Physical Properties of Water

Abstract: This set of activities investigates some of the physical properties of water; its
molecular structure, density, melting point, heat capacity, surface tension, and solvent
properties. The laboratory activities lead students through exercises that visually
demonstrate these properties.
Objectives: Be able to:
1. Identify the three physical states of water and understand the terminology associated
with the physical states of water and the changes from one state to another.
2. Explain how the unique properties of water contribute to its high surface tension and
give examples of the occurrences of the phenomena in everyday life.
3. Explain the impact that dissolved ions and molecules have on the freezing point of
water and give examples of the occurrences of the phenomena in everyday life.
4. Explain how and why the unique properties of water contribute to its ability to be a
good solvent and give examples of the occurrences of the phenomena in everyday
life.
5. Use the processes of science including observing, measuring, interpreting data,
inferring, controlling variables, hypothesizing, predicting, collecting and recording
data, and experimenting.
State Standards Addressed:
Math - A2, A4, A6, B6, B7, B8, C1, D1-D5, E1-E3
Science - A1, A2, B1-B6, D1
Time Frame & Schedule:
Part I - Water Molecular Model and Physical States Demonstration
Preparation: 15 min.
Class: 50 - min.
Part II - Surface Tension
Preparation - 20 min.
Class: 30 - min. (50 min. with elders)
Part III - Freezing of Water
Preparation - 20 min.
Class: 50 - min.
Part IV - Water as a Solvent
Preparation - 20 min.
Class: 50 - min.
Materials: (K -Included in kit / O - Order / L - Obtain locally)
Texts "Water, Water Everywhere" (K) (O)
"The Story of Drinking Water" (K) (O)
Part I - Water Molecular Model and Physical States Demonstration
Hot plate and large beaker (L)
Ice (L)

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Material (orange and marshmallow) to make water molecule model (L)

Paper (2 different colors) to cut out atoms (L)
Scissors (L)
Part II - Surface Tension
Overhead projector (L)
Waxed paper (L)
Tooth picks (L)
Liquid detergent (L)
1 L beaker (L)
Sewing needles (L)
Forceps (L)
Part III - Freezing of Water
Crushed ice (L)
1 L beaker (L)
Sugar (L)
Salt (NaCl) (L)
Balance, weigh boats, and spatula (L)
6 - 250 mL beakers (L)
Thermometer (L)
3 - Glass stirring rods (L)
Part IV - Water as a Solvent
Samples of sugar, salt, vegetable oil, motor oil, plant food (L)
Balance, weigh boats, and spatula (L)
Sugar (L)
3 - 250 mL beaker (L)
100 mL graduated cylinder (L)
3 - glass stirring rods (L)
Tablespoon & teaspoon measures (optional) (L)
Activities:
Part I - Water Molecule Model and Physical States Demonstration
Teacher's Preparation:
1. On the front desk set up a large beaker on a hot plate.
2. Make or obtain a tray of ice cubes for the demonstration.
3. Construct a three-dimensional model of a water molecule. Use something round and
large (like an orange) for the oxygen atom and two smaller round objects (like
marshmallows) for the two hydrogen atoms. Use a toothpick to attach the
marshmallows to the orange. Remember the hydrogen atoms make a 105 angle with
the center of the oxygen atom (you could also have the students do this).
4. Copy Fact Sheet and Worksheet
Description of Student Activities:
1. Gear Up:
a. At the start of the period put some water and ice cubes in the beaker on the hot
plate at the front desk and turn the heat on high. Instruct the students to keep an
eye on what is happening as you continue.

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b. Lecture on the structure of the water molecule and the physical phases of water.
Use the "orange-marshmallow" model to illustrate structure. Handout Fact Sheet
"Structure of the Water Molecule."
2. Explore: Molecular Model of Water (have students work in groups of two - four)
a. Using the atoms in Appendix A, have students cut out 10 oxygen atoms and 20
hydrogen atoms. The tab on the hydrogen atoms is to glue them to the oxygen.
b. Have students combine the hydrogen and oxygen atoms (glue tab) to make 10
water molecules. Remember to make the 105 angle.
c. Describe why molecules are polar and how they form hydrogen bonds. Have
students arrange the 10 water molecules they have made into a lattice of 10
hydrogen-bonded molecules.
d. Draw their attention back to the beaker at the front desk and discuss what is
happening.
e. Use the water molecule models to illustrate the relationship of molecules, one to
another, in the three physical states. Starting with water vapor (gas) with the
water molecules far apart, demonstrate how cooling moves the molecules closer
together to make liquid and then closer still to form the most dense liquid at 4 C
and then expands to form ice crystals (solid) at 0 C.
4. Generalize and Apply:
a. Have students complete the "Physical Properties of Water" Worksheet and discuss
the results.
Part II - Surface Tension
Teacher's Preparation:
1. Set up overhead projector with a piece of waxed paper on the horizontal glass plate.
2. Collect other necessary equipment and materials.
3. Make copies of the Fact Sheet and the Worksheet.
Description of Student Activities:
1. Gear-Up:
a. At the overhead projector in front of the class tell the students you're going to put
drops of water on the waxed paper with the eyedropper. Ask them what shape
they think the water drops will have. Tell them to watch carefully and try to
figure out what is happening and why.
b. Place several drops of water near the center of the paper, but separated from each
other.
c. Then ask them what they think would happen if you used a toothpick to draw one
drop towards another until they joined. Don't actually do this. Have them
proceed to the Explore activity.
2. Explore: (Have students work as teams of two or three)
a. Hand out "Surface Tension" Fact Sheet and "Surface Tension" Worksheet
b. Give each team a sheet of wax paper
c. Using the eye dropper filled with water, place a few drops of water close to the
center of the waxed paper, but so that they are not touching each other.
d. Observe and describe the appearance of the water drops.
e. Use a toothpick to "pull" one drop of water into another.

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f. Observe and describe what happens.

g. Dip the toothpick in liquid detergent and then touch the largest drop of water on
the waxed paper.
h. Observe and describe what happens.
3. Generalize:
a. Complete the Surface Tension Worksheet
b. Review and discuss the Surface Tension Worksheet
4. Apply:
a. Challenge - "Can you float a sewing needle on water?"
b. Fill a large beaker or glass dish with water.
c. Using forceps, carefully place the sewing needle on the surface of the water
d. Dip a toothpick in liquid detergent and then touch it to the surface of the water.
e. Have students explain what happened.
f. Compare what happened between the soap and the water to what might happen
when you are washing dishes at home.
Extension Activities:
1. Describe and discuss as many real-life phenomena that can be explained by the
unique surface tension of water. These might include the ability of insects to walk on
water; the ability of mosquito larvae to be suspended from the surface of the water;
how water drops form; the ability of soap to remove soil from the body or laundry.
2. Have students talk to the family and elders to discover any other natural phenomena
explainable by water's surface tension.
Part III - Freezing of Water
Teacher's Preparation:
1. Make or obtain crushed ice.
2. Collect other necessary equipment and materials.
3. Make copies of the Fact Sheet and Worksheet
Description of Student Activities:
1. Gear-Up:
a. Display ice floating in a container at the front desk.
b. Write questions on the board for students to ponder. Tell them to think about the
questions as they proceed through the experiments. Questions could include:
At what temperature does pure water freeze?
At what temperature would ocean water freeze?
Why do pipes break when the water inside them freezes?
Why do they put salt on icy roads?
2. Explore: (Have students work as teams of two or three)
a. Hand out "Melting and Boiling Points" Fact Sheet and "Freezing of Water"
Worksheet.
b. Explain the purpose of the exercise and tell the students to be sure to develop a
hypothesis before beginning the exercise.
c. Label six weigh boats: "10 g sugar" on three of them and "10 g salt" on the other
three. Weigh out the 10 g of sugar (3 times) and the 10 g of salt (3 times) and put

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them in their labeled weigh boats.

d. Label three 250 mL beakers: "salt", "sugar", "control" (plain water).
e. Fill the three beakers full of crushed ice. Then add ice water until the beakers are
almost full. The ice and the water must be at equilibrium.
f. Use the thermometer to measure the temperature of the water in each beaker and
record the results on the worksheet. Read the thermometer when it is in the ice
layer, not at the bottom of the beaker. Take three independent readings for each
beaker and average the results.
g. Carefully pour 10 g of salt into the "salt" beaker and 10 g of sugar into the "sugar"
beaker. Use separate, clean stirring rods to thoroughly stir the "salt" and "sugar"
beakers and the "control" beaker, which still contains plain ice and water.
h. Measure the temperature of the solution in each beaker as before, being sure to
clean the thermometer between beakers. Record the result on the worksheet.
Again make three independent temperature readings and average the results. If
the temperature change is less than 1 degree, estimate the fraction of a degree.
i. Add 10 g more salt to the salt solution in the "salt" beaker to make a total of 20 g
of salt in solution. Add 10g more sugar to the sugar solution in the "sugar" beaker
to make a total of 20 g of sugar in solution. Again, using a separate stirring rod
for each, thoroughly stir all three beakers.
j. Measure the temperature of the solution in each beaker as before, being sure to
clean the thermometer between measurements. Record the result on the
worksheet. Again make three independent temperature reading and average the
results.
k. Repeat step #7 and #8. You should have a total of 30 g of salt and 30 g of sugar
in solution.
3. Generalize:
a. Complete the Freezing of Water Worksheet
b. Review and discuss the Freezing of Water Worksheet. Suggested Worksheet
Answers:
Any logical answer indicating that the freezing point is lowered.
Yes! There are more ions in 10 g of salt than there are molecules in 10 g of
sugar.
By adding more salt and sugar.
The more ions or molecules present, the lower the freezing point.
4. Apply:
a. Describe and discuss as many real-life phenomena that can be explained by the
unique freezing properties of water. These might include the freezing of ocean
water at a lower temperature than fresh water, the use of salt on icy roads;
preventing lakes and rivers from freezing solid; the breaking of water distribution
pipes if they freeze; the formation of ice on the top of the water allowing fish and
other wild life to survive under the ice during the winter; allow aquatic organisms
to survive in water (oceans) at temperatures below freezing.
b. Have students talk to the family and elders to discover any other natural
phenomena explainable by the freezing properties of water.

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Extension Activities:
1. Volume vs. Temperature (Density)
a. Fill a 500 mL volumetric flask with hot tap water. (A plastic bottle with a narrow
neck, less than 1 inch would also work).
b. Mark the level of water with a felt pen. (Remember to mark the bottom of the
meniscus).
c. Measure and record the temperature of the water.
d. Cool the flask or bottle.
e. Measure and record the new temperature and mark the new water level (volume).
f. Cool further (perhaps in a refrigerator or outside) and repeat the temperature
measurement and level observation.
g. Draw a graph of temperature vs. mm of water level drop.
2. Specific Gravity (Density)
a. Fill a margarine container with clean fresh water. Be sure it is filled completely
to the top and snap on the lid firmly.
b. Put the container in a freezer (or set it outside if the temperature is well below
freezing)
c. Observe the expansion of the ice.
d. Discuss the concepts of temperature vs. volume and of ice (solid water) being less
dense than very cold liquid water.
3. Specific Gravity (Density)
a. Obtain a short (8 to 12 inches) piece of 3/4" PVC or galvanized pipe with
threaded caps. This could probably be obtained from a hardware store, a plumber
or the water utility operator.
b. Fill the pipe completely with clean fresh water and replace the caps on both ends.
c. Put the pipe in a freezer (or set it outside if the temperature is well below
freezing).
d. Observe the expansion of the ice.
e. Discuss the concepts of temperature vs. volume, of ice (solid water) being denser
than very cold liquid water, and the power of ice expansion.
Part IV - Water as a Solvent
Teacher's Preparation:
1. Make or obtain crushed ice.
2. Collect other necessary equipment and materials.
3. Make copies of the Fact Sheet and Worksheet.
Description of Student Activities:
1. Gear-Up:
a. Display on the front desk a container of pure, clean water along with samples of
the following (or misc. items of your choice):
sugar
salt
vegetable oil
motor oil
colored fertilizer (liquid plant food)

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b. Write the following question on the board for students to ponder. Tell them to
think about the question as they proceed through the experiments:
Which of these things will dissolve in warm water?
2. Explore: (have students work as teams of two or three)
Water Temperature vs. Solubility
a. Handout the "Water As A Solvent" Fact Sheet and the "Water as a Solvent"
Worksheet.
b. Explain the purpose of the exercise and tell the students to be sure to develop a
hypothesis before beginning the exercise.
c. Mark three 250 mL beakers "ice," "room temp," and "hot."
d. Put 100 mL of ice water in the "ice" beaker; 100 mL of room temperature tap
water in the "room temp" beaker; and 100 mL of very hot tap water (110 - 120 F)
in the "hot" beaker.
e. Measure and record the temperature of each beaker.
f. To the "ice" beaker add 4 g of sugar and stir to dissolve (4 g is equal to about 1
teaspoon volume). Continue adding 4 g increments until sugar is visible on the
bottom of the beaker after you have stirred for 1 min. Keep track of the grams of
sugar you add and record the results on the Worksheet.
g. Repeat with the other two beakers. With the "hot" beaker you can add 12 g
increments (1 tablespoon).
h. Make a graph of temperature vs. grams of sugar dissolved at saturation.
3. Generalize:
a. Complete the Solutions, Solvents, Solutes, and Crystals Worksheet.
b. Review and discuss the Solutions, Solvents, Solutes, and Crystals Worksheet.
c. Discuss and generalize about the relationship between temperature and ability to
dissolve material.
d. Discuss the concept of solution and the types of compounds that would be
expected to be dissolved in water.
4. Apply:
a. Think about additional materials and predict whether they would dissolve in
warm water.
b. Have students talk to the family and elders to discover any other natural
phenomena explainable by the unique solvent properties of water.
Extension Activities:
1. Test the predicted grams of sugar to reach saturation at 30 C as predicted on the
Worksheet #5.
2. Test the predictions of solubility of the additional materials considered in "Apply"
section.
3. Have students actually experiment with trying to dissolve the substance presented in
the Gear-Up and see if they matched with their predictions. Consider showing the
comparison between mixing oil and water and mixing oil, detergent, and water.
Assessment:
1. Results of Worksheets - Collect and evaluate worksheets from each activity.
2. Peer Evaluation - Have students explain the general phenomena of each activity and

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evaluate each other.

3. Evaluate data sheets, graphs, etc. to determine ability to record accurate data and
observations.
4. Have students keep a journal as they do these activities as record their observations
and thoughts about how the activities relate to everyday life.
References:
1. "Safe Drinking Water For Alaska," ADEC, Division of Environmental Health,
Juneau, AK, 1991.
2. "Project Water Works," AWWA, Denver, CO, 1990.
3. "Water, Water Everywhere," 2nd Ed., Jacobson, Cliff, Hach Company, Loveland,
CO, 1991.
4. "The Story of Drinking Water," Bock, Rosalie, AWWA, Denver, CO, 1990.
Resources:
1. "Water, Water Everywhere"
Hach Company
PO Box 389
Loveland, CO 80539
1-800-227-4224
FAX 303-669-2932
Cat. # 21975-00
$8.95 ea
2. "The Story of Drinking Water
AWWA
6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
1-800-926-7337
FAX 303-795-198
Cat. # 70023
$12.50 (30 copies plus teacher's guide)

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STUDENT EXERCISE DIRECTIONS

Physical Properties of Water
Molecular Model of Water
Purpose: To build a model of a water molecule and visualize how hydrogen bonding
contributes to the unique properties of water.
1. Work as teams of two - four people.
2. Obtain a copy of Appendix A for each member of the team. Appendix A provides
patterns for the oxygen and hydrogen atom cutouts.
3. Using the patterns and the paper provided, cut out 10 oxygen molecules and 20
hydrogen molecules. The tab is there to help you attach the hydrogen to the oxygen.
4. Attach two hydrogen atoms to an oxygen atom to make a molecule of water. Do this
by applying glue to the tab on the hydrogen and sticking it to the oxygen. Remember
to attach the hydrogen atoms to the oxygen atom so that they make 105 angle with
the center of the oxygen atom. Make 10 water molecules.
5. Which side of the molecule is negatively charged and which is positively charged?
Why?
6. Arrange the 10 water molecules on your desk or a table so that they are spread out to
represent water vapor (gas).
7. Now, pretend that the temperature drops so that the gas condenses into a liquid. How
would the position of the water molecules change? Have your teacher check your
molecules before proceeding.
8. Pretend the temperature drops to 4 C. How would the position of the water
molecules change? Again, have your teacher check your molecules before
proceeding.
9. Finally pretend the temperature drops from 4 C to 0 C. How would the position of
the water molecules change? Again, have your teacher check your molecules before
proceeding.
10. Is the water more dense at 0 C or 4 C?
11. Complete the worksheet.

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Fact Sheet:
Structure of the Water Molecule
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance made up of two or more atoms. Thus,
the smallest particle of water is a water molecule.
A water molecule is made up of three atoms, two of hydrogen and one of oxygen. A
symbol that indicates this structure is H2O where H equals hydrogen, 2 gives the number
of hydrogen atoms, and O equals oxygen. All molecules have a shape. The shape is
determined by the way the atoms making up the molecules are joined. In the water
molecule, the hydrogen atoms are joined to the oxygen by means of two covalent bonds,
which can be represented as where the dots represent electrons, and the short lines
represent bonds. If lines are drawn from the center of each hydrogen atom to the center
of the oxygen atom, the angle between these two lines is 105.
The oxygen side of the water molecule with the unbonded electrons is more negative than
the hydrogen side. In this way the water molecule acts like an electrical dipole with a
negative (oxygen) end and a positive (hydrogen) end.
Because the water molecule acts as a dipole, it forms weak bonds (called hydrogen
bonds) between water molecules. This hydrogen bonding is what gives water its unusual
properties.
Water exists in three forms: as a liquid, as a solid (ice and snow) and as a gas (water
vapor). A rearrangement of its molecules enables water to appear in these three different
forms. As a solid, all the molecules are arranged in neat criss-cross rows and they can't
move. In a liquid the molecules are able to move around but they are still quite close
together. In a gas the molecules move hundreds of times farther apart and move much
faster as well.
Water in liquid form weighs approximately 62.3 pounds per cubic foot or 8.3 pounds per
gallon. This is 830 times heavier than air. However, in the vapor form, water is 133
times lighter than air volume for volume, which partially explains why water vapor rises
in the atmosphere in the form of clouds.
The density of water has to do with the crowding together of its water molecules.
Consider the following:
At 0 C, solid water (ice) is less dense than liquid water, therefore it floats on
water.
From 0 C to 4 C, liquid water becomes heavier until it reaches its maximum
density at 4 C, and sinks below the 0 C water.
Above 4 C, the density decreases with increasing temperature eventually turning
into vapor.
This is not normal behavior when compared to most other substances. Usually the solid
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form of a substance is denser than its liquid form and when the liquid is heated it
continually becomes less dense. Why does water behave so strangely, and what are the
implications of this behavior on our study of water?
The reason for the strange density behavior of water lies in its structure and hydrogen
bonding. Ice, due to complete hydrogen bonding, has an open structure that gives it low
density. When ice melts, some of the hydrogen bonds are broken or bent, and the
resulting non-hydrogen bonded water molecules crowd more closely together. In this
way a given volume of liquid water contains more water molecules than the same volume
of ice, resulting in a higher density for the liquid. Consequently, ice floats on water of
the same temperature. In addition, upon freezing, water expands to assume the more
open structure of ice.
The density characteristics of water are very important for freshwater lakes. In very cold
weather you will notice that ice forms on the surface of most ponds and lakes. But even
in the really hard winter the water near the bottom never seems to freeze. The reason for
this is due to the density of water. As you know, water is at its heaviest at 4 C, so it
sinks to the bottom of the lake. The colder water floats on top, and turns to ice when it
reaches 0 C. Ice is a good insulator and acts like a blanket to stop the water near the
bottom from freezing. So the lake creatures can swim around near the bottom in the 4 C
water. Also, upon freezing to ice, water expands in volume by about one-tenth and exerts
a pressure of 33,000 pounds per square inch. It is this pressure that bursts water pipes in
freezing weather.

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Physical Properties of Water

Worksheet
Physical Properties of Water
NAME __________________________________ DATE _____________________
1. What state of H2O was the ice?
a. liquid b. solid c. gas
2. What state of H2O was the water?
a. liquid b. solid c. gas
3. What state of H2O was rising from the hot beaker?
a. liquid b. solid c. gas
4. What is the change of H2O from the liquid to a gas called?
a. condensation b. evaporation c. sublimation
5. What is the change of H2O from gas to a liquid called?
a. condensation b. evaporation c. sublimation
6. What is the change of H2O directly from the solid to the gas state called?
a. condensation b. evaporation c. sublimation
7. What would the most frequent form of H2O be if the planet Earth was much closer to
the sun?
a. liquid b. solid c. gas
8. What would the most frequent form of H2O be if the planet Earth was much further to
the sun?
a. liquid b. solid c. gas
9. What is needed to change the state or form of H2O?
______________________________________________________________
10. List some common occurrences of H2O's three states in everyday life.
Solid
Liquid
Gas

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STUDENT EXERCISE DIRECTIONS

Physical Properties of Water
Surface Tension
Purpose: To observe the effect of surface tension on drops of water.
1. Work as teams of two or three people.
2. Obtain a copy of the "Surface Tension" Fact Sheet and the "Surface Tension"
Worksheet for each team member.
3. Lay the wax paper out flat on the table. Using an eye dropper filled with water, place
a few drops of water close to the center of the waxed paper, but so that they are not
touching each other.
4. Observe and describe the appearance of the water drops.
5. Use a toothpick to "pull" one drop of water into another.
6. Observe and describe what happens.
7. Dip the toothpick in liquid detergent and then touch the largest drop of water on the
waxed paper.
8. Observe and describe what happens.
9. Complete the worksheet.
Challenge - "Can you float a needle on water?"
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Fill a large beaker or glass dish with water.

Using forceps, carefully place the needle on the surface of the water.
Dip a toothpick in liquid detergent and then touch it to the surface of the water.
Can you explain what happened?
Compare what happened between the soap and the water to what might happen when
you are washing dishes at home.

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Physical Properties of Water

Fact Sheet
Surface Tension
The surface of a liquid has a tendency to contract due to the forces between molecules.
Because of this tendency, the surface of the liquid acts as if it has a thin elastic membrane
stretched over it. This is surface tension.
Water has a very high surface tension, much higher than most liquids. The hydrogen
bonds in water cause it to have a high surface tension. A drop of water is made up of
billions of H2O molecules. A single molecule in a drop of water is pulled in many
directions by the hydrogen bonds that form with the other water molecules. For a
molecule in the center of a drop, each pull from a molecule to the right is matched by a
pull from one to the left. Each pull upward is offset by a pull downward and each pull
outward is counter-balanced by a pull inward.
However, for a molecule on the surface of the drop of water, the situation is different.
Since there is no liquid water beyond the surface, there is no corresponding pull outward
for each pull inward. The hydrogen bonds makes the surface water molecules behave
like "stretchy skin", resulting in this phenomenon known as surface tension.
This plays a major role in the formation of drops in clouds and in rain. Also, some kinds
of beetles, water bugs and free-floating plants live only on the surface "skin" of ponds
and lakes.

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Physical Properties of Water

Worksheet
Surface Tension
Name ____________________________________ Date _________________________
1. Describe the drops of water on the wax paper.

2. Describe what happened when one drop was "pulled" to another.

3. Describe and explain what happens when a water drop is touched with a detergentcoated toothpick.

4. Compare what happens between the soap and drop of water to what might happen
when you are washing dishes at home.

5. What conclusions can you draw from this reaction of water and soap?

6. In you own words explain "surface tension."

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Physical Properties of Water

STUDENT EXERCISE DIRECTIONS

Physical Properties of Water
Freezing of Water
Purpose: To investigate the effect of ions and molecules in solution at the freezing point.
We will add increasing amounts of salt and sugar to ice water (0 C) and measure the
change in temperature. What do you think will happen?
Hypothesis (Write your hypothesis here):

Activities:
1. Work as teams of two or three people.
2. Obtain a copy of "Melting and Boiling Point" Fact Sheet and the "Freezing of Water"
Worksheet for each team member.
3. Label six weigh boats: "10 g sugar" on three of them and "10 g salt" on the other
three. Weigh out the 10 g of sugar (3 times) and the 10 g of salt (3 times) and put
them in their labeled weigh boat.
4. Label three 250 mL beakers: "control" (plain water), "salt", and "sugar."
5. Fill the three beakers full of crushed ice. Then add ice water until the beakers are
almost full. The ice and the water must be at equilibrium.
6. Use the thermometer to measure the temperature of the water in each beaker. After
all beakers have come to equilibrium, take three independent temperature reading,
records the readings under "Control" on the data sheet and average the readings.
7. Carefully pour 10 g of salt into the "salt" beaker and 10 g of sugar into the "sugar"
beaker. Use separate, clean stirring rods to thoroughly stir the "salt" and "sugar"
beakers and the "control" beaker, which still contains plain ice and water.
8. Measure the temperature of the solution in each beaker as before, being sure to clean
the thermometer between measurements. Record the results on the worksheet. Again
make three independent temperature reading and average the results. Read the
thermometer when it is in the ice layer, not at the bottom of the beaker. If the
temperature change is less than 1 degree, estimate the fraction of a degree.
9. Add 10 g more salt to the salt solution in the "salt" beaker to make a total of 20 g of
salt in solution. Add 10g more sugar to the sugar solution in the "sugar" beaker to
make a total of 20 g of sugar in solution. Again, using a clean stirring rod for each,
thoroughly stir all three beakers.
10. Measure the temperature of the solution in each beaker as before, being sure to clean
the thermometer between measurements. Record the result on the worksheet. Again
make three independent temperature reading and average the results.
11. Repeat step #7 and #8. You should have a total of 30 g of salt and 30 g of sugar in
solution.
12. Did you prove your hypothesis? Explain!

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Fact Sheet
Melting and Boiling Points
The temperature at which a solid changes into liquid is called its melting point. The
melting point for water is 0 C (32 F).
The temperature when a liquid is changing to gas is called the boiling point. The exact
boiling point depends on two factors: (1) the amount of heat energy needed to make the
particles of a liquid separate to become gas: and (2) the pressure of the air. For example,
water boils at 100 C (212 F) when the air pressure is normal. On a mountaintop where
the air pressure is lower, water boils at a temperature below 100 C.
The melting and boiling points of water are normal if compared with similar substances
made up of elements from the same chemical family. However, if water behaved like the
other substances it would boil at -80 C instead of 100 C. The difference is due to the
need to break the hydrogen bonds in liquid water that act to hold all the water molecules
together, before it will boil. For similar reasons, the melting point of water is about 100
C higher than that predicted from the behavior of other substances.
The effect of the higher boiling point of water and the larger difference between the
melting and boiling points is to produce a liquid over most of the earth's surface. This
makes the earth unique when compared to other planets and permits life to exist.
Heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance by one
degree Centigrade.
Water has the highest heat capacity of any known liquid except ammonia. This means it
takes more heat to raise the temperature of water one-degree than any other liquid (except
ammonia). This is because a lot of the heat added to water is used to break hydrogen
bonds and not to increase the motion of the water molecules, causing a temperature
change. Because of hydrogen bonds breaking, water can absorb a lot of heat for a small
temperature change.
The temperature of large standing bodies of water such as a lake and the oceans are
relatively constant, thanks partly to the high heat capacity of water. This thermal
buffering serves to protect life from otherwise possibly lethal temperature fluctuations.
The heat of vaporization of water is one of the highest of all liquids. This is the heat that
must be supplied to convert liquid water to water vapor. It is the energy necessary for a
water molecule to escape the attracting forces of the liquid, which involves breaking
hydrogen bonds. When water condenses from vapor to liquid, it releases this same
amount of heat.
The heat transfer of the earth, which drives the water cycle, is dependent upon heat of
vaporization and condensation of water. Liquid water absorbs heat at one place on the
earth and evaporates; then the water vapor is transported by the atmosphere to another

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Physical Properties of Water

place where it is cooled and condenses. Evaporation also dissipates much of the heat of
solar radiation (about 23%), thus moderating and stabilizing the earth's surface
temperature without appreciably changing ocean temperatures.
The density of water has to do with the crowding together of its water molecules.
Consider the following:
At 0 C, solid water (ice) is less dense than liquid water, therefore it floats on
water.
From 0 C to 4 C, liquid water becomes heavier until it reaches its maximum
density at 4 C, and sinks below the 0 C water.
Above 4 C, the density decreases with increasing temperature eventually turning
into vapor.
This is not normal behavior when compared to most other substances. Usually the solid
form of a substance is denser than its liquid form and when the liquid is heated it
continually becomes less dense. Why does water behave so strangely, and what are the
implications of this behavior on our study of water?
The reason for the strange density behavior of water lies in its structure and hydrogen
bonding. Ice, due to complete hydrogen bonding, has an open structure that gives it low
density. When ice melts, some of the hydrogen bonds are broken or bent, and the
resulting non-hydrogen bonded water molecules crowd more closely together. In this
way a given volume of liquid water contains more water molecules than the same volume
of ice, resulting in a higher density for the liquid. Consequently, ice floats on water of
the same temperature. In addition, upon freezing, water expands to assume the more
open structure of ice.
The density characteristics of water are very important for freshwater lakes. In very cold
weather you will notice that ice forms on the surface of most ponds and lakes. But even
in the really hard winter the water near the bottom never seems to freeze. The reason for
this is due to the density of water. As you know, water is at its heaviest at 4 C, so it
sinks to the bottom of the lake. The colder water floats on top, and turns to ice when it
reaches 0 C. Ice is a good insulator and acts like a blanket to stop the water near the
bottom from freezing. So the lake creatures can swim around near the bottom in the 4 C
water. Also, upon freezing to ice, water expands in volume by about one-tenth and exerts
a pressure of 33,000 pounds per square inch. It is this pressure that bursts water pipes in
freezing weather.

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Physical Properties of Water

Worksheet
Freezing of Water
Name_____________________________ Date _________________________
1. Record the temperature as measured in each of the beakers

#1

Temperature Readings C
#2
#3

Average C

Control
Salt (10 g)
Salt (20 g)
Salt (30 g)
Sugar (10 g)
Sugar (20 g
Sugar (30 g)
2. Using the data above, describe what happens to the freezing point of pure water when
additional substances such as salt and sugar are added to make solutions.

3. Was there a difference between the temperatures of the solution, which contained 10
g of salt and 10 g of sugar? If so, what was the cause?

4. How did you lower the freezing point of the salt and the sugar even more?

5. How does the addition of more salt or sugar further lower the freezing point?

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Physical Properties of Water

STUDENT EXERCISE DIRECTIONS

Physical Properties of Water
Water As A Solvent
Purpose: To investigate the effect that water temperature has on the amount of solute a
given amount of water can dissolve.
Hypothesis (Write your hypothesis here):

Activities:
1. Work as teams of two or three people.
2. Obtain a copy of the "Water As A Solvent" Fact Sheet and the "Water as a Solvent"
Worksheet.
3. Mark three 250 mL beakers "ice," "room temp," and "hot."
4. Put 100 mL of ice water in the "ice" beaker; 100 mL of room temperature tap water in
the "room temp" beaker; and 100 mL of very hot tap water (110 - 120 F) in the "hot"
beaker.
5. Measure and record the temperature of each beaker.
6. To the "ice" beaker add 4 g of sugar and stir to dissolve (4 g is equal to about 1
teaspoon volume). Continue adding 4 g increments until sugar is visible on the
bottom of the beaker after you have stirred for 1 min. Keep track of the grams of
sugar you add and record the results on the Worksheet.
7. Repeat with the other two beakers. With the "hot" beaker you can add 12 g
increments (1 tablespoon).
8. Make a graph of temperature vs. grams of sugar dissolved a saturation.

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Physical Properties of Water

Fact Sheet
Water as a Solvent
Water is an excellent solvent because it can dissolve so many different things. This is
mainly due to the dipolar nature of the molecule.
This property is essential in biological systems where water has a transport function. For
instance, two-thirds of the human body consists of water, which carries dissolved
nutrients and eliminates wastes. Also, life is maintained in lakes and oceans by the
ability of water to supply food and oxygen to organisms and remove wastes.
Water's solvent properties are also vital to transport in the geochemical cycles. Water
with its dissolved components (oxygen, carbon dioxide, various cycles, etc.) wears away
rocks and carries resulting chemicals via rivers to the oceans. Seawater owes its salinity
+
to the ability of water to retain various chemicals in solution, particularly sodium (Na )
and chloride (Cl-).
Water dissolves inorganic, ionic bonded compounds better than organic, covalently
bonded compounds. For example, salt dissolves better than oil. Temperature affects the
amount of material that can be dissolved is a given amount of water. Generally, the
solubility is higher in warmer water.

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Physical Properties of Water

Worksheet
Water as a Solvent
1. Hypothesis: (Write your hypothesis here.)

Record the results of the experiment here:

Cold Water, _____ C
Grams added
4 g increments (1 tsp.)

Room Temp. Water, _____C

Grams added
4 g increments (1 tsp.)

Hot Water, _____ C

Grams added
12 g increments (1 tbsp.)

2. Construct a graph (on the second page) in which you plot your data showing the
amount of sugar (in grams) required to reach saturation at each temperature. Plot
temperature on the x-axis and grams of sugar on the y-axis.

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Physical Properties of Water

Construct graph here:

3. Did you prove your hypothesis? Explain!

4. Explain how the temperature of the water affects the solubility of the sugar.

5. Use your graph to estimate the grams of sugar that would be needed to reach
saturation at 30 C.

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Physical Properties of Water

APPENDIX A

___

___

OXYGEN

+
TAB

TAB

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General Safety Considerations

Only particularly unique safety issues are addressed in the individual units. However,
teachers should instruct students in general laboratory safety practices and expect them to
be followed at all times. Following are general safety considerations.

Safety Equipment: Locate and know how to use all of the safety equipment in the lab.
This includes fire extinguishers, fire blanket, safety shower, eyewash, Material Safety
Data Sheets (MSDS), and first aid kit.

Personal Protection: Wear goggles to protect your eyes whenever you are using
chemicals or potentially pathogenic samples. Wear lab aprons to protect your clothes
from chemicals. Wear rubber gloves when handling strong acids and bases and latex
gloves when handling potentially pathogenic samples.

In Case of Fire or Accident: In case of fire or accident, call your teacher at once.
Report even minor incidents (such as small cuts, chemical spills, broken glassware,
etc.).

No food or drink in the lab: To avoid ingestion of harmful chemicals and potentially
pathogenic samples do not bring food or drink into the laboratory area. Gummed
labels should never be moistened with your tongue. Use tap water instead. Don't put
your pencil or pen in your mouth.
Wash your hands thoroughly when you leave the lab and before you eat. This applies
to short trip to the restroom as well as at the end of the period.

Be cautious of hot plates and gas burners: To avoid burns, beware of hot plates and
gas burners. Use protective gloves or long handled tongs when using autoclave, hot
plate, furnace or oven. Never leave a burner unattended. Turn it off if you leave your
lab table. Don't ignite it unless it is actually needed. If it is not working properly or
does not light easily, ask your instructor for help. Long, loose sleeves and long hair
are a fire hazard. Be careful. Pin hair back with a barrette or rubber band.

Discard broken glassware appropriately: Discard or repair cracked or broken

glassware immediately. Discard broken glassware in appropriate container, not the
trash can.

Pipeting: NEVER use your mouth to fill pipettes. Use a suction bulb every time.

Consider all Chemicals as Dangerous: Always label chemicals properly. Never use
chemicals or solutions from an unlabeled container. Never allow a chemical or
solution to touch your skin. If you do, wash the area thoroughly with soap and water.

Strong Acids and Bases: Be cautious of strong acids and bases. Always use

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General Safety Considerations

protective eyeglasses, gloves and apron when handling acids and bases. Always
dilute strong acids and bases by adding the acid or base to the water, not visa versa.

Samples: Most of the samples you work with will be harmless, but some are not.
Wastewater samples and some freshwater samples may contain pathogens. To be
safe, assume all of them to be potentially dangerous and handle them accordingly.

Used Cultures: Place old cultures or any contaminated material in the biohazard bag
provided by your teacher. Label all current culture tubes and dishes that yo u wish to
keep with your initials, date and lab period (class).

Spilled Cultures: Whenever bacterial cultures are accidentally spilled, notify your
teacher so that proper disinfection procedures can be assured.

Page 2 of 2