A Shear Experiment Over The Natih Field in Oman-Pilot Seismic and Borehole Data

Geophysical Prospecting, 1998, 46, 617646
A shear experiment over the Natih field in Oman:

pilot seismic and borehole data1
J.H. Hake,2 E.C.A. Gevers,2 C.M. van der Kolk3 and B.W. Tichelaar3
Abstract
An experimental multicomponent three-dimensional (3D) seismic survey has been
carried out over the Natih field in Oman. This paper describes the small-scale twodimensional experiment carried out beforehand, and how the results obtained from this
pilot were used to assess the feasibility of a nine-component three-dimensional (9C3D)
operation as well as to determine the field parameters for the field-scale 3D survey. It
also describes the two VSPs and a wireline shear log, acquired in conjunction with the
pilot experiment, and the importance of such borehole data for establishing the correct
time-to-depth relationship for the seismic data and for providing an independent check
on the seismic interpretation. The observation of cusps in the offset VSP indicated the
strong anisotropy of the Fiqa shales overlying the Natih reservoir.
Introduction
The main reservoir of the Natih field is formed by a fractured limestone. The anticlinal
structure has gentle dips (at most 48), is shallow, and is overlain by the Fiqa shales. The
fractures are nearly vertical. Extensive knowledge has been acquired throughout 30
years of production from a large number of wells. This makes it an ideal candidate for a
seismic experiment aiming at establishing the presence of shear-wave anisotropy and
its relationship to reservoir fracturing. Nevertheless, before making the final decision
on an expensive nine-component three-dimensional (9C3D) survey, a pilot experiment was carried out involving some 9C2D recording with minimal mobilization of
special equipment. To establish unambiguous identification of the major horizons and
to obtain an independent measure of anisotropy, a zero-offset VSP, an offset VSP and a
dipole wireline shear log were also acquired. The implications of these experiments are
described in detail below.
The pilot 9C2D experiment
The pilot experiment consisted of the acquisition of a short 2D seismic line, utilizing
three-component receivers in combination with both conventional vertical (P) and
1
Received August 1997, revision accepted July 1998.

Nederlands Aardolie Maatschappij, PO Box 28000, 9400 HH Assen, The Netherlands.
3
Shell Research and Technology Centre, PO Box 60, 2280 AB Rijswijk, The Netherlands.
2
q 1998 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers
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shear (S) vibroseis sources. The geophones used were in the Galperin orientation,
which has the advantage of identical sensors in a symmetric configuration. A
disadvantage is that in-line and cross-line panels can only be made by combining data
from all three components. Noise or distortion originally present on one trace is then
present in all three orthogonal components.
The first step in determining the optimal geophone arrays is the identification of the
various wave modes recorded in the data. For this purpose a noise spread was
recorded. In order to obtain sufficient offset we recorded the noise spread in four parts.
Each of the recordings has a different near-offset. A moving-source noise spread was
recorded with a maximum offset of 1500 m. By moving the source two effects could be
observed: firstly, on soft gravel the surface waves dominated the seismic record; and
secondly, the Rayleigh wave could be seen scattering back from the side of a wadi. A
wadi is a dry river-bed; it is more consolidated and is often covered with larger rock
fragments than the surrounding soil.
Surface waves were compared in detail for shot records acquired with 12-element
and 24-element areal arrays. As very little difference could be seen, it was
recommended that a 12-element geophone array should be used in the 9C3D
survey. A cross-line receiver pattern was found to be effective in attenuating this noise,
attributed to scattering. The best results were obtained with a receiver pattern crossline extent of 40 m and a 25 m shot spacing. The parameters were similar to those used
for conventional 3D seismic acquisition in this area.
On the source side, an obvious requirement is that the amplitude and phase of the
shear signals are repeatable for the two perpendicular source directions used. By
controlling the ground force a known seismic wavelet is obtained that is independent of
the acquisition direction. For this purpose, force control was installed on the (Prakla
VVCA/SH17) shear vibrator. Various baseplate designs were considered. On the
survey gravel plain, a baseplate design with teeth was preferred over a flat baseplate to
improve the ground coupling.
An important parameter is the vibrators output force required to obtain sufficient
reflection signal back from the target reflections. In the absence of any shear data for
comparison, there was some apprehension regarding the penetration of shear energy
into the ground. A sweep was therefore designed which gave the maximum possible
output force at the proposed location. This resulted in a 24 s, 648 Hz linear sweep at a
70 kN output force. Thus a production spread was recorded which simulated the
output force of four vibrators (the maximum envisaged in the 9C3D survey) by
sweeping in total 16 times per vibration point. A source pattern was simulated by
dividing the 16 sweeps equally over four locations 12.5 m apart. In order to obtain
sufficient offsets with the limited number of recording channels available for this
experiment, we recorded a production spread in four parts. The spread was kept at its
original location but the source was moved three times to give a maximum offset of
1521 m. A simulation of two vibrators was clearly inferior to the results of a simulation
of four vibrators. It was therefore recommended that a group of four shear vibrators
should be used in the 9C3D experiment.
q 1998 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Geophysical Prospecting, 46, 617646
A shear experiment over the Natih field
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With this equipment in place and the field parameters decided, the seismic pilot line
was orientated eastwest (Fig. 1), at < 458 to the main open fracture direction in the
reservoir. At the test site the top of the Natih reservoir lies at a depth of < 700 m and
dips about 48 to the west.
Figure 1. Surface location of well Natih-85, vibration points of VSPs and pilot line.
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Results
Figure 2 shows displays of some of the horizontal-component data acquired. Note that
by this terminology we refer consistently to the four components of data recorded by
the horizontal components of the geophones and generated by two perpendicular
directions of the shear vibrator. The displays contain the four horizontal components
of a shot gather with an offset range between 1200 m and 1200 m. The following
processing was applied:
1 statics (the same for all components),
2 kf filtering for ground-roll removal, and
3 NMO correction with the so-called EE stacking velocities.
A precise nomenclature is adopted to identify unambiguously the various components.
Each data component is identified by a two-letter label to specify the source and
receiver orientation, respectively. We use N for North, E for East and Z for vertical. For
example, data component EE was generated with an eastwest polarized source and
recorded by an eastwest orientated geophone. For our pilot line, component EE thus
has shots and receivers orientated parallel to the seismic line whereas component NN
has shots and receiver orientated perpendicular to the seismic line.
The residual moveout on the NN component for all reflections can be seen in Fig. 2.
Data components NE and EN are those with orthogonal sourcereceiver orientation.
These contain very little coherent reflection signal in the shallow part, but at 2.40 s, and
particularly around 2.65 s, significant reflection energy can be seen. This is a clear
indication of anisotropy in this time window.
A criterion for determining the shear-wave polarization is the maximum linearity of
the particle motion. This is based on the principle that a linearly polarized signal
preserves its linear particle motion if the displacement vector coincides with that of one
of the shear polarization eigenmodes. We calculated the linearity of the particle motion
in the shot gather within the time window between 2.60 s and 2.70 s for a full 1808 range
of orientations. The result is shown in Fig. 3, and the results are clearest for the negative
offsets. At small offsets, maximum linearity (red colour) occurs in the directions NW
and NE. At the large offsets, maximum linearity is seen with the data orientated north
east. This means that for far-offsets the largest shear-wave splitting is seen with the data
orientated northeast. Another illustration of this phenomenon is shown in Fig. 4, in
which components NN and EE are displayed next to each other. Notice the absence of
splitting at the small offsets in the 2.402.65 s time interval. The observed variation of
the shear eigenpolarization with offset, and with shot-to-receiver bearing, has
consequences for the processing of 9C3D data. Velocity analyses and stacking, for
example, will be inferior if shot and receiver orientations are fixed (i.e. not varying with
offset and bearing). A possible solution is to limit the data to small offsets.
Figure 5 shows the result of rotating the data into the NENW direction. Down to
2.40 s there is still no shear-wave splitting at the small offsets, but at 2.65 s a clear time
splitting has occurred. Also notice the inverted polarity at 2.50 s. At the far-offsets the
data appear more noisy than in Fig. 4, a consequence of the interference of the two
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Figure 2. Four-component prestack data set in [N,E] coordinates (NN, NE, EN, EE), NMO
corrected with the EE stacking velocities.
Figure 3. Linearity of particle motion as a function of sourcereceiver offset and rotation angle (interval 2.62.7 s).
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Figure 4. Shot gathers for components NN and EE (NMO corrected with EE stacking
velocities). No splitting at small offsets, but residual moveout at larger offsets for component
NN.
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Figure 5. Shot gathers Y0 Y0 and X0 X0 with Y0 NE and X0 NW (NMO corrected with EE

stacking velocities). Note the splitting for the small offsets at 2.6 s.
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shear modes in this particular coordinate system. The observed variation of the shear
polarization eigendirections with offset and shot-to-receiver bearing has consequences
for the processing of 9C3D data. Steps such as velocity analysis and stacking, with
source and receiver orientations independent of offset and bearing, will give inferior
results because of the mixing of the shear modes. A solution is to limit the processing to
small offsets only.
As we have not yet established a timedepth relationship for the major horizons, it is
not possible at this point to identify the Natih interval unambiguously. However, this
will be revealed by the VSP data acquired after the pilot experiment; this is the subject
of the next section.
Acquisition of the shear VSPs
Two VSPs were recorded with Schlumbergers Combinable Seismic Imager (CSI, also
known as CSAT) in well Natih-85 at offsets of 90 m and 614 m. For brevity we refer to
the former as the zero-offset VSP. The well position with respect to the pilot surface
seismic data and the coverage of the 9C3D survey is shown in Fig. 1(b). Shear data
were generated with one shear vibrator moving forwards and backwards over a quarter
circle with a radius of < 5 m. With this technique the two zero-offset shear vibration
points are almost 58 apart, as seen from the well head, but no correction has been made
for this effect. Compressional data were acquired with a separate vertical vibrator. Data
were acquired in two open-hole sequences. First the well was drilled down to the top of
the Natih formation after which the zero-offset VSP was acquired and recorded from
top Natih up to a depth of 280 m, with a nominal depth decrement of 15 m. The offset
VSP was acquired up to a depth of 600 m. After deepening the well down to about
1125 m the deepest parts of both VSPs were acquired in the same manner. At most
levels the shots were repeated several times.
Zero-offset shear VSP data quality and interpretation
The best shots were selected for further processing. Subsequently the data were rotated
in a fixed NEZ coordinate system which is necessary in view of the different
coordinate systems of the vibrators and the orientation of the tool in the hole. In view of
later rotation operations applied to the data, we use primed characters to indicate
transformed data; for such a new coordinate system we will use X0 and Y0, and this is
related to the NEZ system as follows: X north and Y west. The zero-offset pure
shear data are shown in Fig. 6, with an automatic volume control (AVC) of 200 ms
applied for display purposes. The data quality is obviously good and direct waves as
well as reflected upcoming waves are clearly visible. The fact that coherent energy is
present on the two cross-components is evidence of anisotropy. Note that on all
components tube waves are visible, with a velocity of < 1050 m/s.
From Fig. 6 it is possible to establish the expected P- and S-wave arrival times from
top Natih on the surface seismic. At the well location, top Natih is at a depth of about
J.H. Hake et al.
Figure 6. Zero-offset shear VSP data after correction for tool orientation (AVC applied).
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900 m, therefore the P-wave two-way reflection time will be about 835 ms and the
S-wave two-way reflection time will be about 2550 ms. For the NN component the
arrival times of the direct P- and S-waves were measured and plotted (Fig. 7).
From these we derive Vp/Vs 2.2 for the shallow part of the data and Vp/Vs 2.8
for both the Fiqa shales and the Natih formation. The low Vp/Vs for the shallow
part may be affected by the lack of data over this interval.
Comparison between seismic and VSP velocities
In Tables 1 and 2 the vertical interval velocities derived from the zero-offset VSP are
compared with the seismic interval velocities obtained from the pilot data using
stacking velocities with the Dix equation. The stacking velocities are measured from the
moveout on the far-offsets, for which the eigendirections are NN and EE.
The seismic velocities of the shear waves are significantly higher than the vertical
velocities from the VSP. Based on the vertical velocities the event at 2.40 s on the pilot
shear data could be identified as the top Natih reflection. This unambiguous event
identification is one of the most important objectives of the VSP data. Significantly, it
proves that the observed shear-wave anisotropy at small offsets in the pilot experiment
commences at the Natih level, which is consistent with an interpretation of vertical
Figure 7. Picked direct arrival times for P- and S-waves.
01500 ms
15002000 ms
20002400 ms
Two-way shear
traveltime interval
575 m/s
690 m/s
840 m/s
Vertical shear
velocity
Seismic velocity
NN
1165 6 115 m/s
1315 6 275 m/s
1585 6 335 m/s
Seismic velocity
EE
1420 6 115 m/s
1760 6 210 m/s
2065 6 335 m/s
2.47 6 0.2
2.55 6 0.3
2.46 6 0.4
Velocity ratio
EE/vertical
Table 1. Comparison of shear velocities from VSP and pilot data.
2.03 6 0.2
1.91 6 0.4
1.89 6 0.4
Velocity ratio
NN/vertical
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Table 2. Comparison of compressional velocities from VSP and pilot data.

Two-way P-wave
traveltime interval
0800 ms
Vertical P-wave
velocity
Seismic P-wave
velocity
Velocity ratio
seismic/vertical
1975 m/s
2075 6 75 m/s
1.05 6 0.04
fractures in the reservoir. This first indication of consistency between the observations
on the shear data and the expected behaviour in the presence of reservoir fractures was
crucial for the entire 9C3D project.
Zero-offset VSP anisotropy

In order to arrive at the direction of anisotropy and the associated shear-wave time
splitting, a continuous coordinate transformation was carried out on all four (pure
shear) components to find the angle at which the time splitting between the rotated NN
and EE components shows a maximum. This maximum is taken as the time splitting,
the corresponding angle as one of the symmetry axes of the anisotropy.
An example for the zero-offset VSP is shown in Fig. 8 for a depth of 780 m where the
downgoing waves show a maximum time splitting of 2.89 ms at an angle of
approximately N308E. This procedure was carried out for both downfields and
upfields of the zero-offset VSP, and the results are shown in Fig. 9.
The splitting at the shallowest level (300 m) is 4 ms, which indicates that in the top
layers some anisotropy must already be present. The direction of anisotropy relates to
the fast component and hence results in a positive splitting. In the case of a negative
splitting the associated direction relates to the slow component. For the shallow part
(down to 550 m) the direction for the downgoing wave is found to be between N308E
and N408E. Thereafter, down to top Natih, the direction changes from approximately
north at a depth of 550 m to approximately N308E at about 830 m. From 300 m to top
Natih the anisotropy is about 1%. The splitting of the upcoming wave from top Natih
exhibits an increase in the splitting to some 10 ms at 500 m; the increase seems to be the
continuation of the downgoing wave. However, the direction of the maximum splitting
stays constant at about N108E. At present the reason why the downfield gives a
different direction from the upfield is not known. Unfortunately the quality of the data
obtained between depths 800 m and 900 m is such that no meaningful splitting can be
extracted.
Zero-offset VSP time splitting and anisotropy direction with stripping
Before analysing the Natih interval we have to eliminate the anisotropy effects of
the Fiqa formation. This process is called stripping (Winterstein and Meadows 1990).
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Figure 8. Example of time picks for shear components X0 X0 and Y0 Y0 as a function of rotation
angle.
The data at a depth of 780 m were selected to carry out the stripping as they offer the
best-quality data above the reservoir with very similar cross-components (X0 Y0 and
Y0 X0 ). The data were first (parallel) rotated over 348 (corresponding to the direction of
the fastest shear wave at this level; see Fig. 8) and subsequently 2.9 ms was subtracted
from the time of the slowest components Y0 X0 and Y0 Y0. A pictorial proof the validity of
shifting the data of the slowest components with the established time shift is shown in
Fig. 10(a), where the arrivals of two perpendicular shots into two perpendicular
receivers are constructed. The waves have travelled through two layers with different
directions and magnitudes of anisotropy. As can be seen, a shot in the X-direction
arrives at both receivers at the same time. Receivers from the Y-shot show the same
arrival times but these are retarded. This method of stripping is valid only for one-way
wave propagation as in the downfield of VSPs. For reflection seismics, however, the
slowest component should be corrected with the time splitting obtained and the crosscomponent with half the time splitting. This is illustrated in Fig. 10(b) where, for
the same model, the reflected waves at the surface are analysed. For upfields in
VSPs the situation is more complicated: the downgoing waves down to the
stripping level should be corrected according to Fig. 10(a) and the remaining part
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Figure 9. Time splitting and main direction of anisotropy as a function of depth as measured
from direct arrivals of downgoing waves and from the reflection of top Natih in the upfield.
of the wave path with an (as yet unknown) combination of the one-way and the
two-way corrections.
The time splitting and the direction of the fastest shear wave over the Natih interval
after stripping at a level of 780 m are shown in Fig. 11. The splitting is now very small:
almost zero with a possible increase to about 3 ms towards the bottom of the well,
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Figure 10. (a) Direct arrival times of two shots (X and Y) after travelling through two
layers with different anisotropy; direction of top layer in X-direction. Signals arrive at the same
time for individual shots. (b) Reflected arrival times of two shots (X and Y) after travelling
through two layers with different anisotropy; direction of top layer in X-direction. Signals on
cross-components arrive at the same time.
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Figure 11. Time splitting and main direction of anisotropy as a function of depth as measured
from direct arrivals in zero-offset VSP after stripping at 780 m.
indicating that hardly any anisotropy is present over the Natih interval at the location of
well Natih-85. Because the splitting is so small the direction of the fastest shear wave is
ill defined, as is apparent from the scatter in the azimuth plot. For this reason we have
not attempted to correct the upfield of the deeper reflection via stripping. The bottom
of the Natih interval (Natih E) yielded a splitting of some 6 ms with an azimuth for the
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fast wave between N458E and N508E. This is consistent with the pilot experiment
results. A deeper event, although not penetrated by well Natih-85, was identified as
corresponding to the top Shuaiba reflection and yielded an upfield splitting of some
6 ms with an azimuth of about N508E.
Observation of cusps in the offset VSP
The VSP acquisition programme in well Natih-85 also included an offset shear VSP.
With the seismic sources located 614 m offset to the east of the well head, recordings in
the well were made between depths of 600 and 1100 m. We now show and explain an
interesting wave phenomenon observed on this VSP and prove its recognition to be of
paramount importance for the determination of the elastic properties of the
overburden.
Figure 12 shows three data components from this offset VSP. The downgoing
P-wave can be seen on components EE and EZ around 0.5 s. For clarity we point out
that component EE for the offset VSP data implies shots and receivers orientated
parallel to the source-locationwell-head direction, as the shot location is to the east of
the well head (Fig. 1). The downgoing shear wave should arrive near 1.4 s at 600 m
depth in the offset VSP if it propagates with the vertical velocity. However, the data
show arrivals near 1.1 s, indicating the strong anisotropy of the Fiqa shale. Instead of a
single arrival, four arrivals are observed with distinct traveltimes and distinct
polarizations. Branches 1 and 2 have a particle motion predominantly horizontal in
the eastwest direction, branch 3 has a true vertical particle motion and branch 4 is
polarized northsouth. The corresponding hodograms, depicting the particle motions
in a short time gate around the points indicated on the branches, are given in Fig. 13.
The apparent velocities of these arrivals are clearly distinct from the tube-wave velocity
and the P-wave velocity. The apparent velocity of the branch seen on the EZ
component is very large.
These four arrivals can be explained as an exceptional manifestation of anisotropy
which is known to occur in a medium with elastic parameters such that the wave
surface of one of the shear modes contains cusps. The three branches observed on
components EE and EZ belong to this shear mode, with the upper arrival on
component EE being the reverted branch of the wavefront. This interpretation of the
data is supported not only by traveltime modelling (see discussion below), but also by
analyses of the wavelets. The wavelet on the reverted branch should, in a homogeneous
medium, be the Hilbert transform of the wavelet on the normal branches (White 1982).
There is indeed a remarkable agreement between the Hilbert transform of the wavelet
of what is interpreted as a normal branch and the wavelet of the interpreted reverted
branch (Fig. 14).
Modelling of the cusps
We undertook an anisotropic ray-trace modelling exercise to match the observed
Figure 12. Basic data from offset VSP (components EE, EZ and NN).
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Figure 13. Hodograms at different positions along the cusp. X east in-line. Y north
cross-line, Z vertical.
traveltimes and polarizations, and in this way retrieve the elastic medium parameters of
the Fiqa shales covering the Natih reservoir. First the time picks were corrected for
changes in wavelet shape as described above. The matching was done at two depth
levels, namely 645 m and 780 m. In the modelling the interval from the surface down to
645 m was assumed to be homogeneous. This implies that the inhomogeneity observed
in the zero-offset VSP is explained in terms of anisotropy. While this is obviously not
correct, the neglect of inhomogeneity simplifies the inversion; furthermore we feel that
the inhomogeneity is too small to warrant a more robust approach.
An obvious choice for the anisotropy system is that of hexagonal symmetry with a
nearly vertical symmetry axis. This is not only because of the limited complexity of
such a system but also because this matches the measured polarizations of the fast and
slow shear modes. The fast mode is polarized in the vertical plane through source and
receivers and exhibits the cusps, whilst also having the larger stacking velocity.
When we use the conventional notation, parameter c33/r is the squared vertical
P-wave velocity and is computed in a straightforward manner from the zero-offset
shear VSP. Similarly c44/r is easily determined as this is the squared vertical shear
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Figure 14. Wavelets of direct arrivals for different branches. The wavelet of branch 1 is almost
identical to the Hilbert transform of the wavelet of branch 3.
velocity. Branch 4 in the offset shear VSP corresponds to the shear wave with an
elliptical wave surface, defined by c44/r and c66/r. With c44/r known, c66/r is then
determined from the time pick on this branch. The remaining elastic parameters
are c11/r and c13/r. They can be found in a trial-and-error procedure by scanning the
c11/rc13/r space for combinations that result in a match with the four observed
traveltimes, i.e. the offset P-wave traveltime plus the three time picks for the cuspoidal
shear mode. One additional variable is the orientation of the symmetry axis. With an
exactly vertical symmetry axis, no combination of elastic constants could be found that
fitted the observed times. Even the best fit in this orientation still gave time errors of up
to 20 ms which is far outside the measurement accuracy. A much better fit (virtually no
difference between measured and modelled traveltimes) was obtained with the
symmetry axis tilted 38 to the east. In this orientation the symmetry axis is
perpendicular to the local structural dip of the Fiqa shales. The azimuth of the tilted
symmetry axis was not well resolved: variations between N458E and E458S affected the
traveltimes by less than 5 ms.
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The results thus derived for this first layer (i.e. from the surface to depth 645 m)
are:
c11/r
c13/r
c33/r
c44/r
c66/r
5.15 km2/s2,
3.00 km2/s2,
3.69 km2/s2,
0.39 km2/s2, and
1.17 km2/s2.
With these parameters for the first layer and a plane interface at depth 645 m, dipping
48 to the west, the modelling was continued for the 780 m depth level. Again,
traveltimes could be matched only when this second interval also possessed strong
anisotropy of hexagonal symmetry with a nearly vertical symmetry axis. For the best fit
the modelled times were within 5 ms of the picked times, except for the branch shown
on component EZ on the offset VSP, which was 7 ms in error. The parameters obtained
are:
c11/r
c13/r
c33/r
c44/r
c66/r
7.0 km2/s2,
4.0 km2/s2,
5.3 km2/s2,
0.72 km2/s2, and
1.9 km2/s2.
Again the symmetry axis is approximately perpendicular to the structural dip. A wider
range of symmetry axis orientations was possible without affecting traveltimes by more
than 5 ms: from true vertical up to 108 tilt for azimuths ranging from north through east
to south.
The velocities in the second interval are higher than those in the first layer, but the
anisotropy characteristics are quite similar. For both intervals the elastic parameters
result in cusps in a direction at about 458 with the symmetry axis. This occurs when the
condition (c11 c44)(c33 c44) (c13 c44)2 > 0 is fulfilled (Musgrave 1970). Because of
the similarity between the elastic tensors in the two layers the cusps generated in the
shallow part of the Fiqa shale are sustained in the deeper part. Modelling shows that for
an isotropic second layer, for instance, ray-bending effects would have resulted in a
rapid shrinking of the surface of the triangle formed by the three branches (also known
as a laguna).
We are not aware of other reports of this phenomenon, which was recognized in
theory a long time ago. It is difficult to believe that the Fiqa shales are unique worldwide
in terms of anisotropy cusps. The absence of similar observations elsewhere might be
explained by the fact that it requires the combination of a suitable shear VSP
experiment and the circumstance of a large interval with uniform characteristics,
allowing the laguna to develop. In general, inhomogeneities causing ray bending or
reflection effects will rapidly deform the characteristic shape of a cuspoidal wavefront,
making it difficult to recognize. However, we can conclude that the presence of such
strong Fiqa anisotropy over a large depth range has important implications for the
interpretation of the underlying Natih reservoir.
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Figure 15. P- and S-wave traveltimes as a function of depth as measured in Natih-85.
Well log data

Several types of sonic log were run with the Schlumbergers Dipole Sonic Imager
(DSI) tool in Natih-85. Figure 15 shows the raw data for the compressional-wave and
one of the shear-wave logs. The compressional data show a regular increase in velocity
over the Fiqa shales in contrast to the shear velocities, which exhibit definite breaks in
the lithology. Two shear logs were recorded over most of the well trajectory with
perpendicular sources and receivers parallel to the sources. In multicomponent
nomenclature they can be compared with X0 X0 and Y0 Y0 components. From these
shear logs we have constructed a fast and a slow shear log by taking at every depth the
highest and lowest reading, respectively. The difference between these two integrated
shear logs shows some remarkable features (Fig. 16a).
In a qualitative sense the splitting derived from direct arrivals (Fig. 16b, which is a
copy of Fig. 9) is almost identical to the splitting of the two integrated shear logs. In a
quantitative sense the splitting between the two shear logs is about 3.5 times as large as
the splitting from the direct waves of the VSP data. This could be a result of the fact
that the layers (with different intrinsic anisotropic directions) are significantly smaller
than the wavelength of the seismic. The seismic data represent an average property as
opposed to the intrinsic anisotropy of each individual layer as measured by the sonic
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Figure 16. Comparison between time difference of the two integrated shear logs (a) with the
splitting of the direct arrivals (b).
tool. Consequently the seismic anisotropy can be at most the same as the boreholederived anisotropy. (However, higher-frequency borehole waves have the possibility of
avoiding any compliant or fractured zones by fast-tracking whilst seismic waves do
not. In that situation higher-frequency waves might underestimate any fracture-related
anisotropy.) The changes in the slope of both curves correspond to changes in
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lithology. Although the lithology is reported to be shale from 100 m down to 900 m,
obvious changes are visible from the shear logs.
DSI data processing
It is, in principle, possible to detect aligned open fractures with borehole acoustic
methods since such fractures can cause the reservoir to be anisotropic for the
propagation of borehole flexural waves (Ellefsen, Chang and Toksoz 1991). Flexural
waves are dispersive surface waves (modes) excited by an acoustic dipole source in a
mud-filled borehole that propagate along the borehole wall. In anisotropic formations,
the flexural wave splits into a fast mode and a slow mode. We refer to the particle
motion of the fast and slow flexural modes measured on the borehole axis in the plane
perpendicular to the borehole as mode orientations or anisotropy orientations, which
are aligned with the polarizations of fast and slow quasi-shear waves, respectively, when
such body waves would travel through the formation parallel to the borehole. For
example, the orientation of the fast flexural mode in a vertical borehole penetrating a
formation which contains steeply dipping, aligned, open fractures is expected to be
parallel to the strike of the fractures.
The flexural waves excited by the DSI tool originate from two acoustic dipole
sources orientated perpendicularly to each other and to the borehole wall. Flexural
waves from each source are recorded along two perpendicularly orientated receiver
arrays, resulting in four-component (4C) recordings. The processing method we used
is similar to the method presented by Esmersoy et al. (1994). For each source depth the
two perpendicular mode orientations are estimated from the recorded waveforms, the
two corresponding (quasi-)flexural modes are synthesized and their slowness at some
frequency is estimated. Thus a fast-mode orientation and a slow-mode orientation are
determined. All elements of the tools dipole receiver array are simultaneously used in
the processing.
Figure 17(a) shows flexural-mode orientations (red diamonds) for Natih C, together
with the gamma-ray log (black curve). Only one of the two perpendicular mode
orientations is shown; its azimuth ranges between about N308E and N608E. Figure
17(b) shows the same orientations together with the borehole geometry (see caption).
An important observation is that the borehole is elongated in the NWSE direction and
that the mode orientations resemble the borehole geometry. Figure 17(c) shows the
slowness of the two flexural modes (red and green diamonds) together with the
standard error (red and green dashes), estimated at a frequency of 2.0 kHz. While a
lower frequency would yield slowness estimates closer to the formation (quasi-)shearwave velocities, as predicted by flexural-wave dispersion theory, flexural-wave
amplitudes recorded in Natih C are below the noise level for frequencies less than
2.0 kHz. The red diamonds in Fig. 17(c) belong to the orientations in Fig. 17(a). In
conclusion, while mode orientations (anisotropy orientations) are well resolved from
the 4C flexural data, significant differences in slowness of the two flexural modes are
not well resolved in Natih C.
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J.H. Hake et al.
643
Figure 17(d) shows mode orientations for Natih B together with the gamma-ray log.
Along most of the depth interval the borehole geometry (Fig. 17e) shows no significant
elongation. Owing to different formation characteristics and hole size, the flexural
waves recorded along Natih B contain higher frequencies than those recorded along
Natih C. Figure 17(f) shows the slowness of the two flexural modes determined at
3.0 kHz. Between shots 550 and 630, the difference in slowness for the two flexural
modes is statistically significant, while outside this interval no significant slowness
difference is measured. The fast-mode orientation varies between about N308E and
N608E between shots 550 and 630.
Figure 17(g) shows mode orientations for Natih A together with the gamma-ray log.
The orientation varies between about N108W and N308E. The borehole is
predominantly elongated in a NS direction (Fig. 17h). Compared with the Natih C
unit, the caliper and anisotropy azimuths in the Natih A interval do not resemble each
other as well; deviations are as large as 308. Figure 17(i) shows that a large slowness
difference is measured for the two flexural modes.
Discussion of the DSI results
The NESW flexural-mode orientations observed along Natih C and part of Natih B
are consistent with fast-mode orientations found in the downfield of the zero-offset
VSP survey as well as the pilot experiment and the geological expectations. It is
therefore attractive to explain these orientations in terms of the presence of open
fractures aligned in the NESW direction, but for completeness we need to offer an
alternative explanation for some intervals at least. Because the fractures are orientated
parallel to the present-day in situ maximum horizontal principal stress, they are likely to
be open (Mercadier and Makel 1991). According to this interpretation the phase
velocity of the NESW orientated flexural mode should be larger than the phase
velocity of the perpendicularly polarized mode, measured at some frequency. Because
we do not resolve such a slowness difference (Fig. 17c), the magnitude of flexural-wave
anisotropy is apparently small, which is in line with the small time splitting found in the
zero-offset VSP.
The alternative interpretation of the observed mode orientations in Natih C is that
Figure 17. Estimated anisotropy orientations and borehole geometry for Natih C (top), B
(middle) and A (bottom). (a),(d),(g) Anisotropy orientations (red diamonds) with respect to
geographic north, together with the gamma-ray log (black curve); a reference line (dashed) is
shown at 08. (b),(e),(h) Borehole geometry; the red and green curves are the hole diameter in two
perpendicular directions, the blue line is the caliper orientation of the red curve; anisotropy
directions are also shown (red diamonds). (c),(f),(i) Slowness of the two synthesized flexural
modes. Red diamonds belong to the mode orientations shown in (a),(d),(g) and green diamonds
to the perpendicularly orientated flexural mode. The time window is 1.54.0 ms (Natih A), 1.0
3.0 ms (Natih B), 1.54.5 ms (Natih C shot 10001052) and 1.53.5 ms (Natih C shot 1053
1110).
644
J.H. Hake et al.
they are caused by the elongated borehole shape rather than formation anisotropy. A
flexural wave propagating in an elliptical borehole in a purely isotropic formation splits
into a slow mode and a fast mode with mode orientations parallel to the major and
minor axes (Randall 1991). The observed mode orientations may also result from
superposition of the effects of borehole shape and formation anisotropy. Note that the
short caliper (red dashed curve in Fig. 17b) is parallel to the proposed fast-mode
orientation for Natih C.
The borehole cross-section along the Natih B unit appears to be predominantly
circular (Fig. 17e). Furthermore, slowness estimates at 3 kHz are not significantly
different for the two modes along most of Natih B; the two flexural modes propagate at
equal slowness along most of the unit. The large variability in mode orientations is
therefore most likely to be a consequence of the absence of anisotropy and is noise
controlled. An exception is the depth interval between shots 550 and 630 (965 m and
978 m depth), where low gamma readings indicate that the rocks probably consist of
relatively clean carbonates; the NESW fast-mode orientation in this depth interval is
similar to Natih C.
The borehole along Natih A is elongated. Caliper azimuth and flexural-mode
orientation differ by as much as 308 (Fig. 17h). This suggests that mode orientations
are not fully dominated by borehole shape in Natih A. Note that, in contrast with the
findings for Natih C, the long caliper (red dashed curve in Fig. 17h) is parallel to the
fast-mode orientation for Natih A. The processing indicates that the fast-mode
orientation for Natih A is not NESW, but is centred about a NS direction with a
scatter of approximately 6 158. This orientation is very close to the N108E direction
found from the upfield of the zero-offset VSP.
The difference in slowness between the two shear waves at 2.0 kHz over the Natih A
interval is about 40 ms/ft (130 ms/m). Integrating this value over the thickness of this
interval (some 40 m), we arrive at a splitting of about 5 ms one-way time which is comparable with the maximum time splitting of 3 ms derived from the zero-offset VSP.
Conclusions
The 9C2D seismic pilot, shear VSP and DSI log experiments discussed provided
significant underpinning of the large-scale Natih 9C3D survey in terms of expected
data quality, field effort, usable offsets for post-stack processing and interpretation,
feasibility of measuring anisotropy and local calibration of the later full-scale anisotropy
interpretation. With the exception perhaps of the offset shear VSP (which may only be
needed in special circumstances), we consequently recommend such feasibility and
calibration experiments for any full-blown 9C3D survey of this kind.
The pilot experiment confirmed the feasibility of acquiring shear reflection data of
sufficient quality with conventional receiver patterns and a conventional station
spacing. It revealed a substantial difference in stacking velocities for the two shear-wave
modes, an indication of strong anisotropy in the Fiqa shales that overlie the objective
Natih reservoir.
645
The zero-offset VSP was essential in providing the vertical velocities required for
timedepth conversion. With this information the Natih interval could be identified in
the pilot data between 2.40 and 2.65 s. Analyses of this interval gave clear indications of
shear-wave splitting with the fast shear wave polarized N458E, which is consistent with
open fracture directions known from nearby wells. The arrival of the top Natih shear
reflection later than originally expected was particularly important in relaxing the initial
16 m station spacing to the standard 25 m spacing. By showing that the ground roll
would cross the Natih reflections at a later time than had been earlier estimated, we
were confident that sufficient multiplicity for signal-to-noise suppression would be
retained within the blanking cone at standard spacing.
The offset VSP further confirmed the strong anisotropy of the Fiqa shales and
allowed the data to be inverted in terms of its elastic parameters. The anisotropy is such
that the wave surface of one of the shear modes has cusps. As a result of this the
downgoing shear wavefield in the offset VSP resulted in four clearly distinct arrivals.
The anisotropy could be modelled by hexagonal symmetry with a nearly vertical
symmetry axis. The Fiqa anisotropy complicates 9C3D data processing and its impact
has to be carefully considered. At small offsets the shear-wave eigendirections will be
determined by azimuthal anisotropy, but at the larger offsets the strong Fiqa anisotropy
will dominate all azimuthal effects.
From the analysis of zero-offset VSP data, it is concluded that at the location of well
Natih-85 the anisotropy in the Fiqa gives rise to a time splitting of the order of 12 ms
two-way traveltime with an azimuth direction increasing from N108W to about N458E
at top Natih. The anisotropy in the reservoir is small at this well. The upfield at top
Natih is approximately N108E, whereas the splitting over the reservoir section is at
most 3 ms. This makes it difficult to apply layer stripping for the deeper reflections.
The deeper reflections (from Natih E and Shuaiba) show a splitting in the upfield of
some 6 ms with azimuths of N458E and N508E, respectively.
Anisotropy orientations for various units of the Natih reservoir have been obtained
by processing 4C borehole flexural waves recorded in well Natih-85. For the Natih C
unit the processing results are consistent with a NESW fast-mode orientation
obtained from the VSP survey, as is the case for the depth interval between about
965 m and 978 m in the Natih B unit. For most of the Natih A unit, fast-mode
orientations are centred about a NS direction, in line with the findings of the upfield
of the zero-offset VSP. Also, the small differences between the two shear waves indicate
that at the position of well Natih-85 the anisotropy is rather small.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge discussions with J.C. Hornman (then at Shell
Research in the Netherlands) and with D.C. DeMartini, P. Hatchell and S. Smith at
Shell Development Company in Houston. We thank the Oman Ministry of Petroleum
and Minerals for their permission to publish this paper.
646
J.H. Hake et al.
References
Ellefsen K.J., Cheng C.H. and Toksoz M.N. 1991. Effects of anisotropy upon the normal modes
in a borehole. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 89, 25972616.
Esmersoy C., Koster K., Williams M., Boyd A. and Kane M. 1994. Dipole shear anisotropy
logging. 64th SEG meeting, Los Angeles, USA, Expanded Abstracts, 11391142.
Mercadier C.G. and Makel G.H. 1991. Fracture patterns of Natih formation outcrops and their
implications for the reservoir modelling of the Natih field, North Oman. SPE paper 21377.
Musgrave M.J.P. 1970. Crystal Acoustics. Holden-Day, Inc.
Randall C. 1991. Multiple acoustic waveforms in nonaxisymmetric boreholes and formations.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 90, 16201631.
White J.E. 1982. Computed waveforms in transversely isotropic media. Geophysics 47, 771783.
Winterstein D. and Meadows M. 1990. Shear-wave polarizations and subsurface stress
directions at Lost Hills field. 60th SEG meeting, San Francisco, USA, Expanded Abstracts,
14351438.

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Geophysical Prospecting, 1998, 46, 617646

A shear experiment over the Natih field in Oman:

Received August 1997, revision accepted July 1998.

q 1998 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers

J.H. Hake et al.

A shear experiment over the Natih field

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Figure 5. Shot gathers Y0 Y0 and X0 X0 with Y0 NE and X0 NW (NMO corrected with EE

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A shear experiment over the Natih field

Figure 7. Picked direct arrival times for P- and S-waves.

Table 1. Comparison of shear velocities from VSP and pilot data.

A shear experiment over the Natih field

Table 2. Comparison of compressional velocities from VSP and pilot data.

Zero-offset VSP anisotropy

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A shear experiment over the Natih field

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A shear experiment over the Natih field

Figure 15. P- and S-wave traveltimes as a function of depth as measured in Natih-85.

Well log data

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A shear experiment over the Natih field

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A shear experiment over the Natih field

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