers
and suppliers can do business and build a mutually satisfying
relationship.But while launching any new product to the market, main point
to be noted is that the product will be a new one and hence it is often risky.
In case of large scale business, it is practically impossible that the producer
and the buyer can come into direct physical contact. In order to facilitate the
exchange of the goods, elaborated channels of distribution are
required. (Here, supply chain comes into picture). The above statements are
not applicable to all kinds of business e.g. in the case of service providers
where the seller needs to make direct exchange with the buyer.
One should carefully note that the value of the product does not depend on
the extent of contact between the buyer and producer. The value possessed
by the product will always depend on the extent of willingness of consumers
to exchange. This is the reason that it is said that supply always depends on
demand. During the second half of the 20th century, the marketing strategy
had changed. The marketing technique reflected the potential for excess
supply in the industrialized economies where technological advancements
had created scope for productivity gains. Now, the capability of excess
supply will reduce the value of product because the unconsumed supply will
become worthless. Hence, producers are not certain about the demand for
their product.

this gives a relation

between buyers, producers and the intermediate processes and techniques.
Product definition comprises of customer, company and quality function
deployment (QFD). This also includes the definition process which in turn
may include QFD. The quality function deployment is concern with the

customers and thus links up customers with the companies. The company in
turn determines the definition process for the product.
Defining product by nature of demand
All products begin from core benefit and products can be represented as
concentric circles.
Core benefit: It represents the basic theme of any product. In other words it
represents the main service or benefits which are derived from the
consumers use.
Generic product: It is the basic version of a product i.e. these products do
not have various features which classify the product. These features enable
consumers to receive desired benefits.
Expected product: These products contain properties or characteristics
which are usually expected and accepted by buyers.
Augmented product: These products contain some additional benefits and
services than the expected ones. Competitor producers compile each other
on the basis of these additional benefits only.
Potential products: These products have undergone all possible
augmentations with course of time and increase in demands. The potential
product is the product which just does not meet all the consumers needs but
also delight the consumers.
Classification of product
For producers it is very important to understand demand of their products.
And to understand the demand, it is essential to classify the products.
Products can basically classified into following three categories
Consumer products:
Consumer product refers to any article, or component parts which are
produced or distributed for sale to a consumer to be used in or around
residence, school, in recreation, or for the personal use, consumption or
enjoyment of a consumer. But consumer product does not include any article
which is not customarily produced or distributed for sale to a customer for its
use or consumption, or enjoyment. Hence, a customer product can be any
tangible commodity that is produced and subsequently consumed by the
consumer, to
satisfy their needs and these are ultimately consumed rather than used in
the production of another good. Examples of such products are weight loss
pills, digital cameras, iPods, laptops, smart cell phones, GPS navigation
devices, beauty products, video games, DVD players, and cable television.
Industrial products:
Industrial product refers to any item that is used in manufacturing or
industry. These are the goods produced in a factory with the help of
machinery and technology. These are usually high cost products. These are
used for production of consumer products example various equipment and
industrial set ups. Examples of the products in this section vary according to
the type of product being used to manufacture. Some common examples
included in this section of products are carts or dollies, tapes or adhesives,

ladders, lifts, storage lockers, cabinets, scaffolding, personal protection

equipment, office supplies, and light fixtures,
or tools.
Specialty products:
Specialty goods represent the third category of product classification which,
are unique in nature. These products are the unusual and luxurious items
available in the market; i.e. these products are the products for which buyers
are habitual and may make special efforts for purchase of these products.
The specialty products are purchased with a predetermined pattern in mind;
i.e. a customer will go for purchasing a product of only a specific brand. As
an example, a customer will prefer to visit a particular store just because the
product of his/ her liking is available in that very store. Here the price is
almost never a determining factor in choosing between the products. Sellers
of specialty goods also need not be conveniently
located, because buyers will seek them out, even if it involves considerable
effort. Some products may be considered shopping goods by some buyers,
and specialty products by other buyers. Example of specialty products are
house, holiday package etc.
Methods of defining product are
Voice of the customer
Voice of the customer (VOC) is a term used to describe the in-depth process
of capturing a customer's expectations, preferences and aversions.
Specifically, the Voice of the Customer is a market research technique that
produces a detailed set of customer wants and needs, organized into a
hierarchical structure, and then prioritized in terms of relative importance
and satisfaction with current alternatives. Voice of the Customer studies
typically consist of both qualitative and quantitative research steps. They are
generally conducted at the start of any new product, process, or service
design initiative in order to better understand the customer's wants and
needs, and as the key input for new product definition and there are many
possible
ways to gather the information
focus groups,
individual interviews,
contextual inquiry,
ethnographic techniques, etc.
Quality function deployment
Ultimately the goal of QFD is to translate often subjective quality criteria into
objective ones that can be quantified and measured and which can then be
used to design and manufacture the product. It is a complimentary method
for determining how and where priorities are to be assigned in product
development. The intent is to employ objective procedures in increasing
detail throughout the development of the product

______________________________________________________________________________
Product Development Methodologies
Every client and project is different and has specific constraints
that should be analyzed to determine an appropriate methodology or
combination of methodologies to utilize. The best approach is to find the
methodology that fits the clients' environment and will guarantee project
success. A too rigid of a process (or not enough) will not provide the desired
product on time or within budget. The two main principle approaches behind
product development methodologies are: DMADV and
DMAIC approaches.
DMADV approach involves the following steps:
Define: Define the project goals and customer (internal & external)
deliverables.
Measure: Measure and determine the customer needs and satisfaction.
Analyze: Analyze the process options prior to customer needs.
Design: Design (in detail) the process to meet customer needs.
Verify: Verify the design performance and ability to meet customer.
DMAIC approach involves the following steps:
Define: Define the project goals and customer (internal & external)
deliverables.
Measure: Measure the process to determine current performance.
Analyze: Analyze and determine the root causes of the defects.
Improve: Improve the process by eliminating defects.
Control: Control future process performance.
Whenever an incremental change to the current process is good enough we
use the DMAIC approach, but when the current process needs to be replaced
we use the DMADV approach. The above two approaches have led to the
development of so many methodologies. Most of the methods are
modifications of the Waterfall methodology.
1) Waterfall methodology: The Waterfall methodology is a sequential
development process, where progress flows steadily toward the conclusion
(like a waterfall) through the phases of a project. This involves fully
documenting a project in advance, including the user interface, user stories,
and all the property variations and outcomes. This methodology is resistant
to change. Any change is expensive because most of the time and effort has
been spent early on in the design and analysis phases. This is a major
drawback of this methodology. So the practical outcome may be quite
different than the prediction.
2) Agile methodology: This is an iterative approach to product
development that is performed in a collaborative environment by selforganizing teams. The methodology produces high-quality software in a costeffective and timely manner to meet stakeholders changing needs. In this

method every product release begins with a list called a back log which
consists of a list of prioritized requirements i.e. a list of work to be done in
order of importance. By this methodology the team will always adjust the
scope of work to ensure that the most importance work are completed first.
The backlog is a dynamic set of requirements that can
change weekly (depending on the length of your iterations). So instead of
delivering the entire back log at the end of product release we can divide the
work into smaller amount of delivered requirements, which are taken from
the backlog in their order of importance. These smaller amounts are known
as iterations (or sprints). Iterations have short time frames that last from one
to four weeks, depending on the teams experience. A key element of an
iteration is that, unlike in back log, the priorities regarding which
requirements should be
built do not change within the iteration (for example, during the two-week
period); this list should only change from one iteration to another. This
methodology accepts that project change is inevitable. The use of small
iterations allows changes to be absorbed quickly without inflicting significant
project risk. The backlog order can adjust as business priorities evolve; with
the next iteration, the team can adapt to those priorities.
In the context of a product release, the items that are the most technically
difficult (i.e., that hold the larger risk) tend to be done in early iterations to
ensure that the risk can be minimized. This approach to mitigating risk is a
key differentiator from the Waterfall methodology. Instead of adjusting during
the development process, the Waterfall methodology involves planning and
researching each task in advance.
______________________________________________________________________________
Product Lifecycle Management

Product life cycle

The product life-cycle is a series of different stages a product goes through,
beginning from its introduction into the market and ending at its
discontinuation and unavailability. These stages are commonly represented
through the sales and profit history of the product itself, although there can
be many other variables that affect the lifespan of a product line. Between
the initial growth and concluding maturity stages, the profit curve usually
reaches its peak. During the maturity phase of the life-cycle, sales volumes
for an established product tend to remain steady, or at least do not suffer
from major declines, but the rate of profit drops. In most cases, the trajectory
and behavior of the product life-cycle is determined by a set of factors over
which manufacturers and marketers have little control, forcing them to react
to changing circumstances in order to keep their product development
strategy viable. These external factors include shifting consumer
requirements, industry-wide technological advances, and an evolving state of
competition with a companys market rivals. The fluctuating patterns of a

life-cycle indicate that a different marketing and product development

approach may be needed for each stage of the cycle. Understanding lifecycle concepts can aid in long-term planning for a new product, as well as
raising awareness of the competitive landscape and estimating the impact
that changing conditions can have on profitability.
1) The Life-Cycle Curve
Industrial products usually follow an S-shaped life-cycle curve when sales
and profits are plotted over time. However, certain products, such as hightech goods and commodities, may follow a different life-cycle pattern. Hightech products often require longer development times and higher costs,
making their growth stages long and their decline stages short, while
commodities, such as steel, tend to have relatively static demand with sales
that do not appreciably decline from an absence of competition. Sales would
drop, though, from an increase in competing products. Under most life-cycle
conditions, profits typically peak before sales do, with profits reaching their
peak level during the early growth stages and sales reaching their peak in
the maturity stages. Competition tends to be lower at the beginning of the
life-cycle, but as competing companies start to offer lower prices, newer
services, or more appealing promotions in the maturity phase, the initial
product must be made more attractive. This often results in comparable
price drops or increased spending on advertising and promotions, as well as
greater investment in distribution and modifications to the existing product.
The initiatives
improve
sales,
but
drive
up
costs
and
lower
profit

The introductory stage

The growth stage
The Maturity stage

 The decline stage

The Introductory Stage
The Introduction stage is probably most important stage in product life cycle.
In fact, most probably product fail in the introduction stages. This is the only
stage where product is going to introduce with market and with consumer or
user of products. If consumers dont know about it then consumers dont go
to buy it. There are two different strategies you can use to introduce your
product to consumers. You can use either a penetration strategy or a
skimming strategy. If a penetration strategy is used then prices are set very
high initially and then gradually lowered over time. This is a good strategy to
use if there are few competitors for your product. Profits are high with this
strategy but there is also a great deal of risk. If people don't want to pay high
prices you may lose out. The second pricing strategy is a skimming strategy.
In this case you set your prices very low at the beginning and then gradually
increase them. This is a good strategy to use if there are a lot of competitors
who control a large portion of the market. Profits are not a concern under this
strategy. The most important thing is to get you product known and worry
about making money at a later time.
A company that introduces a product requiring a high degree of learning and
expects a relatively low rate of acceptance can focus on market development
strategies to help build consumer appeal. Conversely, products with a low
learning curve and a quick route toward acceptance may need a marketing
strategy designed to offset rival products, as competition at these levels
tends to be higher.
The Growth Stage
When an industrial product enters a period of higher sales and profit growth,
the marketing plan often shifts to focus on improvements to the design and
any added features or benefits that can expand its market share. Increasing
the efficiency of distribution methods can help improve product availability
by reaching more customers, and some degree of price reductions,
particularly for large-scale operations, can be introduced to make the
product more appealing for purchase. Maintaining the higher price set at the
introductory stage increases the risk of competitors entering the market due
to the wider profitability margin. Similarly, without stronger distribution
efforts the product may have limited availability, which encourages rival
companies to encroach on market share.
The Maturity Stage
The maturity stage of a life-cycle is characterized by an increase in the
number of market competitors and a corresponding decline in profit growth
as a percentage of sales. To compensate for the level of saturation that
occurs during this phase, the product development strategy revolves around
entering new markets, often through exports. It may also be helpful to
increase efforts to satisfy existing customers in order to preserve the
customer base. Reducing spending on marketing and production can help
maintain profit margins.
The Decline Stage

In the decline stage, the competition for product pricing tends to escalate,
while profits and sales generally decrease. When working with industrial
products, marketers sometime opt to discontinue a product when it has
reached this level or introduce a replacement product that renders the
previous version obsolete. Marketing and production budgets are typically
scaled back to save on costs, and resources may be shifted to newer
products under development. Product decline usually proceeds more quickly
among industries that rely on rapidly changing technologies, with newer
advances periodically driving existing goods out of the market.
______________________________________________________________________________
Product development planning and Management
Planning and management are indispensible part of product development.
Planning involves thinking about and organizing the activities required to
achieve a desired goal. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan. It
combines forecasting of developments with the preparation of schemes of
how to react to them. A basic tool for product planning is to follow a set of
systematic steps. These steps are intended to estimate four basic aspects:
the what-tasks, the when-schedule, the where-equipment and facilities,
and the how-people, material, facility, and equipment costs. Product
development management is the discipline of planning, organizing,
motivating, and controlling resources to achieve specific goals. Product
Development Planning and Management (PDPM)(figure 1.26) is an
organizational lifecycle function within a company dealing with the planning,
forecasting, or marketing of a product or products at all stages of the product
lifecycle. It consists of product development and product marketing, which
are different (yet complementary) efforts. The main objectives of PDPM are
maximizing sales revenues, market share and profit margins.
Product development can be considered as a project. A project is a
temporary effort designed to produce a unique product, service or result with
a defined beginning and end usually time-constrained, and often
constrained by funding or deliverables, undertaken to meet unique goals and
objectives, typically to bring
about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects
stands in contrast with business as usual or operations, which are
repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent functional activities to produce
products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is
often quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct
technical skills and management strategies. PDPM often serves an
interdisciplinary role, bridging gaps within the company between teams of
different expertise, most notably between engineering-oriented teams and
commercially oriented teams. The various elements or tools of product
development planning and management are budgeting, scheduling,
collaboration, risk management, change management and product cost
management. The primary challenge of project management (product

development in this case) is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives
while honoring the preconceived constraints or limitations. The primary
constraints are scope, time, quality and budget. The secondary challenge is
to optimize the distribution of necessary inputs and integrate them to meet
pre-defined objectives. The third challenge is to adapt with the continuous
change of need in the market. All these elements have critical roles in the
integrated product development process.
1) Budgeting
A budget is a proposal of activities to be done in the future. It is a managerial
tool for planning, programming and controlling business activities. A budget
is a written plan or programmers of proposed future activities
(including estimates of sales, expenditure and production etc.) expressed in
quantitative terms.
According to Dickey, a budget is written plan covering projected activities of
a firm for a defined period.
There are following characteristics of budgets:
Budget outlines the project activities
The expressions are made in quantitative terms, and in most of the
budgets in financial terms, i.e. rupee
value, and
It relates to a fixed periodically say, a day, a month, a year etc.
Types of budget:
Fixed budget
Flexible budget
Capital expenditure budget
Operating budget
2) Collaboration
Collaboration is the act of working with each other to do a task. It is a
recursive or repetitive process where two or more people or organizations
work together to realize shared goals. It is an important tool in project
management as it helps to reduce the cost of the product and helps the
product to survive in the market.
Internal Collaboration
This collaboration is of paramount importance for successful new
development project. This collaboration is generally between CFT,
Manufacturing, Supply Chain, Quality, Sales and Marketing within the
organization. An example of internal collaboration is a cross-functional team.
As already described before, in an organization cross-functional team is
formed who have different functional expertise but working towards a
common goal. The main benefits of internal collaboration are:

 Using cross-functional teams have proved to reduce the cycle time in new
product development.
Cross-functional teams eliminate the "throw it over-the-wall" mentality that
passes a product off from
department to department.
External Collaboration
External collaboration involves two or more organizations working together
to develop a product. The main
benefits of external collaboration are:
External sources may provide valuable contributions to new product
development (NPD) as they provide
access to external knowledge that complements the firms internal
knowledge base.
Product Development Organizations have tie-ups with the Certification
agencies, regulatory bodies,
Industry forums and specialized service provider players.Collaboration is the
act of working with each other to do a task. It is a recursive or repetitive
process where two or more people or organizations work together to realize
shared goals. It is an important tool in project management as it helps to
reduce the cost of the product and helps the product to survive in the
market.
3) Risk Management
Risk is the potential for realizing some unwanted and negative consequence
of an event. According to
International Organization for Standardization (ISO 31000), risk has been
defined as the effect of uncertainty on objectives, whether positive or
negative. Risk is part of our individual existence and that of society as a
whole.
Risk management can be defined as the identification, assessment, and
prioritization of risks followed by
coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor,
and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to
maximize the realization of opportunities.

3) Scheduling

Scheduling can be defined as a plan for performing work or achieving an

objective, specifying the order and allotted time for each part. It is an
important tool for production processes, where it can have a major impact on
the productivity of a process.
4) Change management
Change Management is an approach for handling the transitioning of
individuals, a team and organizations to a desired future state. At a time of
gain, change can be a time of exciting opportunity for some and a time of
loss, disruption or threat for others. How such responses to change are
managed can be the difference between surviving and thriving in a work or
business environment. Change is an inherent characteristic of an
organisation and like it or not, all organizations whether in the public or
private sector must change to remain relevant. Change can originate from
external sources through technological advances, social, political or
economic pressures, or it can come from inside the organisation as a
management response to a range of issues such as changing client needs,
costs or a human resource or a performance issue. It can affect one small
area or the entire organisation. Nevertheless, all change whether from
internal or external sources, large or small, involves adopting new mindsets,
processes, policies, practices and behaviour.
6) Product cost management
Product cost management (PCM) is a set of tools or methods used by
companies who develop and
manufacture products to ensure that a product meets its targeted profit.
There is not a specific definition for product cost management or a
specifically defined scope of PCM. Sometimes PCM is considered a synonym
to target costing while at other times it is equated to design to cost. But
target costing is considered as a pricing process, while PCM focuses on
maximizing the profit or minimizing the cost of the product, irrespective of
the cost at which the product is sold to the customer
______________________________________________________________________________
Factors affecting product development
The following issues have impact in designing and producing of products by
an organization
Social
Technical
Political
Economical
Environmental
1.Social Trends:

Social factors and cross-cultural communication plays a vital role in

international and global markets.
It includes the following features
Demographic
Behavioural
Psychographic
Geographic
Demographic features:
A demographic environment is a set of demographic factors such as gender
or ethnicity. Companies use
demographic environments to identify target markets for specific products or
services. This practice has both advantages and disadvantages. Marketers
have to take both sides of the demographic environment coin into account
when deciding what strategy to apply. Demographics are the quantifiable
statistics of a given population. Demographics is also used to identify the
study of quantifiable subsets within a given population which characterize
that population at a specific point in time. These types of data are used
widely in public opinion polling and marketing. Commonly examined
demographics include
gender
age
ethnicity
knowledge of languages
disabilities
mobility
home ownership
employment
Psychographic features
Psychographics comes into play to better analyse and classify target buyers
by psychological attitudes such as aspirations, interests, attitudes, opinions,
lifestyle, behavior, etc. Demographics provide information on who typically
buys or will buy a particular product or service based on tangible
characteristics. Psychographics provides more insight into who is most likely
motivated to buy.
Combining the demographic and psychographic views provides much
improved targeting and effectiveness for marketing and sales. From a
marketing perspective, demographics define what buyers commonly need
whereas psychographics define what buyers want. Psychographics identifies
aspirational behaviors that are much more powerful drivers than physical
demographics.
2. Technological Trends
Technology:

Technology is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools,

machines, techniques, crafts,
systems, and methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve
a pre-existing solution to a
problem, achieve a goal, handle an applied input/output relation or perform a
specific function. It can also
refer to the collection of such tools, including machinery, modifications,
arrangements and procedures.
Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species'
ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The term can
either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include
construction technology, medical technology, and information technology.
3. Political/Policy trends
It is always advisable to keep a track of potential policy changes in any
government because where the
Political situation is relatively stable; there may be changes in policy at the
highest level which has serious
implications. This may result in change in government priorities which results
in new initiatives. These can include changes in
Employment laws
Consumer Protection laws
Environmental regulations
Taxation regulations
Health and Safety Requirements
Trade restrictions or reforms
IP Trends:
Intellectual property (IP) is a legal concept which refers to creations of the
mind for which exclusive rights are recognized. Under intellectual property
law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of
intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries
and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs.
4. Economic Trends
Extremely Dynamic markets have been Boon for Start-ups; Bane for
Innovation; Companies are Measured by Quarterly Profits; Global Markets are
inter connected; The Future of organization is decided by the stock market.
Official economic indicators, most of which are available such as
GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
GNP (Gross National Product)
The economic environment consists of factors that affect consumer
purchasing power and spending.
Designers need to consider buying power as well as the people they are
designing for. Total buying power depends on current income, prices, savings
and credit. When the economy is more confident, people will accept a design
that is less of a need and more of a want. There was a surge in the 1990s for

the demand of cut price items and hence a massive growth in stores such
as Go-Lo, the Reject Shop etc.
Another economic issue is the cost of manufacturing. In Australia,
manufacturing costs are often increased by the cost of wages. Many
Australian companies produce their products offshore, usually in Southeast
Asia, to take advantage of low wages that make products much cheaper.
5. Environmental Trends
The natural environment has become a major issue since the 1960s. Air and
water pollution, massive waste disposal problems, concern about the
depletion of the ozone layer, extinction of species and the greenhouse effect
are issues that are constantly being discussed by politicians, environmental
groups and individuals. There are four environmental trends that have longterm implications on designing and producing:
shortage of raw materials both renewable and non-renewable resources
increasing energy costs
increasing levels of pollution in the environment caused by the build-up of
substances that do not
decompose or only decompose slowly
increasing government intervention in natural resource management
______________________________________________________________________________
______
flow chart about methodologies used at different stages of product
development and maintenance

Following are the some of the

important points of each methodology to be considered before adopting a
particular methodology:
The Waterfall methodology is the basic product development methodology
but it is resistant to change
and does not assist in risk mitigation.
The Agile methodology is an iterative process that considers that change is
inevitable and prioritizes the
work to be carried out. This makes it an economic and time-efficient process.
The Over-the-wall has become obsolete because of its limitations. Due to
the complexity of the product
development work, it was divided among various departments which would
specialize only in a particular
phase of the development and would be ignorant about the other phase. It
was a slow process which also
leads to miscommunication between various departments handling the
development. The lack of a
centralized system to keep each department updated about the other
departments led to this
methodologys downfall.
The V-model models main advantage over Waterfall methodology lies in
the fact that every step of the
Waterfall methodology is being tested in this method. But the main
disadvantage is that this method is
resistant to change and is expensive for carrying out simple developments
because of its repeated testing

and despite testing the method may be error prone. This has led to the
decline in the use of this process.
The Stage-gate methodology, unlike Waterfall methodology, does not plan
beforehand but plans and
analyses at each stage of product development and is thus more responsive
to change, at any stage if
there is a new development, the methodology adopts according to the new
development.
The Spiral model combines more than one development methodology to
develop the product, but it is
also resistant to change and does not take the risk mitigation into account.
System engineering methodology is an inter-disciplinary approach towards
product development, though
the interdisciplinary approach is a complex one but it helps in bridging the
gaps between various sections
or departments of the product development, in stark contrast to the Overthe-wall methodology. This
has led to a promising potential for this methodology.
Software companies prefer to use Agile technology and Stage-Gate
methodology over Waterfall technology
more considering their positive response to change and attempts to mitigate
risks.
______________________________________________________________________________
PLM Components
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.

PLM components are

Data/Document Management and Vaulting
Product Structure Management
Configuration Management
Change Management
Process Management
Visualizations
Web based collaborations
Project Management
Requirements Management
Administration
Application Integrations

________________________________________________________________________
Conduct sample PESTLE analysis with any one day to day products like
1.laptop,2. soap, 3. shirt, 4.Biscuits etc.

PESTLE ANALYSIS BY PEPSICO.

PepsiCo is the largest selling beverage the world over, of course after its arch
rival Coca Cola. It accounts for a 37% share of the global beverage market,
and therefore they need to understand each and every countrys market in
order to stay in line with their PESTLE situations.
Pepsi is a big brand, currently holds the 23rd place in the Interbrands report of
the Worlds Leading Brands. Their advertisements feature major celebrities
and athletes like David Beckham, Robbie Williams, Britney Spears, and
Michael Jackson etc.
Their market reach is also very diverse, as theyre present in almost every
country from the US to New Zealand. Their PESTLE analysis is given below:
Political:
Pepsi is a non-alcoholic beverage and is therefore regulated by the FDA. So,
theyre supposed to maintain a firm standard of the laws set out by the FDA

with consistency. Also, many different markets across the world have
different set of regulations that are either relaxed or are either stringent.
There is competitive pricing by Pepsis competitors and that is one factor
that Pepsi has to keep in mind at all times. The political scenario also matters
greatly as there can be some civil unrest in certain markets or due to
inflation the sales of the product can fall. Most importantly, cross border
situations are starkly different therefore Pepsi has to stay in line with all
those policies and changes so that they can adapt to all those changes
accordingly.
Economic:
As the recent economic downturn has plagued the economy, companies had
to restructure their sales and marketing campaigns greatly. Also, with
diminishing profits they had to undergo downsizing internally and re-think
upon how to penetrate the market. Economic conditions have the highest
influence on a business, regardless of what trade it is in. Though, in Pepsis
favor, the economic downturn that started in 2008 resulted in increased
sales of its beverages mainly as people were being laid off from jobs, they
were spending time with friends and family or at home.
Social:
Social factors greatly impact Pepsi, as its a non-alcoholic beverage it has to
remain in line with the strict and stark differences of cultures the world over.
Also, Pepsi has to communicate its image as a global brand so that the
people can associate it with themselves as something that connects the
world together. Usually, the social implications are seen in marketing
campaigns for example certain countries have religious festivals, so Pepsi
has to keep in line with all those festivals in order to understand the psyche
of their market and how they can cash upon the opportunity.
Technological:
With the advent of the new age in technology, companies have completely
integrated themselves with all the recent changes that have taken place. To
mention a recent trend that has greatly picked up and something that almost
every business is turning toward is Social Media. The social media explosion
has allowed for increasingly interactive engagement with the consumers with
real time results so Pepsi has to stay ahead of all the developments that take
place with keeping in view how the youth of today utilizes technology for
their benefit and how can Pepsi reach them in order to keep on increasing
brand recall and brand engagement.
Legal:

There can be many legal implications upon the beverage industry. I would
cite one very famous incident took place in India, where Pepsi was accused
of using contaminated water, given a lab test that was done upon the water
flowing into the Pepsi factory that was located nearby an industrial estate. A
massive recall was issued for the products from shelves and then the product
was tested costing the company many billions of dollars upon the tests as
India is a very major market.
Environmental:
These factors can affect Pepsi, but not immensely alter its trade and profit
generation as these factors affect agri-businesses much more directly.

UNIT-2
REQUIREMENTS AND SYSTEM DESIGN
Requirement analysis.
Design Engineers must consider a multitude of technical, economic, social,
environmental, and political constraints when they design products and processes.
The above constraints are the requirements needed for efficient design by an
organization. Depending on the format, source, and common characteristics; the
requirements can be split into different requirement types. Various types of
requirements are
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Functional
Performance
Physical
Regulatory
Economical
Behavioral
Technical
Stakeholder

i) Environmental
j) Industry specific
Functional Requirement:
They are also called as solution requirements. It contains detailed
statements of the behaviour and information that the solution will need.
Examples include formatting text, calculating a number, modulating a
signal. They are also known as capabilities.
For any design problem, the first task is to identify the functional
requirements (FRs) of the product, i.e. the requirements pertaining to
what the product will have to do. FRs focuses on the operational features
of products. Examples of Functional Requirements are
The product must display enlarged images.
The robot must orient parts on the ground at any angle.
Resist bending excess heat must be dissipated to the ambient air.
The container must hold hot liquids.
Colour of car for the visual need
Bluetooth connectivity in mobile phone for recharging
Holder in cup
Performance Requirements:
The product performance requirements represent the minimum
performance requirements for products. It defines How, When and How
Much the product or service needs to perform. They are also called
Quality-of-service or non-functional requirements. It contains detailed
statements of the conditions under which the solution must remain
effective, qualities that the solution must have, or constraints within which
it must operate. Examples include: Reliability, Testability, maintainability,
Availability. They are also known as characteristics, constraints.
Performance requirements should have the following characteristics:
Requirements should be quantitative rather than qualitative.
E.g. Overall length of the motor cycle shall be 150 inches or less. Overall
width shall not exceed 52 inches. Overall height shall be 85 inches or less
Requirements should be verifiable.
E.g. The mandrel shall have a hardness of not less than 60 and not more
than 65 on the Rockwell C scale
Performance requirements should describe interfaces in sufficient detail to
allow interchange ability with parts of different design
e.g. Provision shall be made for installation of 24 volt DC power cable
access to the equipment. The size of the PADS unit is approximately
26x31x20 inches. The weight of the unit is 317 pounds.

Requirements should be material and process independent

e.g. All mowers shall be treated with the manufacturers commercial

standard rust-proofing treatment
Physical Requirements:
The physical requirements or constraints on the system may
include:
Physical size- size of the product should be compact but it should satisfies
all the needs
Geometries
Power consumption
Physical robustness- The ability of a system to resist change
without adapting its initial stable configuration. For example, the
ability of a computer system to cope with errors during execution
or the ability of an algorithm to continue to operate despite
abnormalities in input, calculations.
Overall weight- The weight of car should be light and should be
strong enough to sustain any type of stress. Also Strength and
weight ratio is the important consideration in Aviation product
design, because when we got to design aviation product we always
kept in mind product should have low weight and high
performance/efficient (Weight of product directly proportional to
energy consumption).
Regulatory Requirements:
Regulation may refer a process of the monitoring, and enforcement of
rules, established by primary or delegated legislation. It is a written
instrument containing rules having the force of law.
Safety/Reliability: Direct or indirect hazards should be eliminated during
the usage of products for the safety of workers or users. It should contain
human warnings.
Regulation:
Creates, limits, or constrains a right
Creates or limits a duty
Allocates a responsibility
Regulation can take many forms:
Legal restrictions,
Contractual obligations
Self-regulation by an industry
Co-regulation
Third-party regulation
Certification e.g. ISO 9001:2000
Accreditation or market regulation
Social regulation e.g. OSHA, FAA, FDA

Note: OSHA Occupation Safety and Health Administration; Operation and

Support Hazard analysis; FAA- Federal Aviation Administration; FDA- Food
and Drug Administration; Fault Detection and Accommodation
Economical Requirements
Economic means "pertaining to the production and use of income," and
economical is "avoiding waste, being careful of resources. Therefore
Economical is using the minimum of time or resources necessary for
effectiveness.
Cost: The cost of the products should satisfy the customers needs
.Product costs are calculated by many different departments in a
company: cost engineering, industrial engineering and design &
manufacturing etc.
Various parameters for economical requirements of a product are:
Cost of labor
Cost of raw material
Manufacturing cost
Cost of the labor required to deliver a service to a customer.
Selling price of service or product
Maintenance cost
Technical Requirements
Technical Requirements are based on the technology used to make the
product or service. A technical requirement pertains to the technical
aspects that your system must fulfill, such as performance-related,
reliability etc. A technical specification (often abbreviated as spec) is an
explicit set of technical requirements to be satisfied by a product, or
service. If a product or service fails to meet one or more of the applicable
specifications, it may be referred to as being out of specification.

Behavioral Requirements

Behavioral requirements explain what has to be done by identifying the

necessary behavior of a system. These are requirements that specify the
reactive behavior of the host. They are expressed in scenarios where
upon due to some internal or external event, certain reaction is expected
(or) prohibited. Based on a set of such requirements, the behavior of the
entity is monitored and a protocol can be modelled.
Usage pattern decides the behavior. Typical example could be frequent
dropping of mobile phone on the floor or rapid shutdown of any S/W
application or speed of a motor on maximum load condition or processor
speed when multiple processes on a system. These thongs should be
thought of while designing them.
Stakeholder Requirements
Stakeholder requirements represent the views of users, acquirers, and
customers regarding the problem (or opportunity), through a set of
requirements for a solution that can provide the services needed by the
stakeholders in a defined environment. They are also called as user
requirements. It includes Mid-level statements of the needs of a particular
stakeholder or group of stakeholders. They usually describe how someone
wants to interact with the intended solution. It acts as a mid-point
between the high-level business requirements and more detailed solution
requirements.
The purpose of defining stakeholder requirements is to elicit a set of
needs related to a new or changed mission for an enterprise and to
transform these needs into clear, concise, and verifiable stakeholder
requirements. Various stakeholder requirements are as follows are
Service or functional
Operational
Interface
Environmental
Utilization characteristics
Human Factors
Logistical
Design and Realization constraints
Process constraints
Project constraints
Business constraints
Environmental requirements
The basic environmental requirements of any product
Think green
Buy green
Be green

Environmental requirements typically list all of the major statutes with

appropriate records addressing environmental, health or safety issues by
any governmental authority. It includes all present and future
requirements of common law, regulation of the discharge, disposal,
remediation, etc. of any Hazardous Material or any other pollutant,
contaminant, etc. Some of the environmental regulations are
Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)
REACH - Regulation on chemicals and their safe use (EC 1907/2006)
Industry-specific requirements
Industry-specific requirements are the requirements that are pertained or
related to a specific industry. Controls, regulations, laws etc. can be
industry specific requirements. For example, aviation, nuclear energy etc.
demand higher safety related rules. Nuclear energy sector needs industryspecific regulatory protocols. All industrial activities are governed by
certain legal provisions that come in force from time to time. A few of
them are given below
Factories Act, 1948
Employees Provident Fund & Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
Employees State Insurance Act
Payment of Wages Act, 1936
Minimum Wages Act, 1948
The Indian Partnership Act, 1932
The Income Tax Act, 1911
Pollution Control Act
HIPAA requires the establishment of national standards for electronic
health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health
insurance plans, and employers
The Mines Act, 1952 contains provisions for measures relating to the
health, safety and welfare of workers in the coal, metallic, ferrous and oil
mines
Business or internal- company specific requirements
It includes high-level statements of the goals, objectives, or needs of an
organization. They usually describe opportunities that an organization
wants to be realized or problems that they want to be solved. For example

health and safety executives requirements is to develop clear, agreed

standards of good management Practice for a range of work-related
stressors.

Requirement engineering
Requirements engineering activities:
The process of requirement engineering (figure 2.4) involves activities
which vary widely, depending on the type of system being developed and
the specific practices of the organization(s) involved. These may include:
Requirements inception or requirements elicitation
Requirements identification - identifying new requirements
Requirements analysis and negotiation - checking requirements and
resolving stakeholder conflicts
Requirements specification (Product Requirements Specification)documenting the requirements in a requirements document
System modeling - deriving models of the system, often using a notation
such as the Unified Modeling Language.
Requirements validation - checking that the documented requirements
and models are consistent and meet stakeholder needs
Requirements management - managing changes to the requirements as
the system is developed and put into use.

Feasibility Studies:
A feasibility study decides whether the proposed system is worthwhile or
not. It is a short focused study that checks
If the system contributes to organizational objectives;
If the system can be engineered using current technology and within
budget;
If the system can be integrated with other systems that are used.
Requirement analysis
The field requirement analysis is composed of requirement inception and
requirement elicitation. These two sub fields are described as follows:
Requirement Inception:
During inception, the following set of questions to be asked by a
requirement engineer to establish a basic understanding of the problem
The people who want a solution

 The nature of the solution that is desired

The effectiveness of preliminary communication and collaboration
between the customer and the developer
Through these questions, the requirements engineer needs to
Identify the stakeholders
Recognize multiple viewpoints
Work toward collaboration
Break the ice and initiate the communication
The process identifies the goals which are the high level objectives of new
product must meet; System boundaries to find what is the exact problem
needs to be solved, based on which the system boundaries need to be
identified; Stakeholders who are the individuals or organizations who
stand to gain or lose from the success or failure of a system.
Requirement elicitation:
Eliciting requirements is difficult because of the following problems
Problems of scope in identifying the boundaries of the system or
specifying too much technical detail rather than overall system objectives
Problems of understanding what is wanted, what the problem domain is,
and what the computing environment can handle (Information that is
believed to be "obvious" is often omitted)
Problems of volatility because the requirements change over time
Elicitation may be accomplished through two activities
Collaborative requirements gathering
Quality function deployment

Collaborative requirement gathering:

The following guidelines are followed for requirement gathering
Conducting meetings and attended by both engineers, customers, and
other interested stakeholders
Establishment of rules for preparation and participation
Suggestion of an agenda that cover all important points but informal
enough to encourage the free flow of ideas
Control of meeting by a "facilitator" (customer, developer, or outsider)
Usage of a "definition mechanism" such as work sheets, flip charts, wall
stickers, electronic bulletin board, chat room, or some other virtual forum

 The goal is to identify the problem, propose elements of the solution,

negotiate different approaches, and specify a preliminary set of solution
requirements
Quality Function Deployment:
This is a technique that translates the needs of the customer into
technical requirements for product. It emphasizes an understanding of
what is valuable to the customer and then deploys these values
throughout the engineering process through functions, information, and
tasks. It identifies three types of requirements
Normal requirements: These requirements are the objectives and goals
stated for a product or system during meetings with the customer
Expected requirements: These requirements are implicit to the product
or system and may be so fundamental that the customer does not
explicitly state them
Exciting requirements: These requirements are for features that go
beyond the customer's expectations and prove to be very satisfying when
present
Requirement elaboration:
During elaboration, the engineer takes the information obtained during
inception and elicitation and begins to expand and refine it. Elaboration
focuses on developing a refined technical model of software functions,
features, and constraints. It is an analysis modeling task
Development of use cases
Identification of domain classes along with their attributes and
relationships
Capture the life on an object by state machine diagram
Requirement Analysis (Requirement negotiation):
During negotiation, the software engineer reconciles the conflicts between
what the customer wants and what can be achieved within given limited
business resources. The following methods are followed in analysis
Ranking of requirements (i.e., prioritized) by the customers, users, and
other stakeholders
Identification and analysis of risks associated with each requirement
Rough guesses of development effort are made and used to assess the
impact of each requirement on project cost and delivery time
Using an iterative approach, requirements are eliminated, combined
and/or modified so that each party achieves some measure of satisfaction
Determines whether the stated requirements are
Clear,
complete,
Consistent
Unambiguous, and
resolving any apparent conflicts
Requirement Specification:
A specification is the final work product produced by the requirements
engineer. It serves as the foundation for subsequent engineering

activities. It describes the function and performance of a computer-based

system and the constraints that will govern its development. It formalizes
the informational, functional, and behavioral requirements of the proposed
software in both a graphical and textual format.
Requirements Spec typically has the following details of identified
requirements
Introduction
Overall description
External Interfaces
Functionality
Required Performance
Quality attributes
Design constraints
Product Design Specification:
The Product Design Specification (PDS) comprises quantitative statement
of what to design prior to starting to design it. It is independent of any
specific embodiment off your product, so multiple solution concepts are
possible.. Split the problem up into smaller categories to make it easier to
consider the problem.
Elements of PDS are as follows
Performance
Environment
Service Life
Maintenance and repair
Shipping
Packaging
Quantity
Manufacturing Facility
Size
Weight
Aesthetics, appearance and finish
A design specification provides explicit information about the
requirements for a product and how the product is to be put together. It is
the most traditional kind of specification, having been used historically in
public contracting for buildings, highways, and other public works, and
represents the kind of thinking in which architects and engineers have
been trained. Its use is called for where a structure or product has to be
specially made to meet a unique need. For example, a design specification
must include all necessary drawings, dimensions, environmental factors,
ergonomic factors, aesthetic factors, and cost, maintenance that will be
needed, quality, safety, documentation and description. Since, along with
systems requirements, the ability to establish relation between the
various products is also an essential feature of a product development
process, the study of traceability is important.
optimization and the need of optimization with examples

Optimisation is the art of obtaining the best possible result under given
circumstances. In all engineering field whether it is design, manufacturing,
construction, maintenance or any other field, engineers have to take a
number of decisions. But the ultimate objective of all these tasks is to
derive the best possible outcome, may it be minimising the effort required
or maximising the benefits desired. And since the main objective is either
to minimise the effort required or to maximise the desired benefit, these
can be represented by mathematically by a function, f(x), known as
objective function. Hence, the basic objective of any engineering
application is to optimise the objective function f(x).
Problem formulation
In case of industrial design, a simple optimal design is made by
comparing with other designs created by using a prior knowledge of the
problem. At first the feasibility of each design solution is investigated and
then the objective e.g. cost, profit, etc. of each of these designs are
computed and hence, the best solution is selected. This method is
preferred by those who have a lack of knowledge of the optimising
techniques. But, the objective of achieving a quality product or a
competing product is not a guaranty with this type of method. Actually,
optimisation algorithms are time consuming and expensive in case of
computation and as such these algorithms should be applied in those
cases where the main requirements are quality and competitive products.
The formulation of an optimisation algorithm consists of a number of
steps. The basic objective of the formulation is to create a mathematical
model to optimise the design problem, which can be later used for
solving the problem. The figure 2.15 shows the steps involved in the
formulation of an optimisation problem.

Requirement specification
System Requirement Specification (SRS)
System requirement specification (SRS) is a typical computer application
which includes a combination of software, hardware, and network
components. SRSembodies the detailed summary of the requirements
necessary to create the complete system. These requirements are given
in a documented form in order to
define the complete functionality, availability, performance, and security
needs of a system. The requirements specification is the base for the
architecture, design, and implementation that will be built.

Elements of SRS
1) Introduction
2) Overall System Description
a. Product features
b. User classes
c. Operating environment/Constraints
3) System Features
a. Database management system
b. Hardware requirements
c. Software Requirements
d. Functional Requirements
e. Non-functional requirements
i. Safety
ii. Security
4) External Interface requirements
a. User Interfaces
b. Hardware Interfaces
c. Software Interfaces
d. Communication interfaces

Optimization technique
Bracketing Methods
In the bracketing method first the lower and upper bound of the optimum
point is found out and then another approach is adopted to find the
optimum point within the two boundaries of the point found out earlier.
Here there are two approaches, namely, exhaustive search method and
the bounding phase method.
Exhaustive search method
In exhaustive search method first the optimum value of the function is
bracketed by calculating the value of the function at different equally
spaced points. Here, three consecutive function values are compared at a
time and basing on the outcome of the search, the process is terminated
or any one of the three function values is replaced by a new value.
Usually, the search begins from the lower bound of the function value. The
following steps are followed in this method:

1) Consider x1 = a, x= (b-a)/n, where n is the number of equally spaced

points),
x2 = x1 + x and x3 = x2 + x.
2) Find out f(x1), f(x2) and f(x3). If f(x1) f(x2) f(x3), the minimum
point is between x1
and x3.Terminate the process.
Else, x1 = x2, x2 = x3 and x3 = x2 + x.
3) Find if x3 b? if it is so, go to step 2; Else no minimum exists in the
region (a, b) or the points a and / or b may be the minimum points.
Bounding phase method
Bounding phase method involves bracketing the minimum point of a
unimodal** function. Following are the steps involved in the method:
1) An initial guess is taken as x n and also an increment is chosen. As
this is the first step of iteration, set
iteration value n = 0.
2) Find f(xn- I I), F(xn) and f(xn+ I I). If f(xn- I I) F(xn) f(xn+ I I),
then is positive;
Else, if f(xn- I I) F(xn) f(xn+ I I); then is negative;
Else, go to step 1 and choose a new initial guess and increment.
3) Set the next iteration value as xn+1 = xn + 2n.
4) If f(xn+1) < f(xn), set n = n+1 and go to step 3; else the minimum is
between (xn-1, xn+1) and terminate.
Note: If the increment chosen is large, then the accuracy is low but the
process becomes faster. If the increment taken is small, accuracy is better
the process becomes lengthy.
Sub system designing
A subsystem is a small system made up of small components, which acts
as a component of a large system.
All types of systems are made up of several sub-systems which are
directly or indirectly related to each other structurally or behaviorally.
Processing of a system can be divided into various sub processes referring
to sub systems. With increase in complexity or size of a system, the no. of
sub-systems also increases. Now since, a system is made up of several
sub systems, therefore in order to design a system many a times it is

required to divide a system into a number of subsystems and then to

design the subsystems.
General considerations for designing of subsystems:
The subsystems manufacturing cost should be low.
High reliability of subsystem is essential.
The subsystems should perform with high accuracy / precision.
Efficiency of subsystem should be high.
The subsystem should possess high effectiveness.
The subsystem should take less designing and manufacturing time, etc.
The above mentioned considerations are very critical. If any of the
subsystems has poor characteristics, then overall performance of the
system will not at all be good.
One of the major challenges involved with subsystem designing is to how
to design in minimum amount of time and with minimum effort. There are
many ways to accomplish this task like by:
Use of Top-down design approach.
Use of any of the computer aided technique.
Partitioning the system sensibly.
Establishing proper relationship among the subsystems, etc.
Top-down design approach: In this design approach a system is broken
down into smaller components / systems called subsystems and then
again further broken down into their subsystems until the basic systems
are found. Now, when all the base systems are identified, the task of subsystem design comes into picture.

Computer aided techniques of design: Computer aided designing is

one of the most preferred technique due to its enormous benefits over the
manual technique. There are many kinds of softwares available in market
which can be utilized for deigning purpose. E.g. Auto CAD, CATIA, Pro-E,
Solid Edge, etc.
Partitioning of System: Partition of subsystems should be done in such a
way that apart from the pints mentioned above as general considerations,
the resulting subsystems can be separately designed, developed,
delivered, and should possess inter changeability with other subsystems.
Establishing proper relationship among the subsystems: All subsystems
should be related to each other such that all provide the required optimal

output to each of the connected system, so that the system gives optimal
overall performance.
When two sub-systems are combined together to form a large system,
there will be another component in the boundary of the two systems
User Interface designing & its applications
Interface Design
Interaction between systems happens in four ways. They are:
Physical/Spatial,
Energy,
Material and
Information or Data.
These four factors are vital for the success of a product. Very good S/W
will fail because of poor GUI (Graphic User Interface) or very good car
design because of non-availability of expected colours. Interface deals
with the process of developing a method for two (or more) modules in a
system to connect and communicate. These modules can apply to
hardware, software or the interface between a user and a machine.
An example of a user interface could include a GUI, a control panel for a
nuclear power plant, or even the cockpit of an aircraft. In systems
engineering, all the inputs and outputs of a system, subsystem, and its
components are listed in an interface control document often as part of
the requirements of the engineering project. The development of a user
interface is a unique field. Interface design is the arrangement and
makeup of how a user can interact with a site. The word interface means a
point or surface where two things touch. So a web user interface is where
a person and a website touch so menus, components, forms, and all the

other

ways

you

can

interact

with

website

Good interface design is about making the experience of using a website

easy, effective and intuitive. Its actually much easier to demonstrate bad
interface design because thats when you really notice it. A simple
example of interface design is the use of icons. Have you ever looked at
an icon and thought "what is that meant to represent?!" Well that would
bebad interface design. Using icons to label and signify different types of
content or actions is just one part of interface design. Incidentally another
example of interfaces that you will likely encounter as a web designer is
Application Programming Interfaces or APIs. An API is the set of functions
and protocols by which you (or your program more precisely) can interact
with whatever the API is for. So for example Google Maps provides an API
which you can use to create applications or sites that work with Google
Maps.
Advantages of interface design:
Easy to use
Easy to learn
Easy to understand
Disadvantages of interface design:
lack of consistency
too much memorization
no guidance / help
no context sensitivity
poor response
Arcane/unfriendly

Mathematical model
Models can be considered as the depiction of the functioning of the real
world and in mathematical modeling the same functioning of the real
world are transformed into the language of mathematics. Thus, in
mathematical models are simplified representations of these entities in
the form of mathematical equations or computer codes using the combine
laws of physics and the results of experiments conducted. The laws of
physics are used to determine the structure of the model i.e. linear or nonlinear, and the order of
these models. The experiments conducted are used to estimate and
validate the parameters of these models. As for the understanding of the
mathematical modelling we can take the example of the representation of
the dynamic system with the help of differential equations. The
characteristics of mathematical models are the assumptions about the
variables i.e. the entities that changes, parameters that do not change
and the relationship between the two i.e. the functional relationships.
Advantages
This has many advantages
1) Since mathematics is a very precise language it helps to formulate the
ideas and identify underlying
assumptions.
2) Mathematics with well-defined rules for manipulations is considered to
be a concise language.
3) The mathematical equations proven by the scientist and the
mathematicians are readily available for its
use to define models.
4) The advent of the computers made the task of numerical calculations
much easier and as such the whole
mathematical formulation and modelling process is less tedious and time
consuming.
Since the majority of the real world systems are far more complicated to
model entirely; we are forced to compromise to a large extend in
mathematical modelling. And as a part of this compromise; the first task is
to identify the vital parts of the system which will be included in the model
excluding the rest. In mathematics, the results proven always depend
critically on the form of the equations which are used for the purpose of
solving the problem. Any small change in the structure of equations would
require enormous changes in the methods. Thus the second task of
compromise concerns the amount of mathematical
manipulation which is will be required to find the solutions.

Requirement cascade
Cascade system of Requirements:
The cascade is a flow-down of requirements from the Customer needs
through to the process level The cascade allows us to link requirements
from the Voice of the customer, to Performance Requirements, to System,
Sub-system, Sub-assembly, Components and process parameters.