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Features
What Is Political
Theory/Philosophy?
MarkE. Warren
Georgetown University
MARK
E.WARREN
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comingbackto life in new forms), and philosophy of social science. As a subdiscipline, it is broader, more eclectic, more
sophisticated, and more sensitive to explanatory concerns than it was just two
decades ago. But we have been less successful in developing alternatives to the
neo-positivistterms we use to characterize the relationsbetween politicaltheory/
philosophyand explanation,and thus the
role of politicaltheory/philosophywithin
politicalscience. Our failureleaves us subject to the tacit blindersof terminological
distinctions.The distinctionsIoffer here as
alternativesto those with a neo-positivist
genesis suggestone way of more accurately depicting the functions of political
theory/philosophy.They also suggest why
explanationsof the politicalworld necessarily involve the diversity of theoretical
and philosophicalconcerns that we are
now seeing withinthe discipline.
Political Theory
To beginwith, it is usefulto recalla prepositivist distinction between theoretical
and philosophical problems: although
closely interrelated,we need to recognize
their differencesso as not to confusephilosophical issues with those of explanatory
theory. In the way I shall use the terms
here, theoriesare about thingsthat empirically exist, even if these things are themselves ideas, values, and theories that are
part of the political world. Philosophical
concerns have to do with conceptualpresuppositionsand judgmentsthat are embedded in explanatorytheories. Although
philosophicalanalysisis not directlyexplanSeptember 1989
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At the very least, however, the point implies that in addition to care in specifying empiricalreferents (a legacy of behavioralism), political scientists need to
develop a greater awareness of how their
theories constitute their problems and
even their findings.Explanation,as always,
requiresthat we distinguishempiricalfrom
theoretical questions-something positivists rightly insisted upon. But it also requiresus to interrelateboth dimensionsof
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Features
meaning-a task positivistsfailedto recognize as a problem because they held that
the meaningsof theoretical terms are reducibleto their empiricalreferents.
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Ontologicat questions: Some of these
problems are ontological.The term ontology refers to the science that investigates
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Although necessary, they cannot be empiricallyinvestigatedbecause they characterize general properties of the world
we seek to investigate. Most ontological
assumptionsare so fundamentalthat we
take them for granted, not understanding
how they frame, select, and limitpossibilities for explanationand judgment.All empiricalresearchpresupposesthat some set
of features of the humancondition-such
as consciousness, language,scarcity, temporality, causal determination, lawlike
regularity-defines a politicalworld as a
knowableobject of study. Decisionsto include some features of the humancondition and exclude others are not trivial:
they constitute disciplinarydomains by
definingobjects of explanation.For example, the behavioralist claim that only
observablesthat can be ordered into logical associationscount as a (knowable)part
of politicalrealityproducesone kindof disciplinarydomain. The rationalchoice presuppositionthat politicsis an effect of instrumentallyrational actions produces a
second kind of domain. The Weberian
focus on intentionalactionsmolded by dis609
Features
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Each of these ontological assumptions
about the nature of the political world
guides and limits what is to count as an
"explanation."For example, differentanswers to the (ontological) question, "Is
voting a behavior, an action, or a structured manifestationof social interaction?"
will dictate differenttheoreticalapproaches and criteriaof adequacy. Votingbehaviorssimplyneed to be observed and their
regularitiestheoreticallyidentified.Acts of
voting need to be observed and conceptuallyunderstood as part of a culturalsystem within which "voting" involves an
assignmentof meaningby the actor in a
way that partly accounts for the act. A
structuralanalysiswould requirethat one
postulate non-observable entities-a
"class structure"or a "state," for example-that influenceboth behavior and intentionalorientation.Ontologicaldecisions
such as these relate closelyto the explanatory status one gives to concepts. Are
there reallythings called "institutions"or
"class structures" or "culturalsystems"
or "states"-or are these simply intellectually convenient ways of specifyingdif610
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Somewhat less obvious is the way that
differentnormative tendencies and possibilities follow from ontological decisions
that select for some kinds of applications
and exclude others. For example, if one
constitutes the politicaluniverse as made
up of behaviors, the form of knowledge
one produces will lack connections to intentional and linguisticphenomena. Lacking these connections, it will be relatively
useless-or at best insufficient-for increasingindividualcapacitiesfor choice and
self-direction. What behavioral research
can be used for is behavior modification
as, for example, in campaignuse of opinion survey researchto tailor media images
for desired responses. But such applications are technocratic rather than democratic. Becausebehavioralforms of knowledge can be more easily put to such uses
(rather than, say, locating conditions of
public discourse) they produce a bias
toward technocracy and away from
democracy
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The aim of politicalphilosophyhere, of
course, is to make such normative judgments into problems that one can treat
systematically.At the same time, awareness about the interrelationsbetween normative orientations and research can
guard against"scientistic"politicalscience
-that is, research that tacitly confuses
politicalor value problems with scientific
findings,
History of Political Thought
Finally,a comment may be usefulabout
why political theory/philosophydoes so
much of its work by means of the history
of politicalthought. Classicalsystems of
politicalthought-from Platoand Aristotle
to Marx and Weber-exemplify different
kinds of answers to many of the above
questions, answers that express central
strains in our political culture. Political
scientistsinevitablyrely on the conceptual
and linguistictools providedby their political culture-indeed, if only so that they can
take the communicationand significanceof
their researchfor granted.Culturalawareness is no doubt valuablefor its own sake:
how else could we know who the we is
that is defined by a tradition of political
discourse?But, in addition, studyingrelatively comprehensiveand discrete systems
of thoughtis an invaluablemeans of developing an awareness about our own presuppositions and values. The canon of
politicalthought is close enoughso we can
recognize our own assumptionswithin it,
but distant enough so we can recognize
discrete sets of values, problems, presuppositions,and mistakes.It is never simplya
question of learningand borrowingfrom
past masters, but also one of seeing them
as exemplars of the interdependence of
philosophy,theory, and explanation,such
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