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LECTURE 11

PR EL IMIN AR Y
EXAMIN ATION
PAPER I

The Cholas and the Pandyas

Unit 2
History of India and
Indian National
Movement

1.0

INTRODUCTION
TheCholaEmpirehasbeenoneofthemostpowerfulandextensive
empiresofSouthIndia.Alongwiththevassalstates,itmightbethe
longestempiretoflourishinSouthIndia.Itsriseintheninthcentury
broughtunderitscontrolalargepartofthepeninsula.TheCholas
developedapowerfulnavywhichenabledthemtodevelopIndia'ssea
tradeintheIndianOcean,andtoconquerSriLankaandtheMaldive
Islands.TheirinfluencewasfelteveninthecountriesofSouthEast
Asia.TheCholadynastywasfoundedbyVijayalayaaround850AD
apparentlybystartingoffasavassalofthePallavaking.Withthe
conflictbetweenPallavasandPandyas,VijayalayaoccupiedTanjore
andmadehiscapital.TheirhomelandwascalledCholamandalamwhich
includedmodernTanjore,TrichinopolyandthePudukottaistate.Kaveri
RiverwastheheartlandoftheCholadynasty.Uraiyur,presentlyknown
asTiruchirapalliwasoneofitsoldestcapital.Theyruledfromlater
halfofthe9thcenturytillthebeginningofthe13thcentury.

2.0

THEORIGINSOFTHECHOLAEMPIRE

Howeverthemostcommonlyheldviewisthatthisis,likeCherasandPandyas,thenameofthe
rulingfamilyorclanofimmemorialantiquity.TheannotatorParimelazhagarwrites"Thecharityof
people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are
forever generous in spiteof their reduced means". Other names in common use for the
CholasareKilli,ValavanandSembiyan.KilliperhapscomesfromtheTamilkilmeaningdigorcleave
andconveystheideaofadiggeroraworkeroftheland.Thiswordoftenformsanintegralpartof
earlyCholanameslikeNedunkilli,Nalankilliandsoon,butalmostdropsoutofuseinlatertimes.
Valavanismostprobablyconnectedwith'valam'fertilityandmeansownerorrulerofafertile
country.SembiyanisgenerallytakentomeanadescendantofShibialegendaryherowhoseself
sacrificeinsavingadovefromthepursuitofafalconfiguresamongtheearlyCholalegendsand
formsthesubjectmatteroftheSibiJatakaamongtheJatakastoriesofBuddhism.InTamillexicon
CholameansSoazhiorSaeidenotinganewlyformedkingdom,inthelinesofPandyaortheold
country.SoraorChozhainTamilbecomesCholainSanskritandCholainTelugu.

PTEducation, Allrightsreserved.

Historians have had various views regarding its origin. The most
acceptedtheoryisthatCholasisthenameofarulingfamilyorclanof
ancienttimes.TheTamilliteratureoftheSangamperiodhasinformation
regardingtheCholasoftheearlyperiod.Cholashavehadamention
intheAshokanpillarstoo.Therearefourperiodsattributedtothe
history of the Cholas. They are the early Cholas of the Sangam
literature,theperiodbetweenthedeclineofSangamCholasandrise
ofmedievalCholas,andlaterCholadynastyofKulothungaCholaI.

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OnthehistoryoftheearlyCholasthereisvery
li ttl e au the nti c wr itt en evid enc e a vail abl e.
Historiansduringthepast150yearshavegleaned
alotofknowledgeonthesubjectfromavariety
o f so ur c es s u ch a s a nc ie nt Ta mi l S an ga m
literature,oraltraditions,religioustexts,temple
andcopperplateinscriptions.Themainsourcefor
theavailableinformationoftheearlyCholasis
theearlyTamilliteratureoftheSangamPeriod.
TherearealsobriefnoticesontheCholacountry
anditstowns,portsandcommercefurnishedby
thePeriplusoftheErythraeanSea(PeriplusMaris
Erythraei).Periplusisaworkbyananonymous
Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of
D o mi t i an ( 8 1 9 6 ) a n d c o n ta i n s v e r y l i tt l e
informationoftheCholacountry.Writinghalfa
centurylater,thegeographerPtolemygivesmore
detailabouttheCholacountry,itsportandits
inlandcities.Mahavamsa,aBuddhisttextwritten
down during the 5th century CE, recounts a
numberofconflictsbetweentheinhabitantsof
CeylonandCholasinthe1stcenturyBCE.Cholas
arementionedinthePillarsofAshoka(inscribed
273BCE232BCE)inscriptions,wheretheyare
mentionedamongthekingdomswhich,thoughnot
subjecttoAshoka,wereonfriendlytermswith
him.
3.0

POLITICALHISTORY
Vijayalaya was one of the feudatory of the
PallavaswhocapturedTanjorefromsomelocal
chieftains and established a semi autonomous
st at e. Th e po wer o f t he P all av as de cl in ed
considerablysoonafter,andbythebeginningof
the 9th Century CE, Vijayalaya's successors
managedtobreakfreefromtheoverlordshipof
the Pallavas. They gave battle to the Pallavas
and defeated them. They also defeated the
PandyasofMaduraiandextendedtheyswayto
mostpartsofmoderndaySouthernTamilNadu.

However,KrishnaIII,theRastrakutakingwhocontrolledthenorthernpartsofTamilNadu,killedtheCholaprinceRajadityaat
thebattleofThakkolamin949CE.ThekingParantakadiedthenextyear,andhissecondsonGandaradityaascendedthe
throne.Hewasmoreinterestedinpoliticsthaninreligion,andassuchtheempirestagnated.Verysoon,helostthethroneto
hisyoungerbrotherArinjaya,ArinjayadiedshortlythereafterandhissonSundaraCholabecametheking.SundaraCholawas
instrumentalinrejuvenatingtheempire.
FollowingthedeathofKrishnaIIIin965,theRastrakutaEmpirestartedtodecline.SundaraCholaseizedthisopportunityand
sentanarmyunderthecommandofthecrownprinceAdityaKarikalatofillthevoid.Adityawassuccessfulinthebattleand
extendedCholadomainsinthenorthuptoTondaimandalam.HealsodefeatedthePandyasonceagainandcrushedwhatwas
leftoftheirpower.
However,UttamaChola,sonofthepreviouskingGandaradityamanagedtohaveAdityaKarikalaassassinated,sothathe
couldbecometheheirapparent.UttamaCholadidbecometheking,buthisreignwentlargelyuneventful.In985,Rajaraja
Chola,anothersonofSundaraCholamanagedtoreplacehimastheking.
3.1

RajarajaandRajendrachola
However,thegreatestclaimtofameforRajarajaCholawashisexpeditiontoNorthIndiain1022CE.HeistheonlySouth
IndiankingtohaveledasuccessfulexpeditionuptheRiverGanga.PassingthroughtheKalingaRegion,hecrossedtheGanga
andannexedthoseregionstotheCholaEmpire.Heassumedthetitle"GangaikondaChola"orthe"conquerorofGanga",
andbuiltanewcapitalnearthemouthoftheCavueryRiverandcalleditGangaikondacholapuram.

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Rajarajahadbeen appointedheirapparentin hisfather'slifetime,and hadextensiveexperienceof administrationand

warfarebeforehisaccessiontothethrone.RajarajadestroyedtheCheranavyatTrivandrum,andattackedQuilon.Hethen
conqueredMaduraiandcapturedthePandyanking.HealsoinvadedSriLankaandannexeditsnorthernparttohisEmpire.
ThesemoveswerepartlymotivatedbyhisdesiretobringthetradewiththeSouthEastAsiancountriesunderhiscontrol.
TheCoromandalcoastandMalabarwerethecentresforIndia'stradewiththecountriesofSouthEastAsia.Oneofhisnaval
exploitswastheconquestoftheMaldiveIslands.

Inthenorth,RajarajaannexedthenorthwesternpartsoftheGangaregioninnorthwestKarnataka,andoverranVengi.
RajendraIcarriedforwardtheannexationistpolicyofRajarajabycompletelyoverrunningthePandyaandCheracountries
andincludingtheminhisEmpire.TheconquestofSriLankawasalsocompleted,withthecrownandroyalinsigniaoftheking
andthequeenofSriLankabeingcapturedinabattle.SriLankawasnotabletofreeherselffromtheCholacontrolforanother
50 years.
RajarajaandRajendraImarkedtheirvictoriesbyerectinganumberofShivaandVishnutemplesatvariousplaces.Themost
famousofthesewastheRajarajeshwaratempleatTanjorewhichwascompletedinAD1010.TheCholarulersadoptedthe
practiceofhavinglonginscriptionswrittenonthewallsofthesetemples,givingahistoricalnarrativeoftheirvictories.That
iswhyweknowagreatdealmoreabouttheCholasthantheirpredecessors.
OneofthemostremarkableexploitsinthereignofRajendraIwasthemarchacrossKalingatoBengalinwhichtheChola
armiescrossedtheGanga,anddefeatedtwolocalkings.Thisexpedition,whichwasledbyaCholageneral,tookplacein1022
andfollowedthesameroutewhichthegreatconquerorSamudraguptahadfollowed.Tocommemoratethisoccasion,RajendraI
assumedthetitleofGangaikondachola(or'theCholaconquerorofGanga').Hebuiltthenewcapitalnearthemouthofthe
KaveriandcalleditGangaikondacholapuram(or'thecityoftheCholaconqueroroftheGanga').
AnevenmoreremarkableexploitinthetimeofRajendraIwasthenavalexpeditionagainsttherevivedSriVijayaEmpire.The
SriVijayaEmpire,whichhadbeenrevivedinthe10thcentury,extendedovertheMalaypeninsula,Sumatra,Javaandthe
neighbouringislandsandcontrolledtheoverseastraderoutetoChina.TherulersoftheSailendradynastywereBuddhistsand
hadcordialrelationswiththeCholas.TheSailendrarulerhadbuiltaBuddhistmonasteryatNagapatamand,athisinstance,
Rajendra I had endowed a village for its upkeep. The cause of the breach between the two apparently was the Chola
eagernesstoremoveobstaclestoIndiantraders,andtoexpandCholatradewithChina.Theexpeditionledtotheconquest
ofKadaramorKedahandanumberofotherplacesintheMalaypeninsulaandSumatra.TheCholanavywasthestrongestin
theareaforsometimeandtheBayofBengalwasconvertedintoa'Cholalake'.
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ThreeofRajendra'ssonsRajadhirajaCholaI,RajendraCholaIIandVirarajendraCholafollowedhimtokingship.Allofthem
continuedtheChalukyawars.RajadhirajalosthislifeonthebattlefieldduringonesuchbattlesandRajendraCholaIIcrowned
himselfonthebattlefieldandcontinuedthefight.Finally,VirarajendramanagedtosplittheChalukyakingdombyconvincing
theChalukyaprinceVikramadityaIVtoanalliance.TheCholaVikramadityaalliancewassuccessfulinthebattlefieldand
VirarajendracrownedVikramadityaasthekingoftheWesternChalukyakingdom.HeactedasabufferbetweentheCholas
andtheChalukyasinKalyani.
VikramadityaalsotriedtopreventRajendraChalukya,anEasternChalukyanprinceofCholadescentfromascendingtheVengi
throne.HoweverwhenVirarajendradiedin1070C.E.,RajendraChalukyastruckbackandengineeredsomeinternalconfusion
intheCholakingdom,inwhichthenewCholakingAthirajendraCholawasassassinated.RajendraChalukyacrownedhimself
KulothungaCholaI(1070C.E.),therebysupersedingtheCholadynastywiththeChalukyadynasty.
TheCholarulersalsosentanumberofembassiestoChina.ACholaembassyof70merchantsreachedChinain1077and,
accordingtoaChineseaccount,received"81,800stringsofcoppercash,"thatis,morethanfourlakhsofrupeesinreturnfor
thearticlesoftributecomprising"glassware,camphor,brocades,rhinoceroshorns,ivory,etc."Tributewasthewordusedby
theChineseforallarticlesbroughtfortrade.
TheCholarulers foughtconstantlywiththe Chalukyaswhohadsucceeded theRashtrakutas.Theseare calledthelater
Chalukyas and their capital was at Kalyani. The Cholas and the later Chalukyas clashed for the over lordship of Vengi
(Rayalseema),theTungabhadradoabandtheGangacountryinnorthwestKarnataka.Neithersidewasabletogainadecisive
victoryinthiscontestandultimatelyitexhaustedboththeEmpires.Italsoappearsthatthewarswerebecomingharsher
duringthistime.
TheCholarulerssackedandplunderedChalukyancitiesincludingKalyani,andmassacredthepeople,includingbrahmanasand
children.TheyadoptedasimilarpolicyinthePandyacountrysettlingmilitarycoloniestooverawethepopulation.They
destroyedAnuradhapur,theancientcapitaloftherulersofSriLanka,andtreatedtheirkingandqueenharshly.Theseare
blotsinthehistoryoftheCholaEmpire.However,oncetheyhadconqueredacountry,theCholastriedtosetupasound
systemofadministrationinit.OneoftheremarkablefeaturesoftheCholaadministrationwastheirencouragementtolocal
selfgovernmentinthevillagesallovertheirEmpire.
TheCholaEmpirecontinuedinaflourishingconditionduringthetwelfthcentury.Butitdeclinedduringtheearlypartof
thirteenthcentury.ThelaterChalukyanEmpireintheMaharashtraareahadalsocometoanendduringthetwelfthcentury.
TheplaceoftheCholaswastakenbythePandyasandtheHoysalasinthesouth,andofthelaterChalukyasbytheYadavas
andtheKakatiyas.Thesestatesextendedpatronagetoartsandarchitecture.
Unfortunately,theyweakenedthemselvesbycontinuallyfightingagainsteachother,sackingthetownsandnotevensparing
thetemples.Ultimately,theyweredestroyedbytheSultansofDelhiin,thebeginningofthefourteenthcentury.
3.2

CholaArmyandNavy
TheCholasmaintainedalargearmyconsistingof
elephants,cavalryandinfantrywhichwerecalled
the three limbs of the army. The infantry was
generallyarmedwithspears.Mostofthekingshad
bodyguards who were sworn to defend thekings
evenatthecostoftheirlives.TheVenetiantraveller,
Marco Polo, who visited Kerala in the thirteenth
century,saysthatallthesoldiersinthebodyguard
burntthemselvesinthefuneralpyreofthemonarch
whenhediedastatementwhichmaywellbean
exaggeration.TheCholasalsohadastrongnavy,
aswehaveseen,whichdominatedtheMalabarand
Coromandalcoastandforsometime,theentireBay
ofBengal.
TheCholaNavycomprisedthenavalforcesofthe
CholaEmpirealongwithseveralothernavalarmsof
thecountry.TheCholanavyplayedavitalrolein
the expansionof the Chola Empire,including the
conquestoftheCeylonislandsandnavalraidson
SriVijaya(presentdayIndonesia).Thenavygrew
bothinsizeandstatusduringtheMedievalCholas
reign.

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TheCholaAdmiralscommandedmuchrespectandprestigeinthesociety.Thenavycommandersalsoactedasdiplomatsin
someinstances.From900to1100,thenavyhadgrownfromasmallbackwaterentitytothatofapotentpowerprojectionand
diplomaticsymbolinallofAsia,butwasgraduallyreducedinsignificancewhentheCholasfoughtlandbattlesforsubjugating
theChalukyasofAndhraKannadaareainSouthIndia.
3.3

Chola Government
ThekingwasthemostimportantpersonintheCholaadministration.Allauthority
restedinhishands,buthehadacouncilofministerstoadvisehim.
TheCholaEmpirewasdividedintomandalamsorprovincesandthese,inturn,
weredividedintovalanaduandnadu.Sometimes,princesoftheroyalfamilywere
appointedgovernorsofprovinces.Officialsweregenerallypaidbygivingthem
assignmentsofrevenuebearinglands.
TheCholarulersbuiltanetworkofroyalroadswhichwereusefulfortradeaswell
asforthemovementofthearmy.TradeandcommerceflourishedintheChola
Empire,andthereweresomegigantictradeguildswhichtradedwithJavaand
Sumatra.
TheCholasalsopaidattentiontoirrigation.Themainwaterresourceforthis
kingdomwastheKaveririver.Manytanksforirrigationwerebuilt.Someofthe
Cholarulerscarriedoutanelaboratesurveyoflandinordertofixthegovernment's
share of the land revenue. Wedo not know what precisely the government's
sharewas.
Inadditiontolandtax,theCholarulersdrewtheirincomefromtollsontrade,
taxesonprofessions,andalsofromtheplunderoftheneighbouringterritories.
TheCholarulerswerewealthyandcouldaffordtobuildanumberoftownsand
magnificentmonuments.
ByastudyofvariousinscriptionssomedetailsaboutvillagegovernmentduringthetimeofCholasemerge.Wehearoftwo
assemblies,calledtheurandthesabhaormahasabha.Theurwasageneralassemblyofthevillage.However,weknowmore
abouttheworkingofthemahasabha.Thiswasagatheringoftheadultmeninthebrahmanavillageswhichwerecalled
agraharas.Thesewerevillagessettledbythebrahmanasinwhichmostofthelandwasrentfree.Thesevillagesenjoyeda
largemeasureofautonomy.
Theaffairsofthevillageweremanagedbyanexecutivecommitteetowhicheducatedpersonsowningpropertywereelected
eitherbydrawinglotsorbyrotation.Thesemembershadtoretireeverythreeyears.Therewereothercommitteesforhelping
in the assessment and collection or landrevenue for maintenance of law andorder, justice, etc. One of the important
committeeswasthetankcommitteewhichlookedafterthedistributionofwatertothefields.Themahasabhacouldsettlenew
lands,andexerciseownershiprightsoverthem.Itcouldalsoraiseloansforthevillageandlevytaxes.

4.0

CULTURALLIFE
T he e xt en t a nd r es ou r ce s of t he Ch ol a Em pi r e en ab le d t he r ul er s t o bu il d g re atc ap it a ls , su ch as Tan jo re ,
Gangaikondacholapuram,Kanchi,etc.Therulersmaintainedhugehouseholdsandlargepalaceswithbanquethalls,spacious
gardensandterraces.Thus,welearnofsevenorfivestoreyedhousesfortheirchiefs.Unfortunatelynoneofthepalacesof
the period have survived. The Chola capital Gangaikondacholapuram is now just a small village near Tanjore. However,
descriptionsofthemagnificentpalacesoftherulersandtheirministers,andofequallymagnificenthousesinwhichthe
wealthymerchantslived,aretobefoundintheliteratureoftheperiod.

4.1

CholaArchitecture
TemplearchitectureinthesouthattaineditsclimaxundertheCholas.Thestyleorarchitecturewhichcameintovogueduring
thisperiodiscalledDravida,becauseitwasconfinedlargelytosoothIndia.Themainfeatureofthisstylewasthebuildingof
storeyuponstoreyabovethechiefdeityroom(garbhagriha).Thenumberofstoreysvariedfromfivetosevenandtheyhad
atypicalstylewhichcametobecalledthevimana.Apillaredhallcalledmandap,withelaboratelycarvedpillarsandaflatroof,
wasgenerallyplacedinfrontofthesanctum.Itactedasanaudiencehallandwasaplaceforvariousotheractivitiessuchas
ceremonialdanceswhichwereperformedbythedevadasisthewomendedicatetotheserviceofthegods.Sometimes,a
passageusedtobeaddedaroundthesanctumsothatthedevoteescouldgoroundit.Imagesofmanyothergodscouldbeput
inthispassage.

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This entire structure was enclosed in a

courtyardsurroundedbyhighwalls,which
werepiercedbyloftygatescalledgopurams.
Incourseoftime,thevimanasrosehigher
andhigher,thenumberofcourtyardswere
increasedtotwoorthree,andthegopurams
also became more and more elaborate.
Thus, temple became a miniature city or
palace,livingroomsforpriestsandmany
others being provided in it The temples
generally enjoyed revenuefree grants of
landsoftheirexpenses.Theyalsoreceived
grantsandrichdonationsfromthewealthy
merchants.Someofthetemplesbecameso
richthattheyenteredbusiness,lentmoney,
andtookpartinbusinessenterprises.
An early example of the Dravida style of
temple architecture isthe Eighth century
templeofKailasanathaatKanchipuram.Oneofthefinestandmostelaborateexamplesofthestyleis,however,providedby
theBrihadiswaratempleatTanjorebuiltbyRajarajaI.ThisisalsocalledtheRajarajatemplebecausetheCholaswereinthe
habitofinstallingimagesofkingsandqueensinthetemples,inadditiontothedeity.ThetempleatGangaikondacholapuram,
thoughinadilapidatedcondition,isanotherfineexampleoftemplearchitectureundertheCholas.Alargenumberoftemples
werealsobuiltatotherplacesinsouthIndia.However,itmaybewelltorememberthattheproceedsforsomeofthese
activitieswereobtainedfromtheplunderofthepopulationoftheneighbouringareasbytheCholarulers.
AfterthefalloftheCholas,templebuildingactivitycontinuedundertheChalukyasofKalyaniandtheHoysalas.Thedistrict
ofDharwarahadtheHoysalacapitalHalebidwhichhadalargenumberoftemples.Themostmagnificentoftheseisthe
Hoysalesvaratemple.ItisthebestexampleofwhatiscalledtheChalukyanstyle.Apartfromtheimagesofgodsandtheir
attendants,bothmenandwomen(yakshaandyakshini),thetemplescontainfinelysculpturedpanelswhichshowabusy
panoramaoflife,includingdance,musicandscenesofwarandlove.Thus,lifewascloselyintegratedwithreligion.Forthe
commonman,thetemplewasnotmerelyaplaceforworshipbutthehubofsocialandculturallifeaswell.
TheartofsculptureattainedahighstandardinsouthIndiaduringthisperiod.Oneexampleofthiswasthegiantstatueof
GomateswaratSravanaBelgola.AnotheraspectwasimagemakingwhichreacheditsclimaxinthedancingfigureoftheShiva
callednataraja.Thenatarajafiguresofthisperiod,particularlythoseinbronze,areconsideredmasterpieces.Manyfine
examplesofthisaretobefoundinmuseumsinIndiaandoutside.
4.2

Artsand Literature
TherulersofthevariousdynastiesoftheCholaspatronizedartsandliterature.WhileSanskritwasregardedasthelanguage
ofhighcultureandanumberofkingsaswellasscholarsandcourtpoetswroteinit,aremarkablefeatureoftheperiodwas
thegrowth ofliterature inthelanguageof theareas.A numberofpopularsaints callednayanars andalvars whowere
devoteesofShivaandVishnuflourishedintheTamilareabetweenthesixthandtheninthcenturies.Theycomposedtheir
worksinTamilandotherlanguagesofthearea.Thewritingsofthesesaints,whichwerecollectedintoelevenvolumesunder
thenameTirumuraisintheearlypartofthetwelfthcentury,areconsideredsacredandarelookeduponasthefifthVeda.The
ageofKambanwhoisplacedinthesecondhalfoftheeleventhandtheearlypartofthetwelfthcenturyisregardedasa
goldenageinTamilliterature.Kamban'sRamayanaisconsideredaclassicinTamilliterature.Kambanisbelievedtohavelived
atthecourtofaCholaking.ManyotherstooktheirthemesfromtheRamayanaandMahabharata,thusbringingtheseclassics
nearertothepeople.
ThoughyoungerthanTamil,Kannadaalsobecamealiterarylanguageduringthisperiod.TheRashtrakuta,theChalukyaand
theHoysalarulerspatronizedKannadaaswellasTelugu.TheRashtrakutaking,Amoghavarsha,wroteabookonpoeticsin
Kannada.ManyJainscholarsalsocontributedtothegrowthofKannada.Pampa,PonnaandRannaareregardedasthethree
gemsofKannadapoetry.AlthoughtheywereundertheinfluenceofJainism,theyalsowroteonthemestakenfromthe
Ramayana and the Mahabharata Nanniah, who lived at the court of a Chalukyan king began the Telugu version of the
Mahabharata.

21.( C) 22.( A) 23.( B) 24.( A) 25.( A)

11.( B) 12.( C) 13.( A) 14.( D) 15.( C) 16.( B) 17.(C) 18.( C) 19.( D) 20.( D)
1.(B)

2.(B)

3.(A)

4.(B)

5.(C)

6.(D)

7.( C)

8.(B)

9.(C) 10.( B)

Answerkey(DPQ)TheCholasandthePandyas
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TheworkbegunbyhimwascompletedinthethirteenthcenturybyTikkanna.LiketheTamilRamayana,theTeluguMahabharata
isaclassicwhichinspiredmanysubsequentwriters.Manyfolkorpopularthemesarealsotobefoundintheseliteratures.
PopularthemeswhichwerenotderivedfromSanskritandwhichreflectpopularsentimentsandemotionsarecalleddesiorrural
inTelugu.
5.0

THEPANDYAS
TheEarlyPandyasoftheSangamperiodwere
oneofthethreemainkingdomsoftheancient
Tamilcountry,theothertwobeingtheCholas
andtheCheras.Aswithmanyotherkingdoms
aroundthisperiod(earlierthan200BCE),most
oftheinformationabouttheEarlyPandyascome
tousmainlythroughliterarysourcesandsome
epigr aphic, a rchaeolo gical an d numism atic
evidenc e.The capital of the Early Pandyan
kingdomwasinitiallyKorkai,around600BCE,and
waslatermovedtoKoodal(nowMadurai)during
thereignofNedunjCheliyanI.
ThekingsofthePandyanDynastyarefrequently
mentioned in Sangam literature of the third
centuryBCEandonwards,inworkssuchasthe
Mathuraikkanci and other early Tamil literary
workssuchasCilapatikaram,whichhavebeen
usedbyhistorianstoidentifytheirnamesand,
tosomeextent,theirgenealogy.
NedunjCheliyanIIIisreferredtoasthemost
popular warrior among the Early Pandyas,
winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a
coalitionofforcesfromCholasandCherasand
fiveotherkingdoms.TheearlyPandyankingdom
extended between Travancore in the west,
Vellaruriverinthenorthandallthewaytothe
oceanintheeastandthesouth.
TheEarlyPandyashadactivemaritimetraderelationshipswiththewest,afacttestifiedbywesternclassicalwriterssuchas
PlinytheElder(1stcenturyCE),Strabo,PtolemyandtheauthorofthePeriplus.ThePanydancountrywaswellknownforpearl
fishery,withKorkaibeingtheprincipalcenterofthetrade.Someoftheexportswerepearls,spices,ivoryandshells,whilethe
importsincludedhorses,gold,glassandwine.

5.1

OriginandSources
Theoriginoftheword"Pandya"hasbeenasubjectofmuchspeculation.
Somescholarsbelievethatitdescendedfromthe"Pandavas"ofMahabharata.Howeversomesourcesclaimthatthename
couldbederivedfromtheword"Pandi"theoriginalnameoftheTamilcountry.HowevertheCountryofPandyawasalready
mentionedinRamayanawhichisearlytotheMahabharat.WhenSugrivasendshismonkeywarriorstosearchSita,hementions
Chera,CholaandPandyaofsouth.Hence"Pandyas"werenotfrom"Pandavas".
AllattemptsbyhistorianstoidentifytheoriginsoftheEarlyPandyandynastyusingseveralsourceshavefailedtoauthoritatively
establishtheexactgenealogyofthesekings.
AnothertheoryisthatthewordPandyaisderivedfromtheTamilword"Pandi"meaningbull.AncientTamilsconsideredthebull
asasignofmasculinityandvalor.PandyabecametheepithetofthefirstPandyankingofthenMadurai,KulasekharanPandya
ashewasbuiltlikeabull.Itwasusedasanepitomeofmasculinity.Hisson,thesecondkingofMadurai,thelegendary
MalayadwajaPandyawhosidedwiththePandavasandtookpartintheKurukshetraisdescribedinKarnaParva(verse20.25).
MalayadwajaPandyaandhisqueenKanchanamalahadonedaughterThathagaialiasMeenakshiwhosucceededherfatherand
reignedthekingdomsuccessfully.TheMaduraiMeenakshiAmmantemplewasbuiltafterher.ThecityofMaduraiwasbuilt
aroundthistemple.

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YetanothertheorysuggeststhatinSangamTamillexiconthewordPandyameansoldcountryincontrastwithCholameaning
newcountry, Cherameaning hillcountryand Pallavameaningbranch inSanskrit. TheChera,Chola andPandya arethe
traditionalTamilsiblingsandtogetherwiththePallavasarethemajorKingsthatruledancientTamilakkam.
PillaiyarpattitempleisarockcuttemplelocatedinThiruppatthur,SivagangaiDistrict.Itwasbuiltafterviewingahillockbythe
earlyPandiyakings.TheimageofPillaiyarpattiPillaiyarandthatofaSivaLingamwerecarvedoutofastonebyasculptor
namedEkkatturKoonPeruparananwhoputhissignatureonastoneinscription,inTamilLanguageusedbetweenthe2ndand
5thcenturyAD,foundeventodayinthesanctum.ItcanbeconcludedthattheiconofPillaiyarpattiPillaiyarmusthavebeen
carvedaround4thcenturyAD.
5.1.1 LiterarysourcesinTamil
SeveralTamilliteraryworks,suchasIraiyanarAgapporul,mentionthelegendofthreeseparateTamilSangamslastingseveral
centuriesbeforetheChristianEraandascribetheirpatronagetothePandyas.TheSangampoemMaduraikkancibyMankudi
MaruthanaarcontainsafulllengthdescriptionofMaduraiandthePandyancountryundertheruleofNedunjCheliyanIII.The
NedunalvadaibyNakkirarcontainsadescriptionoftheking'spalace.ThePurananuruandAgananurucollectionsofthethird
century BCE contain poems sung in praise of various Pandyan kings and also poems that were composed by thekings
themselves.KalittokaimentionsthatmanyTamilNagatribessuchasMaravar,Eyinar,Oliar,Oviar,AruvalurandParathavar
migratedtothePandyankingdomandstartedlivingthereintheThirdTamilSangamperiod2000yearsago.
5.1.2 Literarysourcesinotherlanguages
TheSinhalesechronicleMahawamsaclaimsthattheorissabasedKingVijaya(c.543BCE)marriedadaughterofthePandyan
kingofMadurai,towhomhewassendingrichpresentseveryyear.Valmiki(400BCE),refersPandyankinginseveralplacesin
Ramayan.Kautilya,inhisArthashastrareferstothe"easytotravel"traderoutetotheSouthandtotheproductsofthe
Pandyakingdom.HealsomentionsthecityofMaduraiandthecityofTirunelveliandtheriverTamirabaraniinthePandya
kingdom.ThefamousGreektravelerMegasthenes(c.302BCE)mentionsthe"Pandae"kingdomandreferstoitas"that
portionofIndiawhichliestothesouthwardandextendstothesea".
ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSea(c.60100CE)describestherichesofa'PandianKingdom'.
5.1.3 Epigraphicalsources
The2ndand13throckedictsofAshoka(273232BCE)referstothePandyas,Cholas,CherasandtheSatyaputras.According
totheedicts,thesekingdomslayoutsidethesouthernboundaryoftheMauryanEmpire.TheHathigumphainscriptionsofthe
KalingaKing,Kharavela(c.150BCE)referstothearrivalofatributeofjewelsandelephantsfromthePandyanking.Thestone
inscriptionsdiscoveredatMangulam(a.k.a.Meenakshipuram)mentionsthenameofNedunjCheliyanIIIandhiscontemporary
andsubordinate,KadalanVazhuthi.TheseinscriptionshavebeenusedtoestimatethatNedunjCheliyanIIIruledinthe2nd
centuryBCE.
5.1.4 Archeological sources
ExcavationsinTamilNaduinthelastfiftyyearsorsohaveyieldedremnantsofblackandredpotteryware,normallyassigned
totheTamilspeakingareasaround300BCE.SomeallblackandRussetcoatedwareassignedtothesametimeperiodhave
alsobeenfound.RoulettedandAmphoraewares,madeintheRomanempireandbroughtbytraders,havebeenexcavatedin
severalpartsofTamilNadu,includingthePandyancountry.Theseimportedwaresaredatedtotheearlycenturiesofthe
ChristianEra.
5.1.5 Numismaticsources
TheexcavationsatAlgankulam,nearMadurai,recoveredtwocoppercoinsoftheearlyPandyasalongwithNorthernBlack
PolishedWare.Thesecoinshavebeenassignedabroadtimeperiodrangingfrom200BCEto200CE.Severalcoinsissuedby
thePandyankingMudukudumiPeruvaludhihavebeenrecoveredintheMaduraiareaandhavebeendatedtoaround200BCE.
ManygoldandsilvercoinsoftheRomanempirehavebeenfoundaroundMadurai:thesecoinsbearthenamesofemperors
rangingfromAugustus(27BCE)toAlexanderSeverus(235CE).
6.0

POLITICALHISTORYOFTHEEARLYPANDYAS
ScholarshaveconstructedthepoliticalhistoryoftheancientPandyacountrybasedontheclassicalworkssuchasPurananuru,
PattupaatuandPadirrupattu.Eventhoughtheseworksdon'tthrowmuchlightontheexacttimelinesofeachkingandtheir
reign,theyareconsideredtrustworthyaccountsthatpresentfactsastheyoccurred.

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ThefirstPandyankingwhohasbeenmentioned
in the S angam works recovered so far is
NedunjCheliyanI,whoruledfromthecoastal
t o w n o f K o r k a i , a t t h e m o u t h o f r i v e r
Tamraparni.Duringthistime,theTamilcountry
consistedofseveralsmallkingdomsruledover
byindependentchieftains,inadditiontothe
three monarchies of Cheras, Cholas and
Pandyas. In a bid to expand his territory,
NedunjCheliyanIinvadedthekingdomofKudal
(laterrenamedMadurai),whichwasunderthe
ruleofanindependentchieftain,Akutai.He
defeated Akutai and moved the capital of
PandyankingdomtoMadurai.Thiskingalso
defeatedaninvadingarmyfromtheDeccan
andhencewascalledAariyapPadaikadantha
PandyanorthekingwhoconqueredtheAryan
a r m y. H e w a s s u c c e e d e d b y h i s s o n
Pudappandiyan,whoexpandedthekingdom
by conquering Ollaiyur (near modern day
Pudukkottai)anactthatearnedhimthename
O l l a i y u r t h a n t h a P u d a p p a n d i a n . B o t h
Pudappandiyanandhispredecessor,Nedunj
Ch el iy an I , we re p oe ts t he ms el ve s wh o
contributedtothePurananurucollection.
ThesuccessorofPudappandiyanwasNedunj
C he l i ya n II a ls o kn o w n a s " P as um pu n
Pandyan."Immediatelyafterascendingthe
throne,hemarchedwithhistroopstothenorth
ofVaigai anddefeatedthechieftain EvviII.
HethenheadedwestandcapturedtheAayiterritorycontrolledbyanotherchieftain,Atiyan.BothEvviIIandAtiyanwere
madecommandersofthePandyanarmyforhisbattlesagainstKongucountrythatwasfurtherwest.Fromhereheexpanded
thePandyankingdomalmosttothewesterncoast,whichearnedhimthetitleVidambalambaNinraPandyan(thePandyan
whosekingdomwaswashedbytwoseas).SincehewasresponsibleforexpandingthePandyankingdombyannexingseveral
kingdoms,hewasalsocalledPannaduthanthaPandyan(thePandyanwhoannexedmanylands).Hissuccessor,Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi,wasalsoagreatwarriorandcarriedthedevastationintoenemyterritories.Heperformedyagnaswiththeaidof
Brahminpriests,similartothetraditioninnorthernIndiaatthattime.
ThenextkinginthehierarchywasNedunjCheliyanIII,whoisconsideredthegreatestofalltheearlyPandyankings.Sincethe
Pandyankingdomwasconsiderablylargerthanafewgenerationsago,hehadtodefenditagainstmanyneighborsinvading
fromvariousfronts.Notonlydidhesucceedindefendinghisterritory,healsoseemstohaveadvancedintotheenemy
territoriesthesouthernprovinceofCholasandeasternprovinceoftheCheras.
Atonepoint,itissaidthatacoalitionofhisneighborsincludingtheCheras,Cholasandfiveotherkingdoms,methimata
pitchedbattleinTalaialanganam,inpresentdayTanjoredistrict.NedunjCheliyanemergedvictoriousinthebattlethatensued
andendedupannexingseveralnewterritoriestohiskingdom.HethuscametobeknownasTalaialanganathuSeruvendra
Pandyan.Thegenealogyafterthiskingisnotveryclearbutthereareatleastfourotherkingswhoarethoughttohaveruled
intheimmediatesucceedinggenerations.Notableamongthemwere,MusiriMutriyaCheliyanforthefactthatheconquered
thetownofMusirionthecoastoftheArabianSeaandUkkirapPeruvaludiforthefactthatitwasinhiscourtthatthefamous
poetTiruvalluvarsubmittedhismuchacclaimedworkTirukkural.
7.0

PANDYANGOVERNMENT
TheheadoftheGovernmentwastheking,ahereditarymonarch.HispowerwasrestrictedbytheAimberunguzhuortheFive
GreatAssemblies,whichconsistedoftherepresentativesofthepeople,priests,physicians,astrologersandtheministers.
TherewasanotherassemblyofofficialsthatservedthekingcalledtheEnberaayamortheEightGroupsofAttendants.While
somescholarsbelieveitconsistedofattendantsontheking'spersonliketheperfumers,dressingvalets,etc.,othersbelieve
itconsistedofmoreimportantpersonslikethepeopleofthecapitalcity,theleadersoftheelephantcorpsandofthecavalry.
TheprincipalofficersofStatewerethehighpriest,thechiefastrologer,theministersandthecommandersofthearmy.
Thekingdividedhisterritoryintoanumberofadministrativeunitsorprincipalities,eachcalledaKootram.
AKootramwasfurtherdividedintoprovincescalledMandalam,whichinturnwasdividedintomanysubprovincescalled
Nadus,witheachNaduconsistingofmanyvillages.AlocalityinsideatownorvillagewascalledUrandeachneighborhood
insideanUrwascalledaCheri.Whilethekingruledoverhisentireterritoryfromthecapital,heoftenplacedoneormore
principalities(Kootram)underthenearsovereigngovernmentofsomeseniormemberoftheroyalfamilyorafeudatary.The
villagewasthemostfundamentalunitofadministrationunderthePandyas.

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Theaffairsofavillageweretheresponsibilityofitselders,who
supervisedthejudicial,administrativeandfinancialfunctions.
Justice was administeredfree of charge, by special officers
appointedasjudgesandmagistrates,butthekingwassupreme
andthefinalarbiterinallcivilandcriminalcases.Mortgage,
lease, trust property, loans, breach of contract were some
commonsourcesofcivillitigation,whilecriminaloffencesincluded
theft, adultery,forgery and treason. Thepunishments were
verysevereandhencecrimeswererare:onecaughtintheact
of burglary, adultery orspying was given the death penalty
andonegivingfalsetestimonywouldhavehistonguecutoff.
Thekingwasthechiefcommanderofthearmyandusuallyled
hisarmyinthebattlefield.
Themilitarywassaidtobefourfold:theinfantry,thecavalry,
theelephantryandthechariotry.Awidevarietyofwarweapons
filled the military arsenal including shields, swords, spears,
tridents,maces,bowsandarrows.Themainsourcesofroyal
revenueweretaxes,tributes,customsdutiesandtolls.Land
tax,paidinmoneyorinkind,andincometax,equaltoone
sixthofanindividual'sincome,werethemajortypesoftaxes
collected.Othersourcesofrevenueincludetributespaidby
feudalsubordinates,warbootypresentsbyloyalandvisiting
subjects,treasuretrovesbesideslandrevenue,cessandforced
gifts.Theitemsincurringexpenditureforthekingincludethe
military,giftstopoetsandtemples,maintenanceofeducational
andhealthservices,buildinginfrastructuresuchasroadsandirrigationandthepalacehouseholdexpenses.
8.0

EARLYPANDYANSOCIETY
TheTamilsocietyduringtheearlyPandyanagehadseveralclassdistinctionsamongthepeople,whichweredifferentfromthe
AryanclassificationofBrahmins,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandShudras.
Womenwereexposedtoeducation,afacttestifiedbythepresenceofmanywomenpoetessesintheSangamworkssomeof
themincludeAvvaiyar,Mudatamakkanniar,Kaakkaippaadiniyaar,Naachchellayaar,Naagaiyaar,Nanmullaiyaar,Ponmudiyaar,
IlaveyiniyaarandNappasaliyaar.
Avarietyofclothingwasusedbypeopleduringthisage,includingthosemadeofcottonandsilk.Peoplelivinginhillyand
desertedareasworedressesmadeoffoliageandflowers.Sheathsofgrassyweeds(Korai)wereusedformakingdressbythe
hillandforestareapeople.Skinsofanimalsandbarksoftreeswerealsoused.Menofthepoorerclassesworeonlyonepiece
ofclotharoundthewaist.Womencoveredtheirupperbodywithakindofdresscalled,kachchu.Amongthehigherclasses,
menworetwopieces:onearoundthewaistandtheother,theuppercloth,thrownovertheshoulders.Womenofsophisticated
societyworehalfsarees,madeofthefinestcottonandsilkfabrics,withembroidery.Bothmenandwomensportedlong
tressesofhair.Thedietwasplain,ricebeingthestaplecereal,withmaize,millet,milk,butterandhoneybeingincommonuse.
Meateatingwascommonpeopleatefleshoframs,deer,hare,fowl,porcupines,pigsandboar,freshanddriedfish.Thekind
ofhousingwasdeterminedbythetypeofgeographyofthelandandtheeconomicstatusoftheoccupants.Therichbuilttheir
houseswithtiledroofsandwallsmadeofburntbricksandmud,whilethepoorbuilttheirhutswithmudandthatcheditwith
grass,coconutleavesorpalmyrapalmleaves.Bothinthehutsandhouses,theflooringwassmearedwithcowdung.The
affluenthadhouseswithporticoes,manystoreys,openterracesandfurnishedtheirhouseswell.Theinnerwallsoftheir
housesweredecoratedwithflowersandpaintings,withcottagestoprotectthemfromthewind.Cotswereincommonuse
therichhadluxuriousbedsdeckedwithswan'sfeathersandflowers,whilethecommonpeoplehadbedswovenwiththestraw
ofmaizeandthepoorestpeopleusedbedsmadeofgrassorhay.

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PRACTICE QUIZ
Prelims Paper I
Unit - 2 Lecture 11
The Cholas and the Pandyas

SuggestedTime:10min
1 .

T o t a l q u e s t i o ns : 25

ThetermHalaimandalamreferstothe
(A) Coromandalcoast

(B)

(C) Pandyacoast

(D) Konkancoast

8 .

Malabarcoast

Arrange the following administrative units of the Chola

periodinthedescendingorder.
I .

Valanadus

III. Mandalams
2 .

4 .

Kurrams

(A) I,III,II,IV

(B)

(A) Laxmi

(B)

(C) II,IV,I,III

(D) IV,I,II,III

(C) Sarasvati

(D) Savitri

Parvati

III,I,II,IV

Which Cambodian ruler sent a chariot as a present to

RajarajaCholainAD1012?

ThatthebodyguardsoftheCholaemperorsburntthemselves
on the funeral pyres of their masters when they died is
knowntousfrom

(A) SuryavarmanI

(B)

(A) Kamban

(B)

(C) Anantavarman

(D) Chandravarman

(C) MarcoPolo

(D) NicolodeConti

SuryavarmanII

WhichofthefollowingstatementsabouttheAyyavole,a
prominenttradeguildofearlymedievalIndia,aretrue?
(B)

ItcontrolledtheinternaltradeofDeccan

(C) Inthefieldofexternaltradeitconcentratedontrade
withwestAsia
(D) ItsinternationalconnectionsweremainlywithSouth
EastAsia

6 .

IV.

Minakshi,thefisheyedgoddessofthePandyasofMadurai,
isidentifiedwith

(A) ItdominatedtheinternaltradeofTamilNadu

5 .

Nadus

Choosetheanswerfromthecodesgivenbelow:

9 .
3 .

II.

Sekkilar

10. Which Chola emperor, as evident from an inscription,

intervenedinthedynasticstruggleofSouthEastAsiainAD
106869?
(A) Rajadhiraja

(B)

Virarajendra

(C) KulottungaI

(D) KulottungaII

11. TheadministrationoftankurramsintheCholaperiodwas
lookedafterby

Selecttheanswerfromthecodesgivenbelow:

(A) urs

(B)

(A) IandII

(B)

(C) sabhas

(D) mahasabhas

(C) IIIandIV

(D) IandIV

IIandIII

WhendidRajendraCholaIsendhisfamousnavalexpedition
totheSriVijayaempire?
(A) 1015

(B)

(C) 1025

(D) 1035

1020

Whichoneofthefollowingisincorrectlypaired?

nagarams

12. WhichCholaemperorsentalargemissionof72merchants
toChinathatremovedthewrongimpressionoftheChinese
that the Cholas were tributary princes of the Sri Vijaya
empire?
(A) RajarajaI

(B)

(C) KulottungaI

(D) Vikramachola

RajendraI

13. WhatwastheemblemoftheimperialCholas?

(A) RajarajaIRajakesari

(A) Tiger

(B)

(B)

(C) Fish

(D) Horse

RajendraIPanditaChola

Lion

(C) KulottugmaISungamTavirtta
(D) RajadhirajaAhalanka
7.

14. WhichCholarulerwasdefeatedbytheRashtrakutaking,
KrishnaIII,inthefamousbattleofTakkolam?

Which Chola emperor received aletter on golden leaves

fromtheBurmeseKing,Kyanzittha?
(A) RajarajaI

(B)

(C) KulottungaI

(D) Rajadhiraja

IC : PTias P(III11) E

(A) Aditya

(B)

KulottungaI

(C) Rajadhiraja

(D) ParantakaI

RajendraI
15. WhoamongthefollowingCholasiscreditedwithconquering
theSriVijayaempireoftheSailendrarulersbysendinga
navalexpedition?
(A) Vijayalaya

(B)

(C) RajendraI

(D) ParantakshII

RajarajaI

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16. WhichCholakinggavepermissiontotheSailendrarulerof
SriVijayatobuildaBuddhistviharaatNagapattinam?
(A) RajendraI

(B)

(C) RajendraII

(D) RajarajaII

21. WhichamongthefollowingisthemainfeatureofDravida
StyleofTemplearchitecture?

RajarajaI

17. WhatweretankurramsoftheCholaperiod?

(B)

(C) Vimana&Shikhara

(D) Manastambha

GarbhaGriha

22. TheVarahatempleatMamallapuramwasbuiltbywhichof
thefollowing?

(A) Brahmanicaleducationalinstitutions
(B)

(A) Gopuram

Residencesofthedevadasisofthetemple

(C) Townsandtownships

(A) SinghVishnu

(B)

(C) NarsimhavarmanaI

(D) AdityaI

MahendraVarmanaI

(D) Villagegeneralassemblies
23. ThepoliticalandculturalcentreofthePandyaswas
18. Arrange the following Chola emperors in the correct
sequence.
I .

RajarajaI

II.

ParantakaI

III. RajendraI

IV.

Adityachola

V.

VI.

Uttamachola

Vijayalaya

(A) IV,II,I,V,III,VI

(B)

(C) V,IV,II,VI,I,III

(D) III,I,II,V,IV,VI

Valanadus

(D) Mahabalipuram

Madurai

(A) ParantakaI

(B)

(C) Vimaladitya

(D) RajaRajaI

Vijayaditya

II,III,I,VI,IV,V
25. InwhichmodernIndianstateisMadurailocated?

19. What is the ascending order of the following units of

administrationintheCholaperiod?
III. Mandalams

(B)

(C) Kanchipuram

24. WhoheldthetitleofMaduraiKonda?

Selecttheanswerfromthecodesgivenbelow.

I .

(A) Vengi

II.

Nadus

IV.

Kurrams

(A) TamilNadu

(B)

(C) Karnataka

(D) Kerala

AndhraPradesh

Selecttheanswerfromthecodesgivenbelow.
(A) III,II,I,IV

(b)

(C) IV,I,II,III

(D) IV,II,I,III

I,II,III,IV

20. The eighthcentury tripartite power struggle wasamong

whichofthefollowing?
(A) Cholas,RastrakutasandYadavas
(B)

Chalukyas,PallavasandPandyas

(C) Cholas,PandyasandChalukyas
(D) Chalukyas,PallavasandYadavas

Please make sure that you m ark the answers in this scores heet with an HB pencil/pen.
The marking of answers must be done in the stipulated time for the test. Do not take extra time over and above the time limit.

S C O R E S H E E T

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D E

11

D E

21

D E

12

22

13

23

14

24

D E

15

D E

25

D E

16

17

18

19

D E

10

20

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