Weight & Balance PDF

INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
AIRFORCE COLLEGE
TECHNICIAN COURSE
AIRFRAME
WEIGHT & BALANCE
MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY
Apprentice Course
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06
MIP/TECH/TN/055
Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved
RMAF TECHNICIAN
ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMME
NAME :
CLASS :
Apprentice Course
MIP/TECH/TN/055
WARNING
This training note is intended for training purposes
only. The information it contains is as accurate as
possible at the time of issue, and it is not subjected to
amendment action. Where the information contained in
this training note is at variance with official documents,
the latter must be taken as the overriding authority. The
contents in this training note shall not be reproduced in
any form without the expressed permission of
(MATA) SDN BHD
Apprentice Course
MIP/TECH/TN/055
Airframe
Royal Malaysian Air Force
Introduction
Weight & Balance
9.6.1 - HO - 1
_____________________ Apprentice Course - Technician ____________________
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
INTRODUCTION
Because of the complex and varied loads that aircraft may carry, it is necessary to
ensure that these loads are not excessive and that they are satisfactorily distributed.
For safe flight and that they are satisfactory distributed. For safe flight the ensure of
gravity (C of C) of the aircraft must remain within the specified limits.
At specified intervals the aircraft is weighed and the Basic Weight and the position
of the Centre of Gravity is established.
The method of calculating the C of G position is based on the principle of turning
moments.
EFFECTS OF INCORRECT LOADING

C OF G FORWARD OF FORWARD LIMIT
a
Aircraft nose heavy
Reduces effective elevator up travel
c
May cause the aircraft to "nose in" on take off with consequent longer
take off run
d
Increases the difficulty in lowering the tail on landing
More power required for a given speed, resulting in increased fuel

consumption and decrease in range
May cause pilot fatigue, particularly during instrument flying

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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C OF G AFT OF AFT LIMIT

a
Aircraft tail heavy
Reduces effective elevator down travel
Increases the tendency to stall
Increases difficulty in raising the tail on take off, in the case of tail
wheeled aircraft
More power is required for a given speed resulting in increased fuel

consumption and decrease in range
Possible damage to the tail structure on landing
May cause pilot fatigue particularly during instrument flying
OVERLOADING
a
Increases the stalling speed
Longer take off and landing runs
Increases gliding speed
Reduces rate of climb
Reduces manoeuvrability
More power required for a given speed resulting in increased

fuel consumption and a decrease in range
Reduces the structural safety factor
Reduces the tyre safety factor
Increases the wear on undercarriage and brakes

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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SAFETY FACTOR AND EFFECT OF OVERLOADING

Generally speaking aircraft have a 1.5 factor of safety e.g. a maximum loading which
would be experienced in normal flight multiplied by 1.5 i.e. a 50% safety overload
margin.
In normal cruising flight all parts of the aircraft and contents are subject to gravitational loading of 1g.
If you weigh 70 kgf you exert a loading of 70 kgf on the aircraft in level flight. Loading is carried in to airframe through seat and floor structure.
If aircraft is manoeuvred into a 2g banked turn your 70 kgf body will load seat and
supporting structure at 140 kgf instead of 70 kgf.
Since 2g x 70 kgf = 140 kgf
A manoeuvre that double body load also doubles load applied to wing and other
parts of aeroplane structure. In a turn greater lift is required to keep the aircraft at a
constant angle of bank and height so a g loading developed.

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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REQUIREMENTS
2.1
The requirements relating to the weighing of aircraft and the establishment of

a Weigh and Balance Schedule are prescribed in British Civil Airworthiness
Requirements (BCAR) Section A, Chapter A5-1. An interpretation of those
parts of Chapter A5-1 which are pertinent to this Leaflet is given below.
2.2
Aircraft must be weighed to determine the Basic Weight and the

corresponding e.g. position when all the manufacturing processes have
been completed. Aircraft, the MTWA of which exceeds 5700 kg (12500 lb)
must be re-weighed within two years after the date of manufacture and, after
this, a check weighing must be carried out at intervals not exceeding five
years and at such times as the CAA may require. Aircraft, the MTWA of
which does not exceed 5700 kg (12500 lb) must be re-weighed as required
by the CAA.
2.3
In making decisions on weighing, the CAA considers the history of the

aircraft, its flying performance, and the probable effect on the weight after
a major overhaul, or embodiment of a modification, repair of replacement.
2.4
Certain types of aircraft may be weighed on a sampling basis (i.e. a

representative aircraft, as weighed, would be acceptable for others of the
same standard) by agreement with the CAA.
2,5
An alternative arrangement to the periodical check weighing of individual

aircraft is for the operator to establish a fleet mean weight (i.e. Basic
Weight) and fleet mean centre-of-gravity position. The initial fleet mean
weight is based on the mean of the weights of all the aircraft of the same
type in the fleet which is revised annually by sample weighing (see BCAR
Section A, Chapter A-1, Appendix No. 1).
2.6
When an aircraft is weighed, the equipment and other items of load such
as fluid in the tanks must be recorded. This recorded load should not
differ significantly from the Basic Equipment List associated with the Weight
and Centre-of-Gravity Schedule (see paragraph 2.9). In circumstances
where there is a significant difference between the Basic Weight of the
aircraft and the operating weight (i.e. Basic Weight plus the Variable Load)
not accountable to structural changes brought about by modifications/repairs,
the CAA may require that the actual weights of the Variable Load items be
ascertained.

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
9.6.1 - HO - 5
2.7
All records of the weighing, including the calculations involved, must be

available to the CAA. The records are retained by the aircraft manufacturer,
overhauled or operator, and when the aircraft is weighed again, the previous
weighing records must not be destroyed but retained with the aircraft records.
Operators must maintain records of all known weight and e.g. changes
which occur after the aircraft has been weighed.
DEFINITIONS
BASIC WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY POSITION
Basic weight is the weight of the aircraft and all its basic equipment and that of the
declared quantity of unusable fuel and unusable oil. The centre of gravity will be
given as an arm from centre of gravity datum.
VARIABLE LOAD
Variable load includes the weight of crew and their baggage plus removable units
and other equipment, the carriage of which depends upon the role for which the operator intends to use the aircraft for a particular flight.
DISPOSABLE LOAD
Disposable load is the weight of all persons and items of load, including fuel and
other consumable fluids carried in the aircraft, other than the basic equipment and
variable load.
ZERO FUEL WEIGHT

Is the total weight of an aircraft ready for take-off including crew, passengers freight
etc., but excluding fuel.
LANDING WEIGHT
Is the maximum weight at which the aircraft can land safely considering the ambient
conditions and runway in use.
TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
Is the actual total weight for a particular take-off.

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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DETERMINATION OF TAKE-OFF WEIGHT

When determining the take-off weight, the weight and position of all variable loads
must be added to the aircraft basic weight, together with their arms and moments.
Variable loads include such items as crew, crew baggage, passenger seats, drinking
water, life raft, emergency transmitter and service equipment (food toiletries etc) as
necessary for the particular role of the aircraft.
MAXIMUM AUTHORISED WEIGHT, MAXIMUM TOTAL WEIGHT TOTAL WEIGHT

AUTHORISED (M.T.W.A.)
The maximum total weight of the aircraft and its contents at which the aircraft may
take off anywhere in the world, in the most favourable circumstance in accordance
with the Certificate of Airworthiness or Flight Manual.
The load sheet is compiled in the following order:Basic Weight + Variable Load + Disposable Load + Fuel Load required for journey.
The weight and C of G moment is calculated at each stage to give the pilot his Centre of Gravity under a variety of conditions, i.e. take off and landing.
THE PRINCIPLES OF AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE
PRINCIPLES OF BALANCE
The theoretical principle of the weight and balance of aircraft is basically very simple,
and can be compared with that of the familiar scale (as depicted in Figure 1) which,
when in balance will rest horizontally on the fulcrum in perfect equilibrium provided
that the two pans suspended from the beam are of equal weight and distance from
the fulcrum.
In aeronautical terms the fulcrum can be equated to the aircraft e.g. and the weights,
with the loads imposed thereof on the structure.
Because of the design tolerances built into aircraft, the Weight and Balance is not as
critical as that of the scales in Figure 1, although it is important that they remain
within those tolerances for reasons of safety, performance, and economy.
From Figure 1 it can be understood that the influence of weight, in relation to balance, is directly dependent upon the distance of the weight from the fulcrum.
Unlike the scales in Figure 1, aircraft, (apart from some helicopters) cannot practicably be suspended in such a way as to determine the relative weight, balance, and
e.g. However, it can be achieved mathematically.

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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The steelyard shown in Figure 2 has a known weight "D' and, a known weight "C"
set at a specific distance "c". Under normal circumstances to determine the distance
required to balance "C", the known weight "D" is moved along the beam until the
weight of "D" and its accompanying lever arm are equal to the weight of "C" therefore
aligning the beam with the balance mark. Once achieved the distance "d" can then
be read from the graduated scale.
Mathematically the distance can be found as follows :d
Cc
D
where C
50 lb
10 inches
20 lb
Cc
D
50 x 10
20
25 in
Thus as the Resultant Moment is clockwise the C of G must be to the right of X.

C of G relative to X =
Resultant Moment
Total Weight
Total Weight
10 + 25 + 40 + 45 = 120 lbs
Thus C of G position =
200
120
1ft. 8in.
i.e. the C of G is 1ft. 8in. to the right of X.

A uniform beam 60 cm. long and weighing 8 kgs, has weights of 2 kg, 10 kg, 20 kg
and 30 kg, at distances of 6 cm, 14 cm, 23 cm and 36 cm from the left hand and respectively. Find C of G of beam.(Fig. 3 )

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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PREPARATION OF AIRCRAFT FOR WEIGHING

1
Ensure that the aircraft is equipped in accordance with the loading and
Distribution Schedule, or the Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule.
Ensure that only unusable fuel and oil is in the appropriate tanks. See
also definition "Basic Weight".
Ensure that the hydraulic system reservoir is topped up to the correct

level.
Ensure that the aircraft is clean and dry.
5.
The aircraft should be weighed indoors.

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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Fig. 1 Simple Scale

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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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Introduction
Weight & Balance
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Fig. 3

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Aircraft Weighing
Weight & Balance
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AIRCRAFT WEIGHING
It is first necessary to find the weight of the aircraft acting at the undercarriage positions or the main jacking positions. The aircraft must be longitudinally and laterally
level; it may be possible to reduce the pressures in the tyres or shock absorbers to
achieve this.
The aircraft is weighed by placing the wheels on weighing machines of if jacking the
aircraft, by placing a weighing machine between each jack and the aircraft jacking
points. When weighing the aircraft at the undercarriage positions, mechanical or
electrical scales are used. These may be permanently fitted in the hangar floor, but
are usually portable units with a suitable ramp so that the aircraft can easily be rolled
up on to them. If jacking the aircraft, hydrostatic units (based on hydraulic principles)
or electrical units, (based on the strain gauge principle) are used. The hydrostatic
type may not give a direct reading, the indications may have to be converted using a
chart applicable to that type.
The capacity of the weighing equipment must be correct for the aircraft being
weighed. All weighing equipment should be checked at periods not exceeding one
year.
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The weight and c.g. of an aircraft is calculated in the same way as for the loaded
beam. The Basic Weight and c.g. of the aircraft corresponds to the weight and c.g.
of the beam, and the Variable and Disposable Loads correspond to the beam loads.
Further more before each flight the total weight and moment of these items must be
determined, and the c.g. of the aircraft calculated to ensure the aircraft remains
within the approved limits. If for example, the c.g. was too far forward, it would result
in a nose-heavy condition which could be potentially dangerous (particularly during
take-off and landing), cause a general reduction in the performance of the aeroplane,
and effect an increase in fuel consumption as a result of the drag caused by excessive balancing of the elevator trim. Where rotorcraft are concerned, a c.g. too far
forward could result in excessive strain on the main rotor shaft and a general lack of
control. The c.g. too far aft results in a tail-heavy condition which, with the tendency
of the aeroplane to stall, makes landing more difficult, may result in a reduction in
performance, and cause an increase in fuel consumption. In the case of rotorcraft it
will reduce the forward speed and also the range of effective control.
The operational limitations for the fore and aft positions of the c.g. are defined in the
aircraft Flight Manual or other document associated with the Certificate of Airworthiness, such as the Owner's Manual. Where no such document exists, the limitations
are specified in the Certificate of Airworthiness.

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Aircraft Weighing
Weight & Balance
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Fortunately it is not necessary for an aircraft to be perfectly balanced to achieve stable flight, i.e. to an exact c.g. position. The permissible variation is called the Centreof-Gravity Range. This is specified by the manufacturer for each aircraft type and is
determined by the need to comply with various airworthiness design requirements..
STANDARD MEAN CHORD (S.M.C.)

( Ref. Fig. 4&5)
Standard Mean Chord is known as MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD in the U.S.A.
In normal practice the longitudinal zero station is at or near the nose of the aircraft. It
is chosen as the aircrafts C of G reference datum, so that the moment of any item on
the aircraft may be calculated from its weight and distance from the longitudinal zero
station.
Since the C of G is an aerodynamic consideration (C of G to C of P relationship) its
position is sometimes specified as a percentage of the S>M>C> of the wing, measured aft from its leading edge.
X
S.M.C.
100
1
% S.M.C
x = arm (C OF G) =
ARM (L.E.)
% S.M.C.
ARM (C of G) - ARM (L.E.) x 100

S.M.C.
=-
Given that the length of the S.M.C. = 200 cm the leading edge is 229 cm from the
aircraft datum and the aircrafts C of G position is 269 cm aft of the datum. Find the
C of G position as a percentage of S.M.C.
% S.M.C.
C of G
269 - 229
200
40 x 100
200
20% of S.M.C.

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100
1
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Aircraft Weighing
Weight & Balance
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Aircraft Weighing
Weight & Balance
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Royal Malaysian Air Force Weighing Equipment
Weight & Balance
9.6.3 - HO - 1
WEIGHING EQUIPMENT
GENERAL
There are four main types of weighing equipment which may be used for weighing
aircraft, weighbridge scales, hydrostatic weighing units, electrical and electronic
weighing equipment based on the strain gauge principle. Since considerable error
can arise if small loads are checked with equipment designed for heavy loads, and
scales may be calibrated in increments too coarse for accurate calculation, the capacity of the weighing equipment should be compatible with the load.
All weighing apparatus should be checked, adjusted and certified by a competent authority at periods not exceeding one year and, in addition, the zero indication should
be checked for accuracy before any weighing is commenced.
WEIGHBRIDGE SCALES
Ref. Fig 6
This equipment consists of a separate weighing platform for each wheel or bogey on
the aircraft, the weight at each reaction point being recorded directly on the balance
arm. On some equipment a dial indicator is also provided. Large aircraft are normally weighed in a hangar, using either portable weighbridge scales or weighbridges
set permanently into the floor at appropriate positions with their platforms level with
the floor. The aircraft may then be rolled directly onto the platforms without the need
for special equipment.
NOTES:1
Care should be taken when moving portable weighbridge scales to

prevent them becoming out of balance
It is advisable to set the approximate load on each balance arm before

releasing it. Failure to do this could cause damage to the knife edge.

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Weight & Balance
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Fig 7 - Hydraulic Weighing Unit

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HYDROSTATIC WEIGHING UNITS

The operation of these units is based on the hydraulic principle that the fluid pressure in a cylinder in which a piston is working depends on the area of the piston and
the load applied to it. The units are interposed between the lifting jacks and the aircraft jacking points, the weight at each position being recorded on a pressure indicator. The indicator may record directly in units of weight or may be a multi-rotational
type where the readings are converted to weight by means of a conversion table peculiar to each particular unit.
It is important that the lifting jacks are exactly vertical and the units correctly positioned, otherwise side loads may be imposed on the weighing units and may affect
the accuracy of the readings.
Using hydraulic weighing unit-this is positioned between the aircraft and lifting jack
and measures the pressure applied to hydraulic fluid inside the unit. The pressure
reading is then converted to a chart.
(a)
Position jacks under each jacking point on the aircraft.
(b)
Place a weighing unit and suitable adaptors on each jack.
(c)
Ensure that the weighing unit pressure indicator reads zero.
(d)
Release aircraft brakes.
(e)
Raise aircraft clear of the ground with the jacks and note the reading at
each jack and convert to units of weight.
(f)
Add the weights together to obtain the total aircraft weight.
ELECTRICAL WEIGHING EQUIPMENT

Ref. Fig. 8
Equipment of this type incorporates three or more weighing cells, each of which contains a metallic element of known electrical resistance. Aircraft load is measured
with the variation in resistance with elastic strain by means of a galvanometer, the
scale of which is calibrated in units of weight. As with the hydrostatic weighing units,
the weighing cells are interposed between the lifting jacks and the aircraft jacking
points and similarly care is necessary to ensure that no side loads are imposed upon
them.

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Weight & Balance
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Fig. 8 - Electrical Weighing Unit

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ELECTRONIC WEIGHING EQUIPMENT

Ref. Fig. 9
This type of weighing equipment combines elastic strain load cells as described in
paragraph into weighbridge-type platforms which are placed either as a single unit or
combination of units beneath the wheels of the aircraft undercarriage.
Each platform, is electrically connected to an instrumentation unit, which digitally
displays the selected platform load. The number of platforms required to weigh an
aircraft by this method is determined by the size of the aircraft. For example, a very
large transport aircraft may require as many as 18 or more platforms to accommodate the wheel multiples of the undercarriage. The number of units that can be used
is, however, limited by the terminal facility of the instrumentation unit.
As there is generally a requirement for aircraft weighing equipment to be portable,
the platforms are normally constructed of high strength lightweight materials, with the
load cells interposed between the platform table, and the base unit. Where a platform is unevenly loaded (because of structural movement or undercarriage positioning), a greater load imposed on one side of the platform will be automatically compensated for by the lesser load on the other side.
NOTE:
The displayed load (or reaction) on the instrumentation unit for each platform, is a
dedicated computation of all load cell inputs from that particular platform.
The positioning of aircraft onto electronic weighbridge platforms may be accomplished by one of the following methods:a
by towing the aircraft directly onto platforms permanently set into the
hangar floor (sometimes in specific appropriate positions).
by supporting the aircraft on jacks and, where facilities allow, lowering the
hangar floor, positioning the platforms below the extended undercarriage
and then raising the hangar floor until all the weight of the aircraft is
supported by the platforms, or
by towing the aircraft up purpose-made ramps onto the platforms.

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Weight & Balance
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The function of the instrumentation unit is to :a
compute and display the loads imposed upon on each platform.
provide a facility for the fine calibration of the platforms to a zero datum
record and print out the indicated data.
CHANGE IN BASIC WEIGHT

ESTABLISHING THE BASIC WEIGHT AND C OF G POSITION AFTER A
MODIFICATION
When any items of basic equipment are added, removed or repositioned in an aircraft, calculations must be made to determine the effect on basic weight and Centre
of Gravity. This information is used in preparing a revised loading and Distribution
Schedule or Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule as appropriate.
Ref. Fig. 10
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft weighs 5000 lbs and its C, of G, is 20 in. aft of the datum. An item of
equipment weighing 40 lbs and fitted 10 in. forward of the datum is to be removed
and refitted 39 in. aft of the datum. Find the new C of G.
Ref. Fig.11 - Example 1
PREPARATION OF A LOAD SHEET
To prepare a load sheet the pilot or loading officer will require information from several sources.
The loading and Distribution Schedule or the Weight and C of G schedule will give
the Basic Weight and C of G position. It will also give the lever arms of the seats,
fuel tanks and cargo compartments, fuel capacity, weight and lever arms of standard
equipment etc.
The Flight Manual (or C of A, if there is no Flight Manual) will specify the M.T.W.A.
and the permissible C of G range.

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Limitations will also be given in the Flight Manual concerning the loading of cargo
holds or compartments, giving for example the maximum load per square foot of
floor area. Other relevant information such as access to each compartment will also
be included.
The loading of very large aircraft is complex and may require a team of specialists,
particularly if the lateral C of G is also required to be established.

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Weight & Balance
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Fig. 9- Aircraft Weighing ( Electronic)

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Fig. 10 Negative and Positive Weight , Arm And Moment Relationship

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Passenger Aircraft
Weight & Balance
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PASSENGER AIRCRAFT
In respect of passenger transport aircraft exceeding 5700 kg M.T.W.A. or where 12
or more passengers are to be carried (see Air Navigation General Regulations) the
weight of each passenger may be assumed to be not less than as follows:Adult Male
75 kg (165 lbs)
Adult Female
65 kg (145 lbs)
Children (2 to 11 inc.)`
39 kg ( 85 lbs)
Infants under 2
8 kg
( 17 lbs)
Figures are also laid down for cabin and hold baggage.
If the weight of passengers is assumed, it must be stated on the Load Sheet. The
Commander of the aircraft can always insist on passengers and baggage being
weighed.
LARGE PASSENGER AND CARGO AIRCRAFT

With large aircraft the moment of items such as fuel, passengers and cargo are considerable and the procedures for determining a particular loading become complicated. In addition to the longitudinal c.g. calculation it is also usually necessary to
ensure that distribution of fuel and cargo is satisfactory in a transverse (lateral) direction. Most airlines employ a specialist section dealing with loading calculations,
whose responsibility it is to produce a load sheet for each flight.
The main items of variable moment during flight is the fuel, and although correct
management of the fuel system will minimise c.g. movement, some variations will
remain due to the impracticability of locating all fuel near the c.g. on modern swept
wing aircraft. The critical points in the c.g. envelope are caused by fuel usage and
variations in specific gravity, these variations are calculated and applied to the envelope to curtail its boundaries.

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The c.g. limitations are further curtailed by fixed allowances for other variable items
such as the following:a
Seating allowance, which is calculated to provide for out-of balance

seating loads resulting from empty seats or passenger weight variation
Flight allowance, which is provided to allow for the normal movement of

crew and passenger during flight
Moment changes due to operation of the landing gear or flaps
Weights and moments of passengers and cargo are then calculated, the cargo being
arranged within the fuselage or holds in such a way that the total weight and moment
of the loaded aircraft fall within the curtailed limitations. The heavier pieces of cargo
or pallets are normally located close to the c.g. to restrict their effect, due attention
being paid to floor loading limitations, strength, and number of lashing points, etc.
On some aircraft it is also necessary to predetermine the order of loading fuel, cargo
and passengers, in order to ensure that the structural limits are not exceeded, by excessive out-of-balance forces tending to tip the aircraft on its tail.
LOADING GRAPHS AND C.G. ENVELOPES

Ref. Fig 12
The weight and balance computation system, commonly called the loading graph
and c.g. envelope system, is an excellent and rapid method for determining the c.g.
location for various loading arrangements. This method can be applied to any make
and model of aircraft.
Aircraft manufacturers using this method of weight and balance computation prepare
graphs similar to those shown in Figure 12 and 13 for each make and model aircraft
at the time of original certification. The graphs become a permanent part of the aircraft records. Along with the graphs are the data for the empty weight arm and moment (index number) for that particular make and model aircraft.
The loading graph illustrated in Figure-13 is used to determine the index number of
any item or weight that may be involved in loading the aircraft. To use this graph,
find the point on the vertical scale that represents the known weight. Project a horizontal line to the point where it intersects the proper diagonal weight line (i.e. pilot,
copilot, baggage, etc). From the point of intersection, read straight downward to the
horizontal scale to find the moment or index number.

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Passenger Aircraft
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Weight & Balance
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Weight & Balance
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After the moment for each item of weight has been determined, all weights are
added and all moments are added. With knowledge of the total weight and moment,
project a line from the respective point on the c.g. envelope shown in figure13, and
place a point at the intersection of the two lines. If the point is within the diagonal
lines, the loading arrangement meets all balance requirements.
The following is an actual weight and balance computation using the graphs in Figure13 For this example, assume that the aircraft has an empty weight of 1,386.0
pounds and a moment of 52,772.0 pound-inches. The index number for the empty
weight of the aircraft is developed by dividing the empty-weight moment by 1,000.
This gives an index number of 52.8 for the airplane's empty-weight moment. Load
the aircraft to determine whether the c.g. will fall within the diagonal lines of figure
13. Arrange item weights and index numbers in an orderly form to facilitate adding.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Moment
Weight
(thousands
Item
(lbs)
of lb in)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Acft. EW
1,386.0
52.8
19.0
- 0.4
Pilot & Copilot
340.0
12.2
Rear passenger (two)
340.0
24.1
20.0
1.9
245.0
---------2,350.0
----------
11.8
-----102.4
------
Oil
Baggage
Fuel
TOTAL:
The total airplane weight in pounds is 2,350.0, and the moment is 102.4. Locate this
point (2,350 @ 102.4) on the c.g. envelope illustrated in Figure 3-14. Since the point
falls within the diagonal lines, the loading arrangement meets all weight-and-balance
requirements.

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Passenger Aircraft
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ON-BOARD WEIGHING AND BALANCING SYSTEM

Some larger aircraft have weight sensors built into the wheel axles. These sensors
send out signals (electronic) which are fed into a on-board computer, interpreted and
converted to Gross Weight and position of Centre of Gravity and in some cases percentage Standard Mean Chord (% S,M.C.) or Mean Aerodynamic Chord (%
M.A.C.). at any time during loading or taxying of the aircraft.
The advantages of this system over the previously described system i.e. a calculation of Basic Weight, Crew Weight, Passenger and Cargo Weight then Fuel Weight,
manually, which may require adjustment of the loading several times, are :a
Gross Weight and Centre of Gravity position are available, in seconds,

at any time during loading or taxying.
Flight safety is increased. The system provides a guarantee against

errors which could cause overloading or dangerous Centre of Gravity
position.
Centre of Gravity control, during loading, aids attainment of the ideal

position, achieving a minimum trim requirement and thus reducing fuel
consumption.
The aircraft can operate consistently at Maximum Total Weight Authorised

because uncertainties over average or assumed weights of passengers or
baggage, inaccuracies of procedures or fuel gauges, fuel density variations
and the possibility of errors is eliminated.
LARGE PASSENGER AND CARGO AIRCRAFT

Fig. 14
With large aircraft the moment of items such as fuel, passengers and cargo are considerable and the procedures for determining a particular loading become complicated. In addition to the longitudinal c.g. calculation it is also usually necessary to
ensure that distribution of fuel and cargo is satisfactory in a transverse (lateral) direction. Most airlines employ a specialist section dealing with loading calculations,
whose responsibility it is to produce a load sheet for each flight.
The main item of variable moment during flight is the fuel, and although correct management of the fuel system will minimise c.g. movement, some variations will remain
due to the impracticability of locating all fuel near the c.g. on modern swept wing aircraft. The critical points in the c.g. envelope are caused by fuel usage and variations
in specific gravity, these variations are calculated and applied to the envelope to curtail its boundaries.

MIP/TECH/TN/055
Airframe
Passenger Aircraft
Weight & Balance
9.6.4 - HO - 7
Fig. 14

MIP/TECH/TN/055
Airframe
Passenger Aircraft
Weight & Balance
9.6.4 - HO - 8
The c.g. limitations are further curtailed by fixed allowances for other variable items
such as the following:a
b
c
Seating allowance, which is calculated to provide for out-of-balance seating

loads resulting from empty seats or passenger weight variation
Flight allowance, which is provided to allow for the normal movement of
crew and passengers during flight
Moment changes due to operation of the landing gear or flaps
Weights and moments of passengers and cargo are then calculated, the cargo being
arranged within the fuselage or holds in such a way that the total weight and moment
of the loaded aircraft fall within the curtailed limitations. The heavier pieces of cargo
or pallets are normally located close to the c.g. to restrict their effect, due attention
being paid to floor loading limitations, strength, and number of lashing points, etc.
On some aircraft it is also necessary to predetermine the order of loading fuel, cargo
and passengers, in order to ensure that the structural limits are not exceeded, by excessive out-of-balance forces tending to tip the aircraft on its tail.

MIP/TECH/TN/055

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INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

EFFECTS OF INCORRECT LOADING

Aircraft nose heavy

Reduces effective elevator up travel

Increases the difficulty in lowering the tail on landing

More power required for a given speed, resulting in increased fuel

May cause pilot fatigue, particularly during instrument flying

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

C OF G AFT OF AFT LIMIT

Aircraft tail heavy

Reduces effective elevator down travel

Increases the tendency to stall

More power is required for a given speed resulting in increased fuel

Possible damage to the tail structure on landing

May cause pilot fatigue particularly during instrument flying

Increases the stalling speed

Longer take off and landing runs

Increases gliding speed

Reduces rate of climb

More power required for a given speed resulting in increased

Reduces the structural safety factor

Reduces the tyre safety factor

Increases the wear on undercarriage and brakes

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

SAFETY FACTOR AND EFFECT OF OVERLOADING

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

The requirements relating to the weighing of aircraft and the establishment of

Aircraft must be weighed to determine the Basic Weight and the

In making decisions on weighing, the CAA considers the history of the

Certain types of aircraft may be weighed on a sampling basis (i.e. a

An alternative arrangement to the periodical check weighing of individual

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

All records of the weighing, including the calculations involved, must be

ZERO FUEL WEIGHT

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

DETERMINATION OF TAKE-OFF WEIGHT

MAXIMUM AUTHORISED WEIGHT, MAXIMUM TOTAL WEIGHT TOTAL WEIGHT

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

Thus as the Resultant Moment is clockwise the C of G must be to the right of X.

i.e. the C of G is 1ft. 8in. to the right of X.

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

PREPARATION OF AIRCRAFT FOR WEIGHING

Ensure that the hydraulic system reservoir is topped up to the correct

Ensure that the aircraft is clean and dry.

The aircraft should be weighed indoors.

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

Fig. 1 Simple Scale

For training purposes only Rev. 01 Issued 01 Dec 06

Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved