TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

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1
2
3
4

ABSTRACT

PAGE
NO

ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES

i
ii

INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE SURVEY
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
REFERENCES

1
20
22
42

This is an era of automation where it is broadly as replacement of manual effort

by Electronic Power in all degrees of automation. The operation remains an
essential part of the system although with changing demands on physical input
as the degree of mechanization is increased.
Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.
Full Automation
Semi Automation
In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power
is required where as in full automation human participation is very negligible.

CHAPTER - I
1. INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction

Urban population in India is increasing rapidly. The number of cities with

a population in excess of one million has increased from 23 in 1991 to 35 in
2001. Yet the services like safe drinking water to support these growing
populations is lagging behind resulting, among other problems, a chronic
shortage of safe drinking water. In Kolkata, water services are historically
provided free of charge by the government and politicians are now unwilling to
charge fees.
In addition, majority of the Kolkata population are too poor to pay any
tax at all. Revenues for the sector come from a share of the property tax (Ruet,
2002). Roy et al. (2003) reported that Kolkata Municipal Corporation grants
about 75% subsidy to its water supply costs. As a result, internal resources are
not available in the Kolkata to finance its water supply projects. International
agencies like World Bank, Asian Development Bank etc generally provide soft
loans for such development.

In countries like India, official policies generally support water tariffs

covering operation and maintenance costs plus parts of depreciation, debt
servicing and a contribution to new capital investment. Policies also cover
issues like cross subsidies
from large domestic consumers to the poor, those from industry to domestic
users etc. In practice, such issues are often ignored and tariff collection even if it

is introduced remains unenforced (ADB, 2006). McIntosh (2003) provided a

typical example. In Colombo, the average domestic tariff is only about one
seventh of the average nondomestic tariff. In fact, the tariff is so low that for
many people transportation costs for payment are higher than the amount of the
bill itself, thus making collection a problem.

However, funding agencies are determined for prudent financial management

and are making explicit conditions in the loan for adequate financial planning
(ADB, 2007). In this scenario, water supply project financings can no longer
take place on ad-hoc basis like before.

In industrialized countries, formal cost benefit analysis (CBA) has been

used for evaluation of water supply projects. A set of best management practices
has been also developed to standardise the CBA. In India, such standards do not
exist at present. This study is intended for developing an economically sound
method for evaluation of water supply networks rapidly in Kolkata, India. The
methodology has been applied to a water supply expansion plan for southern
fringes of the city.
A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal[a], that
carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal
water system), as well as inside the building.

History
For many centuries, lead was the favoured material for water pipes,
because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. (Such
use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin
word for lead.) This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years
before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these
were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality.

Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early 20th century, and
remain in many households. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly
used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder
instead, in order to eliminate lead hazards.

Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely
poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause
poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque
prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is
the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly
amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water. This was an
unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to

processed food and drink, for example as a preservative in wine. Roman lead
pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and
17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs, which were tapered at the end
with a small hole in which the water would pass through. The multiple pipes
were then sealed together with hot animal fat. They were often used in Montreal
and Boston in the 1800s, and built-up wooden tubes were widely used in the
USA during the 20th century.

These pipes, used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes,

were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent
rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000
feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts,
storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations,
airfields and ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to
copper, before the advent of durable plastic materials but special nonconductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other

metallic pipes, except for terminal fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing to
electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in

combination with various materials.
Difference between pipes and tubes

A plastic water pipe being installed. Note that the inner tube is actually
transporting the water, while the outer tube only serves as a protective casing

The difference between pipes and tubes is simply in the way it is sized.
PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe for instance, are
measured in IPS (iron pipe size). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is
measured nominally, which is basically an average diameter. These sizing
schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2"
PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand
is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male
or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the
singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.

Pipe is available in rigid "joints", which come in various lengths

depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard
tempered "joints" or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also
comes in rigid "joints" or flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, that is
whether it is a rigid "joint" or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.

The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Pipe wall
thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in
the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe
diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and
is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is
largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher
pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall
thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC),
type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L'
(thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest,
typically used underground between the main and the meter).

Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall

thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies
greater durability and higher pressure tolerances.

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size. 1/2" L copper has the
same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules.
As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in
flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper
has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.

Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the
price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including
PEX and stainless steel.

hot water heat recycling and graywater recovery and treatment systems
Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage[relevant? discuss]
hydronics, i.e. heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport
thermal energy, as in district heating systems, like for example the New York
City steam system.

Materials
Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water,
using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone.
Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes,
particularly water mains.

Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago.
US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today,
most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste
(also known as "soil")[9] out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.

The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A

pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through
extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded,
while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as
brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These
joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing
fittings article.

Steel
Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are
commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 38 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches
(51 mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel
pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which
connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other
fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the
plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight

and requirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of

existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility
requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other
commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to
mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe
material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

Most typical single family home systems won't require supply piping
larger than 34 inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to
become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the
inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has
degraded.

In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service

life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in
geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper
Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in
the latter half of the twentieth century. In the early twenty-first century, the
rising price of copper drove a shift to plastic pipes for new construction.

Plastic
Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent
(DWV) pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced
experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture
until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to
plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured
in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the
reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics
manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked
polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have
become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

PVC/CPVC rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain pipes but with
thicker walls to deal with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970.
PVC stands for polyvinyl chloride, and its become a common replacement for
metal piping. PVC should be used only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC
can be used for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are made with
primers and solvent cements as required by code.

PP The material is used primarily in housewares, food packaging, and

clinical equipment, but since the early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide
for both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat fused, being unsuitable
for the use of glues, solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in
green building projects.

PBT flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe which is attached to

barbed fittings and secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary
manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a classaction lawsuit over failures of this system. However, PB and PBT tubing has
since returned to the market and codes, typically first for "exposed locations"
such as risers.

PEX cross-linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined

fittings employing barbs, and crimped steel or copper rings.

Polytanks plastic polyethylene cisterns, underground water tanks, above

ground water tanks, are usually made of linear polyethylene suitable as a
potable water storage tank, provided in white, black or green.

Aqua known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum sandwich,

consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched between layers of PEX, and connected
with modified brass compression fittings. In 2005, a large number of these
fittings were recalled.

Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps,

and pipes in buildings are now made of copper, brass, plastic (particularly crosslinked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of singlefamily homes), or other nontoxic material.

Due to its toxicity, lead has not been used in modern water-supply piping
since the 1930s in the United States, although lead was used in plumbing solder
for drinking water until it was banned in 1986. Drain and vent lines are made of
plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.

Components
A variety of stainless steel plumbing components commonly used to
connect various pipes and devices together
In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings are used in plumbing
systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. Pipe and fittings are held in
place with pipe hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices using water that can be

connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures",
in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or
maintained separately.

Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users. Some
examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets), urinals,
bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice
makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Sealants
Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many
plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.

Equipment and tools

Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in
utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters,
pumps, expansion tanks, backflow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization
lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control
systems.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe

vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies and joining tools such as soldering
torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix
problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for
inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure
hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line
replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized

equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.

Problems
Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The
latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to
taps after it is delivered by the utility". Community water systems have been
known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera,
however "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized
only more recently;

Legionella pneumophila discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which people

with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with.
These opportunistic pathogens can grow for example in faucets, shower heads,
water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high
surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and
warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface
area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from
disinfection.

Regulation
Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by
government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the
public's health, safety, and welfare.

Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings

generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the
inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future
buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure
them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.

In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of

Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that

the trade still remains virtually ungoverned; there are no systems in place to
monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners
who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves,
despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are
undertaken incorrectly;

see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World

Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC). WPC has
subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to
take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.

In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally

controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the
Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes
lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking
Water Act.

Some widely used Standards in the United States are:[citation needed]

ASME A112.6.3 Floor and Trench Drains
ASME A112.6.4 Roof, Deck, and Balcony Drains
ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1 Plumbing Supply Fittings

ASME A112.19.1/CSA B45.2 Enameled Cast Iron and Enameled Steel

Plumbing Fixtures
ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1 Ceramic Plumbing Fixtures

CHAPTER - II
LITERATURE REVIEW

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The Water Quality Testing and Water Use Assessment project
undertaken by the MIT team began in response to a request by the Provincial
Health Office (PHO) in Capiz Province, Philippines for expert advice to support
its drinking water quality testing, specifically the type of water quality tests that
should be performed and the overall research design. Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department Senior Lecturer, Susan Murcott, recommended specific
state-of-the-art test methods for quantification of E.coli in drinking water as
well as the involvement of a Masters of Engineering team in collaboration with
the test program [1].

Solar water pumps were first introduced for water provision in off-grid
areas. The technology has developed around many different designs and in
some water pumps the reliability and maintenance requirements have improved
over the initial pumps introduced to the market [2].

The proper management of wastewater and its reuse is crucial in order to

reduce hazards and maintain a variety of benefits. The merits of improvements
in wastewater management are particularly high where effective wastewater
treatment is not in place and completely untreated wastewater is reused.

This setting applies to many developing countries. There is a need to

study the trade-off between benefits and costs of the use of wastewater to
establish efficient water management. Moreover, successful water management
needs to take the individual incentives of stakeholders into account .

The major benefits of slow sand filtration are due to the microbiology of
the filter. The microbiological community must be kept alive for the filter to be
effective. In a conventional slow sand filter, oxygen is supplied to the organisms
through dissolved oxygen in the water. Consequently, they are designed to be
operated continuously .

The availability of clean drinking water is significant concern in many

rural communities around the world. The contamination of water is dangerous
to health of the people and also animals. That effects like diarrhea and other
gastrointestinal disease. Potential solution such as sand filtration, chlorination
and solar disinfection are effective water purification technologies.

Another method includes reverse osmosis, which is the main method for
water filtration in the Philippines. However, mostly due to energy cost concerns,
these technologies are not feasible application for poor communities

Many U.S. states are currently experiencing or expect to experience water

shortages in the next ten years. Recycling water is one strategy states are
pursuing to minimize water shortages. Many states, however, have been unable
to reach goals for volume of water recycled, and many regional and municipal
programs have been ineffective in meeting production goals. Reuse of
wastewater can be a supplementary source to existing water sources, especially
in arid/semi-arid climatic regions.

Most large-scale reuse schemes are in Israel, South Africa, and arid areas
of USA, where alternative sources of water are limited.

The Philippines, like many developing countries, has serious sanitation

issues for both their urban and rural citizens. Specifically for rural citizens, data
from 2008 estimated that 17% of this population still had no access to improved
sanitation, with 14% estimated to be practicing open defecation. The sanitation
technology installed was the Ferro cement biogas septic tank, installed for
individual households or small clusters of households.

The widespread water shortage in Metro Manila has made the urban
water problem a central policy issue. While the government has begun taking
concrete steps to address the urban water issues, designing the appropriate

policy and institutional framework and action programs is severely hampered by

limited empirical analysis.

These are necessary in improving policies and programs related to water

pricing of public waterworks, pricing and regulation of groundwater extraction,
demand management or water conservation, provision of water in squatter
areas, private water vending, and so forth.

Potable or drinking water is a critical requirement of human life. Without

it, our continued existence on earth would be immediately threatened. It is for
this reason that the provision of potable water in adequate quantity and quality
is a primary national and international concern of nations. In particular, the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target that 86.6 percent of the
population of countries would have adequate access to safe drinking. For its
part, the Philippine government aims that 92 to 96 percent of its citizens would
have sufficient water supply at an even earlier date.

Each year, 1.6 million children die from diarrheal diseases; unsafe
drinking water is a major cause. The sole quantitative environmental target in
the United Nations Millennium Development Goals is the call to reduce by
half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water.

Efforts to meet this goal have translated into increased donor and national
government funding for building local public goods like wells and standpipes,
yet it is not clear that this is the most effective approach.

The Manila Pasig River is situated a polluted river. The revival of Pasig
River, creeks, esteros and other water bodies around Metropolitan Manila is
critical to the regions sustainability.

Unplanned and uncontrolled urbanization have led to the deterioration of

quality of environment and, ultimately, living standards in the region. Many
agencies in the past have failed to effect substantial improvements on the
quality of the water environment in Metro Manila mainly due to ineffective
institutional arrangements and high-level political support needed coordinate
multi-stakeholder support.

The major consideration in designing of successful small water supply

system such as is appropriate to serve the population in rural
Average use of water per person varies from community to community. In
US, per capita water use may range from 189 to 1893 litres per day (AAWA,
1986). New York Times (2006) reports that even after a reduction of 28% of
demand for increased awareness and stringent regulations per capita water use

is about 500 l (136 US Gal) in New York. The Indian building code assumes a
minimum water supply of 200 l per capita per day (NBC, 1983) and the
government specifies minimum 150 l per capita per day of water supply
(CPEEHO, 2008). However, Singh et al. (2003) and Zerah (2003) both found
that only about 27 l per capita per day is the actual consumptions of water in the
poorer areas of Varanasi and New Delhi, India respectively.

Similar water use values are also expected in slums of Kolkata. There is a
growing pressure for increasing water supply in Kolkata. Expansion of water
supply network would demand funding mainly from international agencies that
require cost benefit analysis (CBA). The present methodology is proposed for
such cases.

Explicit CBA for water supply projects are not new. Hanke and Walker (1974)
criticized the CBA of a US federal government project executed in 1967 and
pointed out a number of anomalies. Water supply CBA reports are often
subjected to such criticism mainly because the analysis is almost always a
complicated process.

Mathematical programming for cost allocation in water supply projects is also

not new. Young et al. (1980) published detailed treatment of linear

programming, game theory and shapely values for water resources cost
allocation among Swedish municipalities.

Efforts have been made over time to standardize the CBA. For example, Office
of Management and Budget (OMB) in US has issued guidelines for CBA and
risk assessment (Kopp et al., 1997). The paper offers a number of suggestions to
regulatory agencies in conducting CBA, drawing on the best practices
identified in guidelines issued by the OMB.

These include the use of clear and consistent baseline assumptions; the
evaluation of an appropriately broad range of policy alternatives, including
alternatives to new regulation; appropriate treatment of discounting future
benefits and costs and accounting for the cost of risk-bearing; the use of
probabilistic analyses and other methods to explore the robustness of
conclusions and the use of benefit and cost measures that are grounded in
economic theory.

They found that estimates of the willingness to pay for reductions in

mortality and morbidity risks and for avoiding environmental damage constitute
the most-successful activities in the field of valuation. European Union started
TECHNEAU, an integrated project funded by the European Commission and

conducted by a consortium of universities, research institutes and consultants

(Baffoe-Bonnie et al., 2006).
One of the mandates was to develop and demonstrate CBA and supply
system options including practices for risk management. These technologies and
management practices will enable end-users to make informed choices,
appropriate to their own circumstances and constraints, for cost-effective and
sustainable source-to-tap solutions for the provision of safe high quality
drinking water that has the trust of the consumer.

They investigated the utility of CBA for evaluation of the options

implemented at end-user sites to make improvements to the water supply
systems. They also recommended economic valuation, decision criteria and risk
management in CBA. In addition, they emphasized on sensitivity analysis to
evaluate the potential effects of key uncertainties in the decision making
process.

Similar to US administration European Union published guides for CBA

(Florio, 2006). Industry specific guidelines including integrated water supply
scheme have been provided.

It has advises for steps like collection of territorial data, option analysis,
financial analysis, economic analysis, evaluation criteria, risk and sensitivity
analysis etc. In addition, it has examples for demand calculations, inflation,
present value, quantification of costs and benefits etc.

The efforts for development of standardized guidelines for CBA have been
studied. There are three separate areas of investigations namely cost analysis,
benefit analysis, and benefit cost comparisons including risk studies that are
required for economic evaluation.

A block diagram showing the process of evaluation has been presented in Fig. 1.
Each of the step presented in the block diagram has been discussed in the
following.

CHAPTER - III
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER-3
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
3.1 PNEUMATIC CONTROL COMPONENT
3.1.1 Pneumatic cylinder
An air cylinder is an operative device in which the state input energy of
compressed air i.e. pneumatic power is converted in to mechanical output
power, by reducing the pressure of the air to that of the atmosphere.
3.1.1 a) Single acting cylinder
Single acting cylinder is only capable of performing an operating medium in
only one direction. Single acting cylinders are equipped with one inlet for the
operating air pressure, and can be produced in several designs. Single cylinders
develop power in one direction only.
Therefore no heavy control equipment should be attached to them, which is
required to be moved on the piston return stoke. Single action cylinder requires
only about half the air volume consumed by a double acting for one operating
cycle.
3.1.1 b) Double acting cylinders:
A double acting cylinder is employed in control systems with the full pneumatic
cushioning and it is essential when the cylinder itself is required to retard heavy
loads. This can only be done at the end positions of the piston stock. In all

intermediate positions a separate externally mounted cushioning device must be

provided with the damping feature.
The normal escape of air is out off by a cushioning piston before the end of the
stock is required. As a result the sit in the cushioning chamber is again
compressed since it cannot escape but slowly according to the setting made on
reverses.
The air freely enters the cylinder and the piston stokes in the other direction at
full force and velocity.
GENERALLY USED MATERIALS:

Table 3.4 Mount Materials

3.2 VALVES

Solenoid Valve:
The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system.
Commonly known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow
in the pneumatic system.
The directional valve does this by changing the position of its internal movable
parts. This valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual
effort and also for the modification of the machine into automatic machine by
means of using a solenoid valve.
A solenoid is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into straight
line motion and force. These are also used to operate a mechanical operation
which in turn operates the valve mechanism. Solenoids may be push type or pull
type. The push type solenoid is one in which the plunger is pushed when the
solenoid is energized electrically. The pull type solenoid is one which the
plunger is pulled when the solenoid is energized.
Parts of a Solenoid Valve
1. Coil:
The solenoid coil is made of copper wire. The layers of wire are separated by
insulating layer. The entire solenoid coil is covered with a varnish that is not
affected by solvents, moisture, cutting oil or often fluids. Coils are rated in

various voltages such as 115 volts AC, 230 volts AC, 460 volts AC, 575 Volts
AC, 6 Volts DC, 12 Volts DC, 24 Volts DC, 115 Volts DC & 230 Volts DC. They
are designed for such frequencies as 50 Hz to 60 Hz.
2. Frame:
The solenoid frame serves several purposes. Since it is made of laminated
sheets, it is magnetized when the current passes through the coil. The
magnetized coil attracts the metal plunger to move. The frame has provisions
for attaching the mounting. They are usually bolted or welded to the frame. The
frame has provisions for receivers, the plunger. The wear strips are mounted to
the solenoid frame, and are made of materials such as metal or impregnated less
fiber cloth.
3. Solenoid Plunger:
The Solenoid plunger is the mover mechanism of the solenoid. The plunger is
made of steel laminations which are riveted together under high pressure, so
that there will be no movement of the lamination with respect to one another. At
the top of the plunger a pin hole is placed for making a connection to some
device. The solenoid plunger is moved by a magnetic force in one direction and
is usually returned by spring action.
Solenoid operated valves are usually provided with cover over either the
solenoid or the entire valve. This protects the solenoid from dirt and other
foreign matter, and protects the actuator. In many applications it is necessary to
use explosion proof solenoids.

Working of Solenoid Valve

The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensures easy exhausting of 5/2 valve.
The spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according to spool
position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working principle is as
follows.
Position-1
When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port P gets connected to
B and S remains closed while A gets connected to R
Poisition-2
When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port P and A gets connected
to each other and B to S while port R remains closed.
SOLENOID VALVE (OR) CUT OFF VALVE:
The control valve is used to control the flow direction is called cut off valve or
solenoid valve. This solenoid cut off valve is controlled by the electronic control
unit.
In our project separate solenoid valve is used for flow direction of vice cylinder.
It is used to flow the air from compressor to the single acting cylinder.

3.2.2 Flow control valve:

In any fluid power circuit, flow control valve is used to control the speed of the
actuator. The flow control can be achieved by varying the area of flow through
which the air in passing. When area is increased, more quantity of air will be
sent to actuator as a result its speed will increase. If the quantity of air entering
into the actuator is reduced, the speed of the actuator is reduced.
3.2.3 Pressure Control Valve:
The main function of the pressure control valve is to limit (or) control the
pressure required in a pneumatic circuit.
Depending upon the method of controlling they are classified as
1. Pressure relief Valve
2. Pressure reducing Valve
3.3 DRILLING HEAD :
3.3.1 Barrel :
It is made out of mild steel. It is hollow cylinder. It has a length of 100 mm and
inner diameter of 36 mm. It has two outlet holes on its top and two inlet holes
drilled at angles for placing nozzles. It has threads at each end.

3.3.2. Shaft:
Its made up of mild steel. It is a straight rod having a step. It is supported by
two bearings in the cylinder. The diameter of rod is 15 mm for a length of 150
mm and 13.5 mm diameter for 22 mm length. The fan is fitted on the shaft
through flanges. The fan is fixed to flanges and the flanges are fixed to the shaft
through drilled holes.
3.3.3 Couplings:
The couplings are made out of mild steel. Couplings cover the slides of barrel.
The couplings have internal threads. With help of threads the couplings are
fitted to barrel. It has a smaller diameter hole to place the bearings.
3.3.4 Flanges:
The flanges are made out of mild steel. Its a cylindrical tube having a flange at
its one of the ends. It also has a centre drill of 16 mm. There are holes are
drilled in flanges correspondingly such that the holes drilled in the two flanges
coincide each other. The fan is placed between the two flanges and screwed.

3.3.5 Vane:
The vane 18 made out of aluminum. It is placed the flanges, which are fitted to
the shaft through nuts and bolts. Air is forced on the fan and it is rotated and the

rotation is transmitted to the shaft. The fan is twisted such that it could be driven
in either direction.
3.4 HOSES
Hoses used in this pneumatic system are made up of polyurethane. These hose
can with stand at a maximum pressure level of 10 N/m.
3.4.1. Connectors:
In our system there are two type of connectors used. One is the hose connector
and the other is the reducer. Hose connectors normally comprise an adoptee
hose nipple and cap nut. These types of connectors are made up of brass (or)
Aluminum (or) hardened pneumatic steel.
3.5 CONTROL UNIT
A pneumatic multipurpose device is an air-operated device used for many small
operations. It is a portable one. Compressed air is the source of energy for this
device. The compressed air is allowed to pass through the nozzle in such a way
that the rotation obtained is utilized for machining.
The nozzles welded to the fan can be rotated in either direction. The rpm and
torque of the shaft depends upon the pressure of the air admitted so by varying
the pressure, the RPM and torque can be varied. Thick tubes interconnect the
parts. The Clamps are used at the connecting parts to prevent leakage. In thread
parts seals are used to prevent leakage.

The compressed air from the compressor first enters the control unit. In the
control unit the pressure of the air is controlled and sent to the barrel to rotate
the fan in the required direction. The gate valve controls the pressure and
volume of air. Then the pressure is read by a pressure gauge. Later the air is
admitted to the barrel, a shaft is placed and it carries the fan.
The shaft is supported by bearing. The bearings are placed in the couplings,
which covers the end of barrel.
Cost analysis
3.1 Territorial data
The southern part of the city of Kolkata is serviced by a 120MGD water
treatment plant called Garden Reach Water Works (GRWW). The treated water
from the plant is
transported through dedicated lines to a number of booster pumping stations
that in turn serves the consumers water networks. In total, 2.3 million residents
are served through the present system.

3.2 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to design a system that will help to manage
the wastewater.
Specifically the study aims:
1. to expedite the possibility of application of technology to help conserve
water.

2. to design a system that will manage wastewater.

3. to test and evaluate the prototype in terms of acceptability following the ISO
9126 evaluation.
3.3 Significance of the Study
The results of this study categorically benefited from many private and public
sectors by providing information that can result awareness to everyone who
suffer from water shortage and widespread pollution. Among the persons and
institutions who will be directly or indirectly benefited are the household
consumer, department of environment and natural resources, local government
units and future researchers.

3.4 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study is focused on the designing and constructing a microcontroller based
Automatic wastewater management system and for its development. This
machine is automatically recycled the wastewater and then dispose when it
recycled twice. The machine can perform the operation within 24 hours. It can
produce a low pressure of water based on the water pump pressure. It can select
automatically water source based on the water level of two containers. It has an
ultrasonic sensor that accepts a range of not more than 6 inches. It has a carbon
filtration technology that removes the contaminants on the tap water. It has also
a sediment ceramic filter that remove sediments and makes the water same

taste. It requires 220 volts supply for the machine to operate. There is an LED
light indicator that shows the status of the machine whether it uses recycled
water or the water source. The study is purely based on water filtering,
switching source and dispending. The maintenance and sanitary of the machine
will be done automatically or manually. The water can only recycled twice and
the water will go to drainage in in third use of water. The wastewater from sink
are the only the focus of the recycling method. Other factors that may arise
during the development of the study is not part of the study are the water quality
sensing, pH sensing, and temperature sensing. Containing soap and shampoo
are not parts of the water can be recycled.

CHAPTER - IV
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