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simple and universal semantic primes. They can range in length from two or three words
Though they are composed of discrete elements (i.e. words or bound morphemes),
vagueness of many meanings. For example, the following explication shows a semantic
description for the word 'lie' (Wierzbicka 1990) which is fully compatible with the
prototypicality effect described by Coleman and Kay (1981). Notice that the final
X lied to Y =
X said something to Y
The next explication, for the emotion term 'happy', shows how a prototypical cognitive
described directly; rather it is described as LIKE the good feeling experienced by a person
who thinks certain prototypical thoughts. This approach to emotion semantics allows a
great deal of subtle differentiation between closely related emotions (e.g. 'happy', 'joyful',
'pleased', 'content', 'related', 'jubilant', and so on); cf. Wierzbicka 1996, 1999).
X feels happy =
X feels something good like people can feel when they think like this:
we can take the Japanese word amae. According to Takeo Doi (1974, 1981), amae is a
"peculiarly Japanese emotion" which "runs through all the various activities of Japanese
society" and represents "the true essence of Japanese psychology". So what exactly is
amae? Doi explains that it is the noun form of amaeru, an intransitive verb which means
'to depend and presume upon another's benevolence'. It indicates 'helplessness and the
desire to be loved'. Amaeru can also be defined as 'wish to be loved' and 'dependency
needs'. Various bilingual dictionaries define amae as 'to lean on a person's good will', 'to
depend on another's affection', 'to act lovingly towards (as a much fondled child towards
its parents)', 'to presume upon', 'to take advantage of'; 'to behave like a spoilt child', 'be
man'; 'to speak in a coquettish tone', 'encroach on (one's kindness, good nature, etc.)';
The prototype on which the amae concept is based is not difficult to guess. As Doi says
"the psychological prototype of amae lies in the psychology of the infant in its relationship
to its mother"; not a newborn infant, but an infant who has already realised :that its
mother exists independently of itself ...[A]s its mind develops it gradually realises that
itself and its mother are independent existences, and comes to feel the mother as
something indispensable to itself, it is the craving for close contact thus developed that
constitutes, one might say, amae" (Doi 1981: 74). According to Doi and others, in Japan
the kind of relationship based on this prototype provides a model of human relationships
in general, especially (though not exclusively) when one person is senior to another. As
another writer puts it: "He may be your father or your older brother or sister ... But he
may just as well be your section head at the office, the leader of your local political
faction, or simply a fellow struggler down life's byways who happened to be one or two
years ahead of you at school or the university. The amae syndrome is pervasive in
X feels amae =
when X thinks about Y, X feels something good like people can feel
"when this someone thinks about me, this someone feels something good
The first component reflects the need for conscious awareness. The presumption of a
"special relationship" is reflected in the component 'when this someone thinks about me,
this someone feels something good'. The implication of self-indulgence is rooted in the
emotional security of someone who knows that he or she is loved: "it is an emotion that
takes the other person's love for granted" (Doi 1981: 168). This is accounted for by the
combination of components: 'this someone wants to do good things for me', 'this
someone can do good things for me', and 'when I am with this someone nothing bad can
happen to me'. The component 'I don't have to do anything because of this' reflects the
"passive" attitude of an amae junior, who does not need to earn the mother-figure's
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