MQ Gernal Maths HSC Course 2e SE

MATHS
Quest
General Mathematics
HSC COURSE
SE
ITION
D
E
D
CON
Robert Rowland
Second edition published 2007 by

John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2001
Typeset in 10.5/12.5 pt Times
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2001, 2007
The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Rowland, Robert, 1963.
Maths quest: general mathematics HSC.
2nd ed.
Includes index.
For secondary school students.
ISBN 978 0 7314 0569 5. (Student edition)
ISBN 978 0 7314 0568 8. (Teacher edition)
1. Mathematics - Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Mathematics.
I. Title.
510
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Contents
Introduction vi
About eBookPlus viii
Acknowledgements ix
Summary 73
Chapter review 75
Practice examination questions
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 1
Credit and borrowing
Are you ready?
2
Flat rate interest 3
Exercise 1A 6
Home loans 9
Exercise 1B 12
10 Quick Questions 1 16
The cost of a loan 16
Exercise 1C 19
Investigation Researching home loans 22
Credit cards 22
Exercise 1D 26
Investigation Researching credit cards 28
Loan repayments 29
Exercise 1E 31
Summary 34
Chapter review 36
Practice examination questions 39
CHAPTER 2
Further applications of area
and volume 41
Are you ready?
78
42
Area of parts of the circle 43
Exercise 2A 45
Area of composite shapes 48
Exercise 2B 50
Simpsons rule 53
Exercise 2C 55
Surface area of cylinders and spheres 57
Exercise 2D 59
Investigation Packaging 62
Volume of composite solids 62
Exercise 2E 65
Investigation Maximising volume 67
Error in measurement 69
Exercise 2F 71
Applications of
trigonometry 79
Are you ready?
80
Review of right-angled triangles 81
Exercise 3A 85
Bearings 86
Exercise 3B 89
Investigation Trigonometric ratios for obtuse
angles 91
The sine rule 91
Investigation Derivation of the sine rule 92
Exercise 3C 95
Exercise 3D 99
Area of a triangle 102
Exercise 3E 103
The cosine rule 106
Investigation Derivation of the cosine
rule 106
Exercise 3F 109
Exercise 3G 115
Radial surveys 118
Exercise 3H 121
Investigation Conducting a radial
survey 122
Summary 123
Chapter review 125
CHAPTER 4
Interpreting sets of data
Are you ready?
129
130
Measures of location and spread 131

Exercise 4A 136
Skewness 140
Exercise 4B 142
Displaying multiple data sets 145
Investigation Examining exam results 146
Exercise 4C 150
iv
Comparison of data sets 152
Exercise 4D 155
Investigation Developing a two-way
table 159
Summary 160
Chapter review 161
CHAPTER 5
Algebraic skills and
techniques 167
Are you ready?
168
Substitution 169
Exercise 5A 171
Algebraic manipulation 172
Exercise 5B 174
Equations and formulas 175
Exercise 5C 178
Solution by substitution 180
Exercise 5D 182
Investigation Repeated enlargements 183
Scientific notation 184
Exercise 5E 186
Summary 187
Chapter review 188
CHAPTER 6
Multi-stage events
Are you ready?
191
192
Tree diagrams 193

Exercise 6A 195
Counting techniques 196
Investigation Ordered arrangements 196
Investigation Tree diagrams and ordered
arrangements 198
Investigation Committee selections 199
Investigation Unordered selection 200
Exercise 6B 200
Probability and counting techniques 201
Investigation Popular gaming 203
Exercise 6C 203
Probability trees 205
Exercise 6D 209
Summary 212
Chapter review 213
CHAPTER 7
Applications of
probability 217
Are you ready?
218
Expected outcomes 219

Investigation Rolling a die 219
Exercise 7A 221
Financial expectation 223
Exercise 7B 225
Two-way tables 227
Exercise 7C 229
Summary 232
Chapter review 233
CHAPTER 8
Annuities and loan
repayments 237
Are you ready?
238
Future value of an annuity 239

Exercise 8A 242
Present value of an annuity 246
Exercise 8B 248
Future and present value tables 250
Exercise 8C 253
Loan repayments 255
Exercise 8D 257
Investigation Types of loan
arrangements 259
Summary 260
Chapter review 261
CHAPTER 9
Modelling linear and
non-linear relationships
Are you ready?
265
266
Linear functions 267

Exercise 9A 272
Investigation Conversion of
temperature 274
Quadratic functions 274
Exercise 9B 278
Investigation Maximising areas 280
v
Other functions 281
Exercise 9C 284
Investigation Compound interest 285
Variations 285
Exercise 9D 288
Graphing physical phenonema 289
Exercise 9E 292
Investigation Force of gravity 293
Summary 294
Chapter review 295
CHAPTER 10
Depreciation
Are you ready?
299
300
Modelling depreciation 301

Investigation Depreciation of motor
vehicles 301
Exercise 10A 304
Straight line depreciation 307
Exercise 10B 309
Declining balance method of
depreciation 310
Exercise 10C 312
Investigation Rates of depreciation 313
Depreciation tables 314
Exercise 10D 319
Summary 322
Chapter review 323
CHAPTER 11
The normal distribution
Are you ready?
327
328
z-scores 329
Exercise 11A 332
Comparison of scores 334
Exercise 11B 336
Investigation Comparison of subjects 338
Distribution of scores 339
Exercise 11C 342
Investigation Examining a normal
distribution 343
Summary 344
Chapter review 345
CHAPTER 12
Correlation
Are you ready?
349
350
Scatterplots 351
Exercise 12A 355
Investigation Collecting bivariate data 357
Regression lines 357
Exercise 12B 359
Exercise 12C 365
Investigation Relationship between
variables 369
Correlation 370
Investigation Causality 372
Exercise 12D 374
Summary 378
Chapter review 379
CHAPTER 13
Spherical geometry
Are you ready?
383
384
Arc lengths 385

Exercise 13A 386
Great circles and small circles 389
Exercise 13B 390
Latitude and longitude 393
Exercise 13C 396
Investigation Important parallels of
latitude 397
Distances on the Earths surface 397
Exercise 13D 399
Time zones 401
Investigation Australian time zones 402
Exercise 13E 404
Investigation The keepers of time 405
Summary 406
Chapter review 407
Glossary 411
Formula sheet 414
Answers 417
Index 449
Introduction
Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC course is the second book in a
series specifically designed for the General Mathematics Stage 6 Syllabus
starting in 2000. This course replaces the current syllabuses for Mathematics
in Society (1981) and Mathematics in Practice (1989).
There are five new areas of study:
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Data analysis
Measurement
Probability
Algebraic modelling.
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Acknowledgements
The Maths Quest project began in 1997, and the first edition of this book
was printed in 2001. In that time we believe that Maths Quest has become
the best resourced mathematical database in Australian education. I would
like to thank all of those people who have supported us with our first edition.
I hope that we have been able to help you in achieving your goals and have
also played a part in your successes.
Technology has evolved greatly since our first edition was published. The
second edition has evolved from being a textbook in its first edition, into an
interactive resource for both students and teachers. I would like to thank
everyone at John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd for giving me the opportunity
to do this.
There are three people in particular that I would like to single out for
special mention: Jennifer Nolan, whose support for the Maths Quest project
and for me personally has made everything possible; Ingrid Kemp, the
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About the author

Robert Rowland has been teaching Mathematics for over 20 years and currently holds the position of Head teacher, Teaching and learning at Ulladulla
High School. He taught at Cabramatta High School from 1985 to 1988 before
taking up his appointment at Ulladulla High School in 1989. Robert has successfully taught all levels of Mathematics to Year 12 as well as Computing
Studies 712 and Information Processes and Technology. Robert is the coauthor of New South Wales Maths Year 9 Standard and New South Wales
Maths Year 10 Standard as well as being the author of Maths Quest General
Mathematics Preliminary Course and Maths Quest General Mathematics
HSC Course.
Credit and
borrowing
1
syllabus reference
Financial mathematics 4
Credit and borrowing
In this chapter
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
Flat rate interest

Home loans
The cost of a loan
Credit cards
Loan repayments
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difficulty with any of them, extra help can be
obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon
next to the question on the Maths Quest HSC Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for
a copy.
1.1
Converting a percentage to a decimal
1 Convert each of the following percentages to decimals.

a 40%
b 12%
c 8%
1
e 0.3%
f 7 --- %
g 1--- %
2
1.2
Finding a percentage of a quantity (money)
2 Find:
a 30% of $5000
d 0.45% of $3600
1.3
d 2.4%
h 0.02%
b 5% of $7390
e 1--- % of $82 000
2
c 7.4% of $125 000

f 0.06% of $78 000
Calculating simple interest
3 Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of:

a $7000 at 9% p.a. for 4 years
b $57 500 at 6.5% p.a. for 2 years
c $90 000 at 7 1--- % for 2 1--- years
d $60 000 at 5.2% p.a. for 9 months
2
1.4
Finding values of n and r in financial formulas
4 Find the value of n and r for each of the following investments

a Interest of 6% p.a. for 5 years with interest calculated annually
b Interest of 9% p.a. for 4 years with interest calculated six-monthly
c Interest of 8.8% p.a. for 3 years with interest calculated quarterly
d Interest of 7.2% p.a. for 10 years with interest calculated monthly
e Interest of 21% p.a. for June with interest calculated daily
1.5
Calculating compound interest
5 Use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the amount to which each of the following investments
will grow.
a $7000 at 9% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded annually
b $75 000 at 6.2% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded six-monthly
Calculate the amount of compound interest earned on an investment of:
c $18 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually
d $150 000 at 8.4% p.a. for 10 years with interest compounded quarterly
1.6
Substitution into a formula
6 Evaluate each of the following by substituting into the given formula.

m
a If d = ---- , find d when m = 30 and v = 3.
v
b If A = 1--- (x + y)h, find A when h = 10, x = 7 and y = 2.
2
c If s = ut + 1--- at2, find s when u = 0.8, t = 5 and a = 2.3.

2
Chapter 1 Credit and borrowing
Flat rate interest

During the preliminary course we calculated the simple interest earned on investments.
Flat rate interest is the borrowing equivalent of simple interest. Flat rate interest applies
to many small loans and hire purchase agreements.
When money is borrowed from a lending institution such as a bank at a flat rate of
interest, the total amount of interest is calculated as a percentage of the initial amount
borrowed and then this is multiplied by the term of the loan. The term of the loan is
the length of time which the loan is agreed to be repaid over.
The formula for calculating the amount of flat interest to be paid on a loan is the
same formula as for simple interest (I):
I = Prn
where P = initial quantity
r = percentage interest rate per period expressed as a decimal
n = number of periods
As you work through the financial mathematics strand there are several formulas that
use the same pronumerals.
While the initial quantity (P) will be the principal in an investing scenario, it will
represent the amount borrowed in a loans situation.
All of these formulas use the same pronumerals and all of them require r to be
expressed as a decimal. It should be part of your normal practice when doing such
questions to convert the interest rate, expressed as a percentage, to a decimal. In simple
or flat rate interest, r will always be a rate per annum or per year and there will be no
variation on this regardless of how often interest is paid.
Similarly, n will always be the number of years of the investment or loan.
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the flat interest to be paid on a loan of $20 000 at 7.5% p.a. flat interest if the
loan is to be repaid over 5 years.
THINK
WRITE
Convert the interest rate to a decimal.
r = 7.5 100
= 0.075
Write the formula.
I = Prn
Substitute the values of P, r (as a

decimal) and n.
= $20 000
Calculate.
= $7500
0.075
Once the interest has been calculated, we can calculate the total amount that must be
repaid in a loan. This is calculated by adding the principal and the interest.
Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course
WORKED Example 2
Alvin borrows $8000 to buy a car at a flat rate of 9% p.a. interest. Alvin is to repay the
loan, plus interest, over 4 years. Calculate the total amount that Alvin is to repay on this
loan.
THINK
WRITE
Convert the interest rate to a decimal.
Write the interest formula.

Substitute the values of P, r and n.
Calculate the interest.
Calculate the total repayments by
adding the interest and principal.
3
4
5
r = 9 100
= 0.09
I = Prn
= $8000 0.09 4
= $2880
Total repayments = $8000 + $2880
Total repayments = $10 880
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate simple interest

Your Casio graphics calculator can perform a number of financial functions by using
the TVM mode.
One of the options in this mode is to calculate simple interest. Examples such as
worked example 2 above are more simply done using the arithmetic method as shown
above. However, for some of the more complex questions later in this chapter it is
worth familiarising yourself with this method.
1. From the MENU select TVM.
2. Press F1 to select Simple Interest.
3. The calculator has two modes of calculating interest:

360 day mode or 365 day mode. You need to make
sure that it is on 365 day mode. If not, press SHIFT
[SET UP], select Date Mode and press F1 for 365.
4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and
enter the data for worked example 2.
n = 4 365 (as n is in days)
I% = 9
PV = 8000
(principal or present value is entered as a negative)
5. The calculator gives you two options.

Press F1 (SI) for simple interest
Press F2 (SFV) for future value (in other words, the
principal plus interest).
In this example we want the total repayments, so we
press F2 (SPV).
Most loans are repaid on a monthly basis. Once the total amount to be repaid has been
calculated, this can be divided into equal monthly, fortnightly or weekly instalments.
WORKED Example 3
Narelle buys a computer on hire purchase. The cash price of the computer is $3000, but
Narelle must pay a 10% deposit with the balance paid at 8% p.a. flat rate interest in equal
monthly instalments over 3 years.
a Calculate the deposit.
b Calculate the balance owing.
c Calculate the interest on the loan.
d Calculate the total amount to be repaid.
e Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
THINK
WRITE
a Find 10% of $3000.
a Deposit = 10% of $3000

Deposit = $300
b Subtract the deposit from the cash price

to find the amount borrowed.
b Balance = $3000
Balance = $2700
c I = Prn
Write the interest formula.
Substitute for P, r and n.
I = $2700
Calculate the interest.
I = $648
0.08
$300
d Add the interest to the amount

borrowed.
d Total repayments = $2700 + $648

Total repayments = $3348
e Divide the total repayments by 36

(the number of monthly instalments in
3 years).
e Monthly repayments = $3348 36

Monthly repayments = $93.00
If given the amount to be repaid each month, we can calculate the interest rate. The
interest on the loan is the difference between the total repaid and the amount borrowed.
This is then calculated as a yearly amount and written as a percentage of the amount
borrowed.
WORKED Example 4
Theresa borrows $12 000 to buy a car. This is to be repaid over 5 years at $320 per month.
Calculate the flat rate of interest that Theresa has been charged.
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Calculate the total amount that is

repaid.
Subtract the principal from the total
repayments to find the interest.
Calculate the interest paid each year.
Write the annual interest as a
percentage of the amount borrowed.

Interest = $19 200 $12 000
Interest = $7200
Interest per year = $7200 5
Interest per year = $1440
$1440
Interest rate = ------------------- 100%
$12 000
Interest rate = 12%
remember
1. Flat rate interest is the borrowing equivalent of simple interest. It is calculated
based on the initial amount borrowed.
2. The simple interest formula is used to calculate the amount of flat rate interest
to be paid on a loan. The simple interest formula is I = Prn .
3. The total amount to be repaid on a loan is the principal plus interest. To
calculate the amount of each instalment, we divide the total amount by the
number of repayments.
4. When given the amount of each instalment, we can calculate the flat rate of
interest.
SkillS
1A
HEET
1.1
WORKED
SkillS
Converting Example
a
1
percentage
to a decimal
HEET
1.2
SkillS
Finding a
percentage
of a
WORKED
quantity Example
2
HEET
Flat rate interest
1.3
Calculating
simple
interest
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest paid on each of the following loans.
b $8000 at 5% p.a. for 3 years
c $15 000 at 10% p.a. for 5 years
d $9500 at 7.5% p.a. for 4 years
e $2500 at 10.4% p.a. for 18 months
2 Roula buys a used car that has a cash price of $7500. She has saved a deposit of
$2000 and borrows the balance at 9.6% p.a. flat rate to be repaid over 3 years.
Calculate the amount of interest that Roula must pay.
3 Ben borrows $4000 for a holiday. The loan is to be repaid over 2 years at 12.5% p.a.
flat interest. Calculate the total repayments that Ben must make.
4 Calculate the total amount to be paid on each of the following flat rate interest loans.
a $3500 at 8% p.a. over 2 years
b $13 500 at 11.6% p.a. over 5 years
c $1500 at 13.5% p.a. over 18 months
d $300 at 33% p.a. over 1 month
e $100 000 at 7% p.a. over 25 years
Example
GC
asio
WORKED
sheet
5 Mr and Mrs French purchase a new lounge suite, which has a cash price of $5500.
L Spre
XCE ad
They purchase the lounge on the following terms: 30% deposit with the balance to be
Simple
repaid at 9% p.a. flat interest over 2 years. Calculate:
interest
a the deposit
b the balance owing
c the interest to be paid
am
progr C
d the total amount that they pay for the lounge.
TI
6 Yasmin borrows $5000 from a credit union at a flat interest rate of 8% p.a. to be Interest
repaid over 4 years in equal monthly instalments. Calculate:
a the interest that Yasmin must pay on the loan
b the total amount that Yasmin must repay
program
GC
c the amount of each monthly repayment.
7 Ian borrows $2000 from a pawnbroker at 40% p.a. interest. The loan is to be paid over
1 year in equal weekly payments.
a Calculate the interest on the loan.
b Calculate the total that Ian must repay.
c Calculate Ians weekly payment.
8 The Richards family purchase an entertainment system for their home. The total cost
of the system is $8000. They buy the system on the following terms: 25% deposit
with the balance repaid over 3 years at 12% p.a. flat interest in equal monthly
instalments. Calculate:
a the deposit
b the balance owing
c the interest on the loan
d the total repayments
e the amount of each monthly repayment.
9 Sam buys an electric guitar with a cash price of $1200. He
buys the guitar on the following terms: one-third deposit, with
the balance at 15% p.a. flat interest over 2 years in equal
monthly instalments. Calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
10 multiple choice
The amount of flat rate interest on a loan of $10 000 at 10% p.a.
for 2 years is:
A $1000
B $2000
C $11 000
D $12 000
11 multiple choice
A refrigerator with a cash price of $1800 is bought on the
following terms: 20% deposit with the balance paid in
12 equal monthly instalments at 12% p.a. flat interest.
The total cost of the refrigerator when purchased on
terms is:
A $172.80
B $216.00
C $1972.80
D $2016.00
Interest
WORKED
Example
12 Andy borrows $4000, which is to be repaid over 4 years at $110 per month. Calculate
the flat rate of interest that Andy has been charged.
13 Sandra buys a used car with a cash price of
$12 000 on the following terms: 20%
deposit with the balance paid at $89.23 per
week for 3 years. Calculate:
a the deposit
b the balance owing
c the total cost of the car
d the flat rate of interest charged.
14 Calculate the flat rate of interest charged on
a lounge suite with a cash price of $5000 if
it is purchased on the following terms: 15%
deposit with the balance paid at $230.21
per month for 2 years.
Computer Application 1 Flat rate interest loan calculator

EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
Flat
interest
Access the spreadsheet Flat Interest from the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC
Course CD-ROM. This spreadsheet will demonstrate how to calculate a deposit, the
total repayments on a loan and the size of each repayment.
Monthly payment calculator

Consider a $5000 loan to be repaid at 9% p.a. flat rate interest over 3 years.
1. On the sheet titled Monthly Payments, in cell B5 enter the amount which has been
borrowed ($5000), or the balance owing on a purchase after the deposit has been
paid.
2. In cell B7 enter the interest rate as a percentage (9%).
3. In cell B9 enter the number of years over which the loan is to be repaid (3).
4. The total interest paid on the loan will be displayed in cell B11. The formula for this
will be displayed in this cell.
5. Cell B13 shows the total amount to be repaid and cell B15 shows the amount of each
repayment.
Flat interest rate calculator

The worksheet Flat Interest Rate will calculate the flat rate of interest charged given
the amount of each repayment. Consider a $15 000 loan that is repaid over 5 years at
$350 per month.
1. In cell B5 enter the amount borrowed ($15 000).
2. In cell B7 enter the amount of each monthly payment ($350).
3. In cell B9 enter the total number of monthly payments (60).
4. Displayed will be the total amount to be repaid (cell B11), the total interest paid on
the loan (cell B13), the amount of interest paid per year (cell B15) and the flat rate of
interest (cell B17).
Check your answers to the previous exercise using this spreadsheet.
Home loans
The biggest loan that most people will ever take out will be for a home. These loans are
usually for large amounts of money and are taken over long periods of time. Most commonly they are taken over 10, 15, 20 or 25 years but they can be taken over even longer
periods of up to 35 years.
Home loans are not charged at a flat rate of interest. The interest on these loans is
reducible, which means that the interest is calculated on the amount of money owing on
the loan at the time rather than on the amount initially borrowed. This is known as a
reducing balance loan.
The interest on a home loan is usually calculated at the beginning of each month, and
payments are calculated on a monthly basis. So each month interest is added to the loan
and a payment is subtracted from the balance owing. The balance increases by the
amount of interest and then decreases by the amount of each payment.
10
Consider the case of a person who borrows $250 000 to buy a home at 9% p.a.
reducible interest. The monthly repayment on this loan is $2500 per month. The
interest rate of 9% p.a. converts to 0.75% per month.
First months interest = 0.75% of $250 000
= $1875
Balance owing = $250 000 + $1875 $2500
= $249 375
In the second month the interest is calculated on the balance owing at the end of the
first month.
Second months interest = 0.75% of $249 375
= $1870.31
Balance owing = $249 375 + $1870.31
= $248 745.31
$2500
The progress of this loan can be followed in the following computer application.
Computer Application 2 Home loan calculator

EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
Home
loan
Access the spreadsheet Home Loan from the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC
Course CD-ROM. This spreadsheet will allow you to follow the progress of a home
loan as it is paid off.
Use the Edit and then the Fill and Down functions on columns A, B, C and D. Look
down column D to find when the balance owing becomes 0 or when it becomes
negative. At this time the loan will have been fully repaid.
Examine other loans by changing the data in C4, C5 and C6.
11
WORKED Example 5
Mr and Mrs Chan take out a $100 000 home loan at 8% p.a. reducible interest over
25 years. Interest is calculated and added on the first of each month. They make a
payment of $775 each month. Calculate:
a the interest added after one month
b the balance owing after one month.
THINK
WRITE
a 8% p.a. = 2--- % per month
1
2
Convert 8% p.a. to a monthly rate.
Calculate
2
--- %
3
of $100 000 to find the
Interest =
interest for one month.

b Add the interest to the principal and
subtract the repayment.
2
--- %
3
of $100 000
Interest = $666.67
b Balance owing = $100 000 + $666.67
Balance owing = $99 891.67
$775
the interest in
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate
a one-month period
We can use the TVM function to calculate the interest for a one-month period but great
care needs to be taken. Remembering that the interest is calculated for a number of
days, to calculate monthly interest we need to enter n = 365 12. Consider the method
shown below for worked example 5.
3. n = 365 12 (as n is in days)

I% = 8
PV = 100000
4. Press F1 (SI) to find the interest for one month.
When interest is calculated every year for such a long

period of time, as with many home loans, the amount of
money required to pay off such a loan can be a great
deal more than the initial loan.
12
WORKED Example 6
A loan of $120 000 is paid off at 9% p.a. reducible interest over a period of 25 years.
The monthly repayment is $1007.04. Calculate the total amount made in repayments on
this loan.
THINK
1
2
WRITE
Calculate the number of repayments by

multiplying the number of years by 12.
Multiply the monthly repayment by the
number of repayments.
No. of repayments = 25 12
No. of repayments = 300
Total repayments = $1007.04 300
Total repayments = $302 112.00
remember
1. The interest on home loans is calculated at a reducible rate. This means that the
interest is calculated on the balance owing rather than the initial amount
borrowed.
2. Interest is calculated each month; this is then added to the principal and a
payment is made. The interest next month is then calculated on the new amount
owing.
3. To calculate the total amount to be repaid on a home loan, we multiply the
monthly payment by the number of repayments made.
1B
SkillS
HEET
1.4
WORKED
Example
Finding
values of
n and r in
financial
formulas
SkillS
HEET
1.5
Calculating
compound
interest
EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
Interest
Home loans
1 Mr and Mrs Devcich borrow

$80 000 to buy a home. The interest
rate is 12% p.a. and their monthly
payment is $850 per month.
a Calculate the interest for the first
month of the loan.
b Calculate the balance owing at
the end of the first month.
2 The repayment on a loan of
$180 000 at 7.5% p.a. over a
15-year term is $1668.62 per
month.
a Calculate the interest for the first
month of the loan and the balance owing at the end of the first
month.
b Calculate the amount by which
the balance has reduced in the
first month.
13
c Calculate the interest for the second month of the loan and the balance at the end
of the second month.
d By how much has the balance of the loan reduced during the second month?
3 The repayment on a loan of $150 000 over a 20-year term at 9.6% p.a. is $1408.01 per
month. Copy and complete the table below.
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
150 000.00
1200.00
149 791.99
149 791.99
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4 Mr and Mrs Roebuck borrow $255 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is
9% p.a. and over a 25-year term the monthly repayment is $2294.31.
a Copy and complete the table below.
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
255 000.00
1912.50
254 618.19
254 618.19
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
14
b Mr and Mrs Roebuck decide to increase their monthly payment to $2500.

Complete the table below.
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
255 000.00
1912.50
254 412.50
254 412.50
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
c How much less do Mr and Mrs Roebuck owe at the end of one year by increasing
their monthly repayment?
WORKED
Example
5 The repayments on a loan of $105 000 at 8% p.a. reducible interest over 25 years are
$810.41 per month. Calculate the total repayments made over the life of the loan.
6 The Taylors borrow $140 000 over 20 years at 9% p.a.
a The monthly repayment on this loan is $1259.62. Calculate the total repayments.
b The Taylors attempt to pay the loan off quickly by increasing their monthly
payment to $1500. The loan is then paid off in 161 months. Calculate the total
repayments made under this plan.
c How much will the Taylors save by increasing each monthly payment?
7 multiple choice
The first months interest on a $60 000 home loan at 12% p.a. reducible interest is:
A $600
B $7200
C $60 600
D $67 200
8 multiple choice
A $95 000 loan at 8% p.a. reducible interest over a 15-year term has a monthly
payment of $907.87. The total amount of interest paid on this loan is:
A $7600
B $68 416.60
C $114 000
D $163 416.60
9 Mr and Mrs Chakraborty need to borrow $100 000 to purchase a home. The interest
rate charged by the bank is 7% p.a. Calculate the total interest paid if the loan is taken
over each of the following terms:
a $706.78 per month over a 25-year term
b $775.30 per month over a 20-year term
c $898.83 per month over a 15-year term
d $1161.08 per month over a 10-year term.
15
10 The Smith and Jones families each take out a $200 000 loan at 9.5% p.a. reducible
interest. The Smith family repay the loan at $2000 per month and the Jones family
repay the loan at $3000 per month.
a How much does each family make in repayments in the first year?
b Complete the table below for each family.
Smith family
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
200 000.00
1583.33
199 583.33
199 583.33
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Jones family
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
200 000.00
1583.33
198 583.33
198 583.33
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
c After one year how much less does the Jones family owe than the Smith family?
16
1
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest payable on a loan of $1500 at 14% p.a. to be
repaid over 2 years.
2 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest payable on a loan of $2365 at 19.2% p.a. to
be repaid over 2 1--- years.
2
3 Calculate the total repayments on a loan of $5000 at 13.5% p.a. to be repaid over
3 years.
4 Susan buys a lounge suite on terms. The cash price of the lounge is $6500 and she
pays a 15% deposit. Calculate the amount of the deposit.
5 Calculate the balance that Susan owes on the lounge suite.
6 Calculate the interest that Susan will pay at 17% p.a. flat rate interest for a period of
3 years.
7 Calculate the total amount that Susan will have to repay.
8 Calculate the monthly repayment that Susan will need to make.
9 Harry and Sally borrow $164 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 12% p.a.
Calculate the amount of interest payable for the first month.
10 A $175 000 loan that is repaid over 25 years has a monthly repayment of $1468.59.
Calculate the total amount of interest that is paid on this loan.
The cost of a loan

Because of the different ways that interest can be calculated, the actual interest rate
quoted may not be an accurate guide to the cost of the loan. By using a flat rate of
interest, a lender can quote an interest rate less than the equivalent reducible interest
rate.
To compare flat and reducible rates of interest, we need to calculate the effective rate
of interest for a flat rate loan. The effective rate of interest is the equivalent rate of
reducible interest for a flat rate loan.
The formula for effective rate of interest is:
( 1 + r )n 1
E = ---------------------------n
where E = effective rate of interest, expressed as a decimal
r = stated rate of flat interest expressed as a decimal
n = term of the loan in years
Note: This formula for effective rate of interest is not on your formula sheet. This does
not mean that you have to memorise it as the formula will be given to you as a part of
any question that requires you to use it.
17
WORKED Example 7
Andrea takes out an $8000 loan for a car over 5 years at 6% p.a. flat rate interest.
Calculate the effective rate of interest charged on the loan.
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute r = 0.06 and n = 5.
Calculate.
Write the interest rate as a percentage.
( 1 + r )n 1
E = ---------------------------n
( 1.06 ) 5 1
E = -------------------------5
E = 0.068
The effective rate of interest is 6.8% p.a.
A loan with a reducible rate of interest can be compared to a flat rate of interest if we
are able to calculate the total repayments made over the term of the loan.
WORKED Example 8
An $85 000 loan at 10% p.a. reducible interest is to be repaid over 15 years at $913.41 per
month.
a Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
b Calculate the total amount of interest paid.
c Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on this loan.
THINK
WRITE
a Multiply the monthly repayments by the

number of months taken to repay the loan.
a Total repayments = $913.41 180

Total repayments = $164 413.80
b Subtract the initial amount borrowed from the

total repayments.
b Interest = $164 413.80

Interest = $79 413.80
c Annual interest = $79 413.80 15

Annual interest = $5294.25
Calculate the amount of interest paid per

year.
Write the yearly interest as a percentage of

the amount borrowed.
$85 000
$5294.25
Flat interest rate = ---------------------$85 000
Flat interest rate = 6.2% p.a.
100%
The most accurate way to compare loans is to calculate the total repayments made in
each loan.
18
WORKED Example 9
Allison borrows $6000 and has narrowed her choice of loans down to two options.
Loan A: At 8% p.a. flat rate interest over 4 years to be repaid at $165.00 per month.
Loan B: At 12% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years to be paid at $199.29 per month.
Which of the two loans would cost Allison less?
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Calculate the total repayments on

Loan A.
Loan B.
Write a conclusion.
Loan A repayments = $165.00 48

Loan A repayments = $7920
Loan B repayments = $199.29 36
Loan B repayments = $7174.44
Loan B would cost $745.56 less than Loan A.
In the above example Allison should take Loan B even though it has a much higher
advertised interest rate. This of course would depend upon Allisons ability to meet the
higher monthly payments.
Generally the more quickly that you can pay off a loan the cheaper the loan will be.
The savings are particularly evident when examining home loans. Some home loans
that offer a lower interest rate allow for you to make only the minimum monthly repayment. This will maximise the amount of interest that the customer will pay.
If a person can afford to pay more than the minimum amount, they may be better off
over time by paying a slightly higher rate of interest and paying the loan off over a
shorter period of time.
WORKED Example 10
Mr and Mrs Beasley need to borrow $100 000 and have the choice of two home loans.
Loan X: 6% p.a. over 25 years with a fixed monthly repayment of $644.30. No extra
repayments are allowed on this loan.
Loan Y: 7% p.a. over 25 years with a minimum monthly payment of $706.78.
Mr and Mrs Beasley believe they can afford to pay $800 per month on this loan. If they
do, the loan will be repaid in 18 years and 9 months. Which loan would you recommend?
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE

Loan X.
Loan Y.
Make a recommendation.
Loan X repayments = $644.30 300

= $193 290
Loan Y repayments = $800 225
= $180 000
Mr and Mrs Beasley should choose Loan Y
as they will save $13 290 provided they can
continue to pay $800 per month.
With loans such as the one in the above example, the savings depend upon the ability to
make the extra repayments. If this is doubtful, Loan X would have been the safer
option.
19
The other factor to consider when calculating the cost of a loan is fees. Many loans
have a monthly management fee attached to them. This will need to be calculated into
the total cost and may mean that a loan with a slightly higher interest rate but no fee
may be a cheaper option.
remember
1. The actual cost of a loan is calculated by the total cost in repaying the loan.
The interest rate is a guide but not the only factor in calculating cost.
2. A loan that is quoted at a flat rate of interest can be compared to a reducible
rate of interest only by calculating the effective rate of interest on the flat rate
loan. The effective rate of interest is the equivalent reducible rate of interest
and is found using the formula:
( 1 + r )n 1
E = ---------------------------n
3. By calculating the total repayments on a loan, we can calculate the equivalent
flat rate of interest paid on the loan.
4. A loan that is repaid over a shorter period of time will usually cost less than
one where the repayments are made over the full term of the loan.
5. The flexibility of a loan, which includes factors such as whether extra
repayments can be made, is important when considering the cost of a loan.
6. When calculating the cost of a loan, any ongoing fees need to be calculated.
WORKED
Example
1 A $15 000 loan is to be repaid at 8% p.a. flat rate interest over a 10-year term.
( 1 + r )n 1
Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the effective rate of interest.
n
Substitution
into a
formula
3 A bank offers loans at 8% p.a. flat rate of interest. Calculate the effective rate
of interest for a loan taken over:
a 2 years
b 3 years
c 4 years
d 5 years
e 10 years
f 20 years.
WORKED
Example
SkillS
4 An $85 000 home loan at 9% p.a reducible interest is to be repaid over 25 years at
$713.32 per month.
b Calculate the total amount of interest paid.
c Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan.
5 Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest paid on a $115 000 loan at 12% p.a.
reducible interest to be repaid over 30 years at $1182.90 per month.
L Spre
XCE ad
Effective
rate of
interest
sheet
2 Calculate the effective rate of interest on each of the following flat rate loans.
a 10% p.a. over 4 years
b 8% p.a. over 2 years
c 12% p.a. over 5 years
d 7.5% p.a. over 10 years e 9.6% p.a. over 6 years
1.6
HEET
The cost of a loan
1C
20
WORKED
Example
6 Kim borrows $12 000 for a holiday to South-East

Asia. She is faced with a choice of two loans.
Loan I: At 10% p.a. flat rate of interest over 2 years
to be repaid at $600 per month.
Loan II: At 12.5% p.a. reducible interest over
3 years to be repaid at $401.44 per month.
Which loan will cost Kim the least money?
7 Calculate the total cost of repaying a loan
$100 000 at 8% p.a. reducible interest:
a over 25 years with a monthly repayment
$771.82
b over 20 years with a monthly repayment
$836.44
c over 10 years with a monthly repayment
$1213.28.
WORKED
Example
10
of
of
of
of
8 Masako and Toshika borrow $125 000 for their

home. They have the choice of two loans.
Loan 1: A low interest loan at 7% p.a. interest over
25 years with fixed repayments of $833.47 per
month.
Loan 2: A loan at 7.5% p.a interest over 25 years
with minimum repayments of $923.74 per month.
Masako and Toshika believe they can afford to pay
$1000 per month. If they do, Loan 2 will be repaid
in 20 years and 4 months.
Which loan should they choose if they could afford to pay the extra each month?
9 multiple choice
A loan can be taken out at 8% p.a. flat interest or 9% p.a. reducible interest. Using the
( 1 + r )n 1
formula E = ---------------------------- , the number of years of the loan (n) after which the effective
n
rate of interest on the flat rate loan becomes greater than the reducible rate loan is:
A 2 years
B 3 years
C 4 years
D 5 years
10 Glenn and Inge are applying for a $150 000 loan to be repaid over 25 years.
a Bank A charges 7.8% p.a. interest, no fees, with the loan to be repaid at $1137.92
per month. Calculate the total cost of this loan.
b Bank B charges 7.6% p.a. interest, a $600 loan application fee, a $5 per month
management fee and repayments of $1118.26 per month. Calculate the total cost of
this loan.
11 multiple choice
A $50 000 loan is to be taken out. Which of the following loans will have the lowest
total cost?
A 5% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid over 10 years
B 8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 10 years at $606.64 per month
C 6% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 12 years at $487.93 per month
D 6.5% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 10 years at $567.74 per month, with
a $600 loan application fee and $8 per month account management fee
21
12 A home loan of $250 000 is taken out over a 20-year term. The interest rate is 9.5% p.a.
and the monthly repayments are $2330.33.
b Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan. (Consider the extra
payments as part of the interest.)
c If the loan is repaid at $3000 per month, it will take 11 1--- years to repay the loan.
2
Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest if this repayment plan is followed.
Graphics Calculator tip! Loan repayment function

Your Casio graphics calculator can calculate the amount of each monthly repayment
on a home loan when given the term of the loan and the interest rate. The PMT
function, which is under the compound interest menu, allows for such calculations to
be made.
Consider a loan of $250 000 to be repaid over 25 years at 8% p.a. with interest added
and repayments made monthly. We wish to find the amount of each monthly
repayment.
2. Press F2 to select Compound Interest.
3. Enter the following settings.

n = 25 12
I% = 8
PV = 250000
PMT = 1
FV = 0
P/Y = 12 (payments per year)
C/Y = 12 (You will need to scroll to see this.)
4. Press F4 (PMT) to find the amount of each monthly
repayment, which will be displayed as a negative.
Work
a The mortgage application fee on this loan was $600 and there is a $10 per month
account management fee. Calculate the total cost of repaying this loan.
T
SHEE
1.1
22
Researching home loans

1 Suppose that you wish to borrow $100 000 to buy a home. Go to a bank or other
lender and gather the following information.
a The annual interest rate
b The loan application fee and any other costs such as stamp duty, legal costs
etc. associated with establishing the loan
c Is there a monthly account keeping or management fee?
d The monthly repayment if the loan is repaid over:
i 15 years
ii 20 years
iii 25 years
e The total cost of repaying the loan in each of the above examples
2 There are many ways that people can reduce the overall cost of repaying a
mortgage. Research and explain why people are able to save money by adopting
the following repayment strategies.
a Repaying the loan fortnightly or weekly instead of monthly
b Using an account where the whole of a persons net pay is deposited on the
mortgage and then a redraw is used to meet living expenses
Credit cards
Credit cards are the most common line of day-to-day credit that most people use. A
credit card works as a pre-approved loan up to an amount agreed upon by the customer
and the bank. The card can then be used until the amount of the debt reaches this limit.
As with other types of loan, the bank charges interest upon the amount that is owed
on the card and repayments must be made monthly. The way in which the interest is
calculated varies with different types of credit cards.
Some cards have interest charged from the day on which the purchase was made.
Others have what is called an interest-free period. This means that a purchase that is
made will appear on the next monthly statement. Provided that this amount is paid by
the due date, no interest is charged. Hence, the customer can repay the loan within a
maximum of 55 days and be charged no interest.
Generally, credit cards without an interest-free period have a lower interest rate than
those with an interest-free period. These cards, however, generally attract an annual fee.
This annual fee can in some cases be waived if a certain amount is spent on the card
over the year.
The minimum monthly repayment on most credit cards is 5% of the outstanding
balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
WORKED Example 11
On Trevors credit card statement he has an outstanding balance of $1148.50.

The minimum monthly payment is 5% of the outstanding balance, or $10, whichever
is greater. Calculate the minimum repayment that Trevor must make.
THINK
1 Calculate 5% of the outstanding balance.
2 Decide which repayment is greater and
give a written answer.
WRITE
5% of $1148.50 = $57.43
The minimum repayment is $57.43.
23
Credit card interest is quoted as an annual amount but is added monthly. To calculate
the interest due, calculate one months interest on the outrstanding balance..
WORKED Example 12
The outstanding balance on a credit card is $2563.75. If the full balance is not paid by the
due date, one months interest will be added at a rate of 18% p.a. Calculate the amount of
interest that will be added to the credit card.
THINK
WRITE
Use the simple interest formula to calculate

one months interest.
I = Prn
I = $2563.75
I = $38.46
0.18
1
-----12
In practice, most credit cards calculate interest on the outstanding balance at a daily
rate and then add the interest monthly. If a credit card advertises its interest rate as
18% p.a., the daily rate is 0.049 315%. To work out the interest, you will need to count
the number of days that the credit card has each different balance over the month.
WORKED Example 13
An extract from a credit card statement is shown below.
Interest rate = 15% p.a.
Daily rate = 0.041 096%
Date
Credit
Debit
Balance
1 June
10 June
$900
$400 repayment
$500
15 June
$350 purchase
$850
22 June
$140 purchase
$990
1 July
??? interest
Calculate the interest that will be due for the month of June.
THINK
1
2
3
4
5
For 1 June 9 June inclusive (9 days), the

balance owing is $900. Calculate the interest.
Add each amount of interest to calculate the
total interest for the month.
WRITE
I = 0.041 096% of $900 9
I = $3.33
I = 0.041 096% of $500 5
I = $1.03
I = 0.041 096% of $850 7
I = $2.45
I = 0.041 096% of $990 9
I = $3.66
Total interest = $3.33 + $1.03
Total interest = + $2.45 + $3.66
Total interest = $10.47
24
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculating interest on a daily basis

When doing this type of question where we need to consider interest calculated on a
daily basis the TVM mode of your calculator is very useful. Consider the method shown
below for worked example 13.
1. From the MENU of your calculator select TVM.
3. For 9 days the balance is $900, so enter:

n=9
I% = 15
PV = 900
4. Press F1 (SI) to get the interest for these 9 days.
Interest = $3.33
5. For 5 days the balance is $500. Press EXIT to
return to the previous screen; change the values of n
and PV.
n=5
I% = 15
PV = 500
Interest = $1.03
Then press F1 for the simple interest.

and PV.
n=7
I% = 15
PV = 850
Then again press F1 for the simple interest.
Interest = $2.45

and PV.
n=9
I% = 15
PV = 990
Then again press F1 for the simple interest.
8. Add each amount of interest to find the total
amount of interest for the month.
25
Interest = $3.66
Total interest
= $3.33 + $1.03 + $2.45 + $3.66
= $10.47
When deciding which credit card is most suitable for your needs, consider if you will
generally be able to pay most items off before the interest-free period expires. The total
cost in interest over a year will vary according to the repayment pattern.
WORKED Example 14
Kerry has a credit card with an interest-free period and interest is then charged on the
outstanding balance at a rate of 18% p.a. Kerry pays a $1200 bill for her council rates on
her credit card.
a Kerry pays $600 by the due date. What is the outstanding balance on the card?
b Calculate the interest Kerry must then pay for the second month.
c An alternative credit card charges 12% p.a. interest with no interest-free period.
Calculate the interest that Kerry would have been charged on the first month.
d Calculate the balance owing after Kerry pays $600 then calculate the interest for the
second month.
e Which credit card would be the cheapest to use for this bill?
THINK
WRITE
a Subtract the repayment from the

balance.
a Balance owing = $1200

Balance owing = $600
b Use the simple interest formula to

calculate one months interest.
b I = Prn
= $600 0.18
= $9.00
c Use the simple interest formula to

calculate the first months interest.
c I = Prn
= $1200 0.12
= $12.00
d Balance owing = $1200 + $12

= $612
I = Prn
1
= $612 0.12 ----12
= $6.12
1
2
Add the interest to the amount of the

bill and subtract the repayment.
Use the simple interest formula to
calculate the second months
interest.
e Add the two months of interest together

for the second card and compare with
the interest for the first card.
$600
1
-----12
1
-----12
$600
e The interest on the second card is $18.12 and

therefore the card with the interest-free
period is cheaper in this case.
26
remember
1. A credit card is a source of an instant loan to the card holder.
2. The card is repaid monthly with the minimum payment usually 5% of the
outstanding balance, or $10, whichever is the greater.
3. There are many different types of credit card. The main difference between
them is that some have an interest-free period while others charge interest from
the date of purchase.
4. Cards without an interest-free period generally have a lower rate of interest
than those with an interest-free period.
5. The interest on a credit card is usually calculated as a daily rate. This is found
by dividing the annual rate by 365.
6. The TVM function on the graphics calculator can be used to calculate the
monthly interest on a credit card.
7. To calculate the cheaper credit card, we need to consider the repayment plan
that would be used.
1D
Credit cards
1 Roy has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $2730. Calculate the minimum
payment if he must pay 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
11
2 The minimum monthly repayment on a credit card is 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater. Calculate the minimum monthly repayment on a balance of:
a $3500
b $1194.50
c $492.76
d $150
e $920.52.
WORKED
Example
3 Leonie has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $1850. If the interest rate is
18% p.a., calculate the amount of interest that Leonie will be charged for one month if
12
the balance is not paid by the due date.
WORKED
Example
4 Hassim buys a refrigerator for $1450 with his credit card. The card has no interest-free
period and interest is charged at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate one months interest on
this purchase.
5 Michelle has a $2000 outstanding balance on her credit card. The interest rate charged
is 21% p.a. on the balance unpaid by the due date.
a If Michelle pays $200 by the due date, calculate the balance owing.
b Calculate the interest that Michelle will owe for the next month.
c What will be the balance owing on Michelles next credit card statement?
d What will be the total amount owing on the credit card after another months interest
is added?
6 Chandra has a credit card which charges interest at a rate of 12% p.a. but has no
interest-free period. He makes a purchase of $1750 on the credit card.
a After one month Chandras credit card statement arrives. What will be the outstanding balance on the statement?
b The minimum repayment will be 5% of the outstanding balance. Calculate the
amount that Chandra will owe if he makes only the minimum payment.
c In the next month Chandra makes purchases totalling $347.30. Calculate the interest
charged and the balance owing for the next months statement.
WORKED
Example
13
27
7 An extract of a credit card statement is shown below. Take 1 year = 365.25 days.
Interest rate = 18% p.a.
Date
Daily rate = 0.049 28%
Credit ($)
Debit ($)
1 July
256.40
10 July
20 July
Balance ($)
40 purchase
40 repayment
1 August
??? interest
a Complete the balance column. Calculate the balance owing on 10 July and 20 July.
b Calculate the interest due on 1 August and the balance on that date.
8 Study the credit card statement below.
Interest rate = 16.5% p.a.
Date
Daily rate = ______
Credit ($)
Debit ($)
1 Jan.
8 Jan.
1548.50
500 repayment
15 Jan.
399 purchase
1 Feb.
8 Feb.
1 March
Balance ($)
??? interest
??? repayment
??? interest
a Calculate the daily rate of interest, correct to 4 decimal places (take 1 year = 365.25
days).
b Calculate the interest added to the account on 1 February.
c On 8 February the minimum repayment of 5% is made. Calculate the amount of this
repayment.
d Calculate the outstanding balance on the account on 1 March.
9 Kai has two credit cards. One has an interest-free period and interest is then charged on
the outstanding balance at a rate of 18% p.a. The other has no interest-free period with
14
interest added from the date of purchase at a rate of 14% p.a. Kai has $1500 worth of
bills to pay in the coming month and intends to use one of the cards to pay them, then
pay the balance off in monthly instalments of $500.
a If Kai uses the card with the interest-free period and pays $500 by the due date, what
is the outstanding balance on the card?
b Calculate the interest Kai must then pay for the second month.
c Calculate the balance owing at the end of the second month and the balance owing
at the end of the third month, at which time Kai pays off the entire balance.
d Calculate the interest payable in the first month if Kai uses the card without the
interest-free period.
e Calculate the balance owing after Kai pays $500 then calculate the interest for the
second month.
f Calculate the balance owing at the end of the second month and the balance owing
at the end of the third month, at which time Kai pays off the entire balance.
g Which card should Kai use for these bills?
WORKED
Example
28
Researching credit cards

Find out about the costs associated with two credit cards. One of the cards should
have an interest-free period and the other no interest-free period. Find out:
1 if there is an annual fee associated with having the card
2 the interest rate on each card
3 the minimum monthly payment to be made on each card
4 what credit limits apply to a first-time credit card holder
5 what benefits such as Fly-Buys or Frequent Flyer Points can be obtained
from use of the card
6 any other relevant information about the card.
2
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest payable on a loan of $4500 at 21% p.a. over
a 3 year term.
2 A loan of $2000 is repaid over 1 year at a rate of $100 per week. Calculate the rate of
interest charged on the loan.
3 A loan of $120 000 at 11% p.a. reducible over 20 years is repaid at $1238.63 per
month. The bank also charges an $8 per month account management fee. Calculate
the total cost of repaying the loan.
4 A loan of $5000 is advertised at a rate of 9% p.a. flat rate interest for a term of
( 1 + r )n 1
4 years. Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the effective rate of interest on
n
this loan (correct to 1 decimal place).
5 A loan of $10 000 at 11% p.a. reducible interest is repaid over 4 years at a rate of
$258.46 per month. Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest charged on the loan
(correct to 1 decimal place).
6 With reference to credit cards, what is meant by the term interest-free period?
7 The minimum repayment on a credit card is 5% or $10, whichever is greater.
Calculate the minimum repayment for July that is to be made on a card with an
outstanding balance of $3297.50.
8 On the credit card in question 7, a repayment of $500 is made by the due date.
Calculate the interest that will be charged for August at the rate of 18% p.a.
9 An alternative credit card with no interest-free period has an interest rate of 12% p.a.
Calculate the interest on the above credit card for July at this rate.
10 Calculate the total interest that would have been charged for 2 months assuming a
$500 payment was made on 1 August.
29
Loan repayments
With a reducing balance loan, an amount of interest is added to the principal each
month and then a repayment is made which is then subtracted from the outstanding
balance. Consider the case below of a $2000 loan at 15% p.a. to be repaid over 1 year
in equal monthly instalments of $180.52.
Month
Opening
balance
Interest
Closing
balance
$2000.00
$25.00
$1844.48
$1844.48
$23.06
$1687.02
$1687.02
$21.09
$1527.59
$1527.59
$19.09
$1366.17
$1366.17
$17.08
$1202.73
$1202.73
$15.03
$1037.25
$1037.25
$12.97
$ 869.70
$ 869.70
$10.87
$ 700.05
$ 700.05
$ 8.75
$ 528.29
10
$ 528.29
$ 6.60
$ 354.37
11
$ 354.37
$ 4.43
$ 178.29
12
$ 178.29
$ 2.23
0.00
The actual calculation of the amount to be repaid each month to pay off the loan plus
interest in the given period of time is beyond this course. The most practical way to find
the amount of each monthly repayment is to use a table of repayments.
30
Monthly repayment per $1000 borrowed

Interest rate
Year
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
$85.61 $86.07 $86.53 $86.99 $87.45 $87.92 $88.38 $88.85 $89.32 $89.79 $90.26
$43.87 $44.32 $44.77 $45.23 $45.68 $46.14 $46.61 $47.07 $47.54 $48.01 $48.49
$29.97 $30.42 $30.88 $31.34 $31.80 $32.27 $32.74 $33.21 $33.69 $34.18 $34.67
$23.03 $23.49 $23.95 $24.41 $24.89 $25.36 $25.85 $26.33 $26.83 $27.33 $27.83
$18.87 $19.33 $19.80 $20.28 $20.76 $21.25 $21.74 $22.24 $22.75 $23.27 $23.79
$16.10 $16.57 $17.05 $17.53 $18.03 $18.53 $19.03 $19.55 $20.07 $20.61 $21.15
$14.13 $14.61 $15.09 $15.59 $16.09 $16.60 $17.12 $17.65 $18.19 $18.74 $19.30
$12.66 $13.14 $13.63 $14.14 $14.65 $15.17 $15.71 $16.25 $16.81 $17.37 $17.95
$11.52 $12.01 $12.51 $13.02 $13.54 $14.08 $14.63 $15.18 $15.75 $16.33 $16.92
10
$10.61 $11.10 $11.61 $12.13 $12.67 $13.22 $13.78 $14.35 $14.93 $15.53 $16.13
11
$ 9.86 $10.37 $10.88 $11.42 $11.96 $12.52 $13.09 $13.68 $14.28 $14.89 $15.51
12
$ 9.25 $ 9.76 $10.28 $10.82 $11.38 $11.95 $12.54 $13.13 $13.75 $14.37 $15.01
13
$ 8.73 $ 9.25 $ 9.78 $10.33 $10.90 $11.48 $12.08 $12.69 $13.31 $13.95 $14.60
14
$ 8.29 $ 8.81 $ 9.35 $ 9.91 $10.49 $11.08 $11.69 $12.31 $12.95 $13.60 $14.27
15
$ 7.91 $ 8.44 $ 8.99 $ 9.56 $10.14 $10.75 $11.37 $12.00 $12.65 $13.32 $14.00
16
$ 7.58 $ 8.11 $ 8.67 $ 9.25 $ 9.85 $10.46 $11.09 $11.74 $12.40 $13.08 $13.77
17
$ 7.29 $ 7.83 $ 8.40 $ 8.98 $ 9.59 $10.21 $10.85 $11.51 $12.19 $12.87 $13.58
18
$ 7.03 $ 7.58 $ 8.16 $ 8.75 $ 9.36 $10.00 $10.65 $11.32 $12.00 $12.70 $13.42
19
$ 6.80 $ 7.36 $ 7.94 $ 8.55 $ 9.17 $ 9.81 $10.47 $11.15 $11.85 $12.56 $13.28
20
$ 6.60 $ 7.16 $ 7.75 $ 8.36 $ 9.00 $ 9.65 $10.32 $11.01 $11.72 $12.44 $13.17
21
$ 6.42 $ 6.99 $ 7.58 $ 8.20 $ 8.85 $ 9.51 $10.19 $10.89 $11.60 $12.33 $13.07
22
$ 6.25 $ 6.83 $ 7.43 $ 8.06 $ 8.71 $ 9.38 $10.07 $10.78 $11.50 $12.24 $12.99
23
$ 6.10 $ 6.69 $ 7.30 $ 7.93 $ 8.59 $ 9.27 $ 9.97 $10.69 $11.42 $12.16 $12.92
24
$ 5.97 $ 6.56 $ 7.18 $ 7.82 $ 8.49 $ 9.17 $ 9.88 $10.60 $11.34 $12.10 $12.86
25
$ 5.85 $ 6.44 $ 7.07 $ 7.72 $ 8.39 $ 9.09 $ 9.80 $10.53 $11.28 $12.04 $12.81
The table shows the monthly repayment on a $1000 loan at various interest rates
over various terms. To calculate the repayment on a loan, we simply multiply the repayment on $1000 by the number of thousands of dollars of the loan.
31
WORKED Example 15
Calculate the monthly repayment on a loan of $85 000 at 11% p.a. over a 25-year term.
THINK
1
2
WRITE
Look up the table to find the monthly repayment

on $1000 at 11% p.a. for 25 years.
Multiply this amount by 85.
Monthly repayment = $9.80

Monthly repayment = $833
85
This table can also be used to make calculations such as the effect that interest rate rises
will have on a home loan.
WORKED Example 16
The Radley family borrow $160 000 for a home at 8% p.a. over a 20-year term. They
repay the loan at $1400 per month. If the interest rate rises to 9%, will they need to
increase their repayment and, if so, by how much?
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Look up the table to find the monthly repayment

on $1000 at 8% p.a. for 20 years.
Multiply this amount by 160.
If this amount is greater than $1400, state the
amount that the repayment needs to rise.
Monthly repayment = $9.00 160

Monthly repayment = $1440.00
The Radley family will need to increase
their monthly repayments by $40.
remember
1. The amount of each monthly repayment is best determined by using a table of
repayments.
2. The amount of each repayment is calculated by multiplying the monthly
repayment on a $1000 loan by the number of thousands of the loan.
1E
Loan repayments
1 Use the table of repayments on page 30 to calculate the monthly repayment on a 1.7 S
killS
$75 000 loan at 7% p.a. over a 15-year term.
15
2 Use the table of repayments to calculate the monthly repayment on each of the Reading
tables
following loans.
a $2000 at 8% p.a. over a 2-year term
L Spre
b $15 000 at 13% p.a. over a 5-year term
XCE ad
c $64 000 at 15% p.a. over a 25-year term
Reducing
d $100 000 at 12% p.a. over a 20-year term
balance
e $174 000 at 9% p.a. over a 22-year term
loans
WORKED
Example
sheet
HEET
32
3 Jenny buys a computer for $4000 on the following terms: 10% deposit with the balance
paid in equal monthly instalments over 3 years at an interest rate of 14% p.a.
a Calculate Jennys deposit.
b Calculate the balance owing on the computer.
c Use the table of repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
4 Mr and Mrs Dubois borrow $125 000 over 20 years at 10% p.a. to purchase a house.
They repay the loan at a rate of $1500 per month. If the interest rate rises to 12% p.a.,
16
will Mr and Mrs Dubois need to increase the size of their repayments and, if so, by how
much?
WORKED
Example
5 Mr and Mrs Munro take out a $180 000 home

loan at 9% p.a. over a 25-year term.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
b After 5 years the balance on the loan has
been reduced to $167 890. The interest rate
then rises to 10% p.a. Calculate the new
monthly repayment required to complete
the loan within the existing term.
6 A bank will lend customers money only if
they believe the customer can afford the
repayments. To determine this, the bank has a
rule that the maximum monthly repayment a
customer can afford is 25% of his or her gross
monthly pay. Darren applies to the bank for a
loan of $62 000 at 12% p.a. over 15 years.
Darren has a gross annual salary of $36 000.
Will Darrens loan be approved? Use calculations to justify your answer.
7 Tracey and Barry have a combined gross income of $84 000.
a Calculate Tracey and Barrys gross monthly income.
b Using the rule applied in the previous question, what is the maximum monthly
repayment on a loan that they can afford?
c If interest rates are 11% p.a., calculate the maximum amount (in thousands) that they
could borrow over a 25-year term.
8 Mr and Mrs Yousef borrow $95 000 over 25 years at 8% p.a. interest.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on the loan.
b Mr and Mrs Yousef hope to pay the loan off in a much shorter period of time. By
how much will they need to increase the monthly repayment to pay the loan off in
15 years?
9 Mr and Mrs Bath borrow $375 000 at 8% p.a. reducible over a 25-year term, with
repayments to be made monthly.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total amount that Mr and Mrs Bath will repay over the term of the loan.
c What is the total amount of interest that Mr and Mrs Bath will pay on the loan?
d Calculate the average amount of interest that Mr and Mrs Bath will pay each year.
e Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest by expressing your answer to part d as
a percentage of the amount borrowed.
33
10 A loan of $240 000 is taken out over a 25-year term at an interest rate of 7% p.a.
reducible.
b Calculate the total repayments made on the loan.
c Calculate the amount of interest paid on the loan.
d Find the equivalent flat rate of interest.
e By following steps a to d above calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest if the
term of the loan is:
ii 20 years
ii 15 years.
Work
T
SHEE
1.2
Computer Application 3 Loan repayments
1. $80 000
2. $50 000
L Spre
XCE ad
Loan
repayments
3. $20 000.
Next, change the amount borrowed in the spreadsheet to $200 000. Does it take the
same length of time for the outstanding balance to be halved?
Change the interest rate to 12% p.a. and the amount borrowed back to $100 000.
Does it still take the same length of time for the balance to be halved?
Experiment with different loans and look for a pattern in the way in which the
balance of the loan reduces.
sheet
Access the spreadsheet Loan Repayments from the Maths Quest General Mathematics
HSC Course CD-ROM. This spreadsheet shows the graph of a home loan of $100 000
at 9% p.a. that is repaid over 25 years. Use the graph to determine how long it takes for
the outstanding balance to reduce to:
34
summary
Flat rate interest
A flat rate loan is one where interest is calculated based on the amount initially
borrowed.
Flat rate loans have the interest calculated using the simple interest formula:
I = Prn
The total repayments on a flat rate loan are calculated by adding the interest to the
amount borrowed.
The monthly or weekly repayments on a flat rate loan are calculated by dividing the
total repayments by the number of weeks or months in the term of the loan.
Home loans
The interest of home loans is calculated at a reducible rate. This means that the
interest is calculated on the outstanding balance at the time and not on the initial
amount borrowed.
The interest on home loans is usually calculated and added monthly while
repayments are calculated on a monthly basis.
To calculate the total cost of a home loan, we multiply the amount of each monthly
payment by the number of payments.
The cost of a loan

To compare a flat rate loan with a reducing balance loan, the equivalent reducing
balance interest rate can be calculated using the formula:
( 1 + r )n 1
E = ---------------------------n
When comparing two or more loans, the most accurate comparison is done by
calculating the total cost of repaying the loan.
A loan that is repaid over a shorter period of time will generally cost less even if the
interest rate may be slightly higher.
The flexibility of loan repayments is an important consideration when calculating
the cost of a loan.
When calculating the cost of a loan, fees such as application fee and account
management fees must be considered along with the interest payable.
Credit cards
A credit card is a pre-approved loan up to a certain amount called the credit limit.
There are many kinds of credit cards and the most important difference is that some
cards have an interest-free period while others attract interest from the date of
purchase.
Credit cards without an interest-free period generally have a lower rate of interest
than those with an interest-free period.
35
Each credit card will have a monthly statement and will require a minimum
payment each month.
When evaluating the best credit card for your circumstances, you need to consider
if you will be able to pay most bills by the due date and consider any fees attached
to the card.
Loan repayments
The amount of each monthly repayment is best calculated using a table of monthly
repayments.
The monthly repayment on a $1000 loan at the given rate over the given term is
then multiplied by the number of thousands of the loan to find the size of each
repayment.
36
CHAPTER
review
1A
1 Calculate the amount of flat rate interest that will be paid on each of the following loans.
b $12 500 at 11.5% p.a. for 5 years
c $2400 at 17.8% p.a. for 3 years
d $800 at 9.9% p.a. over 6 months
e $23 400 at 8.75% p.a. over 6 years
1A
2 Calculate the total repayments made on a loan of $4000 at 23% p.a. flat rate interest to be
repaid over 3 years.
1A
3 Noel borrows $5600 at 7.6% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid in monthly instalments over
3 years. Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
1A
4 Shane borrows $9500 to purchase a new car. He repays the loan over 4 years at a rate of
$246.60 per month. Calculate the flat rate of interest charged on the loan.
1B
5 Mr and Mrs Smith borrow $125 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 12% p.a. and
the monthly repayments are $1376.36. Calculate:
a the first months interest on the loan
b the balance of the loan after the first month.
1B
6 Mr and Mrs Buckley borrow $130 000 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 8% p.a. and
over a 20-year term the monthly repayment is $1087.37.
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
130 000.00
866.67
129 779.29
129 779.29
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
37
b Mr and Mrs Buckley decide to increase their monthly payment to $1500. Complete the
table below.
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
130 000.00
866.67
129 366.67
129 366.67
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
c How much less do Mr and Mrs Buckley owe at the end of one year by increasing their
monthly repayment?
7 Mr and Mrs Stone borrow $225 000 for their home. The interest rate is 9.6% p.a. and the
term of the loan is 25 years. The monthly repayment is $1989.48.
a Calculate the total repayments made on this loan.
b If Mr and Mrs Stone increase their monthly payments to $2000, the loan will be repaid in
24 years and 1 month. Calculate the amount they will save in repayments with this
increase.
( 1 + r )n 1
8 Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the effective interest rate on each of the
n
following flat rate loans (answer correct to 2 decimal places).
b $12 000 at 11% p.a. over 5 years
c $1320 at 23% p.a. over 2 years
d $45 000 at 9.2% p.a. over 10 years
9 Yu-Ping borrows $13 500 for a holiday to Africa at 12.5% p.a. reducible interest over a
5-year term. The monthly repayments on the loan are $303.72.
b Calculate the amount of interest that Yu-Ping pays on the loan.
c Calculate the equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan.
1B
1C
1C
38
1C
10 Kristen and Adrian borrow $150 000 for their home. They have the choice of two loans.
Loan 1: At 8% p.a. interest over 25 years with fixed repayments of $1157.72.
Loan 2: At 8.25% p.a interest over 25 years with minimum repayments of $1182.68 and an
$8 per month account management fee.
Kristen and Adrian believe they can afford to pay $1500 per month. If they do, Loan 2
will be repaid in 14 years and 2 months. Which loan should Kristen and Adrian choose if
they can afford to pay the extra each month?
1C
11 Stephanie has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $423. Calculate the minimum
payment that must be made if she must pay 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
1D
12 Lorenzo has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $850. If the interest rate is 24%
p.a., calculate the amount of interest that Lorenzo will be charged if the balance is not paid
by the due date.
1D
13 Jessica pays for her car repairs, which total $256.50, using her credit card. The credit card
has an interest rate of 15% p.a. and interest is charged from the date of purchase. Calculate
the amount of interest charged after one month on this card.
1D
14 Study the extract from the credit card statement below.

Interest rate = 19.5% p.a.
Daily rate = ______
Date
Credit ($)
Debit ($)
1 Jan.
6 Jan.
2584.75
600 repayment
15 Jan.
39.99 purchase
1 Feb.
8 Feb.
15 Feb.
1 March
Balance ($)
??? interest
??? repayment
425.85 purchase
??? interest
a Calculate the daily rate of interest. (Take 1 year = 365.25 days and answer correct to
4 decimal places.)
b Calculate the interest due for January.
c If the minimum monthly payment of 5% of the outstanding balance is made on
8 February, calculate the amount of this repayment.
d Calculate the interest for February.
1E
15 Use the table of repayments on page 30 to calculate the monthly repayment on each of the
following loans.
a $25 000 at 9% p.a. over a 10-year term
b $45 000 at 14% p.a. over a 15-year term
c $164 750 at 15% p.a. over a 25-year term
d $425 000 at 12% p.a. over a 15-year term
1E
16 Mr and Mrs Rowe take out a $233 000 home loan at 12% p.a. over a 25-year term.
a Use the table of repayments to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b After 3 years the balance on the loan has been reduced to $227 657. The interest rate then
rises to 13% p.a. Calculate the new monthly repayment required to complete the loan
within the existing term.
39

1 multiple choice
The total repayments for a $3400 loan on a flat rate interest of 8.5% p.a. over a 3-year period are:
A $867
B $942.78
C $4267
D 4342.78
2 multiple choice
A $115 000 loan is repaid over a 25-year term at the rate of $1211.21 per month. The total
amount of interest that is paid on this loan is:
A $30 280.25
B $145 280.25
C $248 363.00
D $363 363.00
3 multiple choice
A $150 000 loan is to be taken out. Which of the following loans will have the lowest total cost?
A 4% p.a. flat rate interest to be repaid over 20 years
B 8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 20 years at $1254.66 per month
C 9% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years at $1521.40 per month
D 8.5% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years at $1512.49 per month with a $900
loan application fee and $12 per month account management fee
4 multiple choice
Look at the table of loan repayments per $1000 shown below.
Interest rate (p.a.)
Term
9%
10%
11%
12%
10
$12.67
$13.22
$13.78
$14.35
15
$10.14
$10.75
$11.37
$12.00
20
$9.00
$9.65
$10.32
$11.01
25
$8.39
$9.09
$9.80
$10.53
Daniel has an $80 000 mortgage at 10% p.a. over 10 years. After interest rates rise to 12%
Daniel extends the term of his loan to 15 years. What is the change in Daniels monthly
repayments?
A They increase by $1.13 per month.
B They decrease by $1.22 per month.
C They increase by $90.40 per month.
D They decrease by $97.60 per month.
5 David buys a computer that has a cash price of $4600. David pays 10% deposit with the
balance in weekly instalments at 13% p.a. flat rate interest over a period of 4 years.
a Calculate the balance owing after David has paid the deposit.
b Calculate the total repayments that David must make on this loan.
c Calculate the amount of each weekly instalment
( 1 + r )n 1
d Use the formula E = ---------------------------- to calculate the equivalent reducible interest rate on this
n
loan.
40
6 Mr and Mrs Tarrant borrow $186 500 to purchase a home. The interest rate is 9% p.a. and the
loan is over a 20-year term.
a Use the table below to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
Interest rate (p.a.)
Term
9%
10%
11%
12%
10
$12.67
$13.22
$13.78
$14.35
15
$10.14
$10.75
$11.37
$12.00
20
$9.00
$9.65
$10.32
$11.01
25
$8.39
$9.09
$9.80
$10.53
b Calculate the total amount that they can expect to make in repayments.
c After 10 years the outstanding balance is $132 463 and the interest rate is increased to
11%. Calculate the amount of the monthly repayment they will need to make to complete
the loan within the term.
d The loan has a $5 per month account management fee. The Tarrants also had a $400 loan
application fee and $132.75 in stamp duty to pay in establishing the loan. Calculate the
total cost of the loan after 20 years.
CHAPTER
test
yourself
7 Paul has a credit card that has an interest-free period. The interest rate is 21% p.a.
a If Paul has an outstanding balance of $275.50, calculate the minimum payment he must
make by the due date if it is 5% of the balance, or $10, whichever is greater.
b If Paul pays only the minimum balance by the due date, calculate the balance owing for the
next month.
c Calculate the interest that Paul will be charged on his next months statement.
d If Paul pays the whole balance off next month, is this card cheaper than a card without an
interest-free period but an interest rate of 15% p.a.? Use calculations to justify your
answer.
Further
applications
of area and
volume
syllabus reference
Measurement 5
Further applications of
area and volume
In this chapter
2A
2B
2C
2D
Area of parts of the circle

Area of composite shapes
Simpsons rule
Surface area of cylinders
and spheres
2E Volume of composite solids
2F Error in measurement
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
2.1
2.2
Area of a circle
1 Find the area of a circle with:

a radius 4 cm
b radius 19.6 cm
c diameter 9 cm
d diameter 19.7 cm
Areas of squares, rectangles and triangles
2 Find the area of each of the following.

10.9 m
a
b
c
7.6 m
3.7 m
13.8 m
4.5 cm
2.6
Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms (3a, 3b); Volume of triangular prisms (3c)
3 Find the volume of:

a
c
11 cm
2.7
8 cm
9 cm
24 cm
2.8
6 cm
26 cm
18 cm
Volume of cylinders (4a); Volume of a sphere (4b)
4 Find the volume of:

a
19 cm
2.9
b
12 m
8 cm
Volume of a pyramid
2.10
Find the volume of:

10 cm
7 cm
2.11
Error in linear measurement
For each of the following linear measurements, state the limits between which the true limits
actually lie.
a 15 cm (measured correct to the nearest centimetre)
b 8.3 m (measured correct to 1 decimal place)
c 4800 km (measured correct to the nearest 100 km)
Chapter 2 Further applications of area and volume
43

From previous work you should know that the area of a circle can be calculated using
the formula:
A = r2
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the area of a circle with a radius of 7.2 cm. Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute for the radius.
Calculate the area.
A = r2
A=
(7.2)2
A = 162.86 cm2
A sector is the part of a circle between two radii as

shown on the right.
To calculate the area of a sector we find the fraction
of the circle formed by the sector. For example, a semicircle is half of a circle and so the area of a semicircle is
half the area of a full circle. A quadrant is a quarter of
a circle and so the area is quarter that of a full circle.
For other sectors the area is calculated by using the
angle between the radii as a fraction of 360 and then
multiplying by the area of the full circle. This can be
written using the formula:
A = --------- r 2
360
where
is the angle between the two radii.
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the area of the sector drawn

on the right. Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
5 cm
80
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
A=
Substitute for
A=
Calculate the area.
and r.
--------360
80
--------360
r2
A = 17.5 cm2
52
44
An annulus is the area between two circles that have the same centre (i.e. concentric
circles). The area of an annulus is found by subtracting the area of the smaller circle
from the area of the larger circle. This translates to the formula A = (R2 r2) , where
R is the radius of the outer circle and r is the radius of the inner circle.
WORKED Example 3
Calculate the area of the annulus on the right.
Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
5.7 cm
3.2 cm
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
A = (R2 r 2)
Substitute R = 5.7 and r = 3.2.
A = (5.72 3.22)
Calculate.
A = 69.9 cm2
An ellipse is an oval shape and therefore

does not have a constant radius. The greatest
distance from the centre of the ellipse to the
circumference is called the semi-major axis,
a, while the smallest distance is called the
semi-minor axis, b, as shown in the figure on
the right. The area of an ellipse is calculated
using the formula, found on the formula
sheet:
semi-minor
axis (b)
semi-major
axis (a)
A = ab
WORKED Example 4
Calculate the area of the ellipse drawn
on the right. Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.
4.2 m
6.6 m
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
A = ab
Substitute for the values of a and b.
A=
Calculate the area.
6.6
A = 87.08 m
4.2
2
45
remember
1. The area of a circle is found using the formula A = r2.

2. The area of a sector can be found by multiplying the area of a full circle by the
fraction of the circle given by the angle in the sector. You can use the formula
A = --------r 2.
360
3. An annulus is the area between two concentric circles. The area is found by
using the formula A = (R2 r2) , where R is the radius of the outer circle
and r is the radius of the inner circle.
4. An ellipse is an oval shape. The area is calculated using the formula
A = ab , where a is the length of the semi-major axis and b is the length of
the semi-minor axis.
2A
WORKED
Example
1 Calculate the area of the circle

drawn on the right, correct to
1 decimal place.
2.1
6.4 cm
Area
of a
circle
2 Calculate the area of each of the circles drawn below, correct to 2 decimal places.
a
b
c
33 mm
9 cm
7.4 m
26.5 cm
f
6.02 m
3.84 m
3 Calculate the area of a circle that has a diameter of 15 m. Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
WORKED
Example
SkillS
HEET
4 Calculate the area of the sector drawn on the right.

7.2 m
46
5 Calculate the area of each of the sectors drawn below. Give each answer correct to
2 decimal places.
a
b
c
23 m
5.2 cm
135
74 mm
60
20
9.2 mm
150
39 mm
240
19.5 m
72
6 Calculate, correct to 1 decimal place, the area of a semicircle with a diameter of

45.9 cm.
WORKED
Example
7 Calculate the area of the annulus

shown at right, correct to 1 decimal
place.
12 cm
6 cm
8 Calculate the area of each annulus drawn below, correct to 3 significant figures.
a
b
c
9.7 m
77 mm
20 cm
18 cm
13 mm
4.2 m
9 A circular garden of diameter 5 m is to have concrete laid around it. The concrete is
to be 1 m wide.
a What is the radius of the garden?
b What is the radius of the concrete circle?
c Calculate the area of the concrete, correct to 1 decimal place.
10 Calculate the area of the ellipse
drawn on the right, correct to
4
1 decimal place.
WORKED
Example
6 cm
10 cm
47
11 Calculate the area of each of the ellipses drawn below. Give each answer correct to the
nearest whole number.
a
b
c
7.2 m
34 mm
14 cm
13.6 m
56 mm
21 cm
12 multiple choice
The area of a circle with a diameter of 4.8 m is closest to:
A 15 m2
B 18 m2
C 36 m2
D 72 m2
13 multiple choice
Which of the following calculations
will give the area of the sector shown
on the right?
45
8m
1
--8
42
1
--8
82
C 1-4 4 2
D 1-4 8 2
14 multiple choice
The area of the ellipse drawn on the
right is closest to:
86 cm
1.2 m
A 32 400 cm2
B 324 m2
C 5900 cm2
D 59 m2
15 A circular area is pegged out and has a diameter of 10 m.

a Calculate the area of this circle, correct to
1 decimal place.
b A garden is to be dug which is 3 m wide
around the area that has been pegged out.
Calculate the area of the garden to be dug.
c In the garden a sector with an angle of 75 at
the centre is to be used to plant roses. Calculate
the area of the rose garden, correct to 1 decimal
place.
16 A circle has a diameter of 20 cm.
a Calculate the area of this circle, correct to 2 decimal places.
b An ellipse is drawn such that the radius of the circle forms the semi-major axis.
The semi-minor axis is to have a length equal to half the radius of the circle.
Calculate the length of the semi-minor axis.
c Calculate the area of the ellipse, correct to 2 decimal places.
48

A composite shape is a shape that is made up of two or more regular shapes. The area
of a composite shape is found by splitting the area into two or more regular shapes and
calculating the area of each separately before adding them together. In many cases it
will be necessary to calculate the length of a missing side before calculating the area.
There will sometimes be more than one way to split the composite shape.
WORKED Example 5
6 cm
Find the area of the figure

at right.
18 cm
10 cm
12 cm
THINK
1
WRITE
Copy the diagram and divide the shape into

two rectangles.
6 cm
A1 8 cm
18 cm
10 cm
A2
12 cm
Calculate the length of the missing side in

rectangle 1. (Write this on the diagram.)
Calculate the area of rectangle 1.
Calculate the area of rectangle 2.
Add together the two areas.
18
10 = 8 cm
A1 = 6 8
A1 = 48 cm2
A2 = 10 12
A1 = 120 cm2
Area = 48 + 120
Area = 168 cm2
Composite areas that involve triangles may require you to also make a calculation using
Pythagoras theorem.
WORKED Example 6
13 m
Find the area of the figure

on the right.
10 m
24 m
THINK
1
Draw the triangle at the top and cut the

isosceles triangle in half.
WRITE
13 m
a
12 m
THINK
49
WRITE
Calculate the perpendicular height using

Pythagoras theorem.
a2 = c2 b2
= 132 122
= 169 144
= 25
a = 25
=5m
Calculate the area of the triangle.
A=
1
--2
24
Calculate the area of the rectangle.
Add the two areas together.
= 60 m
A = 24 10
= 240 m2
Area = 60 + 240
Area = 300 m2
Composite areas can also be calculated by using subtraction rather than addition. In
these cases we calculate the larger area and subtract the smaller area in the same way as
we did with annuluses in the previous section.
WORKED Example 7
Find the shaded area in the figure

on the right.
6 cm
20 cm
30 cm
THINK
WRITE
Calculate the area of the rectangle.
Calculate the area of the circle.
Subtract the areas.
A = 30 20
A = 600 cm2
A=
62
A = 113.1 cm2
Area = 600 113.1
Area = 486.9 cm2
remember
1. To find the area of any composite figure, divide the shape into smaller regular
shapes and calculate each area separately.
2. You may have to use Pythagoras theorem to find missing pieces of
information.
3. Check if the best way to solve the question is by adding two areas or by
subtracting one area from the other to find the remaining area.
50
SkillS
2B
HEET
2.2
WORKED
Example
5
Areas of
squares,
rectangles
and triangles
1 Copy the figure on the right into your

workbook and calculate its area by
dividing it into two rectangles.
4m
18 m
11 m
20 m
2 Find the area of each of the figures below. Where necessary, give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
a
7 cm b
5 cm
18 cm
12 cm
19 cm
16 cm
25 cm
6 cm
40 cm
5 cm
22 cm
12 cm
4 cm
8 cm
8 cm
4 cm
4 cm
SkillS
16 cm
HEET
2.3
Using
Pythagoras
theorem
Cabr
omet
i Ge ry
Pythagoras
calculations
3 Look at the triangle on the right.

a Use Pythagoras theorem to find
the perpendicular height of the triangle.
b Calculate the area of the triangle.
10 cm
6 cm
17 cm
15 cm
4 Below is an isosceles triangle.
8m
12 m
a Use Pythagoras theorem to find the perpendicular height of the triangle, correct to
1 decimal place.
b Calculate the area of the triangle.
51
sheet
5 Calculate the area of each of the triangles below. Where necessary, give your answer
L Spre
XCE ad
correct to 1 decimal place.
Pythagoras
a
b
c
25 cm
26 m
24 m
Mensuration
124 mm
WORKED
Example
6 Find the area of each of the composite figures drawn below.

a
b
c 25 mm
13 cm
17 m
52 mm
15 mm
48 mm
54 mm
13 m
12 cm
30 m
7 multiple choice
The area of the composite figure on the right
is closest to:
A 139 m2
B 257 m2
2
C 314 m
D 414 m2
10 m
8 multiple choice
The area of the figure drawn on the right is:
A 36 m2
B 54 m2
2
C 72 m
D 144 m2
12 m
6m
9 A block of land is in the shape of a square with an equilateral triangle on top. Each
side of the block of land is 50 m.
a Draw a diagram of the block of land.
b Find the perimeter of the block of land.
c Find the area of the block of land.
10 In each of the following, find the area of the shaded region. Where necessary, give
your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
7
a
b
c
12 m
WORKED
Example
4 cm
10 cm
9 cm
3 cm
16 cm
8m
9 cm
7.
1
1.9 m
7.4 m
36 mm
40 mm
10 cm
95 mm
3.1 m
f
112 mm
cm
am
progr C
asio
GC
48 cm
11 An athletics track consists of a rectangle with two semicircular

ends. The dimensions are shown in the diagram on the right.
The track is to have a synthetic running surface laid. Calculate the
area which is to be laid with the running surface, correct to the
nearest square metre.
70 m
90 m
12 A garden is to have a concrete path laid around it. The garden is rectangular in shape
and measures 40 m by 25 m. The path around it is to be 1 m wide.
a Draw a diagram of the garden and the path.
b Calculate the area of the garden.
c Calculate the area of the concrete that needs to be laid.
d If the cost of laying concrete is $17.50 per m2, calculate the cost of laying the path.
1
Calculate the area of each of the figures drawn below. Where necessary, give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
1
3
5.8 cm
9.4 cm
12 cm
6.3 m
10 cm
91 mm
30 cm
25 cm
62 mm
20 cm
4 cm
25 cm
24 cm
9
12 cm
76
mm
20 m
32
40 m
40 cm
10
6 cm
52
12
cm
82 m
15
cm
53
Simpsons rule
Simpsons rule is a method used to approximate the
area of an irregular figure. Simpsons rule approximates an area by taking a straight boundary and
dividing the area into two strips. The height of each
strip (h) is measured. Three measurements are then
taken perpendicular to the straight boundary, as
shown in the figure on the right. The formula for
Simpsons rule is:
h
A --- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
where h = distance between successive measuements
df = first measurement
dm = middle measurement
dl = last measurement.
dm
df
h
WORKED Example 8
Use Simpsons rule to approximate
the area shown on the right.
30 m
10 m
90 m
THINK
1
Calculate h.
Write down the values of df , dm and dl.
Write the formula.
Substitute.
Calculate.
dl
WRITE
h = 90 2
= 45
df = 10, dm = 30, dl = 0
h
A --- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
45
A ------ ( 10 + 4 30 + 0 )
3
= 15 130
1950 m2
Could Simpsons rule be used to estimate the areas of these irregular shapes from nature?
54
Simpsons rule can be used to approximate an irregular area without a straight edge.
This is done by constructing a line as in the diagram below and approximating the area
of each section separately.
WORKED Example 9
Use Simpsons rule to find an approximation
for the area shown on the right.
30 m
30 m
30 m
10 m
17 m
THINK
WRITE
Write down the value of h.

For the top area, write down the values
of df , dm and dl .
Write the formula.
Substitute.
Calculate the top area.
For the bottom area, write down the

values of df , dm and dl .
Write down the formula.
Substitute.
Calculate the bottom area.
10
Add the two areas together.
h = 30
df = 0, dm = 30, dl = 10
h
--- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
30
A ------ ( 0 + 4 30 + 10 )
3
10 130
1300 m2
df = 0, dm = 17, dl = 0
A
h
--- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
30
A ------ ( 0 + 4 17 + 0 )
3
10 68
680 m2
Area 1300 + 680
Area 1980 m2
A
Simpsons rule approximates an area, it does not give an exact measurement. To obtain
a better approximation, Simpsons rule can be applied several times to the area. This is
done by splitting the area in half and applying Simpsons rule separately to each half.
30 m
29 m
24 m
31 m
Use two applications of Simpsons rule to

approximate the area on the right.
32 m
WORKED Example 10
105 m
THINK
1
2
Calculate h by dividing 105 by 4.

(We are using 4 sub-intervals.)
Apply Simpsons rule to the left half.
Write the values of df , dm and dl .
WRITE
h = 105 4
= 26.25
df = 32, dm = 31, dl = 24
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute.
Calculate the approximate area of the

left half.
Apply Simpsons rule to the left half.
Write the values of df , dm and dl .
h
--- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
26.25
A ------------- ( 32 + 4 31 + 24 )
3
8.75 180
1575 m2
df = 24, dm = 29, dl = 30
A
Write the formula.
Substitute.
Calculate the approximate area of the

right half.
Add the areas together.
10
55
h
--- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
26.25
A ------------- ( 24 + 4 29 + 30 )
3
8.75 170
1487.5 m2
Area 1575 + 1487.5
Area 3062.5 m2
A
remember
1. Simpsons rule is a method of approximating irregular areas.
h
2. The Simpsons rule formula is A --- ( d f + 4d m + d l ) , where h is the
3
distance between successive measurements, df is the first measurement, dm is
the middle measurement and dl is the last measurement.
3. A better approximation of an area can be found by using Simpsons rule twice.
2.4
60 m
18 m
1 The diagram on the right is of a part of a

creek.
a State the value of h.
b State the value of df , dm and dl .
c Use Simpsons rule to approximate
the area of this section of the creek.
9m
Example
Substitution
into
formulas
Simpsons rule
40 m
WORKED
HEET
2C
SkillS
56
72 m
40 m
16 m
0m
12 m
28 m
6m
12 m
10 m
35 m
2 Use Simpsons rule to approximate each of the areas below.

a
b
c
54 m
48 m
A1
30 m
30 m
5 m 18 m
3 The irregular area on the right has been divided into two
areas labelled A1 (upper area) and A2 (lower area).
a Use Simpsons rule to find an approximation for Al .
b Use Simpsons rule to find an approximation for A2.
c What is the approximate total area of the figure?
19 m 11 m
Example
7m
WORKED
A2
21 m
31 m
27 m
7m
51 m
22 m
5 multiple choice
Consider the figure drawn on the right.
Simpsons rule gives an approximate area of:
A 1200 m2
B 2400 m2
2
C 3495 m
D 6990 m2
27 m
40 m
16 m
21 m
27 m
16 m
12 m 10 m
23 m
45 m
14 m 6 m
17 m
45 m
12 m
22 m 11 m
4 Use Simpsons rule to find an approximation for each of the areas below.
a
b
c
90 m
6 multiple choice
If we apply Simpsons rule twice, how many measurements from the traverse line
need to be taken?
A4
B 5
C7
D9
25 m
36 m
10 m
45 m
50 m
18 m 18 m 18 m 18 m
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
60 m 60 m 60 m 60 m
22 m
33 m
11 m
50 m
44 m
20 m
71 m
42 m
87 m
102 m
8 Use Simpsons rule twice to approximate each of the areas drawn below.
a
b
c
45 m
10
7 Use Simpsons rule twice to approximate

the area on the right.
63 m
Example
54 m
WORKED
21 m 21 m 21 m 21 m
36 m
27 m
32 m
15 m
9 The figure on the right is of a cross-section of a

waterway.
a Use Simpsons rule once to find an approximate
area of this section of land.
b Use Simpsons rule twice to obtain a better
approximation for this area of land.
57
Work
20 m
30 m
35 m
36 m
38 m
41 m
45 m
30 m
24 m
10 Apply Simpsons rule four times to

approximate the area on the right.
9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m 9m
Surface area of cylinders and spheres

From earlier work you should remember that surface area
is the area of all surfaces of a 3-dimensional shape.
Consider a closed cylinder with a radius (r) and a
perpendicular height (h). The surface of the cylinder
h
consists of two circles and a rectangle.
Area of top = r 2
r
Area of bottom = r 2
The rectangular side of the cylinder will have a length
equal to the circumference of the circle (2 r) and a width
equal to the height (h) of the cylinder.
Area of side = 2 rh
The surface area of the closed cylinder can be calculated using the formula:
SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh
WORKED Example 11
Calculate the surface area of the closed cylinder drawn on

the right. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
10 cm
9 cm
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute the values of r and h.
Calculate the surface area.
SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh
SA = 2
92 + 2
SA = 1074.4 cm2
10
For cylinders, before calculating the surface area you need to consider whether the
cylinder is open or closed. In the case of an open cylinder there is no top and so the
formula needs to be written as:
SA = r 2 + 2 rh
T
SHEE
2.1
58
Note: On the formula sheet in the exam only the formula for the closed cylinder is
provided. You will need to adapt the formula yourself for examples such as this.
WORKED Example 12
Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a radius of 6.5 cm and a height of
10.8 cm. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute the values of r and h.
SA = r 2 + 2 rh
SA =
(6.5)2 + 2
SA = 573.8 cm2
A sphere is a round 3-dimensional shape, and the

only measurement given is the radius (r). The surface
area of a sphere can be calculated using the formula:
SA = 4 r 2
WORKED Example 13
Calculate the surface area of the
sphere drawn on the right. Give the
THINK
1
2
3
2.7 cm
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute the value of r.
SA = 4 r 2
SA = 4
(2.7)2
2
SA = 91.6 cm
remember
1. The surface area of a closed cylinder is
found using the formula
SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh .
2. If the cylinder is an open cylinder, the
surface area formula becomes
SA = r 2 + 2 rh.
3. The surface area of a sphere is found
using the formula SA = 4 r 2 .
The Atomium, Brussels
6.5
10.8
59
Surface area of cylinders and

spheres
2D
2.5
Example
11
1 Calculate the surface area of a closed cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of
11 cm. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Circumference
of a circle
12 cm
5 cm
1.6 m
2 Calculate the surface area of each of the closed cylinders drawn below. Give each
a
b
c
20 cm
1.1 m
3 cm
f
5.9 cm
20 cm
1.5 m
5.9 cm
r
2.3 m
r = 5 cm
3 Calculate the surface area of a closed cylinder with a diameter of 3.4 m and a height
of 1.8 m. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Example
12
4 Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a radius of 4 cm and a height of
16 cm. Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
5 Calculate the surface area of each of the following open cylinders. Give each answer
a
b
c
30 cm
22 cm
13.3 cm
9.6 cm
r
20 cm
r = 4.1 cm
f
50 cm
3.2 m
WORKED
23.2 cm
4m
2.4 cm
4 cm
6 A can of fruit is made of stainless steel. The can has a radius of 3.5 cm and a height
of 7 cm. A label is to be wrapped around the can.
a Calculate the amount of steel needed to make the can (correct to the nearest whole
number).
b Calculate the area of the label (correct to the nearest whole number).
SkillS
HEET
WORKED
60
WORKED
Example
13
7 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with a radius of 3 cm. Give your answer correct
to the nearest whole number.
8 Calculate the surface area of each of the spheres drawn below. Give each answer
a
b
c
2.1 cm
14 cm
8 cm
e
1m
f
3.4 cm
1.8 m
9 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with a diameter of 42 cm. Give your answer
correct to the nearest whole number.
10 multiple choice
An open cylinder has a diameter of 12 cm and a height of 15 cm. Which of the
following calculations gives the correct surface area of the cylinder?
A
62 + 2
6 15
B 2
62 + 2
6 15
2
C
12 + 2
12 15
D2
122 + 2
12 15
11 multiple choice
Which of the following figures has the greatest surface area?
A A closed cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm
B An open cylinder with a radius of 6 cm and a height of 10 cm
C A cylinder open at both ends with a radius of 7 cm and a height of 10 cm
D A sphere with a radius of 6 cm
12 An open cylinder has a diameter and height of 12 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
b A sphere sits exactly inside this cylinder. Calculate the surface area of this sphere
(correct to the nearest whole number).
13 A cylindrical can is to contain three tennis balls each having a diameter of 6 cm.
a Calculate the surface area of each ball.
b The three balls fit exactly inside the can. State the radius and height of the can.
c The can is open and made of stainless steel, except the top which will be plastic.
Calculate the area of the plastic lid (correct to the nearest whole number).
d Calculate the amount of stainless steel in the can (correct to the nearest whole
number).
e Calculate the area of a paper label that is to be wrapped around the can (correct to
the nearest whole number).
61
Computer Application 1 Minimising surface area

E
1. In cell B3 enter the volume of the cylinder, 1000.

2. In cell A6 enter a radius of 1. In cell A7 enter a radius of 2 and so on up to a radius
of 20.
3. The formula that has been entered in cell B6 will give the height of the cylinder
corresponding to the radius for the given volume.
4. The surface area of each possible cylinder is in column D. Use the charting function
on the spreadsheet to graph the surface area against the radius.
5. What are the most cost-efficient dimensions of the drink container?
Challenge exercise
Use one of the other worksheets to find the most efficient dimensions to make a
rectangular prism of volume 1000 cm3 and a cone of volume 200 cm3.
sheet
L Spre
XCE ad
Access the spreadsheet Volume from the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC
Volume
Course CD-ROM.
A cylindrical drink container is to have a capacity of 1 litre (volume = 1000 cm3).
We are going to calculate the most cost efficient dimensions to make the container. To
do this, we want to make the container with as little material as possible, in other words
we want to minimise the surface area of the cylinder. The spreadsheet should look as
shown below.
62
Packaging
A company makes tennis balls that have a diameter of 6.5 cm. The tennis balls are
to be sold in packs of four.
1 Calculate the surface area of the
packaging needed if the balls are
packed in a cylindrical tube that just
fits all four balls as shown on the
right.
2 Calculate the amount of packaging

needed if the balls are packed in a
rectangular prism.
3 Calculate the amount of packaging needed if the balls

are packed in a 2 2 design as shown on the right.
4 Design the most effective way of packaging nine tennis balls.
Volume of composite solids

Many solid shapes are a composition of two or more regular solids. To calculate the
volume of such a figure, we need to determine the best method for each particular part.
Many irregular shapes may still be prisms.
A prism is a shape in which every cross-section taken parallel to the base shape is
equal to that base shape.
The formula for the volume of a prism is:
V = Ah
where A is the area of the base shape and h is the height.
Remember that the base of the prism is not necessarily the bottom. The base is the
shape that is constant throughout the prism and will usually be drawn as the front of the
prism. This means that the height will be drawn perpendicular to the base. To calculate
the volume of any prism, we first calculate the area of the base and then multiply by the
height.
63
WORKED Example 14
Find the volume of the figure
drawn on the right.
6 cm
12 cm
4 cm
10 cm
Divide the front face into two

rectangles.
4 cm
12 cm
WRITE
A1
A2
6 cm
THINK
3 cm
10 cm
2
Calculate the area of each.
Add the areas together to find the value

of A.
Write the formula.
Substitute A = 84 and h = 3.
Calculate.
4
5
6
A1 = 4 12
= 48 cm2
A = 48 + 36
= 84 cm2
V=A h
= 84 3
= 252 cm3
A2 = 6 6
= 36 cm2
If the shape is not a prism, you may need to divide it into two or more regular 3dimensional shapes. You could then calculate the volume by finding the volume of each
shape separately. You will need to use important volume formulas that appear on the
formula sheet:
Cone: V = 1--- r 2h
Cylinder: V = r 2h
Pyramid: V = 1--- Ah
Sphere: V = 4--- r 3
3
WORKED Example 15
Calculate the volume of the figure
drawn on the right, correct to 2 decimal
places.
2.4 cm
1.2 cm
THINK
1
2
3
4
The shape is a cylinder with a

hemisphere on top.
Write down the formula for the volume
of a cylinder.
Substitute r = 1.2 and h = 2.4.
Calculate the volume of the cylinder.
WRITE
V = r 2h
V=
(1.2)2 2.4
V = 10.857 cm3
Continued over page
64
THINK
WRITE
r3 2
Write down the formula for the volume

of a hemisphere. (This is the formula
for the volume of a sphere divided by
2.)
V=
4
--3
Substitute r = 1.2.
V=
4
--3
Calculate the volume of the

hemisphere.
V = 3.619 cm3
Add the two volumes together.
Volume = 10.857 + 3.619

Volume = 14.48 cm3
(1.2)3 2
In many cases a volume question may be presented in the form of a practical problem.
WORKED Example 16
A water storage tank is in the shape of a cube of side length 1.8 m, surmounted by a
cylinder of diameter 1 m with a height of 0.5 m. Calculate the capacity of the tank, correct
to the nearest 100 litres.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram of the water tank.
0.5 m
1m
1.8 m
2
Calculate the volume of the cube using

the formula V = s3.
V = s3
V = 1.83
V = 5.832 m3
Calculate the volume of the cylinder

using the formula V = r 2h.
V = r 2h
V=
0.52 0.5
V = 0.393 m3
Add the volumes together.
Volume = 5.832 + 0.393

Volume = 6.225 m3
Calculate the capacity of the tank using

1 m3 = 1000 L.
Capacity = 6.225 1000

Capacity = 6225 L
Give an answer in words.
The capacity of the tank is approximately

6200 litres.
65
remember
1. To find the volume of any prism, use the formula V = A h, where A is the area
of the base and h is the height.
2. Important volume formulas:
Cone: V = 1--- p r 2h
Cylinder: V = p r 2h
3
1
Pyramid: V = --- Ah
Sphere: V = 4--- p r 3
3
3
where r = radius, h = perpendicular height, A = area of base
3. For other shapes, calculate the volume of each part of the shape separately, then
add together each part at the end.
4. Remember to begin a worded or problem question with a diagram and finish
with a word answer.
2E

6 cm
2.6
Volume of
cubes and
rectangular
prisms
4 cm
20 cm
12 cm
5 cm
40 cm
0.7 m
2.3 m
0.4 m
0.6 m
1m
5m
1.5 m
2m
2.1 m
WORKED
Example
3 Consider the figure on the right.

The shape consists of a cube with a
square pyramid on top.
a What is the volume of the cube?
b What is the volume of the square
pyramid?
c What is the total volume of this
figure?
1.5 m
2.7
SkillS
HEET
15
3 cm
f
4 m 0.5 m
20 cm
12 cm
25 cm
15 cm
4 cm
20 cm
10 cm
2 Calculate the volume of each of the figures drawn below.

a
b
c
5 cm
12 cm
SkillS
HEET
14
1 Look at the figure drawn on

the right.
a Find the area of the front face.
b Use the formula V = A h
to calculate the volume of
the prism.
5 cm
Example
18 cm
WORKED
Volume of
triangular
prisms
2m
66
4 The figure on the right is a cylinder with a cone

mounted on top.
a Calculate the volume of the cylinder, correct to
the nearest cm3.
b Calculate the volume of the cone, correct to the
nearest cm3.
c What is the total volume of the figure?
40 cm
50 cm
SkillS
12 cm
HEET
2.8
5 Calculate the volume of each of the figures drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
Volume of
a cylinder
3 cm
34 cm
5 cm
SkillS
HEET
2.9
Volume of
a sphere
r =12 cm
50 cm
6 multiple choice
Which of the figures drawn below is not a prism?
A
B
7 multiple choice
The volume of the figure drawn
on the right is closest to:
A 718 cm3
B 1437 cm3
3
C 2155 cm
D 2873 cm3
8 A fish tank is in the shape of a
rectangular prism. The base measures
45 cm by 25 cm. The tank is filled to
a depth of 15 cm.
a Calculate the volume of water in
the tank in cm3.
b Given that 1 cm3 = 1 mL calculate,
in litres, the amount of water in
the tank.
14 cm
7 cm
67
Example
16
9 A hemispherical wine glass of radius 2.5 cm is joined to a cylinder of radius 1 cm and

height 5 cm. The glass then rests on a solid base.
a Draw a diagram of the wine glass.
b Calculate the capacity of the glass, to the nearest 10 mL.
c How many glasses of wine can be poured from a 1 litre bottle?
10 The figure on the right is the cross-section of a concrete pipe
used as a sewage outlet.
a Calculate the area of a cross-section of the pipe, correct
b Calculate the amount of concrete needed to make a 10 m
length of this pipe.
3m
2.5 m
11 A commemorative cricket ball has a diameter of 7 cm. It is to be preserved in a cubic

case that will allow 5 mm on each side of the ball.
a What will the side length of the cubic case be?
b Calculate the amount of empty space inside the case, to the nearest whole number.
c Calculate the percentage of space inside the case occupied by the ball, to the
6 mm
Maximising volume
You have been given a piece of sheet metal that is in the shape of
a square with a side length of 2 m. The corners are to be cut and
9 cm
the sides bent upwards to form a rectangular prism, as shown in
the figure on the right.
3 cm
1 If a square of side length 1 cm is cut from each corner, what
will be the length and width of the rectangular prism?
2 What will be the volume of this rectangular prism?
3 What will be the volume of the prism if a square of side length 2 cm is cut from
each corner?
4 Find the size of the square to be cut from each corner that will make a prism of
maximum volume.
This exercise can be modelled using a spreadsheet or a graphics calculator.
2.10 SkillS
HEET
12 A diamond is cut into the shape of two square-based pyramids as

shown on the right. Each mm3 of the diamond has a mass of 0.04 g.
Calculate the mass of the diamond.
6 mm
WORKED
Volume
of a
pyramid
2
1 Calculate the area of a circle
with a diameter of 8.6 cm,
2 Calculate the area of the annulus shown

below, correct to 2 decimal places.
9 cm
3 cm
4 Calculate the area of the figure below.

10 cm
9 cm
29 cm
3 Calculate the area of the sector below,

13.2 cm
28 cm
85
5 Calculate the shaded area in the

figure drawn below, correct to
2 decimal places.
6 Use Simpsons rule to approximate

the area shown below.
43 m
70 m
21 m
4.6 cm
70 m
9.7 cm
32 m
7 Calculate the surface area of a closed

cylinder with a radius of 10 cm and a
height of 23 cm. Give your answer
9 Calculate the volume of the prism
drawn below.
8 Calculate the surface area of a sphere

with a radius of 1.3 m. Give your
answer correct to 3 decimal places.
10 Calculate the volume of the solid
below, correct to the nearest whole
number.
4 cm
20.3 cm
68
13.4 cm
9.1 cm
13.7 cm
8 cm
69
Error in measurement
As we saw in the preliminary course, all measurements are approximations. The degree
of accuracy in any measurement is restricted by the accuracy of the measuring device
and the degree of practicality.
We have previously seen that the maximum error in any measurement is half of the
smallest unit of measurement. This error is compounded when further calculations such
as surface area or volume are made.
In the rectangular prism on the right, the length,

breadth and height have been measured, correct to
the nearest centimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the rectangular prism.
b Calculate the greatest possible error in the volume.
8 cm
WORKED Example 17
15 cm
20 cm
THINK
WRITE
a Calculate the volume of the rectangular

prism.
a V=l w h
= 20 15 8
= 2400 cm3
b Smallest possible dimensions:

l = 19.5, w = 14.5, h = 7.5
V=l w h
= 19.5 14.5 7.5
= 2120.625 cm3
Largest possible dimensions:
l = 20.5, w = 15.5, h = 8.5
V=l w h
= 20.5 15.5 8.5
= 2700.875 cm3
Maximum error = 2700.875 2400
Maximum error = 300.875 cm3
Write the smallest possible

dimensions of the prism.
Calculate the smallest possible
volume.
Write the largest possible
dimensions of the prism.
Calculate the largest possible
volume.
Calculate the maximum error.
As can be seen in the above example, a

possible error of 0.5 cm in the linear
measurement compounds to an error
of 300.875 cm3 in the volume
measurement.
Mismeasurements that are
made will compound all further
calculations.
70
WORKED Example 18
A swimming pool is built in the shape of a rectangular prism with a length of 10.2 m,
a width of 7.5 m and a depth of 1.5 m. The floor and the sides of the pool need to be
cemented.
a Calculate the area that is to be cemented.
b The concreter mismeasured the length of the pool as 9.4 m. Calculate the error
in the area calculation.
c Calculate the percentage error (correct to 1 decimal place) in the area
calculation.
THINK
WRITE
a Area of floor = 10.2 7.5

Area of floor = 76.5 m2
Area of ends = 7.5 1.5
Area of ends = 11.25 m2
Area of sides = 10.2 1.5
Area of sides = 15.3 m2
Total area = 76.5 + 2 11.25 + 2
Total area = 129.6 m2
Calculate the area of the pool floor.
Calculate the area of the ends.
Calculate the area of the sides.
Calculate the total area to be

cemented.
Use the incorrect measurement to

repeat all the above calculations.
Find the difference between the two

answers.
c Write the error as a percentage of the

correct answer.
b Area of floor = 9.4 7.5

Area of floor = 70.5 m2
Area of ends = 7.5 1.5
Area of ends = 11.25 m2
Area of sides = 9.4 1.5
Area of sides = 14.1 m2
Total area = 70.5 + 2 11.25 + 2
Error = 129.6 121.2
Error = 8.4 m2
8.4
c Percentage error = ------------129.6
Percentage error = 6.5%
15.3
14.1
100%
remember
1. All measurements are approximations. The accuracy of any measurement
is limited by the instrument used and the most practical degree of
accuracy.
2. The maximum error in any linear measurement is half the smallest unit
used.
3. Any error made in linear measurement will compound when used in further
calculations such as those for surface area or volume.
WORKED
Example
1 In the figure on the right each measurement has

been taken to the nearest centimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the figure.
b Calculate the maximum error in the volume
calculation.
2.11 SkillS
HEET
17
12 cm
2F
71
6 cm
16 cm
Error in
linear
measurement
2 The radius of a circle is measured as 7.6 cm, correct to 1 decimal place.

a What is the maximum possible error in the measurement of the radius?
b Calculate the area of the circle. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the maximum possible error in the area of the circle.
d Calculate the maximum possible error in the area of the circle as a percentage of
the area.
3 A cube has a side length of 16 mm, correct to the nearest millimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the cube.
b Calculate the smallest possible volume of the cube.
c Calculate the largest possible volume of the cube.
d Calculate the maximum possible percentage error in the volume of the cube.
e Calculate the surface area of the cube.
f Calculate the smallest possible surface area of the cube.
g Calculate the largest possible surface area of the cube.
h Calculate the maximum possible percentage error in the surface area of the cube.
4 A cylinder has a radius of 4 cm and a height of 6 cm with each measurement being
taken correct to the nearest centimetre.
a Calculate the volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole number).
b Calculate the smallest possible volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole
number).
c Calculate the largest possible volume of the cylinder (correct to the nearest whole
number).
d Calculate the greatest possible percentage error in the volume of the cylinder.
5 For the cylinder in question 4, calculate the greatest possible percentage error in the
surface area of the cylinder.
6 The radius of a sphere is 1.4 m with the measurement taken correct to 1 decimal
place.
a Calculate the volume of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Calculate the maximum possible error in the volume of the sphere.
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in the volume.
d Calculate the surface area of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
e Calculate the maximum possible error in the surface area of the sphere.
f Calculate the maximum percentage error in the surface area.
72
WORKED
Example
18
7 An open cylindrical water tank has a radius of 45 cm and a height of 60 cm.

a Calculate the capacity of the tank, in litres (correct to the nearest whole number).
b If the tanks radius is given as 50 cm, correct to the nearest 10 cm, calculate the
error in the capacity of the tank.
c Calculate the percentage error in the capacity of the tank.
8 A rectangular prism has dimensions 56 cm 41 cm 17 cm.
a Calculate the volume of the prism.
b Calculate the surface area of the prism.
c If the dimensions are given to the nearest 10 cm, what will the dimensions of the
prism be given as?
d Calculate the percentage error in the volume when the dimensions are given to the
nearest 10 cm.
e Calculate the percentage error in the surface area when the dimensions are given to
the nearest 10 cm.
Work
9 The four walls of a room are to be painted. The length of the room is 4.1 m and the
width is 3.6 m. Each wall is 1.8 m high.
a Calculate the area to be painted.
b One litre of paint will paint an area of 2 m2. Each wall will need two coats of paint.
Calculate the number of litres of paint required to complete this job.
c Karla incorrectly measures the length of the room to be 3.9 m. If Karla does all her
calculations using this incorrect measurement, how many litres will she be short of
paint at the end of the job?
T
SHEE
2.2
10 The dimensions of a rectangular house are 16.6 m by 9.8 m.

a Simon takes the dimensions of the house to the nearest metre for all his calculations. What dimensions does Simon use?
b Simon plans to floor the house in slate tiles. What is the area that needs to be tiled?
c The tiles cost $27.50/m2 and Simon buys an extra 10% to allow for cutting and
breakage. Calculate the cost of the tiles.
d How much extra has Simon spent than would have been necessary had he used the
original measurements of the house?
73
summary
The area of a circle can be calculated using the formula A = r 2.
The area of a sector is found by multiplying the area of the full circle by the
fraction of the circle occupied by the sector. This is calculated by looking at the
angle that the sector makes with the centre.
An annulus is the area between two circles. The area is calculated by subtracting
the area of the smaller circle from the area of the larger circle or by using the
formula A = (R2 r2) , where R is the radius of the large circle and r is the
radius of the small circle.
The area of an ellipse is calculated using the formula A = ab, where a is the length
of the semi-major axis and b is the length of the semi-minor axis.
Area of composite figures

The area of a composite figure is calculated by dividing the figure into two or more
regular figures.
When calculating the area of a composite figure, some side lengths will need to be
calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
Simpsons rule
Simpsons rule is used to find an approximation for an irregular area.
The formula for Simpsons rule is A
h
--- ( d f + 4d m + d l )
3
To obtain a better approximation for an area, Simpsons rule can be applied twice.
This is done by dividing the area in half and applying Simpsons rule separately to
each half.
Surface area of cylinders and spheres

The surface area of a closed cylinder is found by using the formula
SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh .
If the cylinder is an open cylinder, the surface area is found using
SA = r 2 + 2 rh.
The surface area of a sphere is calculated using the formula
SA = 4 r 2 .

The volume of solid prisms is calculated using the formula V = A
The volume of a cone is found using the formula V =
1
--3
r 2h
The volume of a cylinder is found using the formula V = r 2h
.
.
h.
74
The volume of a sphere is found using the formula V =
r3
4
--3
The volume of a pyramid is found using the formula V = 1--- Ah

3
.
.
Other solids have their volume calculated by dividing the solid into regular solid
shapes.
All measurements are approximations. The maximum error in any measurement is
half the smallest unit used.
Any error in a measurement will compound when further calculations using the
measurement need to be made.
75
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the area of each of the circles below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
3.7 cm
52 mm
1.7 m
2 Calculate the area of each of the figures below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
92 mm
2A
2A
237
12.5 cm
30
4.8 m
3 Calculate the area of each of the annuluses below. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal
place.
a
b
c
34 cm
3.7 m
81 mm
17 cm
1.3 m
94 mm
4 Calculate the area of each of the ellipses below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
9.2 m
30 mm
45 mm
2A
2A
3.6 cm
11.4 m
7 cm
5 Calculate the area of the figure below.
15 cm
35 cm
10 cm
12 cm
10 cm
2B
76
2B
6 Calculate the area of each of the figures below. Where appropriate, give your answer correct
a 0.7 m
b
c
4.1 m
1.5 cm
7 Use Simpsons rule to approximate

the area on the right.
13 m
42 m
42 m
21 m
8 Use Simpsons rule to find an approximation for each of the areas below.
a
b
c
31 m
57 m
36 m
14 m
30 m
2m
62 m
96 m
24 m
42 m
50 m
30 m
30 m
9m
15 m 15 m 15 m 15 m
2D
23 m
38 m
10 Use Simpsons rule twice to find an

approximation for the area on the
right.
44 m
2C
33 m
62 m
25 m
19 m 11 m
9 By dividing the area shown on the right into two

sections, use Simpsons rule to find an
approximation for the area.
27 m
2C
57 m
2C
36 cm
6 cm
29 m
2C
1.5 cm
50 m
3.9 m
0.9 m
3 cm
11 Calculate the surface area of each of the closed cylinders drawn below, correct to 1 decimal
place.
a
b
c
60 cm
25 cm
10 cm
1.1 m
7 cm
4 cm
77
12 Calculate the surface area of an open cylinder with a diameter of 9 cm and a height of
15 cm. Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
2D
13 Calculate the surface area of a sphere with:

a a radius of 5 cm
b a radius of 2.4 m
Give each answer correct to the nearest whole number.
2D
c a diameter of 156 mm.
0.5 m
2E
1.9 m
3.1 m
14 Calculate the volume of the solid drawn

on the right.
0.6 m
2.7 m
15 Calculate the volume of each of the solids drawn below. Where necessary, give your answer
a
b
c
12 cm
2E
22 cm
17 cm
9 cm
15 cm
20 cm
12 cm
19 cm
3 cm
10 cm
3 cm
3 cm
10 cm
40 cm
16 Calculate the volume of the figure drawn on the

right, correct to 2 decimal places.
2E
15 cm
9 cm
17 A sphere has a diameter of 16 cm when measured to the nearest centimetre.

a State the maximum error made in the measurement of the radius.
b Calculate the volume of the sphere. Answer correct to the nearest whole number.
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in the volume of the sphere.
2F
18 An aluminium soft drink can has a diameter of 8 cm and a height of 10 cm.

a Calculate the capacity of the
can, in millilitres, correct to the
nearest 10 millilitres.
b The machine that cuts the
aluminium for the can is
mistakenly set to 12 cm.
Calculate the percentage error
in the capacity of the can
(correct to the nearest whole
number).
2F
78

1 multiple choice
6.2 mm
Which of the following calculations will correctly

give the area of the ellipse drawn on the right?
A
6.22
B
8.52
C
10.82
D
10.8 6.2
10.8 mm
20 m
25 m
15 m
30 m
The field drawn on the right is to have its area

approximated by two applications of Simpsons
rule. The value of h is:
A 16
B 20
C 40
D 80
10 m
2 multiple choice
80 m
3 multiple choice
The figure drawn on the right is an open cylinder.
Which of the calculations below will correctly
give the surface area of the cylinder?
A
52 + 2
5 20
2
B 2
5 +2
5 20
C
102 + 2
10 20
D2
102 + 2
10 20
20 cm
10 cm
4 multiple choice
A closed cylinder is measured as having a radius of 1.2 m and a height of 1.4 m. The
maximum error in the calculation of the surface area is:
A 1.2 m2
B 1.5 m2
C 1.6 m2
D 19.6 m2
5 The figure on the right shows a section of a
concrete drainage pipe.
a Calculate the area of the annulus, correct to 1 decimal
2.5 m
place.
b Calculate the volume of concrete needed to make a
1.5 m
5 m length of this pipe (correct to 1 decimal place).
c Calculate the volume of water that will flow through the
5 m length of the pipe (in litres, to the nearest 100 L).
d Calculate the surface area of a 5 m section of pipe (correct to the nearest m2).
(Hint: Include the area of the inside of the pipe.)
CHAPTER
4.9 m
5.1 m
60 m
9.2 m
test
yourself
6 The diagram on the right shows the cross-section of a river.

a Use two applications of Simpsons rule to find the
approximate area of the rivers cross-section.
b If the river flows with this cross-section for
approximately 800 m, calculate the volume of the river.
c The length of the river has been approximated to the
nearest 100 m. Calculate the maximum percentage error
in calculating this volume.
Applications of
trigonometry
3
syllabus reference
Measurement 6
Applications of
trigonometry
In this chapter
3A Review of right-angled
triangles
3B Bearings
3C Using the sine rule to find
side lengths
3D Using the sine rule to find
angles
3E Area of a triangle
3F Using the cosine rule to
find side lengths
3G Using the cosine rule to
find angles
3H Radial surveys
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
3.1
Right-angled trigonometry finding a side length
1 In each of the following find the length of the side marked with the pronumerals correct to two
decimal places.
d
a
b
c
f
40
71
16 m
19.5 m
25.2 km
63
3.2
Using the inverse trigonometric ratios
2 Find angle , where

a sin = 0.7
3.4
is acute, correct to the nearest degree.

b tan = 1.5
c cos
= 0.8
Right-angled trigonometry finding an angle
3 In each of the following find the size of the angle marked with the pronumerals correct to the
nearest degree.
8m
a
b
c
46.1 mm
20 cm
25 cm
16 m
31.2 mm
3.5
Converting nautical miles to kilometres
4 Use 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km to convert:

a 4 nautical miles to kilometres.
c 1.2 nautical miles to metres.
3.6
b 50 kilometres to nautical miles.

d 3560 metres to nautical miles.
Angle sum of a triangle
5 Find the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following.
a
b
c
132
41
58
3.7
63
71
Solving fractional equations
6 Solve each of the following equations, where appropriate give your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
x
x 3
x
9.5
9 2
a --- = 3
b --- = --c ------- = ------d --- = --5
4 8
3.6 2.4
x 5
Chapter 3 Applications of trigonometry
81
Review of right-angled triangles

Previously we have studied right-angled triangles and discovered that we can calculate
a side length of a triangle when given the length of one other side and one of the acute
angles.
To do this we need to use the formulas for the three trigonometric ratios.
sin
cos
tan
opposite side
= -------------------------------hypotenuse
adjacent side
= --------------------------------hypotenuse
opposite side
= --------------------------------adjacent side
WORKED Example 1
Find the length of the side marked x

in the figure on the right (correct
to 1 decimal place).
42
x
29.2 cm
THINK
1
WRITE
Label the sides of the diagram.

42
adj
hyp
x
29.2 cm
opp
Choose the sine ratio and write the

formula.
Substitute for the opposite side and
hypotenuse.
Make x the subject of the formula.
Calculate the value of x.
2
3
opposite side
= ------------------------------hypotenuse
29.2
sin 42 = ---------x
x sin 42 = 29.2
29.2
x = ----------------sin 42
x = 43.6 m
sin
82
equation solver to find

Graphics Calculator tip! Using
side lengths
Consider worked example 1. Once you have chosen the correct trigonometric ratio and
substituted, you can finish the solution using the equation solver on your graphics
calculator.
1. From the MENU select EQUA.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any equation, enter the equation

sin 42 = 29.2 X and press EXE .
Note: Your calculator may display a different value
of X at this stage. This is just the last value of X
stored in the calculators memory.
4. Press F6 (SOLV) to solve the equation.
The same formulas can be used to calculate the size of an angle if we are given two
side lengths in the triangle.
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the size of the angle marked in the

figure on the right (correct to the nearest degree).
47 mm
35 mm
THINK
1 Label the sides of the triangle.
Choose the tangent ratio and write the

formula.
Substitute for the opposite side and the
adjacent side.
Make the subject of the formula.
Calculate .
2
3
WRITE
Opposite = 47 mm
Adjacent = 35 mm
opposite side
tan = ------------------------------adjacent side
47
tan = -----35
47
= tan 1 -----35
= 53
83
equation solver to find

the size of an angle
We can use the equation solver when we are finding the size of an angle.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any existing equation, then enter the equation

tan X = 47 ab/c 35 and press EXE .
Using these results, we are able to solve problems that involve more than one rightangled triangle.
WORKED Example 3
Greg stands 70 m from the base of a building and measures the
angle of elevation to the top of the building as being 35. Julie is
standing 40 m from the base of the building on the other side of
the building as shown in the figure on the right.
a Calculate the height of the building, correct to 2 decimal places.
b Calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the building that
Julie would measure, correct to the nearest degree.
THINK
a
Draw the triangle showing the angle

of elevation from where Greg is
standing and label the sides.
h
35
40 m
70 m
WRITE
a
h
35
70 m
Continued over page
84
WRITE
Choose the tangent ratio and write

the formula.
Substitute for and the adjacent

side.
Make h the subject of the formula.
Calculate the value of h.
Draw the triangle from where Julie

is standing and label the sides.
tan
opposite side
= ------------------------------adjacent side
h
tan 35 = -----70
h = 70
tan 35
h = 49.01 m
b
49.01 m
THINK
40 m
2
Choose the tangent ratio and write

the formula.
tan
opposite side
= ------------------------------adjacent side
Substitute for the opposite side and

the adjacent side.
tan
49.01
= ------------40
Make
Calculate , correct to the nearest

degree.
the subject of the formula.
= tan
49.01
------------40
= 51
remember
1. The formulas for the three trigonometric ratios are:
opposite side
sin = ------------------------------hypotenuse
adjacent side
cos = ------------------------------hypotenuse
opposite side
2. To calculate the length of a side we need to be given one side length and one
acute angle.
3. To calculate the size of an angle we need to be given two side lengths.
4. Many problems involve solving two or more right-angled triangles.
5. After substitution, the value of the unknown can be found using the equation
solver on a graphics calculator.
85
3A
Review of right-angled
triangles
1 Calculate the length of the side marked with the pronumerals in each of the following, 3.1
1
a
b
c
Right-angled
b
WORKED
Example
38
142 mm
23
a
trigonometry
finding a
side length
61
Cabri Geo
314 mm
ry
met
11.4 m
HEET
13.2 cm
SkillS
Sine,
cosine and
tangent
f
17
5
e
d
50
19.2 cm
9.1 m
2 Calculate the size of each of the angles marked with the pronumerals, correct to the
nearest degree.
2
a
b
c
113 cm
9.5 m
WORKED
cm
61
71 mm
11.4 m
3.2
SkillS
HEET
36 mm
Example
Using the
inverse
trigonometric
ratios
3 From the top of a cliff the angle of depression

to a boat sailing 100 m offshore is 32. Calculate
the height of the cliff, correct to the nearest metre.
100 m
32
h
SkillS
Rounding
angles
to the
nearest
degree
3.4
SkillS
HEET
5 A lighthouse is 40 m tall and the beacon atop the

lighthouse is sighted by a ship 150 m from shore, as
shown in the figure on the right. Calculate the angle 40 m
of elevation at which the lighthouse is sighted,
correct to the nearest degree.
3.3
HEET
4 Andrew walks 5 km from point P to point Q. At the same time Bianca walks from
P to R such that PQ is perpendicular to PR. Given that PQR = 28:
a draw a diagram of DPQR
b calculate the distance walked by Bianca, correct to the nearest metre
c calculate the distance that Andrew would need to walk in a straight line to
meet Bianca, correct to the nearest metre.
150 m
Right-angled
trigonometry
finding an angle
86
6 From a point 65 m above the ground, a point is sighted on the ground at a distance of
239 m.
a Draw a diagram of this situation.
b Calculate the angle of depression at which the point is sighted.
7 Sally and Tim are both sighting the top of a
building, as shown in the figure on the right.
3
Sally is 40 m from the base of the building
and sights the angle of elevation to the top of
the building as 35. Tim is 60 m from the
base of the building.
a Calculate the height of the building, correct to 2 decimal places.
b Calculate the angle of elevation at which
Tim will sight the building.
WORKED
Example
8 George and Diego are both flying a kite

from the same point. Georges kite is flying
on 50 m of string and the string makes a 70
angle with the ground. Diegos kite is flying
on a 60 m piece of string and is at the same
height as Georges kite, as shown in the
figure on the right. Calculate the angle that
the string from Diegos kite makes with the
ground. Give your answer correct to the
nearest degree.
35
40 m
60 m
50 m
60 m
70
Bearings
A bearing is an angle used to describe direction. Bearings are used in navigation and
are a common application of trigonometry to practical situations. We can therefore
apply our trigonometrical formulas to make calculations based upon these bearings.
There are two types of bearing that we need to be able to work with: compass bearings
and true bearings.
Compass bearings
Compass bearings use the four points of the
compass. With compass bearings there are four
main directions: north, south, east and west. In
between each of these main directions there are
four others: north-east, south-east, south-west and
north-west. Each of these directions is at 45 to
two of the four main directions.
Trigonometry can then be used to solve
problems about distances and angles using these
eight basic directions.
N
NW
NE
SW
SE
S
87
WORKED Example 4
A ship (A) is 10 nautical miles due east of a lighthouse. A second ship (B) bears SE of the
lighthouse and is due south of the first ship. Calculate the distance of the second ship from
the lighthouse, correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram labelling the sides of

the triangle.
adj
10 M
N
L
45
opp
hyp
x
B
2
Choose the cosine ratio and write the

formula.
Substitute for and the adjacent
side.
Make x the subject of the equation.
Calculate the value of x, correct to

1 decimal place.
Give a written answer.
adj
= --------hyp
10
cos 45 = -----x
x cos 45 = 10
10
x = -----------------cos 45
= 14.1 M
cos
The second ship is 14.1 nautical miles from the

lighthouse.
These eight compass points do not allow us to make calculations about more precise
directions. For this reason an alternative method of describing bearings is needed for
any direction other than these basic eight points.
True bearings
A true bearing is an angle measured from north in a
clockwise direction. As there are 360 in a revolution,
all true bearings are represented as a three-digit number
between 000 and 360. For example, east is at a
bearing of 090, south has a bearing of 180 and west
270.
When given information about a bearing, we can
solve problems using trigonometry by constructing a
right-angled triangle. As most questions involving bearings are in problem form, a diagram is necessary to
solve the problem and an answer in words should be
given.
270
090
180
88
WORKED Example 5
A ship sails on a bearing of 130 for a distance of 10 nautical miles. Calculate how far
south of its starting point the ship is, correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram completing a

right-angled triangle and label the
sides.
N
130
50
hyp
10 M
adj
x
opp
Choose the cosine ratio and write the

formula.
Substitute for and the hypotenuse.
Make x the subject of the equation.
Calculate.
adj
= --------hyp
x
cos 50 = -----10
x = 10 cos 50
x = 6.43 M
The ship is 6.43 nautical miles south of its
starting point.
cos
We can also use our methods of calculating angles to make calculations about bearings.
After solving the right-angled triangle, however, we need to provide the answer as a
bearing.
WORKED Example 6
On a hike Lisa walked south for 3.5 km and then turned west for 1.2 km. Calculate Lisas
bearing from her starting point.
WRITE
Draw a diagram and label the sides of

the triangle.
hyp
3.5 km
adj
THINK
1.2 km
opp
2
Choose the tangent ratio and write the

formula.
tan
opp
= --------adj
THINK
89
WRITE
Substitute for the opposite and adjacent

sides and simplify.
Make
Calculate .
From the diagram we can see the angle

lies between south and west. South has
a bearing of 180, and so we must add
19 to 180 to calculate the true
bearing.
Bearing = 180 + 19
= 199
Lisa is at a bearing of 199 from her starting

point.
tan
1.2
= ------3.5
= 0.3429
= tan 1(0.3429)
the subject of the equation.
= 19
remember
1. Bearings are used to describe a direction. We have used two types of bearings.
Compass bearings use the four main points of the compass, north, south, east
and west, as well as the four middle directions, north-east, north-west, southeast and south-west.
True bearings describe more specific direction by using a three-digit angle,
which is measured from north in a clockwise direction.
2. Bearing questions are usually given in written form so you will need to draw a
diagram to extract all the information from the question.
3. Read carefully to see if the question is asking you to find a side or an angle.
4. Always give a written answer to worded questions.
5. Use 1 M = 1.852 km to convert beteen nautical miles and kilometres.
3B
WORKED
Example
1 A road runs due north. A hiker leaves the road and walks for 4.2 km in a NW
direction.
b How far due east must the hiker walk to get back to the road? (Give your
answer correct to 3 decimal places.)
2 A driver heads due south for 34 km, then turns left and drives until he is SE of
his starting point.
a Draw a diagram to show the drivers journey.
b Calculate the distance the driver travelled in an easterly direction from his
starting point.
3.5
SkillS
HEET
Bearings
Converting
nautical
miles to
kilometres
90
3 Two boats, A and B, sail from a port. A heads due west, while B heads NW for a
distance of 43 nautical miles, where it drops anchor. Boat A drops anchor due south of
boat B.
a Draw a diagram showing the positions of boats A and B.
b Calculate the distance between boats A and B in nautical miles, correct to
1 decimal place.
c Calculate the distance in kilometres between A and B.
4 multiple choice
A true bearing of 315 is equivalent to a
compass bearing of:
A NE
B NW
C SE
D SW
5 multiple choice
A compass bearing of SE is equivalent to a true bearing of:
A 045
B 135
C 225
Example
6 Two hikers, Adrian and Bertrand, set out on a

walk. Adrian walks 5 km due north to a point,
A, and Bertrand walks on a bearing of 052 to
a point, B. Bertrand lets off a flare and Adrian
notices Bertrand is now due east of him, as
shown in the diagram on the right. Calculate
the distance between the two hikers, correct to
1 decimal place.
5 km
WORKED
D 315
52
7 A yacht sights a lighthouse on a bearing of 060. After sailing another eight nautical
miles due north, the yacht is due west of the lighthouse.
b Calculate the distance from the yacht to the lighthouse when it is due west of it
8 An aeroplane takes off from an airport and flies on a bearing of 220 for a distance of
570 km. Calculate how far south of the airport the aeroplane is (correct to the nearest
kilometre).
9 A camping ground is due east of a car park. Eden and Jeff walk 3.8 km due south
from the camping ground until the car park is on a bearing of 290.
a Draw a diagram showing the car park, the camping ground, and Eden and Jeffs
position.
b Calculate the distance Eden and Jeff need to walk directly back to the car park,
10 multiple choice
A ship is on a bearing of 070 from a lighthouse. The bearing of the lighthouse from
the ship will be:
A 070
B 160
C 200
D 250
91
11 multiple choice
A camping ground is SW of a car park. The bearing of the car park from the camping
ground will be:
A NE
B NW
C SE
D SW
12 A search party leaves its base and head 4 km due west before turning south for 3.5 km.
6
b Calculate the true bearing of the search party from its base, correct to the nearest
degree.
WORKED
Example
13 A ship is two nautical miles due west of a harbour. A yacht that sails 6.5 nautical miles
from that harbour is due north of the ship. Calculate the true bearing (correct to the
nearest degree) of the course on which the yacht sails from the harbour.
Trigonometric ratios for

obtuse angles
Many non-right-angled triangles have one obtuse angle. In the following sections
we will be solving non-right-angled triangles and will need to investigate the
trigonometric ratios for obtuse angles.
1 Use your calculator to give each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
a sin 100
b cos 100
c tan 100
d sin 135
e cos 135
f tan 135
g sin 179
h cos 179
i tan 179
2 Which of the answers to question 1 are positive and which are negative?
3 Calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of several other obtuse angles and see if
the established pattern continues.
4 Can you develop a rule for the sign of trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles?
The sine rule

Finding side lengths
The trigonometry we have studied so far has been
applicable to only right-angled triangles. The sine rule
allows us to calculate the lengths of sides and the size of
angles in non-right-angled triangles. Consider the
triangle drawn on the right.
C
C
b
A
A
B
c
The sine rule states that in any triangle, ABC, the ratio of each side to the sine of its
opposite angle will be equal.
a
b
c
------------- = ------------- = ------------sin A
sin B
sin C
92
Derivation of the sine rule

A, B and C represent the three angles in the triangle ABC and a, b and c represent
the three sides, remembering that each side is named with the lower-case letter of
the opposite vertex.
Construct a line from C to a point, D, perpendicular to AB. CD is the
perpendicular height of the triangle, h.
C
a
h
D
c
Now consider ACD and BCD separately.

C
a
h
Use the formula for the sine ratio:

opp
opp
= --------sin = --------hyp
hyp
h
h
sin A = --sin B = --b
a
h = b sin A
h = a sin B
We are now able to equate these two expressions for h.
a sin B = b sin A
Dividing both sides by sin A sin B we get:
sin
a sin B
b sin A
--------------------------- = --------------------------sin A sin B sin A sin B
a
b
------------ = -----------sin A sin B
c
Similarly, we are able to show that each of these is also equal to ------------- . Try it!
sin C
This formula allows us to calculate the length of a side in any triangle if we are given
the length of one other side and two angles. When using the formula we need to use
only two parts of it.
93
WORKED Example 7
Calculate the length of the side marked x in the

triangle on the right, correct to 1 decimal place.
A
80
16 cm
40
B
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute a = x, b = 16, A = 80 and

B = 40.
Make x the subject of the equation by

multiplying by sin 80.
Calculate.
a
b
------------ = -----------sin A sin B
x
16
----------------- = ----------------sin 80 sin 40
16 sin 80
x = ------------------------sin 40
x = 24.5 cm
equation solver to solve

sine rule problems (sides)
As with right-angled trigonometry, you can use the equation solver function on your
graphics calculator to solve the equation formed immediately after you substitute into
the equation. Consider worked example 7 above.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any existing equation, enter the equation

X sin 80 = 16 sin 40, and then press EXE .
94
Note: Some questions may ask for you to give the answer in a form other than a
number and as such the graphics calculator method can not be used. For example, the
16 sin 80
question above could be worded to, say, show x = ------------------------ , in which case you must
sin 40
manipulate the equation to arrive at the desired expression.
To use the sine rule we need to know the angle opposite the side we are finding and
the angle opposite the side we are given. In some cases these are not the angles we are
given. In such cases we need to use the fact that the angles in a triangle add to 180 to
calculate the required angle.
WORKED Example 8
Calculate the length of the side labelled

m in the figure on the right, correct to
4 significant figures.
65
m
75
B
THINK
1 Calculate the size of angle C.
2
Write the formula.
3
4
Substitute a = 16, c = m, A = 65 and

C = 40.
Make m the subject of the equation.
Calculate.
16 m
WRITE
C = 180 65
= 40
a
c
------------ = ------------sin A sin C
16
m
----------------- = ----------------sin 65 sin 40
16 sin 40
m = ------------------------sin 65
= 11.35 m
75
As mentioned in the previous investigation, we need to apply the sine rule to obtuseangled triangles. In such examples the method used is exactly the same with the substitution of an obtuse angle.
Using the sine rule allows us to solve a number of more complex problems. As with
our earlier trigonometry problems, we begin each with a diagram and give a written
answer to each.
WORKED Example 9
Georg looks south and observes an aeroplane at an angle of elevation

of 60. Henrietta is 20 km south of where Georg is and she faces
north to see the aeroplane at an angle of elevation of 75.
Calculate the distance of the aeroplane from Henriettas
observation point, to the nearest metre.
60
G
THINK
1 Calculate the size of
GAH.
WRITE
A = 180
= 45
75
20 km
60
75
THINK
95
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute g = x, a = 20, G = 60 and

H = 75.
4
5
Make x the subject.

Calculate.
g
a
------------- = -----------sin G sin A
x
20
----------------- = ----------------sin 60 sin 45
20 sin 60
x = ------------------------sin 45
x = 24.495 km
The distance of the aeroplane from Henriettas
observation point is 24.495 km.
remember
a
b
c
1. The sine rule formula is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
sin A
sin B
sin C
2. The sine rule is used to find a side in any triangle when we are given the length
of one other side and two angles.
3. We need to use only two parts of the sine rule formula.
4. For written problems, begin by drawing a diagram and finish by giving a
written answer.
5. You can use the equation solver on a graphics calculator to find the value of the
unknown after substituting into the formula.
Using the sine rule to find

side lengths
3C
1 Write down the sine rule formula as it applies to each of the triangles below.
a
b X
c P
A
WORKED
Example
2 Use the sine rule to calculate the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in
each of the following, correct to 3 significant figures.
a
b
c
L
A
R
x
50
B
16 cm
1.9 km
63
45
C
M
52
59
84
N
89 mm
3.7
SkillS
HEET
Angle
sum of a
triangle
SkillS
HEET
3.6
Solving
fractional
equations
96
Triangle
WORKED
Example
3 In each of the following, use the sine rule to calculate the length of the side marked
with the pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place, by first finding the size of the third
angle.
a G
b
c
x
H
B
N
74 74
80
18.2 mm
19.4 km
Cabr
omet
i Ge ry
m
62 P
85
y
27
A
35.3 cm
I
4 multiple choice
42 cm
Look at the figure drawn on the right.
Which of the following expressions gives
28
35
m
the value of m?
42 sin 117
42 sin 117
A m = ---------------------------B m = ---------------------------sin 28
sin 35
42 sin 28
C m = ------------------------sin 117
42 sin 35
D m = ------------------------sin 117
5 multiple choice
Look at the figure drawn on the right.
Which of the following expressions gives
the value of n?
n
28
35
42 m
42 sin 117
A n = ---------------------------sin 28
42 sin 117
B n = ---------------------------sin 35
42 sin 28
C n = ------------------------sin 117
42 sin 35
D n = ------------------------sin 117
6 ABC is a triangle in which BC = 9 cm, BAC = 54 and ACB = 62. Calculate the
length of side AB, correct to 1 decimal place.
7 XYZ is a triangle in which y = 19.2 m, XYZ = 42 and XZY = 28. Calculate x,
correct to 3 significant figures.
WORKED
Example
8 X and Y are two trees, 30 m apart on one side of a river. Z is a tree on the opposite
side of the river, as shown in the diagram below.
Z
59
X
72
30 m
It is found that XYZ = 72 and YXZ = 59. Calculate the distance XZ, correct to
1 decimal place.
97
9 From a point, M, the angle of elevation to the top of a building, B, is 34. From a
point, N, 20 m closer to the building, the angle of elevation is 49.
b Calculate the distance NB, correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the height of the building, correct to the nearest metre.
10 Look at the figure on the right.
a Show that XY can be given by the
80 sin 30
expression ------------------------- .
sin 40
b Show that h can be found using the
80 sin 30 sin 70
expression -------------------------------------------- .
sin 40
c Calculate h, correct to 1 decimal place.
h
30
80 m
70
X
Finding angles
Using the sine rule result, we are able to calculate angle sizes as well. To do this, we
need to be given the length of two sides and the angle opposite one of them. For
simplicity, in solving the triangle we invert the sine rule formula when we are using it
to find an angle. The formula is written:
sin A
sin B
sin C
------------ = ------------ = ------------a
b
c
Your formula sheet has the sine rule to find a side length. You need to invert this
formula when finding an angle. As with finding side lengths, we use only two parts of
the formula.
WORKED Example 10
Find the size of the angle, , in the figure on the right,
A
6 cm
110
C
20 cm
THINK
1
Write the formula.
Substitute A = 110, C = , a = 20 and

c = 6.
3
4
Make sin the subject of the equation.

Calculate a value for sin .
Calculate sin 1(0.2819) to find .
WRITE
sin A sin C
------------ = ------------a
c
sin 110 sin
-------------------- = -----------20
6
6 sin 110
sin = ------------------------20
sin = 0.2819
= 16
98

sine rule problems (angles)
The same graphics calculator method can be used when finding an angle using the sine
rule. Consider worked example 10.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).

sin 110 20 = sin X 6 and press EXE .
Note: When using the graphics calculator, you do not need to remember to invert the
sine rule. If you enter 20 sin 110 = 6 sin x, the graphics calculator will still solve the
equation.
As with finding side lengths, some questions will be problems that require you to
draw a diagram to extract the required information and then write the answer.
WORKED Example 11
From a point, P, a ship (S) is sighted 12.4 km from P on a bearing of 137. A point, Q, is
due south of P and is a distance of 31.2 km from the ship. Calculate the bearing of the ship
from Q, correct to the nearest degree.
THINK
1
Draw a diagram.
WRITE
P
137
12.4 km
43 S
31.2 km
THINK
99
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute for p, q and P.
Make sin Q the subject.
Calculate a value for sin Q.
sin Q sin P
------------- = -----------q
p
sin Q sin 43
------------- = ----------------12.4
31.2
12.4 sin 43
sin Q = -----------------------------31.2
sin Q = 0.271
Calculate sin (0.271) to find Q.
Q = 16
The bearing of the ship from Q is 016.
remember
sin A
sin B
sin C
1. The sine rule formula for finding an angle is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
a
b
c
2. The formula sheet gives the sine rule in the form used to find a side. You have
to invert the formula when finding angles.
3. We can use this formula when we are given two sides and the angle opposite
one of them.
4. Worded questions should begin with a diagram and finish with a written
answer.
Using the sine rule to find

angles
3D
1 Find the size of the angle marked with a pronumeral in each of the following, correct to
the nearest degree.
10
a
b
c L
P
A
WORKED
Example
32 cm
100
29.5 m
B
46 cm
153 mm
79 mm
C
R
Q 60
18.9 m
117
N
27 mm
23.6 km
75
23.6 km
16.5 cm
170
27.6 cm
86
156 mm
100
2 multiple choice
36
36 sin 13
= ------------------------7
C sin
13
Which of the statements below give the

correct value for sin ?
13 sin 36
A sin = ------------------------7
B sin
7 sin 36
= ---------------------13
D sin
7 sin 13
= ---------------------36
3 multiple choice
In which of the triangles below is the information insufficient to use the sine rule?
A
12.7 m
14.8 m
45
57
16.2 m
12.6 m
D
115
12.7 m
6.2 m
8.7 m
12.9 m
4 In PQR, q = 12 cm, r = 16 cm and

the nearest degree.
PRQ = 56. Find the size of
5 In KLM, LM = 4.2 m, KL = 5.6 m and

to the nearest degree.
KML = 27. Find the size of
PQR, correct to
LKM, correct
6 A, B and C are three towns marked on a map. Judy calculates that the distance between
A and B is 45 km and the distance between B and C is 32 km. CAB is 45. Calculate
11
ACB, correct to the nearest degree.
WORKED
Example
7 A surveyor marks three points X, Y and Z in the ground. The surveyor measures XY to
be 13.7 m and XZ to be 14.2 m. XYZ is 60.
a Calculate XZY to the nearest degree.
b Calculate YXZ to the nearest degree.
Work
8 Two wires support a flagpole. The

first wire is 8 m long and makes a
65 angle with the ground. The
second wire is 9 m long. Find the
angle that the second wire makes
with the ground.
T
SHEE
3.1
101
1
1 Find a in the triangle below,
2 Find b in the triangle below,

correct to the nearest
millimetre.
23
a
346 mm
11.4 m
63
b
3 Find c in the triangle below,

4 Find in the triangle below,

42 cm
12 m
37
c
7m
In questions 5 to 7 find the size of the side marked with a pronumeral, correct to
5
6
80
46 m
12
75
150
6.1 cm
23
30
1700 mm
In questions 8 to 10 find the size of the angle marked , correct to the nearest degree.
8
10
44 cm
65 cm
41 m
23
4.9 m
31
60
32 m
3.6 m
102
Area of a triangle
You should be familiar with finding the area of a triangle using
the formula Area = 1--2- bh . In this formula, b is the base of the
triangle and h is the perpendicular height. This formula cant
be used in triangles where we do not know the perpendicular
height. Trigonometry allows us to find the area of such
triangles when we are given the length of two sides and the
B
included angle.
Consider the triangle drawn on the right. In this triangle:
Area = 1--2- ah
b
h
C
D
a
[1]
(a = base of triangle, h = height)

Now consider ACD. Since this triangle is right angled:
opp
sin C = --------hyp
h
sin C = --b
h = b sin C
Substituting for h in [1]:
Area = 1--2- ab sin C
This becomes the formula for the area of a triangle. There are three equivalent formulas
for the area of a triangle.
Area = 1--2- ab sin C
Area = 1--2- ac sin B
Area = 1--2- bc sin A
The formula sheet gives the first version of this formula only. The others are an
adaptation of the same rule. These formulas allow us to find the area of any triangle
where we are given the length of two sides and the included angle. The included angle
is the angle between the two given sides. The formula chosen should be the one that
uses the angle you have been given.
WORKED Example 12
Find the area of the triangle on the right, correct to

2 decimal places.
12 cm
60
THINK
2
Write the formula that uses sin B.

Substitute a = 16, c = 12 and B = 60.
Calculate.
16 cm
WRITE
Area = 1--- ac sin B
Area =
2
1
--2
16
Area = 83.14 cm
12
2
sin 60
103
As with all other trigonometry we can use this formula to solve practical problems.
WORKED Example 13
Two paths diverge at an angle of 72. The paths lengths are 45 m and 76 m respectively.
Calculate the area between the two paths, correct to the nearest square metre.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram.
45 m
76 m
72
2
Write the formula.
Area = 1--- ab sin C
Substitute a = 45, b = 76 and C = 72.
Area =
Calculate.
Area = 1626 m2
The area between the paths is 1626 m2.
2
1
--2
45 76 sin 72
remember
1. The area of a triangle can be found when you are given the length of two sides
and an included angle.
2. The formulas to use are:
Area = 1--- ab sin C

2
Area = 1--- ac sin B

2
Area = 1--- bc sin A

2
3. Where possible you should still use Area = 1--- bh.

2
4. Begin worded problems with a diagram and finish them with a written answer.
3E
Area of a triangle
1 Write down the formula for the area of a triangle in terms of each of the triangles
drawn below. Write the formula using the boldfaced angle.
a
b X
c
B
A
104
2 For each of the triangles drawn below, state whether the area would be best found
using the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C or Area = 1--- bh.
2
b
6 cm
1.9 m
60
12 cm
2.6 m
d
6.2 m
9.1 m
8.3 m
60
12.4 m
Example
12
3 Find the area of each of the following triangles, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
11 cm
196 mm
207 mm
117 mm
40
120
92 mm
10
12 cm
4 Use either Area = 1--- ab sin C or Area = 1--- bh to find the area of each of the following
2
2
triangles. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
32 cm
38 cm
WORKED
19 cm
66
14 cm
38 cm
32 cm
5 multiple choice
In which of the following triangles can the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C not be used to
2
find the area of the triangle?
A
B
4 cm
4 cm
60
9 cm
9 cm
D
4 cm
75
9 cm
120
4 cm
9 cm
105
6 multiple choice
The area of the triangle on the right
(correct to 1 decimal place) is:
A 4.4 cm2
B 14.7 cm2
C 17.1 cm2
D 20.5 cm2
5 cm
7 In PQR, p = 4.3 cm, q = 1.8 cm and

7 cm
78
6 cm
PRQ = 87. Calculate the area of PQR,
8 The figure on the right is of a parallelogram, ABCD.

a Copy the diagram into your workbook and draw
the diagonal AC on your diagram.
b By considering the parallelogram as two equal
triangles, calculate its area, correct to 1 decimal
place.
2.5 m
70
D
5.2 m
9 On the right is a diagram of a pentagon

inscribed in a circle of radius 5 cm.
a Calculate the size of each of the angles
made at the centre.
b Calculate the area of the pentagon,
correct to the nearest square centimetre.
10 A surveyor sights the four corners of a
block of land and makes the following
13
notebook entry. Calculate the area of the
block of land, correct to the nearest
square metre.
WORKED
Example
18 m
20 m
90
80 70
15 m
120
25 m
106
The cosine rule

Finding side lengths
When given the length of one side and two angles in a triangle, we can use the sine rule
to find another side length. However, in many cases we do not have this information
and need another method of calculating the side lengths. The cosine rule allows us to
calculate the length of the third side of a triangle when we are given the length of the
other two sides and the included angle.
a2 = b2 + c2
2bc cos A
2ac cos B
2ab cos C
b =a +c
c =a +b
The formula sheet gives the third version of this formula only. The others are an
adaptation of the same rule.
It is important to notice that the formula is given in terms of a2, b2 or c2. This means
that to find the value of a, b or c we need to take the square root of our calculation.
Derivation of the cosine rule

Consider ABC on the right. In this
triangle, h is the perpendicular
height of the triangle and meets
AB at D. We will let AD = x, and
therefore BD = c x.
Using Pythagoras theorem on BCD:

From ACD:
Therefore:
Therefore:
b
h
c x
a2 = (c
a2 = c2
D
c
x)2 + h2
2cx + x2 + h2 [1]
b2 = x2 + h2
h2 = b2 x2
Substituting for h2 in [1]:
Now in ACD:
a2 = c2
a2 = c2
2cx + x2 + b2 x2
2cx + b2 [2]
x
cos A = --b
x = b cos A
Substituting for x in [2]:
a2 = c2 2c(b cos A) + b2
a2 = c2 + b2 2bc cos A
This becomes the formula for the cosine rule. A similar formula can be used for
finding sides b and c. You may like to try it for yourself.
1 Start with ABC and draw a perpendicular line from A to BC.
2 Use this diagram and follow the method shown to obtain the following version
of the cosine rule: b2 = a 2 + c 2 2ac cosB.
3 Can you obtain c2 = a2 + b 2
2ab cosC?
WORKED Example 14
Find the length of the side marked b in the triangle

on the right, correct to 1 decimal place.
70
10 m
12 m
THINK
1
2
3
4
107
WRITE
Write the formula with b2 as the

subject.
Substitute a = 12, c = 10 and B = 70.
Calculate the value of b2.
Find b by taking the square root of b2.
b2 = a2 + c2
2ac cos B
= 122 + 102 2
= 161.915
b = 161.915
= 12.7 m
12
10
cos 70

cosine rule problems (sides)
Using the equation solver method for the cosine rule is a very useful method as many
students forget the final step of the solution, which is to take the square root of a2, b2
or c2.
In the same way as with earlier questions we write the formula and then substitute the
appropriate values, leaving one unknown. Hence we have an equation, which can be typed
into the equation solver of the graphics calculator. Consider worked example 14 above.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).
3. Delete any existing equation, enter

B2 = 122 + 102 2 12 10 cos 70
and then press EXE .
108
As with sine rule questions, we can apply the cosine rule to obtuse-angled triangles.
You should recall from the earlier investigation that the cosine ratio of an obtuse angle
is negative. The method of solution remains unchanged.
WORKED Example 15
Find the length of side PQ in the triangle
on the right, correct to the nearest
millimetre.
68 mm
122
R
THINK
1
2
3
4
92 mm
WRITE
Write the formula with r 2 as the

subject.
Substitute p = 92, q = 68 and R = 122.
Calculate the value of r 2.
Find r by taking the square root of r 2.
r 2 = p2 + q2
2pq cos R
= 922 + 682 2
= 19 718.35
r = 19 718.35
= 140 mm
92
68
cos 122
The cosine rule also allows us to solve a wider range of practical problems. The
important part of solving such problems is marking the correct information on your
diagram. If you can identify two side lengths and the included angle, you can use the
cosine rule.
WORKED Example 16
A surveyor standing at a point, X, sights a point, M, 50 m away and a point, N, 80 m away.
If the angle between the lines XM and XN is 45, calculate the distance between the points
M and N, correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram and mark all given

information on it.
X
45
50 m
80 m
N
M
2
3
4
5
Write the formula with x2 as the

subject.
Substitute m = 80, n = 50 and X = 45.
Calculate the value of x2.
Calculate x by taking the square root of
x2.
x2 = m2 + n2
2mn cos X
= 802 + 502 2
= 3243.15
x = 3243.15
= 56.9 m
80
50
cos 45
109
remember
1. To use the cosine rule to find a side length, you need to be given the length of
two sides and the included angle.
2. The cosine rule formulas are:
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C.
3. In the solution to cosine rule questions, your final answer is found by taking the
square root of the calculation.
4. Begin worded questions by drawing a diagram and finish them by giving a
written answer.
Using the cosine rule to find

side lengths
3F
1 Write down the cosine rule formula as it applies to each of the triangles below. In
each case, make the boldfaced pronumeral the subject.
a
P
q
r
c
m
l
N
WORKED
Example
14
2 Find the length of the side marked with a pronumeral in each of the following, correct
to 3 significant figures.
a
A
x
12 m
12 m
42
14 m
13 cm
r
C
35
21 cm
Example
15
12 m
R
Y
WORKED
60
3 In each of the following obtuse-angled triangles, find the length of the side marked
with the pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
bA
X
112 cm
110
x
6.1 m
B
130
9.7 m
R
q
b
Z
114 cm
C P
160
43 mm Q
63 mm
110
4 multiple choice
In which of the following triangles are we unable to use the cosine rule to find x?
A
B
14.8 cm
16.4 m
132
16.2 cm
x
32
18.2 m
D
63
8.3 km
9.6 km
10.5 m
9.7 m
63
x
5 multiple choice
Look at the triangle drawn on the right.
The value of x, correct to 1 decimal place, is:
A 7.2 m
B 7.3 m
C 52.4 m
D 52.5 m
6 multiple choice
50
8m
9m
Lieng is asked to find the value of a, correct to 1 decimal place,

in the figure drawn on the right. Below is Liengs solution.
Line 1: a2 = 122 + 82 2 12 8 cos 60
60
Line 2:
= 144 + 64 192 cos 60
8 cm
Line 3:
= 208 192 cos 60
Line 4:
= 16 cos 60
Line 5:
=8
a
Line 6:
a = 2.8 m
Liengs solution is incorrect. In which line did she make her error?
A Line 2
B Line 3
C Line 4
D Line 5
12 cm
7 In ABC, a = 14 cm, c = 25 cm and ABC = 29. Calculate b, correct to 1 decimal place.

8 In PQR, PQ = 234 mm, QR = 981 mm and
PR, correct to 3 significant figures.
WORKED
Example
16
PQR = 128. Find the length of side
9 Len and Morag walk separate paths that diverge from one another at an angle of 48.
After three hours Len has walked 7.9 km and Morag 8.6 km. Find the distance
between the two walkers at this time, correct to the nearest metre.
10 A cricketer is fielding 20 m from the batsman and at an angle of 35 to the pitch. The
batsman hits a ball 55 m and straight behind the bowler. How far must the fieldsman
run to field the ball? (Give your answer to the nearest metre.)
11 The sides of a parallelogram are 5.3 cm and 11.3 cm. The sides meet at angles of 134
and 46.
a Draw a diagram of the parallelogram showing this information and mark both
diagonals on it.
b Calculate the length of the shorter diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the length of the long diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place.
12 The cord supporting a picture frame is 58 cm

long. It is hung over a single hook in the
centre of the cord and the cord then makes an
angle of 145 as shown in the figure on the
right. Calculate the length of the backing of
the picture frame, to the nearest centimetre.
111
58 cm
145
Finding angles
We can use the cosine rule to find the size of the angles within a triangle. Consider the
cosine rule formula.
a2 = b2 + c2
2bc cos A
We now make cos A the subject of this formula.

a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
a + 2bc cos A = b2 + c2
2bc cos A = b2 + c2 a2
b2 + c2 a2
cos A = ---------------------------2bc
2
In this form, we can use the cosine rule to find the size of an angle if we are given all
three side lengths. We should be able to write the cosine rule in three forms depending
upon which angle we wish to find.
b2 + c2 a2
cos A = ---------------------------2bc
a2 + c2 b2
cos B = ---------------------------2ac
a2 + b2 c2
cos C = ---------------------------2ab
Again, the formula sheet gives the third version of this formula only. The others are an
adaptation of the same rule.
WORKED Example 17
Find the size of angle B in the triangle

on the right, correct to the nearest degree.
7 cm
THINK
1
Write the formula with cos B as the

subject.
5 cm
9 cm
WRITE
a2 + c2 b2
cos B = ---------------------------2ac
Continued over page
112
THINK
WRITE
Substitute a = 9, b = 5 and c = 7.
Calculate the value of cos B.
Make B the subject of the equation.

Calculate B.
92 + 72 52
cos B = ---------------------------2 9 7
105
cos B = --------126
= 0.8333
B = cos 1(0.8333)
B = 34

cosine rule problems (angles)
As with all of the trigonometric applications we can use the equation solver to find the
required answer. Consider worked example 17.
2. Press F3 (SOLV).

cos B = (92 + 72 52) (2 9 7),
and then press EXE .
Your formula sheet will give you two versions of the cosine rule, one for finding a side
length and one for finding an angle. When using the equation solver it does not matter
which version you use to find a side or an angle.
Try using the solver on the equation 52 = 92 + 72 2 9 7 cos B.
As we found earlier, the cosine ratio for an obtuse angle will be negative. So, when
we get a negative result to the calculation for the cosine ratio, this means that the angle
we are finding is obtuse. Your calculator will give the obtuse angle when we take the
inverse.
113
WORKED Example 18
Find the size of angle Q in the triangle
on the right, correct to the nearest
degree.
Q
4 cm
P
THINK
6 cm
WRITE
Write the formula with cos Q as the

subject.
Substitute p = 3, q = 6 and r = 4.
Calculate the value of cos Q.
Make Q the subject of the equation.

Calculate Q.
3 cm
p2 + r 2 q2
cos Q = ---------------------------2 pr
32 + 42 62
cos Q = ---------------------------2 4 3
11
cos Q = --------24
= 0.4583
Q = cos 1( 0.4583)
Q = 117
In some cosine rule questions, you need to work out which angle you need to find. For
example, you could be asked to calculate the size of the largest angle in a triangle. To
do this you do not need to calculate all three angles. The largest angle in any triangle
will be the one opposite the longest side. Similarly, the smallest angle will lie opposite
the shortest side.
WORKED Example 19
Find the size of the largest angle in
the triangle drawn on the right.
R
3.4 m
4.9 m
S
5.7 m
THINK
1 ST is the longest side, therefore angle R
is the largest angle.
2
Write the formula with cos R the

subject.
Substitute r = 5.7, s = 4.9 and t = 3.4.
Calculate the value of cos R.
Make R the subject of the equation.

Calculate R.
6
7
WRITE
s2 + t 2 r 2
cos R = -------------------------2st
4.9 2 + 3.4 2 5.7 2
cos R = -----------------------------------------2 4.9 3.4
3.08
cos R = ------------33.32
= 0.0924
R = cos 1(0.0924)
R = 85
The largest angle in the triangle is 85.
114
Many problems that require you to find an angle are solved using the cosine rule. As
always, these begin with a diagram and are finished off by giving a written answer.
WORKED Example 20
Two paths diverge from a point, A. The first path goes for 1.25 km to a point, B. The
second path goes for 1.4 km to a point, C. B and C are exactly 2 km apart. Find the angle
at which the two paths diverge.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram.
2 km
1.25 km
A
1.4 km
2
Write the formula with cos A as the

subject.
Substitute a = 2, b = 1.4 and c = 1.25.
Calculate the value of cos A.
Make A the subject of the equation.

Calculate the value of A.
6
7
b2
c2
a2
+
cos A = ---------------------------2bc
1.4 2 + 1.25 2 2 2
cos A = ---------------------------------------2 1.4 1.25
0.4775
cos A = ------------------3.5
= 0.1364
A = cos 1( 0.1364)
= 98
The roads diverge at an angle of 98.
remember
1. The cosine rule formulas are:
b2 + c2 a2
cos A = ---------------------------2bc
a2 + c2 b2
cos B = ---------------------------2ac
a2 + b2 c2
cos C = ---------------------------2ab
2. If the value of the cosine ratio is negative, the angle is obtuse.
3. In any triangle, the largest angle lies opposite the largest side and the smallest
angle lies opposite the smallest side.
4. Worded problems begin with a diagram and end with a written answer.
115
3G
Using the cosine rule to find

angles
1 For each of the following, write the cosine rule formula as it applies to the triangle
drawn with the boldfaced angle as the subject.
a
b P
c
A
P
B
WORKED
Example
17
2 Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following
triangles, correct to the nearest degree.
a
8 cm
11 cm
2.8 m
3.2 m
4.5 m
5.4 m
C
B
WORKED
Example
18
13 cm
4.0 m
6.2 m
3 In each of the obtuse-angled triangles below find the size of the angle marked with the
pronumeral, to the nearest degree.
a
6m
c
9.6 m
8m
12.9 m
4.2 m
9.2 m
6.1 m
11 m
4.2 m
4 multiple choice
Look at the figure drawn below.
5 cm
3 cm
7 cm
Which of the following correctly represents the value of cos ?

A cos
32 + 72 52
= ---------------------------2 3 7
B cos
32 + 72 52
= ---------------------------2 5 7
C cos
32 + 52 72
= ---------------------------2 3 5
D cos
52 + 72 32
= ---------------------------2 5 7
116
5 multiple choice
In which of the following is the angle
A
obtuse?
B
3 cm
4 cm
3 cm
5 cm
4 cm
4 cm
3 cm
4 cm
3 cm
4 cm
6 cm
4 cm
6 In PQR, p = 7 m, q = 9 m and r = 6 m. Find
QRP, correct to the nearest degree.
7 In KLM, k = 85 mm, l = 145 mm and m = 197 mm. Find the size of the smallest
angle, correct to the nearest degree.
WORKED
Example
19
8 Calculate the size of all three angles (correct to the nearest degree) in a triangle with
side lengths 12 cm, 14 cm and 17 cm.
9 WXYZ is a parallelogram. WX = 9.2 cm and XY = 13.6 cm. The diagonal
WY = 14 cm.
a Draw a diagram of the parallelogram.
b Calculate the size of WXY, correct to the nearest degree.
10 Two roads diverge from a point, P. The

first road is 5 km long and leads to a
20
point, Q. The second road is 8 km long
and leads to a point, R. The distance
between Q and R is 4.6 km. Calculate
the angle at which the two roads
diverge.
WORKED
Example
11 A soccer goal is 8 m wide.

a A player is directly in front of the
goal such that he is 12 m from each
post. Within what angle must he kick
the ball to score a goal?
b A second player takes an angled shot.
This player is 12 m from the nearest
post and 17 m from the far post.
Within what angle must this player
kick to score a goal?
12 The backing of a picture frame is 50 cm long and is
hung over a picture hook by a cord 52 cm long as
shown in the figure on the right. Calculate the angle
made by the cord at the picture hook.
52 cm
50 cm
117
2
1 Find the size of the side marked x,
correct to the nearest millimetre.
2 Find the size of the side marked y,

4.1 m
11
y
40
x
346 mm
3 Find the angle marked , correct

to the nearest degree.
5.8 km
4.9 km
4 Write down the sine rule formula as used to find a side.

5 Use the sine rule to find a,
6 Use the sine rule to find ,

68
83
4.2 km
a
57
7.9 km
14 m
7 Write down the cosine rule formula as used to find a side length.
8 Use the cosine rule to find m,
250 m
40
320 m
9 Write down the cosine rule as used to find an angle.

10 Use the cosine rule to find ,
9m
13 m
17 m
118
Radial surveys
In the preliminary course we examined the offset survey. In this survey method an area
is measured by drawing a traverse line and measuring offsets at right angles to the traverse line. Because the offset survey created right-angled triangles, the length of each
boundary could be calculated using Pythagoras theorem and the area could be calculated using the formula Area = 1--- bh.
2
An alternative survey method to this is a radial survey. One type of radial survey is
the plane table radial survey. The following steps are taken in a plane table survey.
1. A table is placed in the centre of the
field to be surveyed, each corner of
the field is sighted and a line is ruled
on the paper along the line of sight.
2. The distance from the plane

table to each corner is then
measured.
25
20
m
26 m
28
3. The angle between each radial

line is then measured and the
radial lines joined to complete
the diagram.
25
20
m
115
60
115
28
m
26 m
70
The field will then be divided into triangles. The length of each side of the field can
then be calculated by using the cosine rule. The perimeter of the field is then found by
adding the lengths of each side.
WORKED Example 21
119
A
23
30 m
The figure on the right is a plane table survey

of a block of land. Calculate the perimeter of
the block of land, correct to the nearest metre.
110
125 4017 m
85
28 m
C
X
THINK
1
WRITE
Apply the cosine rule in AXB to

calculate the length of AB.
Apply the cosine rule in BXC to

calculate the length of BC.
Apply the cosine rule in CXD to

calculate the length of CD.
Apply the cosine rule in DXA to

calculate the length of DA.
Calculate the perimeter by adding the

length of each side and rounding the
answer to the nearest metre.
For AXB:
x2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos X
= 302 + 232 2 30 23
= 1900.99
x = 43.6 m
The length of AB is 43.6 m.
For BXC:
x2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos X
= 172 + 302 2 17 30
= 407.63
x = 20.2 m
The length of BC is 20.2 m.
For CXD:
x2 = c2 + d 2 2cd cos X
= 282 + 172 2 28 17
= 990.03
x = 31.5 m
The length of CD is 31.5 m.
For DXA:
x2 = d2 + a2 2da cos X
= 232 + 282 2 23 28
= 2051.77
x = 45.3 m
The length of DA is 45.3 m.
cos 110
cos 40
cos 85
cos 125
Perimeter = 43.6 + 20.2 + 31.5 + 45.3

Perimeter = 140.6 m
Perimeter = 141 m (correct to the nearest metre)
A similar approach is used to calculate the area of such a field. The area of each
triangle is found using the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C. The total area is then found by
2
adding the area of each triangle.
120
WORKED Example 22
m
52
Calculate the area of the field on the right.

Give your answer correct to the nearest
square metre.
m
48
96
144 120
67 m
THINK
1
WRITE
Calculate the area of AXB.
For AXB: Area = 1--- ab sin X

=
Calculate the area of BXC.
2
1
--2
48
52
sin 96
= 1241.2 m2
For BXC: Area = 1--- bc sin X
=
2
1
--2
67
48
sin 120
Calculate the area of CXA.
= 1392.6 m
For CXA: Area = 1--- ca sin X
=
Calculate the total area by adding the

area of each triangle.
2
1
--2
52
67
sin 144
= 1023.9 m2
Total area = 1241.2 + 1392.6 + 1023.9
Total area = 3658 m2 (correct to the nearest m2)
An alternative to the plane table radial survey is the compass radial survey. In this
survey the bearing of each radial line is calculated and this bearing is used to calculate
the angle between each radial, as in the worked example below. The method of calculating the perimeter and area of the field is then the same as for the plane table radial
survey.
WORKED Example 23
A
338
B
067
49
m
58
The figure on the right shows a compass radial

survey of a block of land.
a Calculate the size of AXB.
b Hence, calculate the distance AB,
correct to the nearest metre.
55
57 m
m
X
D
239
THINK
WRITE
a A is 22 west of North, B is 67 east

of North.
a 22 + 67 = 89
C
114
121
THINK
WRITE
b For DAXB: x2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos X

= 492 + 582 - 2 49 58 cos 89
= 5665.8
x = 75 m (correct to the nearest metre)
The distance AB is 75 m.
1
2
3
4
5
Write the cosine rule formula.

Substitute for a, b and X.
Calculate the value of x2.
Calculate x.
Write your answer.
remember
1. In a radial survey, radial lines are drawn and measured from a point in the
centre of an area.
2. In a plane table radial survey, radial lines are drawn on a table by sighting
each corner of the field. The length of each line and the angle between the
lines is then measured.
3. A compass radial survey is similar but the bearing of each radial line is
measured.
4. Each survey divides the area into triangles and the length of each boundary
can be calculated using the cosine rule.
5. The area of each triangle can be calculated using the formula
Area = 1--- ab sin C.
2
3H
1 The figure on the right is a plane table radial

survey of a block of land. Use the cosine
21
rule to calculate the perimeter of the block
of land, correct to the nearest metre.
WORKED
Example
15
m
10
m
Radial surveys
100
70 80
110
m
20
25
2 Calculate the perimeter of each of the following areas, correct to the nearest metre.
45
m
m
115
80
70
85 80
125
45
95 75 m
150
92 m
m
1
m
114
m
60
55 m
c
12
b
100 m
90 40
60
89 m
140 30
78
122
3 The figure on the right is a plane table survey

of a block of land. Calculate the area of the
22
block, correct to the nearest square metre.
WORKED
160
0m
60 100 8
40
90 m
4 For each of the plane table surveys shown in

question 2 calculate the area, correct to the
100 m
11
0m
Example
315
5 The figure on the right is a compass radial

Example
survey of a field.
23
a Calculate the size of AXB.
b Hence, use the cosine rule to calculate the
distance AB, correct to the nearest metre.
B
040
50
WORKED
40 m
60
m
X
70 m
110 C
170
D
350
100 m
6 Calculate the perimeter of the field given by

the compass radial survey on the right. Give
your answer correct to the nearest metre.
30 m
90 m
110
250
7 Calculate the perimeter of each of the compass radial surveys shown below.
a 327
b 339
c 319
030
020
Work
63
m
10
8
m
42
99 m
097
196
m
29
226
085
3.2
49 m
38 m
38
T
SHEE
m
72
m
215
m
114
53
24 m
052
170
8 For each of the compass radial surveys in question 7 calculate the area, correct to the
Conducting a radial survey

Choose an appropriate area in or near your school to conduct a radial survey.
1 Set up a table in the centre of the area and tape a large piece of paper to the table.
2 Mark a point in the middle of the piece of paper and sight each corner of the
field from this point, ruling a line from the point in that direction.
3 Use a tape or trundle wheel to measure the distance from the table to each
corner of the field.
4 Use your protractor to measure the angle between each radial line.
5 Calculate the area and the perimeter of the field.
123
summary
Right-angled triangles
The formulas to be used when solving right-angled triangles are:
opposite side
sin = ------------------------------hypotenuse
adjacent side
cos = ------------------------------hypotenuse
opposite side
To calculate a side length, you need to be given the length of one other side and one
angle.
To calculate the size of an angle, you need to be given two side lengths.
If a question is given as a problem, begin by drawing a diagram and give a written
answer.
Bearings
Bearings are a measure of direction.
A compass bearing uses the four main points of the compass, north, south, east and
west, as well as the four intermediate directions, north-east, north-west, south-east,
south-west.
More specific directions are given using true bearings. A true bearing describes a
direction as a three-digit angle taken in a clockwise direction from north.
Most bearing questions will require you to draw a diagram to begin the question
and require a written answer.
Sine rule
The sine rule allows us to calculate sides and
b
angles in non-right-angled triangles.
When finding a side length you need to
A
be given the length of one other side and two angles. A
a
b
c
The sine rule formula is ------------ = ------------ = ------------sin A
sin B
sin C
C
C
a
B
c
When finding an angle you need to be given two side lengths and one angle.
sin A
sin B
sin C
The sine rule formula when finding an angle is ------------ = ------------ = ------------- .
a
b
c
Area of a triangle
When you do not know the perpendicular height of a triangle, you can calculate the
area using the formula Area = 1--- ab sin C .
2
To calculate the area using this formula, you need to be given the length of two
sides and the included angle.
Cosine rule
The cosine rule allows you to calculate the length of sides and size of angles of
non-right-angled triangles where you are unable to use the sine rule.
To find a side length using the cosine rule, you need to be given the length of two
sides and the included angle and use the formula c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C .
To find an angle using the cosine rule, you need to be given the length of all three
a2 + b2 c2
sides and use the formula cos C = ---------------------------- .
2ab
Surveying
A plane table radial survey sights each corner of a
field and draws a radial line in that direction. This
divides the field into triangles. The length of each
radial line and the angle between radial lines are
then measured.
The cosine rule can then be used to calculate the
length of each boundary.
25
20
115
60
115
28
26 m
70
The formula Area = 1--- ab sin C can be then used to

2
calculate the area of the field.

A compass radial survey takes the bearing of each radial line and this is then used
to calculate the angles between them.
A
338
m
58
067
49
124
55
D
239
57 m
m
X
C
114
125
CHAPTER
review
1 Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the right-angled triangles
below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
t
7.9 cm
72
17.2 cm
3A
42 km
45
60
x
2 In each of the following right-angled triangles, find the size of the angle marked with the
pronumeral, correct to the nearest degree.
a
b
c
8.3 km
3A
35 cm
16 m
24.8 cm
20.1 km
9m
3 An aeroplane at an altitude of 2500 m sights a ship

at an angle of depression of 39. Calculate, to the
nearest metre, the horizontal distance from the
aeroplane to the ship.
3A
4 When a yacht is 500 m from shore, the top of a cliff

is sighted at an angle of elevation of 12.
a Calculate the height of the cliff, correct to the
nearest metre.
b Calculate what the angle of elevation of the top of
the cliff will be when the yacht is 200 m from
shore.
3A
5 Two aircraft are approaching an airport. The Qantas

plane (Q) is 40 km due north of the runway (R),
while a Jetstar plane (J) is due east of the Qantas
plane and north-east of the runway. Calculate the
distance of the Jetstar plane from the runway. (Give
your answer correct to the nearest metre.)
3B
6 A car rally requires cars to travel for 25 km on a

bearing of 240. The cars are then required to travel
due north until they are due west of the starting
point. Calculate the distance from the cars to the
starting point. (Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
3B
126
3B
7 A yacht sails due west for 45 nautical miles before turning north for 23 nautical miles.
a Calculate the bearing of the yacht from its starting point.
b On what bearing must the yacht sail to return to its starting point?
3C
8 Use the sine rule to calculate each of the sides marked with a pronumeral, correct to
a
b
c
e
a
d
19
117
70
28
31
4.6 cm
4.6 km
136 mm
20
3C
3D
9 In XYZ: x = 9.2 cm,
XYZ = 56 and
YXZ = 38. Find y, correct to 1 decimal place.
10 Use the sine rule to calculate the size of the angle marked with a pronumeral, correct to the
nearest degree.
a
b
c
8 cm
9.7 cm
7.1 m 9
9 cm
123
4.1 cm
63
1.2 m
3E
11 In ABC: b = 46 cm, c = 37 cm and

the nearest square centimetre.
3E
12 Find the area of a triangular field with two sides of 80 m and 98 m, which meet at an angle
of 130 (correct to the nearest hundred square metres).
3F
13 Use the cosine rule to find each of the following unknown sides, correct to 3 significant
figures.
a
b
c
6.9 cm
BAC = 72. Find the area of the triangle, correct to
6.2 cm
9m
128
b
a
5.7 m
50
117
11 m
3F
14 In LMN: LM = 63 cm, MN = 84 cm and

1 decimal place.
3F
15 During a stunt show two

aeroplanes fly side by side until
they suddenly diverge at an
angle of 160. After both planes
have flown 500 m what is the
distance between the planes,
correct to the nearest metre?
4.6 m
LMN = 68. Find the length of LN, correct to
127
16 Use the cosine rule to find the size of the angle in each of the following, correct to the
nearest degree.
a
b
c
9 cm
7 cm
4.2 m
3G
5.3 m
6 cm
15 cm
6 cm
7.9 m
6 cm
17 In XYZ: x = 8.3 m, y = 12.45 m and z = 7.2 m. Find
YZX, to the nearest degree.
18 Two wooden fences are 50 m and 80 m long respectively. Their ends are connected by a
barbed wire fence 44 m long. Find the angle at which the two wooden fences meet.
19 The figure below is a plane table radial survey of a field.
3G
3G
3H
60 m
m
70 m
30
40
80
120 50
110
a Use the cosine rule to calculate the perimeter of the field.

b Calculate the area of the field.
340
0m
15
260
160 m
90 m
140 m
20 The figure on the right is a compass

radial survey.
a Calculate the perimeter of the field.
b Calculate the area of the field.
190

1 multiple choice
In the figure on the right, which of the
following will give the value of x?
13 sin 36
A x = ------------------------sin 64
13 sin 64
B x = ------------------------sin 36
13 sin 64
C x = ------------------------sin 80
13 sin 80
D x = ------------------------sin 64
13 m
64
x
36
080
3H
128
2 multiple choice
In the figure on the right, which of the
following will give the value of cos ?
62 + 72 82
A cos = ---------------------------B cos
2 6 7
C cos
72 + 82 62
= ---------------------------2 7 8
D cos
7m
6m
62
82
72
+
= ---------------------------2 6 8
62 + 72 82
= ---------------------------2 7 8
8m
3 multiple choice
Maurice walks 3 km on a true bearing of 225. To return to his starting point he must walk on
a compass bearing of:
A north-east
B north-west
C south-east
D south-west
4 multiple choice
B 80
305 A
The figure on the right is a compass

radial survey.
AXB is:
A 35
B 55
C 85
D 135
C 174
5 The distance between football goal posts is 7 m. If Soon Ho is 20 m from one goal post and
25 m from the other:
a draw a diagram showing the goal posts and Soon Hos position.
b calculate the angle within which Soon Ho must kick to score a goal. (Give your answer
correct to the nearest degree.)
6 An observer sights the top of a building at an angle of
elevation of 20. From a point 30 m closer to the building,
the angle of elevation is 35 as shown in the figure on
20
the right.
A
30 m
a Calculate the size of ATB.
b Show that the distance BT can be given by the expression
30 sin 20
BT = ------------------------- .
sin 15
c Show that the height of the building can be given by the expression
30 sin 20 sin 35
h = -------------------------------------------sin 15
d Calculate the height of the building correct to 1 decimal place.
CHAPTER
h
35
B
A 345
110 m
test
yourself
7 The figure on the right shows a compass radial survey

of a field.
a Calculate the length of the boundary CD, correct to
1 decimal place.
b Calculate the area of LAXB, correct to the nearest square
metre.
X 30 m
80 m
D 250
30
m
B
085
125 C
Interpreting
sets of data
4
syllabus reference
Data analysis 5
Interpreting sets of data
In this chapter
4A Measures of location and
spread
4B Skewness
4C Displaying multiple data
sets
4D Comparison of data sets
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
4.1
4.2
Finding the mean
1 Find the mean of the following sets of scores.

a 3, 5, 8, 3, 9, 4, 3, 5
b Stem Leaf
0 9
1 22367
2 457
3 00
Score
Frequency
14
32
27
18
Finding the mode
2 For each of the data sets in question 1 find the mode.
4.3
Finding the median
3 Find the median of the data sets in question 1.
4.4
Finding the range
4 Find each of the data sets in question 1 find the range.
4.5
Finding the interquartile range
5 For each of the data sets in question 1 find the interquartile range.
4.6
Choosing the appropriate standard deviation
6 For each of the following choose and find the appropriate measure of the standard deviation.
a At the end of a movie 10 viewers were chosen and asked to rate the movie from 1 to 5 stars.
The results were: 3, 4, 2, 3, 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, 5.
b At Yass High School there are 80 students who study General Mathematics. They all sat for a
test scored out of 20, and the results obtained are given in the table below.
Score
Frequency
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
15
24
18
4.7
Compiling a stem-and-leaf plot
4.9
7 The scores below show the number of customers each day in a car yard.
23, 32, 27, 31, 19, 45, 22, 26, 38, 41, 27, 40, 9, 34, 37, 21,
22, 30, 39, 19, 14, 32, 20, 40, 23, 27, 26, 28, 11, 15, 28, 33
Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
Drawing a box-and-whisker plot
8 For the data set in question 6, display the results using a box-and-whisker plot.
Chapter 4 Interpreting sets of data
131
Measures of location and spread

Consider the following set of scores that are the exam results for 10 students.
55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 62, 63, 63, 65
To identify a score that is typical in this data set, we can use the mean or median.
The mean is calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores
in the set.
When the data is a small set of scores the mean is found using the formula
x = -----xn
where x = mean
x = individual scores (Therefore, x represents the sum of individual scores.)
n = number of scores
Where the data is presented in a frequency table we use the formula
fx
x = ------f
where x = mean
x = individual scores
f = frequency
In this formula fx represents the sum of the frequency score column on the frequency table and f represents the sum of frequency column.
The median is the middle score (odd number of scores) or the average of the two
middle scores (even number of scores).
For this set of scores:
Mean = 600 10
= 60
Median = 60
Both the mean and median are a measure of location within a data set.
WORKED Example 1
For the set of scores 13, 19, 31, 40, 55, 65, 90, 92, 95, 100 calculate:
a the mean
b the median.
THINK
WRITE
a Total = 600
Mean = 600 10
Mean = 60
1
2
Find the total of the scores.

Divide the total by the number of
scores.
b Average the two middle scores.
b Median = (55 + 65) 2

= 60
132
We have now examined two data sets. Look at these data sets side by side.
Set A: 55, 57, 57, 58, 60, 60, 62, 63, 63, 65
Set B: 13, 19, 31, 40, 55, 65, 90, 92, 95, 100
Although both sets of scores have the same mean and median, they are very different
sets of scores. Clearly, in Set B the scores are more spread out than in Set A. To
measure the spread of a set of scores, we use one or all of the following.
Range: Highest score lowest score
Set A: Range = 65
Set A: Range = 10
55
Set B = 100
Set B = 87
13
Interquartile range (IQR): The difference between the upper quartile and lower quartile.
Set A: Interquartile range = 63
Set A: Interquartile range = 6
57
Standard deviation: Found using the

calculator.
Set A:
Set B: Interquartile range = 92

Set B: Interquartile range = 61
31
(population) or sn (sample) functions on the
= 3.07
Set B:
= 31.51
Each of these measures of spread show that in Set B the scores are more scattered than
in Set A.
WORKED Example 2
For the set of scores 45, 62, 75, 69, 50, 87, 92 calculate:
a the range
b the interquartile range
c the standard deviation.
THINK
WRITE
a Subtract the lowest score from the

highest score.
a Range = 92
Range = 47
b 45, 50, 62, 69, 75, 87, 92

45, 50, 62,
75, 87, 92
1
2
Write the scores in ascending order.

Divide the data in two halves,
leaving the middle score out of both
sets.
The lower quartile is the median of
the lower half; the upper quartile is
the median of the upper half.
Subtract the lower quartile from the
upper quartile.
c Enter the set of scores into your

calculator using the statistics function.
45
Lower quartile = 50 Upper quartile = 87
Interquartile range = 87
Interquartile range = 37
c
50
= 16.36
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding all summary statistics

Your graphics calculator can be used to find all of the important measures of central
tendency and spread. This is demonstrated in worked example 3.
133
WORKED Example 3
Nadia is a gymnast. For a routine she is given the following scores by 10 judges.
9.0 8.7 9.2 9.3 9.8
9.2 8.8 9.4 9.0 9.1
Use your graphics calculator to find
a the mean
b the median
c the mode
d the range
e the interquartile range
f the population standard deviation
g the sample standard deviation.
THINK
1
From the MENU select STAT.
Delete any existing data, and enter the

scores above in List 1.
Press F2 (CALC). You may need to

first press F6 for more options.
Press F6 (SET). Check that 1Var Xlist

is set to List 1 and 1Var Freq is set to 1.
Press EXE to return to the previous

screen, and then press F1 (1Var). All
statistics will now be on display using
the scroll function.
WRITE
Mean
Population standard
deviation
Sample standard
deviation
Number of scores
Lowest score
Lower quartile
Median
Upper quartile
Highest score
Mode
Continued over page
134
THINK
a The mean is denoted by the symbol x .
WRITE
a x = 9.15
b The median is denoted by Med.
b Median = 9.15
c The mode is displayed by Mod. Check

the scores for yourself as the data is
bimodal only the largest mode is
displayed.
c Mode = 9.0 and 9.2
d The range is the highest score (maxX)

minus the lowest score (minX).
d Range = 9.8 8.7

Range = 1.1
e The interquartile range is the upper

quartile (Q3) minus the lower quartile
(Q1).
e Interquartile range = 9.3 9

Interquartile range = 0.3
f The population standard deviation is

denoted by x n.
g The sample standard deviation is

denoted by x n1.
n1
0.297
0.314
Having identified that the mean and median are measures of location and that range,
interquartile range and standard deviation are measures of spread, it is important that
you can recognise the effect that the members of a set have on these measures.
Consider the case of a
basketball team. There are five
players on the team, whose
heights are: 1.91 m, 1.85 m,
1.52 m, 1.93 m and 1.99 m.
The teams mean height is
1.84 m. Only one of the five
players in the team is shorter
than the mean height. This is
because there is one member
of the data set whose height is
much less than the others. A
score in a data set that is
either much less or much
greater than all others is called
an outlier.
An outlier will either
reduce or increase the mean
such that the mean is no
longer typical of the data set.
In such cases, the median is a
better measure of location
than the mean.
135
WORKED Example 4
In a small street there are five houses. The values of these houses are:
$450 000, $465 000, $465 000, $480 000, $495 000.
A new house is built and valued at $750 000. Describe the effect that this outlier
has on the:
a mean
b median
c mode (the score that occurs most often).
THINK
WRITE
a Before new house is built:

Total = $2 355 000
Mean = $2 355 000 5
= $471 000
After new house is built:
Total = $3 105 000
Mean = $3 105 000 6
= $517 500
The outlier has caused the mean to increase
by $46 500. Only the new house is valued
at more than the mean and, as such, has
made the mean a poor measure of the
typical price.
Calculate the mean before the new

house is built.
Calculate the mean after the new

house is built.
Comment on the change in the mean

caused by the outlier.
Calculate the median before the new

house is built.
Calculate the median after the new

house is built.
Comment on the change in the

median caused by the outlier.
Calculate the mode before the new

house is built.
Calculate the mode after the new

house is built.

Mode = $465 000
Comment on the change in the mode

caused by the outlier.
The outlier has had no effect on the mode.
b Before new house is built:

Median = $465 000
Median = ($465 000 + $480 000) 2
Median = $472 500
The outlier has caused only a small increase
in the median and, as such, the median
remains a good measure of the typical score
in this data set.
c Before new house is built:
Mode = $465 000
Generally the mean is the most vulnerable measure of location when an outlier is added
to a data set. The median is affected only by the addition of the extra score and is not
affected by the size of that score. The outlier will have no effect on the mode.
136
remember
1. The mean and median are measures of location in a data set.
The mean is calculated by adding the scores and then dividing by the number
of scores. The mean is calculated using the formulas:
x = Sx
x = Sfx
------------or
n
Sf
The median is the middle score or the average of the two middle scores in a
data set.
2. The range, interquartile range and standard deviation are measures of spread.
The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores.
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper and lower
quartiles.
The standard deviation is found using the sn (population) or sn (sample)
functions on the calculator.
3. An outlier is a score in a data set that is either much less or much greater than
all other scores in the set.
4. All important summary statistics can be found by entering data into a graphics
calculator.
4A
SkillS
HEET
4.1
WORKED
Example
1
Finding
the
mean
SkillS
HEET
4.2
Finding
the
mode
SkillS
HEET
4.3
Finding
the
median
EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
One
variable
statistics
Measures of location and

spread
1 The number of goals scored by a team in 10 games of soccer are:

2, 1, 3, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 6, 1.
a Calculate the mean number of goals scored.
b Calculate the median number of goals scored.
2 For each of the following sets of scores, calculate the mean, median and mode (if one
exists).
a 56, 75, 88, 20, 37, 23, 44
b 2, 1, 7, 4, 6, 1, 1, 4, 5, 3
c 9.9, 9.4, 9.8, 9.6, 9.0, 9.2, 9.8, 9.9
d 13, 15, 16, 17, 10, 13, 15, 14, 19, 20
3 The table at right shows the scores out of 10 by
a class of 30 students on a spelling test.
a Use the statistics function on your calculator
to find the mean score.
b Add a cumulative frequency column to the
table and use it to calculate the median score.
c State the mode.
Score
Frequency
10
137
Score
Class centre
Frequency
2
610
1115
1620
2125
2630
UV Stats
program
GC
TI
15
Cumulative
frequency
am
progr C
asio
GC
4 The table below shows the scores achieved by a football team over a season.
UV Stats
a Copy and complete the table.

b Calculate the mean.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon and use them to estimate the
median.
Example
No. of cars
Frequency
15
10
11
11
12
4.5
SkillS
HEET
6 The table below shows the number of cars sold in a car yard each week over one year.
SkillS
HEET
5 Below is the number of students in each class at a small primary school.

4.4
28, 29, 27, 28, 30, 28, 25, 27, 23, 28, 27, 28
a Calculate the range of the distribution.
Finding
b Calculate the interquartile range.
the
c Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and standard range
deviation.
Finding
the
interquartile
range
4.6
Skil
HEET
lS
a Calculate the range of the number of cars sold.
b Add a cumulative frequency column to the table and use the table to calculate: Choosing the
i the median
appropriate
standard
ii the upper and lower quartiles
deviation
iii the interquartile range.
L Spre
c Use the statistics function on the calculator to find:
XCE ad
i the mean
Boxplots
ii the standard deviation.
d Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
sheet
WORKED
138
7 The table below shows crowds at each match for a team during football season.
Crowd
a
b
c
d
WORKED
Example
Class centre
Frequency
10 00015 000
15 00020 000
20 00025 000
25 00030 000
30 00035 000
Cumulative
frequency
Copy and complete the table.

Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
Use the graph in part b to estimate the interquartile range.
Find the mean and standard deviation. (Give your answer correct to 2 significant
figures.)
8 Below are the scores of two rugby league teams over a period of 10 matches.
Team A: 14, 16, 16, 20, 10, 12, 18, 16, 18, 20
Team B: 28, 12, 32, 2, 0, 8, 40, 10, 12, 16
a For each team calculate the mean score.
b For each team calculate:
i the range
ii the interquartile range
iii the standard deviation.
c Comment on the difference between the performance of the two teams over this
10-game period.
The information below is to be used for questions 9 to 12.
A basketball squad has eight players. The mean height of the eight players is 1.8 m, and
the standard deviation in the heights of the players is 0.1 m. In the first game the tallest
player, who is 1.9 m tall, is injured and replaced in the squad by a player who is 1.98 m tall.
9 multiple choice
The mean height of the basketball squad will now be:
A 1.8 m
B 1.81 m
C 1.86 m
10 multiple choice
As a result of the substitution:
A the standard deviation will increase
B the standard deviation will decrease
C the standard deviation will be unchanged
D the effect on the standard deviation cannot be calculated
11 multiple choice
A the range will increase
B the range will decrease
C the range will be unchanged
D the effect on the range cannot be calculated
D 1.96 m
139
12 multiple choice
A the interquartile range will increase
B the interquartile range will decrease
C the interquartile range will be unchanged
D the effect on the interquartile range cannot be calculated
13 James recorded the following five marks on his Maths tests during the year:
78, 77, 80, 85 and 80.
4
a Calculate:
i the mean
ii the median
iii the mode.
b In James final exam he scored only 20. For the six test results calculate:
i the mean
ii the median
iii the mode.
c Describe the effect that the outlier had on the mean, median and mode.
WORKED
Example
14 The mean of a set of five scores is 60. A score of 90 is added to the data set. Describe
the effect that this outlier will have on the mean.
15 multiple choice
Julie is currently in Year 12. The table below shows the number of days that Julie has
been absent from school in each
of the previous five years.
Year
No. of days
absent
10
11
During Year 12, Julie became seriously ill and was forced to have 37 days off school.
According to statistics calculated on Julies absences over six years, this outlier will
have the greatest effect on:
A the mean
B the median
C the mode
D all of the above
16 A small company has four employees who each earn $397.50 per week. Later, a
manager is employed who earns $1645.00 per week.
a Calculate the mean, median and mode wages.
b What effect does the managers wage have on the:
i mean?
ii median?
iii mode?
c A wage debate is conducted with the employees asking for a rise. Would the mean,
median or mode be quoted:
i in support of a wage rise by the employees?
ii against a wage rise by the employer?
Explain your answers.
140
Skewness
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Frequency
Frequency
Frequency
By looking at a graph, we can make judgements

about the nature of a data set. Consider the first
graph shown on the right.
This graph is symmetrical and we can see that
the mean, median and mode are all equal to 3. The
1 2 3 4 5
majority of scores are clustered around the mean.
This is an example of a normal distribution.
We can compare the standard deviation of data
6
sets by looking at such graphs. The more clustered
5
the data set, the smaller the standard deviation.
4
The second graph is still normally distributed
3
with the mean, median and mode still equal to 3.
2
1
However, there are more scores which are further
0
away from the mean and, hence, the standard
1 2 3 4 5
deviation of the data set is greater.
The third graph shows a data set where the
scores are not clustered and there are two modes
6
at either end of the distribution.
5
In this example, although it is still symmetrical
4
there are two modes, 1 and 5, while the mean and
3
2
median are still 3. The standard deviation in this
1
distribution is greater than either of the two pre0
vious examples as there are more scores further
1 2 3 4 5
away from the mean.
The mean and median can be seen from the graph only because it is symmetrical.
The figure on the right shows the distribution of

a set of scores on a spelling test.
a Is the graph symmetrical?
b What is the mode(s)?
c Can the mean and median be seen from the
graph?
Frequency
WORKED Example 5
5
4
3
2
1
0
6 7 8 9 10
Score
THINK
WRITE
a The columns either side of the middle

are equal.
a The graph is symmetrical.
b The scores that occur the most often are

7 and 9.
b Mode = 7 and 9
c The middle score will be the mean and

median.
c Mean = 8, median = 8
141
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Frequency
Frequency
When a graph is not symmetrical, the mean and median cannot be easily seen from the
graph. Consider the distribution in the graph below left.
The way in which the data are gathered to one end of the distribution is called the
skewness. A greater number of scores are distributed at the lower end of the distribution.
In this case, the data are said to be positively skewed. Similarly, when most of the scores
are distributed at the upper end, the data are said to be negatively skewed, as shown in
the graph below right.
1 2 3 4 5
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5
20
16
12
8
4
0
51
6
61 0
7
71 0
81 80
91 90
1
00
The distribution on the right shows the results of the

Maths Trial HSC at a certain school.
a What is the modal class?
b Describe the skewness of the data set shown
on the right.
Frequency
WORKED Example 6
Maths results
THINK
WRITE
a The class occurring the most often is the

8190 class.
a Modal class = 81
b The majority of data are at the upper end

of the distribution.
b The data are negatively skewed.
90
remember
1. A distribution is symmetrical when the data are equally distributed around the
mean.
2. When the data are symmetrical, the median and mean will both be the middle
score.
3. When the data are clustered around the mean, the standard deviation is smaller.
4. When the majority of scores are at the lower end of a distribution, it is said to
be positively skewed.
5. When the majority of scores are at the upper end of the distribution, it is said to
be negatively skewed.
4B
WORKED
Example
Skewness
Frequency
142
1 In the distribution on the right:

a is the graph symmetrical?
b what is the modal class(es)?
c can the mean and median be seen from the
graph? and, if so, what are their values?
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
4
5
10 9
15 14
1
20 9
25 24
2
9
Frequency
2 For the distribution shown on the right:

a are the data symmetrical?
b what is the modal class(es)?
c can the mean and median be seen from the
graph? and, if so, what are their values?
Example
Frequency
4 For the distribution shown on the right:

a what is the modal class(es)?
b describe the skewness of the distribution.
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
WORKED
No. of goals
Frequency
3 The table on the right shows the number of

goals scored by a hockey team throughout
a season.
a Show this information in a frequency
histogram.
b Are the data symmetrical?
c What is the mode(s)?
d Can the mean and median be seen for
this distribution? and, if so, what are their
values?
5 For each of the following dot plots describe the skewness of the distribution.
a
b
c
0 1 2 3 4 5

14 15 16 17 18 19 20
9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 10
6 For the stem-and-leaf plots drawn below describe the distribution

a Key 3|5 = 35
b Key 4|3 = 4.3 4*|6 = 4.6
Stem Leaf
Stem Leaf
2 259
2* 9
3 0012589
3* 0 4
4 2289
3* 5 5 8 8
5 09
4* 0 0 0 1 1 3 4 4
6 0
4* 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 9 9
7 The table below shows the number of

goals scored by a basketball team
throughout a season.
No. of goals
Frequency
1120
2130
3140
4150
23
5160
21
a Draw a frequency histogram of the

data.
b Describe the data set in terms of its
skewness.
8 multiple choice
Which of the distributions below has the smallest standard deviation?
Frequency
B
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 23 4 5
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
12345
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 23 4 5
Frequency
Frequency
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5
The distribution represented by the graph on the

right is:
A positively skewed
B negatively skewed
C symmetrical
D normally distributed
Frequency
9 multiple choice
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
143
144
10 A movie is shown at a cinema 30 times during the week. The number of people
attending each session of the movie is shown in the table below.
a
b
c
d
No. of people
Frequency
150
51100
101150
151200
10
201250
10
Present the data in a frequency histogram.

Are the data symmetrical?
What is the modal class(es)?
Describe the skewness of the distribution.
11 Year 12 at Wallarwella High School sit exams in Chemistry and Maths. The results are
shown in the table below.
Mark
Chemistry
Maths
3140
4150
5160
6170
7180
8190
91100
Work
a Is either distribution symmetrical?

b If either distribution is not symmetrical, state whether it is positively or negatively
skewed.
c State the mode of each distribution.
d In which subject is the standard deviation greater? Explain your answer.
T
SHEE
4.1
12 Draw an example of a graph which is:

a symmetrical
b positively skewed with one mode
c negatively skewed with two modes.
145
1
Consider the following set of scores: 23, 45, 24, 19, 22, 16, 16, 27, 20, 21. Calculate the
following measures of location and spread.
1 Mean
2 Median
3 Mode
4 Range
5 Interquartile range
6 Standard deviation
7 For the data set, describe the skewness of the distribution.
8 Does the data set have an outlier?
9 Which measure of central tendency is the best measure of location in this data set?
10 Explain why the interquartile range is a better measure of spread than the range.
Displaying multiple data sets

Two data sets can be compared using a number of the displays that have been studied
in earlier parts of this course. Presenting both sets of data on the same display gives a
quick and easy comparison.
Stem-and-leaf plots
Two sets of data can be displayed on the same stem-and-leaf plot. This is done by
having the stem in the centre of the plot, with both sets of data back to back.
WORKED Example 7
The data shown below display the marks of 15 students in both English and Maths.
English: 45 67 81 59 66 61 78 71 74 91 60 49 58 62 70
Maths: 85 71 49 66 64 68 75 71 69 60 63 80 87 54 59
Display the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Write a key at the top of the

stem-and-leaf plot.
Draw the stem showing categories of
10 in the centre of the page.
Display the information for English on
the left of the stem.
Display the information for Maths on
the right of the stem.
Key: 4 5 = 45
English
95 4
98 5
76210 6
8410 7
1 8
1 9
Maths
9
49
034689
115
057
This stem-and-leaf plot allows for both distributions to be easily seen, and for a judgement on the skewness of the distribution to be made.
146
Box-and-whisker plots
A single scale can be used. Draw two box-and-whisker plots on that scale that will
allow the comparison of the median, range and interquartile range of two distributions
to be compared.
WORKED Example 8
Use the back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot drawn in worked example 7 to:
a calculate the median of each distribution
b calculate the range of each distribution
c calculate the interquartile range of each distribution
d draw a box-and-whisker plot of each distribution on the same scale.
THINK
WRITE
a The median will be the eighth score in

each distribution.
a English median = 66
Maths median = 68
b To calculate the range of each

distribution, subtract the lowest score
from the highest score.
b English range = 91 45
English range = 46
Maths range = 87 49
Maths range = 38
The lower quartile will be the fourth

score.
The upper quartile will be the
twelfth score.
The interquartile range is the
difference between the quartiles.
c English lower quartile = 59

Maths lower quartile = 60
English upper quartile = 74
Maths upper quartile = 75
English interquartile range = 74 59
English interquartile range = 15
Maths interquartile range = 75 60
Maths interquartile range = 15
Draw a scale.
Draw the English box-and-whisker
plot.
Draw the Maths box-and-whisker
plot.
1
2
3
1
2
3
English
Maths
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale
Examining exam results

Collect data on the most recent exam that has been done in your class.
1 Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
2 Find all the information needed to display the data in a box-and-whisker plot.
3 Is there any skewness evident in the data?
4 Which measure of location best describes the typical score in this data set?
147
Graphics Calculator tip! Storing multiple data sets

Your graphics calculator can store two sets of data at the same time. Consider worked
example 8, which uses the data from worked example 7. By graphing each data set
using a box-and-whisker-plot we can also easily retrieve the rest of the required information by using the trace function.
1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Enter the data for English in List 1 and the data for
Maths in List 2.
3. Press F1 (GRPH), and then F6 (SET). We will set

the English data as GPH1 and the Maths data as
GPH2. Press F1 (GPH1) and enter the settings
shown in the screen at right.
4. Press EXE once these settings have been entered.

Press F6 (SET) and F2 (GPH2), and again enter
the settings shown at right.
5. To show both graphs on the same screen press

EXE after entering the settings above, press F4
(SEL), and set both StatGraph1 and StatGraph2 to
DrawOn as shown.
6. Press F6 (DRAW) to draw both graphs.
7. Press SHIFT F1 (TRACE), and use the arrow keys

to move around to the five key points on each graph.
The screen at right displays the median for the Maths
data.
148
Multiple sets of data can be displayed on the same set of axes for many different
graphs. This is particularly useful when comparing data suitable for display on a radar
chart.
WORKED Example 9
The table below shows the number of admissions to two hospitals, each month, over a
one-year period. Display both sets of data on a radar chart.
Month
Hospital A
Hospital B
January
15
February
12
March
April
10
May
10
June
15
July
14
August
16
September
10
October
November
December
THINK
1
2
3
Draw the radar with a 30 angle

between the months.
Draw a scale around the radar.
Plot each set of points.
WRITE
Hospital A
Jan
Dec 20
15
Nov
10
5
Oct
0
Hospital B
Feb
March
April
Sep
May
Aug
July
June
149
Area charts are another method of comparing information. In an area chart, line
graphs are stacked on top of each other, thus allowing the area between each line graph
to serve as the comparison between the data sets.
WORKED Example 10
The table below shows the amount of rainfall, in millimetres, in Sydney, Melbourne and
Brisbane each month throughout a year.
Sydney
Melbourne
Brisbane
January
February
March
April
May
June
103
117.1
133.7
126.6
120.4
131.7
49
47.7
51.8
58.4
57.2
50.2
159.6
158.3
140.7
92.5
73.7
67.8
July
August
September
October
November
December
Sydney
98.2
79.8
69.9
77.5
83.1
79.6
Melbourne
48.7
50.6
59.4
67.7
60.2
59.9
Brisbane
56.5
45.9
45.7
75.4
97
133.3
Show this information in an area chart.
Draw a pair of axes. The vertical axis will need

to be at least the rainfall total of all three cities
in the wettest month.
Draw a line graph of Sydneys rainfall, and
shade the area below it.
Add Melbournes rainfall to Sydneys rainfall,
and draw a line graph showing these figures.
Colour the area between the two graphs, as this
area represents Melbournes rainfall.
Add Brisbanes rainfall to the previous total.
Colour the area above the previous line, as this
area represents Brisbanes rainfall.
Brisbane
Rainfall (mm)
WRITE
Melbourne
Sydney
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Ja
n
Fe
b
M
a
Apr
Mr
ay
Ju
n
Ju
Au l
g
Se
p
Oc
No t
v
De
c
THINK
remember
1. Data can be compared by showing two sets of data on the same display.
2. Two sets of data are shown on a stem-and-leaf plot by displaying the data back
to back.
3. Two box-and-whisker plots can be drawn on the same scale to compare the
ranges, interquartile ranges and medians.
4. A radar chart can be used to compare trends over a period of time by plotting
two sets of data on one radar chart.
5. An area graph can be used to compare multiple sets of data. The area in each
section of the graph allows for comparison between quantities.
150
SkillS
4C
HEET
4.7
WORKED
Example
SkillS
Compiling a
stem-andleaf plot
HEET
4.8
SkillS
4.9
WORKED
Example
Drawing a
box-andwhisker plot
1 In a class of 30 students there are 15 boys and 15 girls. Their heights are measured
and are listed below.
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72, 1.66, 1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59,
1.60
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69, 1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68,
1.67
Display this information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
2 The number of points scored in each match by two rugby union teams are shown
below.
Team 1: 34, 32, 24, 25, 8, 18, 17, 23, 29, 40, 19, 42
Team 2: 23, 20, 35, 21, 46, 7, 9, 24, 27, 38, 41, 30
Display these data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
Finding the
mean, median,
mode from a
stem-and-leaf
plot
HEET
3 The stem-and-leaf plot below is used to display the number of vehicles sold by the
Ford and Holden dealerships in a Sydney suburb each week for a three-month period.
Key: 1 5 = 15
Ford
Holden
74 0 39
952210 1 111668
8544 2 2279
0 3 5
a State the median of both distributions.
b Calculate the range of both distributions.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions.
d Show both distributions on a box-and-whisker plot.
4 A motoring organisation tests two different brands of tyres. Twenty tyres of each
brand are tested to find out the number of kilometres each tyre could travel before the
tread had worn down. The results are shown in the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 1 2 = 12 000 km
1* 7 = 17 000 km
Brand A
Brand B
9 8 0*
43110 1 0011224
7 7 7 6 6 5 1* 5 6 7 8 8 8 9
4431100 2 0134
2* 5 5
Draw two box-and-whisker plots on the same scale to display this information.
5 The figures below show the ratings of two radio stations each week over a threemonth period.
Station A: 9.2, 9.4, 9.2, 9.5, 9.7, 9.9, 10.1, 9.1, 8.8, 8.7, 9.0, 8.5, 9.3
Station B: 8.5, 8.1, 8.2, 8.9, 9.0, 9.2, 8.4, 8.7, 8.8, 10.5, 11.2, 11.4, 8.7
a Display the information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b Use the stem-and-leaf plot to display both sets of data on the same box-andwhisker plot.
151
6 The box-and-whisker plot drawn on the

Team A
right displays statistical data for two AFL
Team B
teams over a season.
50 60 70 80 90 100110120130140 150 160 Scale
a Which team had the higher median
score?
b What was the range of scores for each team?
c For each team calculate the interquartile range.
7 The two five-number summaries below show the performance of Emad and Larry on
their Mathematics exams throughout the year.
Emad: 45, 64, 68, 76, 80
Larry: 51, 58, 65, 72, 75
a Compare the performance of Emad and Larry on a box-and-whisker plot.
b What is the range for both students?
c What is the interquartile range for both students?
8 multiple choice
The box-and-whisker plot drawn on the right
Physics
shows Emmas performance in her Physics
Chemistry
and Chemistry exams. Which of the following
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale
statements is correct?
A The median of Emmas mark in Physics is greater than for Chemistry.
B The range of Emmas marks in Physics is greater than in Chemistry.
C The interquartile range of Emmas marks in Physics is greater than in Chemistry.
D All of the above.
WORKED
Example
9 This radar chart shows the average daily maximum temperature

for both Sydney and Melbourne for each month of a year.
a Which month had the lowest temperature in Sydney?
b What was the range of temperatures in Melbourne?
c What was the average of the temperatures in Sydney?
Sydney temperature (C)

Melbourne temperature (C)
J
F
D 30
M
A
WORKED
Brisbane
2 pm
8 am
12 noon
Melbourne
10 am
Sydney
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan
Fe
b
Ma
Apr
Ma r
y
Jun
Ju
Au l
g
Se
p
Oc
No t
Dev
c
Average no. of rainy days

per month
Supermarket X
Supermarket Y
12 midnight
2 am
10 pm 120
100
80
60
8 pm
4 am
40
20
0
6 pm
6 am
4 pm
11 This area chart shows the average number of rainy days

each month in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Display
10
this information as a table.
10
0
10 This radar chart shows the number of customers in two different

supermarkets at two-hour intervals.
a Find the range for each supermarket.
b Describe the general pattern at each supermarket.
Example
20
152
Computer Application 1 Displaying statistical data

EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
1. From the Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course CD-ROM, access the
spreadsheet Fast Food Sales.
Fast
Food
Sales
2. In cell B12 use the spreadsheets inbuilt statistical function to find McDonalds
average daily sales. [=AVERAGE(B4:B10)]
3. In cell B13 use the spreadsheets inbuilt statistical function to find the standard deviation of McDonalds daily sales. [=STDEV(B4:B10)]
4. Under Edit, use the Fill and Right functions to copy these formulas for KFC and Pizza
Hut.
5. Use the charting facility to draw an area chart of the figures presented.
Comparison of data sets

When multiple data displays are used to display similar sets of data, comparisons and
conclusions can then be drawn about the data.
Multiple displays such as stem-and-leaf plots and box-and-whisker plots allow for
comparison of statistics such as the median, range and interquartile range, while radar
charts and area charts allow for trends and overall quantities to be compared.
153
WORKED Example 11
A bank surveys the average morning and

Key: 1 2 = 1.2 minutes
Morning
Afternoon
afternoon waiting time for customers.
7 0 788
The figures were taken each Monday to
86311 1 1124456667
Friday in the morning and afternoon for
9
6
6
6
5
5
4331 2 2558
one month. The stem-and-leaf plot at right
952 3 16
shows the results.
5 4
a Find the median morning waiting time
5 7
and the median afternoon waiting time.
b Calculate the range for morning waiting times and the range for afternoon waiting
times.
c What conclusions can be made from the display about the average waiting time at the
bank in the morning compared with the afternoon?
THINK
a There are 20 scores in each set and so
the median will be the average of the
10th and 11th scores.
WRITE
a Morning:
b For each data set, subtract the lowest

score from the highest score.
b Morning:
Afternoon:
Afternoon:
c Conclude that waiting time in the
afternoon is generally less and more
consistent except for one outlier.
Median = (2.4 + 2.5) 2

= 2.45 minutes
Median = (1.6 + 1.6) 2
= 1.6 minutes
Range = 4.5 0.7
= 3.8 minutes
Range = 5.7 0.7
= 5 minutes
c The waiting time is generally shorter in the

afternoon. There is one outlier in the
afternoon scores which causes the range to
be larger. However, apart from this outlier
the afternoon scores are less spread.
Two-way tables can also be a meaningful way of displaying data. A two-way table
allows for two variables to be compared.
WORKED Example 12
A survey of 25 000 people is taken. The sex of each respondant is noted and whether they are
a smoker or non-smoker is also noted. The results are displayed in the two-way table below.
Males
Females
Totals
Smokers
4 125
4 592
8 717
Non-smokers
8 436
7 847
16 283
12 561
12 439
25 000
Totals
a What percentage of the females surveyed were smokers?

b What percentage of the smokers surveyed were female?
Continued over page
154
THINK
WRITE
a Write 4592 as a percentage of 12 439.
a Percentage of females who smoke

4592
= ---------------- 100%
12 439
= 36.9%
b Write 4592 as a percentage of 8717.
b Percentage of smokers who are female

4592
= ------------ 100%
8717
= 52.7%
The most common method, however, for comparing data sets is to compare the summary statistics from the data sets. The measures of location such as mean and median
are used to compare the typical score in a data set. Measures of spread such as range,
interquartile range and standard deviation are used to make assessments about the consistency of scores in the data set.
WORKED Example 13
Below are the scores for two students in eight Mathematics tests throughout the year.
Jane: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Pierre: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
a Use the statistics function on the calculator to find the mean and standard deviation for
each student.
b Which student had the better overall performance on the eight tests?
c Which student was more consistent over the eight tests?
THINK
WRITE
a Enter the statistics into your calculator

and use the x function for the mean and
the n function for the standard
deviation.
a Jane: x = 57, n = 6
Pierre: x = 57.5, n = 17.4
b The student with the higher mean

performed better overall.
b Pierre performed slightly better overall, as

his mean mark was higher than Janes.
c The student with the lower standard

deviation was more consistent.
c Jane was the more consistent student, as her

standard deviation was much lower than
Pierres.
155
remember
1. When multiple displays are used for two or more sets of data, we can compare
and contrast the data sets and determine if any relationship exists between
them.
2. A multiple stem-and-leaf plot allows for a quick comparison of medians,
ranges and interquartile ranges.
3. The summary statistics from two data sets can be compared quickly on a
box-and-whisker plot.
4. Two-way tables can be used to make a comparison of data where two variables
are involved.
5. The most commonly used comparisons are summary statistics to compare what
is a typical score and what the spread of the data is.
4D
WORKED
Example
11
1 The stem-and-leaf plot drawn below shows the marks obtained by 20 students in both
English and Maths.
Key: 7 1 = 71
English
7410
9976653110
87752
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
Maths
17
24799
133466
4448
36
4
a Calculate the median mark for both English and Maths.

b Calculate the range of marks for both English and Maths.
c Comment on the distribution of marks in each of the subjects.
2 Tracey measures the heights of twenty Year 10 boys and twenty Year 10 girls and
produces the following five-number summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.47, 1.58, 1.64, 1.72, 1.81
Girls: 1.55, 1.59, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a Draw a box-and-whisker plot for both sets of data and display them on the same
scale.
b What is the median of each distribution?
c What is the range of each distribution?
d What is the interquartile range for each distribution?
e Comment on the spread of the heights among the boys and the girls.
156
3 The box-and-whisker plots on the right

show the heights of a sample of Year 7
boys and a similar-sized sample of Year
12 boys.
Year 7
Year 12
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 m Scale
a Calculate the range of heights among both the Year 7 and Year 12 boys.
b Calculate the interquartile range of the heights among both the Year 7 and Year 12
boys.
c Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both in terms of measures
of location and measures of spread.
4 The values of hardware and software sales for a chain
of computer stores are shown for each month in the
radar chart on the right. Comment on any relationship
observed in this chart between the sales of hardware
and the sales of software.
Hardware
N
O
D 2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Software
F
M
A
M
A
WORKED
Example
12
1200
Western region
1000
Rainfall (mm)
5 The area chart on the right shows the

rainfall in four areas of New South
Wales throughout the year.
a Which region has the greatest
rainfall?
b In which region is the range of
rainfall figures least?
c What relationship exists between
the rainfall in each of the areas?
Southern region
800
600
North/Eastern
region
400
North/Western
region
200
0
mer utumn Winter Spring
m
A
Su
6 The two-way table below shows the results of random breath testing by Sydney police
over one weekend. A driver is charged if they record a reading of 0.05% prescribed
concentration of alcohol (PCA).
Males
a
b
c
d
e
Females
Totals
Over 0.05 PCA
26
33
Below 0.05 PCA
962
743
1705
Totals
988
750
1738
What percentage of the drivers tested were female?

What percentage of the drivers tested had a PCA over 0.05?
What percentage of female drivers had a PCA over 0.05?
What percentage of male drivers had a PCA over 0.05?
Based on the above results, can any conclusion be drawn concerning the prevalence
of drink driving among males and females? Explain your answer.
157
7 Ashley is the star player of a football team. To analyse the importance of Ashley to
the team, the coach prepares the two-way table below showing the results of games
over three years both when Ashley is playing and not playing.
Won
Lost
Totals
Ashley playing
38
42
Ashley not
playing
10
18
Totals
48
12
60
a What percentage of games were won when Ashley played?

b What percentage of games were won when Ashley did not play?
c Do you think that Ashley has a significant impact on the performance of the team?
Explain your answer.
8 To compare the performance of city and country students in the HSC, the number of
students achieving a UAI of at least 90 is studied in six city and six country high
schools.
City
Country
Totals
90
58
61
119
UAI < 90
551
569
1120
Totals
609
630
1239
UAI
a What percentage of city students achieved a UAI of at least 90?

b What percentage of country students achieved a UAI of at least 90?
c Of those students who achieved a UAI of at least 90, what percentage were from:
i the city?
ii the country?
d Based on the above results, could any conclusion be drawn about the performance
of city and country students in the HSC?
WORKED
Example
13
9 Calvin recorded his marks for each test that he did in Physics and Chemistry
throughout the year.
Physics:
65, 74, 69, 66, 72, 64, 75, 60
Chemistry: 45, 85, 91, 42, 47, 72, 87, 85
a In which subject did Calvin achieve the better average mark?
b In which subject was Calvin more consistent? Explain your answer.
10 The police set up two radar speed checks in a country town. In both places the speed
limit is 60 km/h. The results of the first 10 cars that have their speed checked are
given below.
Point A: 60, 62, 58, 55, 59, 56, 65, 70, 61, 64
Point B: 55, 58, 59, 50, 40, 90, 54, 62, 60, 60
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the readings taken at each point.
b At which point are drivers generally driving faster?
c At which point is the spread of the readings taken greater? Explain your answer.
158
11 Aaron and Sunil open the batting for the

local cricket team. The number of runs
they have scored in each innings this
season are listed below.
Aaron: 45, 43, 33, 56, 21, 38, 0, 29, 76,
40
Sunil: 5, 70, 12, 54, 68, 11, 8, 64, 32,
69
a Calculate the mean number of runs
scored for each player.
b What is the range of runs scored by
each player?
c What is the interquartile range of
runs scored by each player?
d Which player would you consider
to be the more consistent player?
12 multiple choice
Andrea surveys the age of people attending a concert given by two bands. The boxand-whisker plot shown below shows the results.
Band A
Band B
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Scale
Which of the following conclusions could be drawn based on the above information?
A Band A attracts an older audience than Band B.
B Band A appeals to a wider age group than Band B.
C Band B attracts an older audience than Band A.
D None of the above.
13 multiple choice
Two drugs are tested to see which is more effective at fighting disease. The results are
displayed in the two-way table below.
Recovered
Not recovered
Totals
Drug 1
Drug 2
Totals
124
136
260
32
45
77
156
181
337
Of those patients who recovered, the percentage who were treated with drug 1 was:
A 46.3%
B 47.7%
C 69.0%
D 79.5%
159
14 multiple choice
15 A company producing matches advertise that there are

50 matches in each box. Two machines are used to distribute the matches into the boxes. The results from a
sample taken from each machine are shown in the stemand-leaf plot below.
Key: 5 1 = 51
5* 6 = 56
Machine A
Machine B
4 4
9 9 8 7 7 6 6 5 4* 5 7 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
43222211100000 5 0000011111223
5 5 5* 9
a Display the data from both machines on a box-and-whisker plot.
b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the number of matches distributed
from both machines.
c Which machine is the more dependable? Explain your answer.
Developing a two-way table

Conduct a survey to determine the number of Year 12 students at your school who
have their drivers licence. Use the results to complete the two-way table below.
Males
Females
Totals
Licensed
Unlicensed
Totals
a
b
c
d
What percentage of females have their drivers licence?

What percentage of licensed drivers are female?
Are these figures the same?
Design a data set where the percentage of females with their licence is equal to
the percentage of licensed drivers who are female.
e What conditions are necessary for these two percentages to be equal?
Work
The figures below show the ages of the mens and

womens champions at a tennis tournament.
Mens:
23, 24, 25, 26, 25, 25, 22, 23, 30, 24
Womens: 19, 27, 20, 26, 30, 18, 28, 25, 28, 22
Which of the following statements is correct?
A The mean age of the mens champions is greater
than the mean age of the womens champions.
B The range is greater among the mens champions than
among the womens champions.
C The interquartile range is greater among the mens
champions than among the womens champions.
D The standard deviation is greater among the mens
champions than among the womens champions.
T
SHEE
4.2
160
summary
Measures of location and spread
Measures of location give the typical score in the data set. The mean, median and
mode are measures of location.
The mean of a small data set is found using:
x = -----xn
where x = the mean, x = individual scores and n = number of scores.

Where data is in a table, the mean is found using:
fx
x = ------f
where x = the mean, x = individual scores and f = frequency.
Measures of spread describe how spread out the data are. The range, interquartile
range and standard deviation are measures of spread.
An outlier is a single score that is much greater or much less than most of the
scores. The outlier may have a great effect on the mean but has only a slight effect
on the median and no effect on the mode in a small data set. The larger the data set,
the less the effect a single outlier will have.
Skewness
When the data are symmetrical, they are said to be normally distributed.
The more clustered the data are around the mean, the smaller the standard
deviation.
When most of the data are below the mean, the data are said to be positively
skewed.
When most of the data are above the mean, the data are said to be negatively
skewed.

Two sets of data can be displayed on a stem-and-leaf plot by displaying the data
back to back.
The summary statistics from two data sets can be displayed by using the same scale
and drawing two box-and-whisker plots.
Two sets of data can be displayed on a radar chart to display related trends over a
period of time.
An area chart can be drawn to display several sets of data. The area in each section
of the graph then displays the quantities for comparison.

The summary statistics from two data sets can be compared from a stem-and-leaf
plot or box-and-whisker plot.
Two-way tables are used to compare data where there are two variables involved.
Data are most commonly compared using the mean and standard deviation.
161
CHAPTER
review
1 Below are the ages of 15 players in a soccer squad.
23, 28, 25, 19, 17, 28, 29, 29, 22, 21, 35, 30, 22, 27, 26
a Calculate the mean age of the players in the squad.
b Find the median age of players in the squad.
4A
2 The table below shows the number of house calls that a doctor has been required to make
each day over a 32-day period.
4A
a
b
c
d
Number of house calls
Frequency
Copy the table into your workbook and add a cumulative frequency column.
Calculate the mean number of house calls per day.
Find the median number of house calls per day.
What is the modal number of house calls per day?
3 The set of figures shown below shows the number of pages in a daily newspaper every day
for two weeks.
72, 68, 76, 80, 64, 60, 132, 72, 84, 88, 60, 56, 76, 140
a What is the mean number of pages in the newspaper?
b What is the range?
c What is the interquartile range?
d Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the standard deviation.
4A
4 The table below shows the number of rescues that are made each weekend at a major beach.
4A
Number of rescues
Frequency
10
12
11
12
13
14
Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and the standard deviation of
these data.
162
4A
5 The table below shows the customer waiting time at 10 am each morning at a bank over an
8-week period.
Waiting time
a
b
c
d
Class centre
Frequency
01 minute
12 minutes
23 minutes
10
34 minutes
13
45 minutes
56 minutes
Cumulative
frequency
Copy and complete the table.

Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and standard deviation.
Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
Use the graph to estimate the interquartile range of the data.
6 The figures below show the number of points scored by a basketball player in six matches of
a tournament.
36, 2, 38, 41, 27, 33
a Calculate the mean number of points per game.
b Calculate the median number of points per game.
c Explain why there is such a large difference between the mean and the median.
4B
7 Consider the data set represented by the frequency histogram on

the right.
a Are the data symmetrical?
b Can the mean and median of the data be seen?
c What is the mode of the data?
4B
8 The table below shows the number of attempts that 20 members of

a Year 12 class took to obtain a drivers licence.
Number of attempts
Frequency
11
Frequency
4A
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
15 16 17 18 19 20
a Show these data in a frequency histogram.

b Are the data positively or negatively skewed?
4B
9 Draw an example of a frequency histogram for which the data are negatively skewed.
163
10 The figures below show the marks obtained by 20 students in English and Maths.
English: 56, 45, 57, 56, 65, 82, 74, 80, 91, 84, 68, 52, 67, 64, 60, 66, 74, 77, 77, 66
Maths: 65, 66, 58, 60, 61, 70, 74, 66, 69, 68, 71, 55, 51, 49, 50, 71, 99, 85, 70, 66
a Display the data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b For each subject find the median.
c For each subject state the range.
d For each subject find the interquartile range.
4C
11 Betty runs a surf and ski shop. The table below shows
the monthly sales of both types of equipment.
4C
Month
Surf sales ($)
Ski sales ($)
January
20 000
5 000
February
18 000
6 000
March
12 000
8 000
April
9 000
10 000
May
6 000
12 000
June
4 000
12 000
July
5 000
9 000
August
8 000
8 000
September
10 000
6 000
October
11 000
3 000
November
15 000
4 000
December
22 000
9 000
a Display both sets of data on the same radar chart.

b Use the chart to compare trends in the sales.
12 The data below give the cost per minute of a long-distance telephone call with three
companies.
Telecomm
Omtus
Tel One
Day
21c
25c
17.5c
Economy
18c
15c
17.5c
Night
12c
12c
17.5c
Display this information in an area chart.
4C
164
4D
13 The stem-and-leaf plot below compares the crowds (correct to the nearest thousand) at a
football teams home and away matches.
Key: 2 5 = 25 000
Home
Away
8 0 67
732 1 0116899
6632 2 45
552 3
a Calculate the median of both data sets.
b Calculate the range of both data sets.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both data sets.
d Display both sets of data on a box-and-whisker plot.
4D
14 The figure on the right shows a

2003
box-and-whisker plot showing
2004
the average number of weekly
car sales made in 2003 and
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Scale
2004.
a What was the median for each year?
b In which year was the range of sales greatest?
c In which year was the interquartile range of sales greatest?
d In which year did the car yard perform better? Explain your answer.
4D
15 The two-way table below compares the number of men and women who are right- and lefthanded.
Right-handed
Left-handed
Totals
Men
Women
Totals
158
172
330
17
15
32
175
187
362
a What percentage of males are left-handed?

b What percentage of females are left-handed?
c Based on the above data, is there any significant difference between the percentage of
male and female left-handers?
4D
16 Hsiang compares her marks in 10 English exams and 10 Maths exams.

English: 76, 74, 80, 77, 73, 70, 75, 37, 72, 76
Maths: 80, 56, 92, 84, 65, 58, 55, 62, 70, 71
a Calculate Hsiangs mean mark in each subject.
b Calculate the range of marks in each subject.
c Calculate the standard deviation of marks in each subject.
d Based on the above data, in which subject would you say that Hsiang performs more
consistently?
165

1 multiple choice
The table below shows the number of patients seen each day by a local doctor.
No. of patients
Frequency
12
13
14
15
15
23
16
18
17
13
Which of the following statements are correct?

A The range of the data is 20.
B The mean of the data is 15.05.
C The standard deviation of the data is 1.34.
D The median of the data is 15.
2 multiple choice
The data below show the number of people that live in each house in a small street.
4, 4, 5, 3, 2, 5, 11, 2
The outlier in this data set has:
A the greatest effect on the mean.
B the greatest effect on the median.
C the greatest effect on the mode.
D an equal effect on the mean, median and mode.
3 multiple choice
Frequency
The two data sets below show the number of goals scored in 15 matches by two soccer teams.
Manchester: 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 6, 0, 0, 1, 5, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
Liverpool:
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of goals

A The Manchester data are negatively skewed, while the Liverpool data are positively
skewed.
B The Liverpool data are negatively skewed, while the Manchester data are positively
skewed.
C Both sets of data are positively skewed.
D Both sets of data are negatively skewed.
166
4 The two-way table below shows the number of men and women who work in excess of
45 hours per week.
Men
Women
Totals
45 hours
132
128
260
> 45 hours
69
34
103
Totals
201
162
363
The percentage of men who work greater than 45 hours per week is closest to:
A 28%
B 34%
C 51%
D 67%
5 multiple choice
The figures below show the number of attempts that the boys and girls in a Year 12 class take
to get their drivers licence.
Boys: 1, 2, 4, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1
Girls: 2, 2, 4, 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2
When comparing the performance of the boys and the girls, it is found that the boys have:
A a lower mean and a lower standard deviation
B a lower mean and a higher standard deviation
C a higher mean and a lower standard deviation
D a higher mean and a higher standard deviation
6 The data below show the weekly income among ten Year 12 boys and girls.
Boys: $80, $110, $75, $130, $90, $125, $100, $95, $115, $150
Girls: $50, $80, $75, $90, $90, $60, $250, $80, $100, $95
a Calculate the median of both sets of data.
b Calculate the range of both sets of data.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both sets of data.
d Display both sets of data on a box-and-whisker plot.
e Use the statistics function on the calculator to find the mean and standard deviation of
both sets of data.
f Discuss whether the boys or girls have a more consistent average weekly income.
CHAPTER
test
yourself
7 In the week leading up to the NRL grand final, Kylie records the number of points scored by
both teams in each game throughout the season and displays the information on the stem-andleaf plot below.
Key: 1 8 = 18
Sharks
Bulldogs
8 0
84422 1 5558889
88644432200 2 0022226668889
886200 3 000222
862 4
a Find the median of both sets of data.
b Which teams scores are the more consistent?
c Describe the skewness of the Sharks scores.
d Find the mean and standard deviation of the Bulldogs scores.
Algebraic
skills and
techniques
5
syllabus reference
Algebraic modelling 3
Algebraic skills and
techniques
In this chapter
5A
5B
5C
5D
5E
Substitution
Algebraic manipulation
Equations and formulas
Solution by substitution
Scientific notation
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
5.1
1 For each of the following formulas, find the value of the subject, given the variables.
a I = Prn given that P = 5750, r = 0.08 and n = 5 (answer correct to 1 decimal place)
b A = ab given that a = 5.6 and b = 9.2
h
c A = --- (df + 4dm + dl) given that h = 60, df = 0, dm = 32 and dl = 28
3
d A = 1--- ab sin C given that a = 23.4, b = 37.1 and C = 60 (answer correct to 1 decimal place)
2
5.2
Simplifying like terms
2 Simplify each of the following expressions.

a r+r+r+r+r
b 7m + 9m 6m
d 9a + 2b 8a 7b
e 2x + 4y 3x
5.3
Multiplication using indices

a r4 r6
b 6a3 3
2
4
d 5q 7q
e 12m 4m5
5.4
c 9x + 7 + 8 + 7x
f 5m 5n + 4m 3n
c 4p5 7p
f 3r2s5 9rs6
Division using indices

6
4q
d -------32q
5.5
42x
c ----------x
4k
f --------32k
30m
b ------------5
d
a ----2d
56rs
e ------------7rs
c (2c2)4
Solving linear equations
6 Solve each of the following equations.

a z 42 = 76
b 4y = 96
9v
d ------ = 8
e 6(t 5) = 54
6
5.7
Raising a power to a power

a (a2)4
b (4b)3
5.6
c 6w 9 = 69
f 20 + 2n = n + 54
Changing the subject of a formula
7 Write each of the following in scientific notation.

a 25 000
b 236 000 000
c 400 000
d 26 000 000 000 000
Chapter 5 Algebraic skills and techniques
169
Substitution
During the preliminary course we studied substitution. Substitution involves replacing
a pronumeral in an expression with a numerical value. There are many different types
of expressions that may need substitution.
A linear expression such as 3x + 5 involves no index other than 1. When graphed,
these expressions form a straight line. When performing a substitution, we write the
expression and the values of the known pronumerals, rewrite the expression having
substituted the given values, and finally calculate the value of the expression.
WORKED Example 1
h
The formula for the area of a trapezium is given by A = --- ( a + b ) , where a and b are the
2
parallel sides and h is the height. Find the area of a trapezium with parallel sides 4.2 cm
and 7.9 cm and a height of 5.1 cm.
THINK
WRITE
Write down the given expression.
Write down the variables where the values

are known.
Substitute the given values into the
formula.
Evaluate.
3
4
h
A = --- ( a + b )
2
a = 4.2, b = 7.9, h = 5.1
5.1
A = ------- ( 4.2 + 7.9 )
2
A = 30.855
the graphics calculator

to substitute
You can use a graphics calculator to assist with substitutions. Consider worked
example 1.
1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. Assign the value a = 4.2 by entering

4.2
ALPHA [A] and then pressing EXE .
3. Repeat step 2 to assign the values b = 7.9 and h = 5.1.
170
4. Now enter the expression H 2

press EXE .
(A + B) and then
Many expressions involve higher powers or indices. An expression involving a power

of 2 is called a quadratic expression, an expression involving a power of 3 is called a
cubic expression.
Consider the expression M = 6r2. In this expression, only the pronumeral r is raised
to the power of 2. In the expression M = (6r)2 the product 6 r is raised to the power
of 2.
WORKED Example 2
The expression V = 4--3- p r 3 is used to calculate the volume of a sphere. Find the volume of
the sphere with a radius of 4.2 cm, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK
WRITE
4
--3
r3
V=
Write down the variables where the values

are known.
formula.
Evaluate.
r = 4.2
3
4
V=
4
--3
( 4.2 ) 3
V = 310.3 cm3
Other expressions may involve taking square roots and cube roots. Care must be taken
to use the calculator correctly. The square or cube root must be taken of the entire part
of the expression that is under the root sign. This may involve using brackets.
WORKED Example 3
3V
------- is used to calculate the radius of a sphere, given the volume.
4
Find the radius of a sphere with a volume of 200 cm3. (Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
The expression r =
THINK
1
Write down the variables where the

values are known.

formula.
Evaluate.
WRITE
3V
------4
V = 200
r=
r=
3 200
-----------------4
r = 3.6 cm
171
remember
1. Substitution involves replacing a pronumeral or pronumerals in an expression
with numerical values.
2. Linear expressions involve only powers of 1.
3. Quadratic and cubic expressions involve powers of 2 and 3 respectively. In
these expressions be sure to raise only the relevant part of the expression to the
power.
4. Expressions that involve square and cube roots must be solved by correctly
using a calculator and brackets.
5A
Example
5.1
2 Find the value of each of the following by substituting into the formula.
a A = 1--- bh, if b = 5 and h = 12.3
2
Substitution
into a
formula
L Spre
XCE ad
Substitution
3 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to find the perimeter of a rectangle. Use the formula
to find the perimeter of a rectangle, where l = 3.5 and w = 9.7.
4 The formula C = p d is used to calculate the circumference of a circle. Use the formula
to find the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 9.5 m. Give your answer
WORKED
Example
5 In the formula A = 6s2, find the value of A when s = 5.5.

6 Find the value of each of the following by substituting into the formula. (Give your
answers correct to 2 decimal places.)
a V = r2h, if r = 0.75 and h = 2.5
b A = p (R2 - r2), if R = 2.2 and r = 1
c V = 4--- p r 3, if r = 3.2
3
2
d P = I R, where I = 0.6 and R = 230

e E = 1--- mv2, where m = 23 and v = 4.7
2
7 The formula A = 2p r 2 + 2p rh is used to calculate the surface area of a cylinder.

Calculate the surface area of a cylinder with a radius of 2.3 cm and a height of 6.4 cm.
Give your answer correct to the nearest whole number.
WORKED
Example
8 Use the formula S = ut + 1--- at2 to calculate the value of S, when u = 9, t = 5 and
2
a = 4.5.
A
9 Use the formula r = ------ to find the value of r (correct to 1 decimal place) when
4
p
A = 500.
sheet
PRT
b A = P + ----------- , if P = 2000, R = 6.55 and T = 2.5
100
c S = 2(lw + lh + wh), where l = 3, w = 2.5 and h = 1.1
d V = u + at, where u = 20, a = 4 and t = 25
e T = a + (n - 1)d, if a = 66, n = 56 and d = -4
SkillS
HEET
1 In the formula A = l b, find the value of A, given that l = 6.7 and b = 4.8.
WORKED
Substitution
172
10 Find the value of each of the following by substitution into the formula. Where
necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a c =
a 2 b 2 , when a = 17 and b = 8
b T = 2
3V
------- , if V = 600 and h = 25
h
c S =
d r =
e m =
L
--- , when L = 65 and g = 9.8
g
3V
------- , if V = 900
4
2xy + y 3 , when x = 2 and y = 3
A
--- is used to calculate the side
6
length of a cube having been given the area. Calculate
the side length of a cube with a surface area
of 162.24 cm2.
11 The formula s =
12 The formula A = s ( s a ) ( s b ) ( s c ) can be used to find the area of any triangle,

where a, b and c are the side lengths and s is half the perimeter of the triangle. Given
that the side lengths of a triangle are 4 cm, 8 cm and 9 cm:
a+b+c
a calculate the value of s s = --------------------2
b find the area of the triangle, correct to 1 decimal place.
Basic manipulation of algebraic expressions was covered in the preliminary course. We
need to be able to add and subtract algebraic expressions as well as multiply and divide
them. Algebraic expressions are added and subtracted by collecting like terms. Only the
same pronumeral or combination of pronumerals can be added together.
WORKED Example 4
Simplify each of the following.

a 8x + 2x 11x
b 9a2 + 2a + 4a2 7a
THINK
WRITE
a Each term uses the same pronumeral and

so we add and subtract the coefficients.
a 8x + 2x
b 9a2 + 2a + 4a2 7a
= (9a2 + 4a2) + (2a 7a)
= 13a2 5a
Rewrite the expression, grouping the

like terms together. Remember that
a2 and a are not like terms.
Complete each addition and
subtraction separately.
11x = x
173
To multiply and divide algebraic expressions, we need to remember the index laws
covered in the preliminary course.
First Index Law:
ax
ay = ax + y
Second Index Law: a x a y = a x

Third Index Law:
ax
or -----y = a x y
a
(a x) y = a xy
When multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions it is important to remember to

apply the index laws separately to each pronumeral.
WORKED Example 5
Simplify each of the following fully.
48 p 2 q 4
a 6m7 7m3 b ----------------c (5x4)3
6 pq 3
THINK
WRITE
a Multiply the coefficients and add the indices.
a 6m7
b Divide the coefficients and subtract the indices

for each pronumeral separately.
48 p 2 q 4
b ------------------ = 8 pq
6 pq 3
c Calculate 53 and multiply the indices.
c (5x4)3 = 125x12
7m3 = 42m10
The manipulation of algebraic expressions will also involve the expansion of brackets.
When expanding brackets, we multiply every term inside the brackets by the term
immediately outside the brackets.
WORKED Example 6
Expand 2x3(6xy
9y4).
THINK
WRITE
Multiply both terms inside the brackets by 2x3.
2x3(6xy
9y4) = 12x4y
18x3y4
remember
1. Algebraic expressions are added and subtracted by collecting like terms.
2. Algebraic expressions are multiplied and divided using the index laws.
First Index Law:
ax ay = ax + y
ax
Second Index Law: a x a y = a x y or -----y = a x y
a
Third Index Law:
(a x) y = a xy
3. When using the index laws, apply each law to each pronumeral separately.
4. When expanding brackets, multiply every term inside the brackets by what is
immediately outside.
174
5B
SkillS
HEET
5.2

a 4a + 8a
b 14b + 4b
4a
d 35d + 6d
e 5e - e
g g - 8g
h -4h + 9h
j 7j - 5j + 9j
k -3k + 8k - k
WORKED
Example
Simplifying
like terms
SkillS
HEET
5.3
et
EXCE
c
f
i
l
23c - 9c
16f - 15f
-2i - 7i
5l - 15l + 8l

a 8m + 3m - 9
b n - 4 + 7n
4b
d 5r + 9s - 2r + 2s
e 7t + 1 - 4t - 7
g 4w2 - 3w3 + 2w2 - w3
h 2xy + 4xz - 3xy + xz
j 4x + 3y - 2xy + 6x - 4yx + y
c 7p2 + 6p + 3p2 - 2p
f 6u - 8v - 7u + 2v
i 4p2 - 12 + p2 - 4
3 Simplify each of the following.

a a5 a8
b b b3
5a
d d3 7d
e 4p4q3 3p5q2
4
5
g 4mn 7m n
h 4p5 5q4
3 3
2 4
5
j 6u v 4v w 2uw
c 3c2 4c5
f 7gh 9g2h3
i 6xyz 4x2y2
WORKED
Example
Multiplication
using indices
reads
L Sp he
WORKED
Example
Index
laws

a k4 k
b 15m7 5m2
5b
14x 5
56m 4 n 3
d ----------e -----------------7x
7m 2 n
g m6n7 mn
h 48p3 6q3
3 4 6
2
2 2
j 32p q r 4pqr 2p q
WORKED
SkillS
Example
HEET
5.4
SkillS
Division
using
indices
HEET
5.5

a (a3)4
b (2b4)2
5c
2 3 2
d (4x y )
e (2pq2)4
Work
5.1
45x 5
----------9
i 121a 11b
f
WORKED
Example
6 Expand each of the following.

a 2(m + 5)
b x(x + 2)
6
d 3q2(6q4 - 2)
e 5n(m - 5n)
g -3(d + 5)
h -3m(m - 2n)
j 6pqr(3pq - r)
c (3m2)3
WORKED
Example
Raising
a power
to a power
T
SHEE
c 48n7 8n2
c 3a(3a + 2b)
f 7a2b4(2a4 - 3b6)
i -6r3(2 - 3r3)
7 Expand and simplify each of the following.

a 4(x + 2) + 2(3x - 1)
b a(a + 7) + 2(3a - 5)
d 5(4x - 7) - 2(x + 5)
e 2p(2p - 5) - 5(p - 6)
c 2m(m - n) + 6n(m - 2n)

f 2xy(3x - 4y) - x(y - xy)
8 Fully simplify each of the following.

a a 4 a 5 a2
b (m2)3 m4 m
c 32m2n3 4mn 2n3
d 4x6y7 5xy4 2x6
e (2z3)4 8z5 2z7
9m 2 n 4 4mn 2
----------------------------------( 6mn 3 ) 2
175
1
a
1 Calculate the value of S = ----------- , when a = 8 and r = 0.2.
1r
2 Calculate the value of S = ut + --1- at2, when u = 4.5, t = 6.1 and a = 4.
2
3 Calculate the value of S =
3V
------- , when V = 352.6 and h = 4.5. (Give your answer
h
correct to 1 decimal place.)

Simplify the following expressions.
4 6x
7x + x
5 4a + 2b
6 3b4
3a
5x
8b
5b2
42g 3 h 4
7 ---------------7h 2
8 (5p3q4)2
9 5x(2
10 3a(2a
x)
5b)
4b(a
6b)

During the preliminary course we studied equations. The object of solving an equation
was to find the value of an unknown pronumeral that made that statement true. In
solving the equation we reversed every process that had been performed on the
pronumeral until it became the subject of the equation. In many cases, an equation
arose as the result of substitution into a formula.
WORKED Example 7
In the formula C = 2 r, find the value of r when C = 100, correct to 2 significant figures.
THINK
1
2
3
Write the formula.

Substitute the value of C.
Divide each side by 2 and round the
answer off to 2 significant figures.
WRITE
C=2 r
100 = 2 r
100
r = --------2
= 16
176
equations that arise

Graphics Calculator tip! Solving
from substitution
You can use the equation solver function on a graphics calculator to solve equations
that arise as the result of a substitution. Consider worked example 7.
2. Press F3 (Solver).
3. Delete any existing equation, and enter the equation

that arises after the substitution is made. To enter
100 = 2 r press 1
0
0
SHIFT [=]
2 SHIFT [ ] ALPHA [R].
Note: At this stage you may have a different value of
R, but this is to be ignored.
4. Press F6 to solve the equation.
Some equations involve powers and roots. In the solution to an equation, remember
that the opposite function to taking a square is to take the square root and vice versa.
When solving such an equation, both the positive and negative square roots are possible
solutions.
For example, the equation x2 = 9 has the solution x = 3. This differs from 9 ,
which equals 3. The square root symbol indicates to take the positive square root only.
WORKED Example 8
In the equation d = 5t2, find the value of t when d = 320.
THINK
1
2
3
4
Write the formula.

Substitute the value of d.
Divide each side by 5.
Take the square roots of each side,
considering both the positive and
negative answers.
WRITE
d = 5t2
320 = 5t2
t2 = 64
t = 8
177
Note: If you use the solver function on your graphics calculator, only the positive solution is given. It is important that you remain aware that equations of this type have a
positive and negative solution.
With such examples, we consider both the positive and negative cases only where
appropriate. In practical cases where measurements are being considered, only the
positive answer is given.
Using the same process as this we can change the subject of a formula. The subject
of the formula is the single pronumeral usually written on the left-hand side of the
formula. For example, in the formula A = r 2, A is the subject. We are able to make
another pronumeral the subject of the equation by moving all other numbers and
pronumerals to the other side of the formula, as if we were solving an equation.
Formulas that need the subject changed include those with both linear and quadratic
terms.
WORKED Example 9
Make x the subject of the formula y = 5x
THINK
2.
WRITE
Write the equation.
y = 5x
Add 2 to each side.
y + 2 = 5x
Divide each side by 5 (and write the

new subject of the formula on the
left-hand side).
y+2
x = -----------5
This method is also used for quadratic formulas but, as with equation solving, we must
remember to use both the positive and negative square root where appropriate.
WORKED Example 10
The formula A = 4 r 2 is used to find the surface area of a sphere. Make r the subject of the
formula.
THINK
1
Write the formula.
Divide both sides by 4 .
Take the square root of each side.

As r is the radius, a length, we consider
only the positive square root.
WRITE
A = 4 r2
A
------ = r 2
4
r=
A
-----4
178
remember
1. An equation can be formed after substitution into a formula.
2. When solving an equation, the object is to find the value of the unknown.
3. When an equation involves taking a square, the opposite function used to solve
the equation is a square root.
4. Both the positive and negative square root should be taken unless the context of
the equation means that only the positive should be used.
5. To make another pronumeral the subject of an equation, the same methods as
for equation solving are used although we use pronumerals rather than make
actual calculations.
SkillS
5C
HEET
5.6
WORKED
Example
SkillS
Solving
linear
equations
HEET
1 The formula C = d is used to calculate the circumference of a circle. Find the

diameter of a circle that has a circumference of 40 cm. Give your answer correct to
2 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to calculate the perimeter of a rectangle. Calculate
the length of a rectangle that has a perimeter of 152 m and a width of 38 m.
5.7
3 In each of the following, find the value of the unknown after substitution into the
formula. Where appropriate, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
h
a A = --- ( a + b ) ; find h when A = 145, a = 15 and b = 25.
2
b A = l w; find w when A = 186 and l = 15.
c V = r 2h; find h when V = 165.2 and r = 3.6.
d T = a + (n 1)d; find n when T = 260, a = 15 and d = 11.
e v2 = u2 + as; find s when v = 5.5, u = 2.4 and a = 1.2.
Changing
the subject
of a formula
WORKED
Example
4 In the formula A = 6s2, find the value(s) of s when A = 150.

5 The formula A = r 2 is used to calculate the area of a circle. Find the radius of a
circle, correct to 2 decimal places, given that the area of the circle is 328 cm2.
6 Substitute into each of the formulas and solve the equation to find the value of the
unknown. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a V = r2 h; find r when V = 1.406 25 and h = 2.5.
b A = (R2 r2); find R when A = 12 and r = 1.
c V=
4
--3
r 3, find r when V = 136.
d E = --1- mv2; find v when E = 254 and m = 23.

2
e P = I 2R; find I when P = 0.54 and R = 1.5.

WORKED
Example
7 Make x the subject of the formula y = 2x + 1.

8 Make l the subject of the formula A = l
b.
179
h
9 In the formula A = --- ( a + b ) :
2
a make a the subject of the formula
b make h the subject of the formula.
WORKED
Example
10 Make r the subject of the formula A = r 2.
10
11 In the formula E = mc2:

a make m the subject of the formula
b make c the subject of the formula.
Questions 12 to 14 refer to the following information.
The volume of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base, s, and the height, h, is
given by the formula V = 1--- s2h.
3
12 multiple choice
The side length of the base of a square-based pyramid with the height, h, and volume,
V, is given by:
V
A s = 3 ---h
B s =
h
------3V
V
C s = -----3h
D s =
3V
------h
13 multiple choice
The height of a square-based pyramid with the side of the base 5 cm and the volume
75 cm3 is:
A 8 cm
B 9 cm
C 10 cm
D 12 cm
14 multiple choice
If both the side of the base and the height are doubled the volume is:
A doubled
B increased by 4 times
C increased by 6 times
D increased by 8 times
15 In each of the following, make the subject of the formula the pronumeral indicated in
brackets.
a V = r 2 [r]
d T = 2
L
--g
[L]
b v2 = u2 + as
[u]
e c2 = a2 + b2
[a]
c V=
4
--3
r 3 [r]
180
From our earlier work on equations, we have found that substituting the solution back
into the original equation can check the answer to the equation. If the solution is correct, then the value that is substituted will satisfy the equation. For example, consider
the following equation.
4x 5 = 19
4x = 24
x=6
Substituting x = 6 into 4x + 5 = 19
Left-hand side (LHS) = 4 6 5
Left-hand side (LHS) = 19
Left-hand side (LHS) = Right-hand side (RHS)
By substitution we can see that x = 6 is the correct solution to this equation.
Some more difficult equations can have an approximate solution found by substituting a first guess into the equation and gradually refining the solution.
WORKED Example 11
Find an approximate solution to the equation 2x = 20 (correct to 1 decimal place).

THINK
1
2
3
4
5
6
WRITE
Make a first guess (x = 4) and substitute

into the equation.
As 24 < 20, make a second guess that is
greater than 4 (x = 5).
As 25 > 20, make the next estimate
between 4 and 5 (x = 4.5).
As 24.5 > 20, make the next estimate
between 4 and 4.5 (x = 4.3).
As 24.3 < 20, make the next estimate
between 4.3 and 4.5 (x = 4.4).
Since x = 4.3 gives a result closer to
20 than x = 4.4, the solution, correct
to 1 decimal place, is x = 4.3.
Test x = 4 24 = 16
Test x = 5 25 = 32
Test x = 4.5 24.5 = 22.6
Test x = 4.3 24.3 = 19.7
Test x = 4.4 24.5 = 21.1
Solution is x = 4.3.
Many such equations will arise from a practical situation such as investments.
WORKED Example 12
Terry has $1000 to invest; however, he needs $1500 to purchase the electric guitar that he
wants. If Terry invests his $1000 at 6% p.a., the amount in the account at any time can be
found using the formula A = 1000(1.06)n, where n is the number of years for which the
money has been invested. Find how long it will take (correct to the nearest year) for
Terrys $1000 to grow to $1500.
THINK
1
2
3
4
5
6
181
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute A = 1500.
Divide both sides by 1000.
Make a first estimate for the solution
(n = 5).
As (1.06)5 < 1.5, make a second
estimate greater than n = 5 (n = 8).
As (1.06)8 > 1.5, make the next
estimate between n = 5 and n = 8 (n =
7).
The solution must be n = 7 as
(1.06)7 = 1.5, correct to 2 decimal
places.
A = 1000(1.06)n
1500 = 1000(1.06)n
1.5 = (1.06)n
(1.06)5 = 1.34
(1.06)8 = 1.59
(1.06)7 = 1.50
It will take 7 years for the $1000 to grow to

$1500 at 6% p.a
This type of question can be solved using a graphics calculator and by setting up a table
of values.
Graphics Calculator tip! Using the table function

We can use the table function on a graphics calculator to take the repetition out of solution by substitution. Consider worked example 12 above.
1. From the MENU select TABLE.
2. For Y1 enter the function 1000

EXE .
1.06^X and press
3. Press F5 (RANG) and then enter the settings shown

on the screen opposite. These determine the start and
end values and the pitch of the table. The pitch is the
increment by which x changes from the start value.
4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen, and
then press F6 (TABL). You will then need to scroll
down to find the value of Y1 that is closest to 1500.
182
remember
1. Equations such as 2x = 10 have no opposite operation that you can use easily.
Find an approximate solution by substitution and then improve on the first
estimate.
2. The first estimate is taken and substituted into the equation. A second estimate,
either higher or lower than the first depending on the result of the substitution,
is then taken.
3. Further estimates can then be taken by dividing the range within which we
know the solution lies.
4. Most equations of this type can be solved using the table function on a graphics
calculator.
5D
WORKED
Example
11
1 Solve the equation 2x = 100, correct to 1 decimal place.

2 Solve the equation 1.1x = 2, correct to the nearest whole number.
3 Solve the equation 0.9x = 0.5, correct to the nearest whole number.
4 The amount of time that it will take for an investment to double when invested at
5% p.a. can be calculated using the equation (1.05)n = 2. Find the value of n, correct to
12
the nearest whole number.
WORKED
Example
5 It is anticipated that the value of a house will keep pace with inflation. Judy purchased
a house in 2001 for $265 000. The future value of the house can be calculated using the
r n
formula A = P 1 + --------- , where A is the future value, P is the present value, r is the
100
inflation rate and n is the number of years. Judy wants to know how many years it will
take for the value of her property to exceed $500 000 given that the inflation rate will
average 4% p.a.
a Substitute the known values into the formula to create an equation.
b Solve the equation for n, correct to the nearest whole number.
6 The value of a computer decreases at the rate of 30% p.a. A new computer purchased
for $3000 can have its value after n years calculated using the formula V = 3000(0.7)n,
where n is the age of the computer in years. Calculate when the value of the computer
will equal $500, correct to the nearest year.
7 The distance through which an object will fall in t seconds can be calculated using the
formula d = 5t2.
t
10
d
b Calculate the length of time that it will take an object to fall 300 m, correct to the
nearest second.
183
8 Kayla has 80 m of fencing in which to enclose a rectangular area for a garden.

Length
10
15
20
25
30
35
Width
Area
b What dimensions should the garden be if it is to enclose the maximum possible
area?
c The garden is to use an existing fence for one side and use the 80 m of fencing to
build the other three sides. Draw up a table to calculate the dimensions Kayla should
now build the garden to maximise the area.
Repeated enlargements
Consider the following problem. I need to enlarge a diagram on my photocopier to
twice its original size. My photocopier can enlarge to only 150% of the original.
Explain how I can make the enlargement that I need by using a repeated
enlargement.
2
1 Given that y = 25
5x, find the value of y when x = 3.
2 Given that T = 6n + 5n2, find the value of T when n = 2.

3 In the formula y =
r 2 x 2 , find y when r = 5 and x = 4.
4 Given that C = d find d, correct to 1 decimal place, when C = 400.

5 Given that d = 5t 2, find t when d = 2000.
Simplify the following expressions.
6 4a + 6b
7 4x2y3
3a
9b
5x5y
8 (4m3n4)3
18m 2 n 4
9 -----------------6mn 2
10 Use the method of substitution to solve the equation (1.1)x = 3, correct to the
184
Scientific notation
Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers in terms of a
power of 10. It is particularly useful in branches of science such as astronomy, where
large distances are measured, or in biology, where very small measurements of
microbes are taken.
As we found in the preliminary course, numbers are written in scientific notation by
rewriting the number with a decimal point after the first significant figure. This decimal
is then multiplied by the appropriate power of 10. This power of 10 is found by
counting the number of places that the decimal point has been moved. When moving
the decimal point left, the power of 10 is positive; it is negative when moving the
decimal point to the right.
WORKED Example 13
Write each of the following in scientific notation.
a 8 000 000
b 13 400 000 000
c 0.000 034 51
THINK
WRITE
Move the decimal point after the first significant

figure.
The decimal point has been moved 6 places left.
a 8 000 000 = 8

figure.
b 13 400 000 000 = 1.34

figure.
The decimal point has been moved 5 places right.
c 0.000 034 51 = 3.451
106
1010
10
In many examples we are required to round such measurements off to a given number
of significant figures.
WORKED Example 14
Write each of the following measurements in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant
figures.
a 97 856 472 124 km
b 0.000 000 124 117 23 mg
THINK
WRITE
a 9.79
1
2
3

figure.
Round the decimal off after the third significant
figure.
1010 km
THINK
WRITE
b 1.24

figure.
Round the decimal off after the third significant

figure.
10
185
mg
To change a number from scientific notation back to a decimal number, move the
decimal point to the right if the power of 10 is positive. If the power of 10 is negative,
move the decimal point to the left. Zeros will need to be added if there are insufficient
decimal places.
WORKED Example 15
Write each of the following as a decimal number:
a 3.85 108
b 8.654 106
THINK
WRITE
a Move the decimal point eight places to the right. You

will need to add six zeros to do this.
a 3.85
b Move the decimal point six places to the left. You will
need to add five zeros after the decimal point to do
this.
b 8.654
108 = 385 000 000
106 = 0.000 008 654
remember
1. Scientific notation is used as a shorthand way of writing very large and very
small numbers.
2. The decimal point is placed after the first significant figure, and then this
decimal is multiplied by the appropriate power of 10.
3. The power of 10 is found as follows.
If the decimal point is moved left (for large numbers), the power of 10 is the
number of places moved left.
If the decimal point is moved right (for small numbers), the power of 10 is
negative and is the number of places moved right.
4. To write a number given in scientific notation as a decimal number, move the
decimal point:
(a) to the right for a positive power of 10
(b) to the left for a negative power of 10.
186
5E
SkillS
HEET

a 90 000
b 20 000 000 000
13a
Scientific WORKED 2 Write each of the following in scientific notation.
notation Example
a 1 458 000
b 23 650 000 000 000
13b
5.8
WORKED
Example
c 700
c 2589

a 0.000 000 02
b 0.004 57
c 0.000 000 000 049 321
13c
Scientific
4 Write each of the following in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
notation WORKED
Example
a 93 154 789 km
b 78 548 963 214 mm
c 45 874 t
14
d 0.003 654 7 g
e 0.213 658 mL
f 0.000 005 687 4 s
et
reads
L Sp he
EXCE
Scientific notation
WORKED
Example
5 Write each of the following as a decimal number.

a 3.4 104
b 2.87 106
15a
WORKED 6 Write each of the following as a decimal number.
Example
a 5.85 104
b 1.97 106
15b
WORKED
Example
c 3.0248 1010
c 1.002 103
7 An astronomical unit (AU) is defined to be the distance between the Earth and the sun
and is equal to approximately 150 000 000 km. The table below shows the distance
between each planet in the solar system and the sun in astronomical units. Write the
distance between each planet and the sun in kilometres in scientific notation, correct to
Work
Planet
T
SHEE
5.2
Distance
(AU)
Mercury
0.39
Venus
0.72
Earth
1.0
Mars
1.52
Jupiter
5.20
Saturn
9.54
Uranus
19.18
Neptune
30.06
Distance in km
(scientific notation)
8 Complete each of the measurement conversions.

a 2.35 107 mm = ___ m
b 8.4 107 m = ___ km
5
c 6.4 10 cm = ___ mm
d 6.58 106 kg = ___ t
6
e 7.802 10 t = ___ kg
f 8.29 1010 kg = ___ g
8
g 1.87 10 L = ___ kL
h 2.178 107 kL = ___ L
i 5.55 107 L = ___ mL
187
summary
Substitution
Substitution involves the replacement of a pronumeral with a numerical value in an
expression.
These expressions include linear expressions that have only powers of 1, quadratics
that have a power of 2 and cubics that have a power of 3.
Care must be taken when using a calculator to apply the power to the correct term.
Algebraic terms are added or subtracted by collecting like terms.
Algebraic terms are multiplied or divided by applying the index laws to each
pronumeral separately.
First Index Law:
ax ay = ax + y
Second Index Law:
ax ay = ax y
Third Index Law:
(a x ) y = a xy

After substituting into a formula, an equation will be created when you are not
finding the subject of the formula.
The equation that you may need to solve could be linear or quadratic.
Using the same method as for solving equations, you can rearrange a formula to
make another pronumeral the subject of the formula.
Some equations have no opposite operation that allows you to easily solve the
equation. These equations can have an approximate solution found using
substitution.
To solve an equation using this method, make a first estimate of the solution and
substitute that estimate into the equation.
Use the result of that substitution to make an improved estimate, and then substitute
the improved estimate into the equation. Repeat this process until a solution to the
desired degree of accuracy is found.
Scientific notation
Scientific notation is used to write very large or very small numbers in a shorthand
way using powers of 10.
The decimal point is moved after the first significant figure and is multiplied by the
appropriate power of 10.
For large numbers, the power of 10 is the number of places the decimal point has
been moved to the left.
For small numbers, the power of 10 is negative and is the number of places the
decimal point has been moved to the right.
188
CHAPTER
review
5A
5A
5A
5A
1 Find the value of V = A
5B
5 Simplify each of the following by collecting like terms.

a m+m+m+m+m
b 7q + 9q
d 23t 22t
e 4m + 6n 2n
g 11k 6l + 4l 8k
h 5x2 + 20x + 3x2 6x
5B

a 4a4 7a5
b 5b 9b
d 12m5n6 mn
e 42x6 7x4
28q 2
g ----------h (3p2q4)3
4q
h, when A = 54 and h = 3.
2 Find the value of S = ut + --1- at2, when u = 4.1, t = 6.2 and a = 0.6.
2
3 Find the value of d =
( x 1 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 1 y 2 ) 2 , when x1 = 2, y1 = 7, x2 = 3, and y2 = 5.
4 Find the value of each of the following giving your answer, where necessary, correct to 2
decimal places.
a A = r(r + s), when r = 3.9 and s = 7.2
b C = 5--- (F 32), when F = 100
9
a
c S = ----------- , when a = 12 and r = 0.4
d y = r 2 x 2 , when r = 10 and x = 6
1r
5B
7 Expand each of the following.

a 2(a + 9)
b p(2p 4)
d 4m5(3m2 2n)
e 4xy(4 y)
5B
8 Expand and simplify each of the following.

a 2(m + 8) + 6(m + 4)
b 3p(p 2) + p(3 p)
d 3z(y 2z) + 4y(2y + z)
e 4pq(p q) 2p(pq 4)
5C
5C
9 In the formula P = 2l + 2b find l, when P = 78 and b = 24.
c 5p + 8p p
f 7x + 4 3x 9
i 4ab + 7a 2b 3ba
c 3g2h5 7g2h3
f 32r5s4 4r5s
i (8m2)2
m 16m3
c x2(3x3 1)
f 6a2b3(2a3 4b2)
c 7(2x
4)
3(x + 8)
10 The formula C = 2 r is used to find the circumference of a circle given the radius. Find the
radius of a circle with a circumference of 136 m. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
5C
5C
11 In the formula A = 6s2, find s when A = 216.
5D
13 Use the method of substitution to solve the following equations, correct to 1 decimal place.
a 5x = 100
b (1.2)x = 2
c (0.75)x = 0.25
5D
14 The amount to which $10 000 will grow when invested at 9% p.a. can be found using the
formula A = 10 000 (1.09)n, where n is the number of years of the investment. Use the
formula to find the amount of time that it will take for $10 000 to grow into $20 000, correct
to the nearest year.
12 The volume of a square-based pyramid can be found using the formula V = 1--- s2h, where s is
3
the side length of the square base and h is the height of the pyramid. Find the side length of
a square-based pyramid with a volume of 108.864 cm3 and a height of 6.3 cm.
189
15 A car depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a. The amount of time that it takes for the car to halve
in value can be found by solving the equation (0.8)n = 0.5, where n is the age of the car. Find
the length of time it takes for a car to halve in value, correct to the nearest year.
5D

a 600 000
b 0.000 000 000 2
c 78 920 000 000 000
d 0.001 25
e 0.000 004 589
f 124 589 000 000 000
5E
17 Write each of the following in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant figures.

a 12 589
b 0.000 125 478 624
c 0.032 143 68
d 586 460 484
e 12 447.151 48
f 0.000 000 051 851 58
5E
18 Write each of the following as a decimal number.

a 2.5 102
b 3.87 104
1
d 2.89 10
e 3.6702 107
5E
19 Complete each of the following.

a 2.5 105 m = ___ mm
c 3.43 104 kL = ___ L
e 4.243 107 t = ___ kg
c 9.8504 107
f 1.1 103
b 2.8 108 g = ___ kg

d 1.45 106 m = ___ km
f 1.3 108 mL = ___ L

1 multiple choice
3x(2x 4y) 2y(4y
A 6x2 8y2
6x) =
B 6x2 + 8y2
C 6x2 24xy 8y2
D 6x2 24xy + 8y2
2 multiple choice
The total surface area of a cone is given by the formula A = r(r + s), where r is the radius
and s is the slant height of the cone. The formula with s as the subject is:
A r
Ar
A
A
A s = ------ r
B s = ---------------C s = -----------D s = ------ + r
r
r
r
r
3 multiple choice
The total surface area of the square-based pyramid with side of the base b and the height of
the triangular face h is given by A = b2 + 2bh. If the total surface area of the pyramid is 64 cm
and the length of the side of the base is 4 cm, the height of the triangular face is:
A 6 cm
B 10 cm
C 20 cm
D 24 cm
4 multiple choice
The solution to the equation 10x = 200 is closest to:
A 2
B 2.3
C 2.4
D 20
5E
190
5 multiple choice
A square has a side length of 5.6 105 cm. The area of the square in scientific notation will be:
A 3.136 1011 cm2 B 31.36 1010 cm2 C 3.136 1025 cm2 D 31.36 1025 cm2
6 The volume of a cylinder can be found using the formula V = r 2h. The surface area of a
cylinder can be found using the formula SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh.
a Find the volume of a cylinder with a radius of 4.2 cm and a height of 5.5 cm.
(Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
b Find the height of a cylinder with a volume of 705 cm3 and a radius of 5.2 cm.
(Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
c Find the radius of a cylinder with a volume of 939.4 cm3 and a height of 7.3 cm
d Rewrite the formula for surface area to make h the subject.
CHAPTER
test
yourself
7 The time taken for an investment to double in value when invested at 7.5% p.a. can be found
by solving the equation (1.075)n = 2.
a Use the method of substitution to find the solution to this equation, correct to the nearest
whole number.
b Write an equation that can be used to find the amount of time that it will take for the value
of an item to halve in value if it depreciates at 15% p.a.
c Solve this equation, correct to 1 decimal place.
Multi-stage
events
6
syllabus reference
Probability 3
Multi-stage events
In this chapter
6A Tree diagrams
6B Counting techniques
6C Probability and counting
techniques
6D Probability trees
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
6.1
Listing the sample space
6.2
Informal description of chance
6.3
1 List the sample space for each of the following events.

a A card is drawn from a standard deck and its suit is noted.
b A ball is selected from a bag containing three red, two blue and five white balls.
c A pin is stuck in the page of a book and the nearest letter is noted.
2 Describe each of the following events as being certain, probable, fiftyfifty, unlikely or
impossible.
a Winning the lottery.
b Selecting an odd number from cards labelled with numbers 1 to 55.
c Finding a $40 note in your wallet.
Equally likely events
3 For each of the events in question 2, state whether or not each outcome is equally likely.
Fundamental counting principle
6.4
6.5
4 In each of the following find the number of different ways each selection can be made.
a One person is to be chosen from each of two classes with 20 people in one class and 25 in the
other.
b From a menu an entree is to be chosen from a selection of five entrees followed by a main
course from a selection of eight, and then a dessert from a selection of six.
c Car number plates consisting of two letters, followed by two digits, followed by another two
letters.
Single event probability
5 Find the probability of each of the following events.

a Randomly selecting the winner of a swimming final with eight competitors.
b Winning a raffle when 150 tickets are sold and you purchase three tickets.
c Selecting a $2 coin from a pocket containing three $2 coins, four $1 coins and seven 20c
pieces.
6.6
Determining complementary events
6 Find the complement to each of the following events.

a Selecting a vowel from the letters of the alphabet.
b Choosing a black marble from a bag with 12 black, 23 white and 15 clear marbles.
c Selecting a number less than 10.
6.7
Calculating the probability of a complementary event
7 Find the probability of:

a winning a football match given the probability of losing is 2--- .
5
b the train being late given that it is on time four days out of every five.
c a golfer missing a putt given the probability of sinking the putt is 0.73.
Chapter 6 Multi-stage events
193
Tree diagrams
As discussed in the preliminary course, if an event has more than one stage to it, then it
is necessary to draw a tree diagram to list the sample space accurately. In a tree
diagram the tree branches out once for each stage of the experiment. At each stage the
number of branches is the same as the number of possible outcomes.
To list the sample space we then follow the tree to the end of each branch and record
the outcome at each stage.
WORKED Example 1
A coin is tossed three times. Draw a tree diagram and use it to list the sample space for
this experiment.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
There are three stages to the

experiment.
At each stage the outcome can be
heads or tails.
Draw the tree diagram branching out
three times with two branches at
each stage.
1st
coin
2nd
coin
Heads
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
4
List the sample space by following

the path to each end branch.
3rd
coin
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH,

S = {TTT}
To see a step-by-step construction of the tree diagram in

worked example 1, click on the PowerPoint icon.
In the above example, each stage of the
experiment (each toss of the coin) is
independent of the other stages. That is to
say, the outcome of one toss does not
affect the outcome of another toss. In
many examples, the outcome of one
stage will affect the outcome of
another. Consider worked example 2.
Here we are forming a two-digit
number such that no digit may be
repeated. Once a number has been
chosen as the first digit, it can not be
chosen as the second digit. Therefore, the
first stage of the experiment does affect the
second stage.
194
WORKED Example 2
A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 5, 7 and 9 without repetition. Draw a tree
diagram and use it to list all possible numbers that can be formed.
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
There are two stages to the experiment.

For the first stage there will be four
branches and since one number is
chosen there will be three branches for
the second stage.
Draw the tree diagram.
List the sample space by following the
branches to each end point on the tree
diagram.
1st digit
4
5
7
9
2nd digit
5
7
9
4
7
9
4
5
9
4
5
7
Sample space
45
47
49
54
57
59
74
75
79
94
95
97
Click on the PowerPoint icon to see this tree diagram constructed step by step.
Once we have completed the tree diagram, the probability of an event can be
calculated using the formula:
number of favourable outcomes
P(event) = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------total number of outcomes
WORKED Example 3
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Calculate the probability of tossing a tail and rolling a
number greater than 4.
THINK
1
2
WRITE
There are two stages to the event.

At the first stage there are two
outcomes and at the second stage there
are six outcomes.
Draw the tree diagram.
List the sample space by following the

branches to each end point on the tree
diagram.
Calculate the probability using the
probability formula. There are two
favourable outcomes T5 and T6.
Simplify.
Coin toss Die roll

1
2
3
Heads
4
5
6
1
2
3
Tails
4
5
6
Sample space
Heads 1
Heads 2
Heads 3
Heads 4
Heads 5
Heads 6
Tails 1
Tails 2
Tails 3
Tails 4
Tails 5
Tails 6
P(tail and no. > 4) =
2
-----12
P(tail and no. > 4) =
1
--6
Again the PowerPoint icon can be used to see the tree diagram constructed step by step.
195
remember
1. In any probability experiment that has more than one stage, a tree diagram
should be used to calculate the sample space.
2. The tree diagram branches once for each stage and the number of branches at
each stage is equal to the number of outcomes.
3. The sample space is found by following the path to the end of each branch.
4. Once the sample space has been found, the probability of each outcome is
calculated using the probability formula:
6A
WORKED
Example
1 A family consists of four children. Draw a tree diagram to show all possible
combinations of boys and girls.
3 There are two bags each containing a red, blue, yellow

and green marble. One marble is to be chosen from
each bag. Draw a tree diagram that will allow you to calculate the sample space.
SkillS
Informal
description
of chance
6.3
SkillS
HEET
Example
6.2
HEET
WORKED
SkillS
Listing
the
sample
space
2 Two dice are cast. Draw a tree diagram that will allow
you to list the sample space of all possible outcomes.
4 A school is to send one male and one female representative to a conference. The
boys nominate George, Frank, Stanisa and Ian; the girls have nominated Thuy,
Petria, Joan, Wendy and Amelia. Draw a tree diagram and list the sample space for
all possible choices of representatives.
6.1
HEET
Tree diagrams
5 A two-digit number is to be formed using the digits 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7 such that no digit Equally
likely
may be repeated. Draw a tree diagram to list all possible numbers that can be formed. events
E
7 The digits 3, 5, 7 and 8 are used to form a three-digit number. If no digit can be used
more than once list the sample space.
8 multiple choice
From a group of five nominations a school captain and vice-captain are to be elected.
The number of ways that the captain and vice-captain can be chosen is:
A5
B 10
C 20
D 25
WORKED
Example
9 The four aces from a deck of cards are placed face down on a table. One card is
chosen followed by a second card without the first card being replaced. Calculate the
probability that the ace of hearts is one of the two cards chosen.
sheet
6 A committee needs to elect a president, secretary and treasurer. The four nominations
L Spre
XCE ad
for these positions are Belinda, Dean, Kate and Adrian. Given that no person is
allowed to hold more than one position, use a tree diagram to list all ways in which
Tree
diagrams
these three positions can be filled.
196
10 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 2, 3, 4 and 7 without repetition.

a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b Calculate the probability that the number formed is greater than 35.
11 A tennis team consists of three men, Andre, Yevgeny and Jonas and two women,
Martina and Lindsay. From the team the captain and the vice-captain are to be chosen.
Calculate the probability that the captain and vice-captain are:
a Andre and Lindsay
b both men
c the same sex
d different sex.
12 Find the probability that all three
children in a family will be the same
sex.
13 multiple choice
A three-digit number is formed using
the digits 5, 6, 8 and 0. No digit can
be repeated and the 0 cant be first.
The probability of the number formed
being greater than 800 is:
A
1
--4
1
--3
3
-----16
1
--2
14 An airline offers holidays to three destinations: Brisbane, Gold Coast or Cairns. The
holiday can be taken during two seasons: Peak season or Off-peak season. The
customer has the choice of three classes: Economy, Business or First class. There is no
First class to Cairns, however.
a Use a tree diagram to list all combinations of holiday that could be taken by
choosing a destination, season and class.
b Terry takes a mystery flight, which means he is allocated a ticket at random from
the above combinations. Calculate the probability that Terrys ticket:
i goes to Brisbane
ii is First class
iii is in Peak season, flying First class.
Counting techniques
Ordered arrangements
1 Select three people and stand them in a line.
2 Now get the three people to stand in a different order.
3 In how many different orders can the three people be placed?
4 Repeat the above process with four people in the line.
5 Is there a pattern? Can you calculate the number of different ways in which five
people can be arranged?
197
There are 10 people standing in a line. In how many ways can they be arranged? To
calculate this we need to consider the number of ways that each place in the line can be
filled. To do this we need to calculate the number of people remaining after we fill each
place in the line.
There are 10 people who could fill the first position.
Once the first position has been filled, there are nine people remaining to fill the
second position.
Once the second position has been filled, there are eight people remaining to fill the
third position.
This pattern continues until there is only one person left who can fill the last position.
Calculating this: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 3 628 800.
A shorter way of writing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 is to write 10!, that
is, 10 factorial.
Your calculator will have a factorial function, usually labelled x!. Make sure that you
know where this function is on your calculator.
WORKED Example 4
Calculate the value of 8!.

THINK
WRITE
Enter 8 and press 2ndF

calculator.
x! on the
8! = 40 320
Graphics Calculator tip! Factorial function

To use the factorial (!) function on your Casio graphics calculator follow the steps
below, which will calculate 8! as in worked example 4 above.
1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. Press OPTN (F6) for more options. You should be

able to see the screen at right.
3. Press F3 (PROB) and you will be able to see the

function x!. Press 8
F1 (x!) EXE .
198
WORKED Example 5
Six people are standing in a line. In how many ways can the six people be arranged?
THINK
WRITE
The answer is 6!.
6! = 720
The people can be arranged in 720 ways.
Tree diagrams and ordered

arrangements
Four people, Anji, Belinda, Kristen and
Summer, are to be placed in order.
1 Calculate the number of different ways
these four girls can be placed in a line.
2 Draw a tree diagram and use it to list the
ways that the four girls can be placed in
order.
3 Check that the number of elements in
the sample space found from your tree
diagram corresponds to the answer
obtained in part 1.
In worked examples 4 and 5, we have been ordering an entire group. In some cases
we may wish to order only part of the group. Consider the case of an Olympic swimming final. There are eight swimmers and we wish to know the number of ways that the
gold, silver and bronze medals can be awarded.
There are eight possible winners of the gold medal.
With the first place filled, there are seven possible winners of the silver medal.
With both first and second places filled, there are six possible winners of the bronze
medal.
Calculating this: number of arrangements = 8
Calculating this: number of arrangements = 336

This type of arrangement is known as an ordered selection. It occurs when the order
in which the choices are made is important. In the worked example below, a captain
and a vice-captain are to be chosen. If Benito is captain and Imran is vice-captain, this
is a different selection to Imran as captain and Benito as vice-captain.
To calculate the number of ordered selections that can be made, we multiply, starting
from the number of possible first selections, then reducing by one with each multiplication until each position is filled.
199
WORKED Example 6
In a cricket team of eleven players, a captain and vice-captain are to be chosen. In how
many ways can this be done?
THINK
1
2
WRITE
There are 11 possible choices of captain.

Once the captain is chosen, there are 10
choices remaining for vice-captain.
No. of arrangements = 11 10
No. of arrangements = 110
Committee selections
On a committee of five people, a president and a vice-president are to be chosen.
The five committee members are Andreas, Brett, Cathy, Dharma and Emiko.
1 Use the method shown in worked example 6 to calculate the number of ways in
which the president and the vice-president can be chosen.
2 Now use a tree diagram to list the sample space of all possible selections of
president and vice-president.
3 Check that the number of elements in the sample space corresponds to the
answer obtained in part 1 of this investigation.
Consider a case where two representatives to a committee are chosen from a class of
20 students. This is an example of an unordered selection. If Sue is chosen, followed by
Graham, this is the same choice as if Graham is chosen and then Sue.
To calculate the number of unordered selections that can be made, we calculate the
number of ordered selections that can be made and then divide by the number of
arrangements of these selections. This is calculated using factorial notation as in
worked example 5. In the case of choosing the committee:
Number of ordered selections is 20 19 = 380.
Two people can be arranged in two (2!) ways.
Number of unordered selections = 380 2
Number of unordered selections = 190
WORKED Example 7
From a group of eight athletes, three are to be chosen to represent the club at a carnival.
In how many ways can the three representatives be chosen?
THINK
1
2
3
Calculate the number of ordered selections

that can be made.
Calculate the number of arrangements of the
representatives.
Divide the ordered selections by the
arrangements of the representatives.
WRITE
Ordered selections = 8 7 6
Ordered selections = 336
Arrangements = 3 2 1
Arrangements = 6
Unordered selections = 336 6
Unordered selections = 56
200
Unordered selection
A rowing team has six members: Mark, Norman, Olaf, Pieter, Quentin and
Raymond. Two are to be chosen to be the crew in a pairs race.
1 Use the method described in worked example 7 to calculate the number of pairs
that could be chosen.
2 Use a tree diagram to list the ordered selections and then write the sample space
of unordered selections by ignoring any repeated pair.
3 Check that the number of elements of the sample space corresponds to the
answer obtained in part 1 of this investigation.
remember
1. A group of n different items can be arranged in n! ways.
2. n! = n (n 1) (n 2) 1 and can be found as a function on your
calculator.
3. When an ordered selection is made, the number of selections can be calculated
by multiplying the number of first choices that can be made by the number of
second choices that can be made and so on.
4. To calculate the number of unordered selections that can be made, we divide
the number of ordered selections by the number of arrangements of those
selected.
SkillS
6B
HEET
6.4
WORKED
Example
Fundamental
counting
principle
WORKED
Example
Counting techniques
1 Use your calculator to calculate the value of the following.

a 3!
b 5!
c 9!
2 Four people are involved in a race. In how many different orders can they complete
the race?
3 The letters A, B, C, D and E are written on cards. In how many different orders can
the cards be placed?
4 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 3, 6 and 8. If no number can be
repeated, how many numbers is it possible to form?
WORKED
Example
5 In a race of 10 people, in how many different ways can the first three places be filled?
6 In a school, a captain and vice-captain are to be elected. The four nominations are
Geri, Reika, Melanie and Victoria. In how many different ways can the captain and
vice-captain be chosen?
7 In the Melbourne Cup there are 24 horses. In how many different ways can the three
placings be filled?
WORKED
Example
201
8 Seven people try out for three places on a debating team. In how many ways can the
team of three be chosen from the group of seven?
9 How many different groups of four can be selected from ten people?
10 In his pocket Trevor has six coins: a $2 coin, $1 coin, 50c coin, 20c coin, 10c coin and
5c coin. If Trevor randomly chooses two coins, how many different sums of money
are possible?
11 On a restaurant menu there is a choice of three entrees, six main courses and four
desserts. In how many ways can a person choose an entree, main course and dessert
from the menu?
12 multiple choice
Which of the following is an example of an unordered selection?
A Five students are placed in order of their exam results.
B From a group of five students, a contestant and a reserve are chosen for a
Mathematics competition.
C From a group of five students, two are chosen to represent the class on the SRC.
D From a group of five students, two are awarded 1st and 2nd prizes in Mathematics.
13 multiple choice
The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are used to form a three-digit number such that no digit can
be used more than once. The number of three-digit numbers that can be formed is:
A4
B 6
C 12
D 24
14 multiple choice
Gavin, Dion, Michael, Owen and Shane try out for two places on a tennis doubles
team. The number of teams that can be chosen is:
A5
B 10
C 20
D 25
16 At the Olympic qualifying trials, nine cyclists compete for a place on the team.
a In how many different orders can the competition finish?
b How many different ways can 1st, 2nd and 3rd place be filled?
c Two cyclists are chosen to represent Australia on the team. How many different
teams of two can be chosen?
Probability and counting techniques

Once the counting techniques done in the previous section have been completed, we
can calculate the probability of certain events occurring. To do this we go back to using
the probability formula:
Work
15 A small play has three characters. Six people, Wendy, Rebecca, Thai, Yasmin, Andrea
and Ophelia, audition for the three parts.
a How many different groups of three can be chosen for the play?
b In how many different ways can the three parts be allocated to the three girls?
T
SHEE
6.1
202
WORKED Example 8
The letters A, H, M, S and T are written on cards. The cards are shuffled and then laid out
face up. Calculate the probability that the cards form the word MATHS.
THINK
1
WRITE
The five cards can be arranged in 5! ways.
No. of arrangements = 5!
1
P(MATHS) = --------
MATHS is one way of arranging the letters

and so we use the probability formula.
120
We also need to be able to calculate the probability of a particular ordered or unordered

arrangement occurring.
WORKED Example 9
From Francis, Gary, Harley, Ike and Jacinta, a school captain and vice-captain need to be
elected. Calculate the probability that Ike and Jacinta occupy the two positions.
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Calculate the number of ordered selections

that are possible.
Ike and Jacinta in the two positions can be
arranged in two ways.
Divide the ordered selections by the number
of arrangements.
Substitute into the probability formula.
No. of ordered selections = 5 4

No. of ordered selections = 20
No. of unordered selections = 20 2
No. of unordered selections = 10
1
P(Ike and Jacinta) = ----10
WORKED Example 10
A bag contains a red, green, yellow, blue, orange and purple marble. Three marbles are
selected from the bag. Calculate the probability that the red, yellow and orange marbles
are chosen.
THINK
1
2
3
4
5
Calculate the number of ordered

selections.
Calculate the number of arrangements.
Calculate the number of unordered
selections.
The red, yellow and orange marble is
one possible selection.
Substitute into the probability formula.
WRITE
No. of ordered selections = 6 5 4
No. of ordered selections = 120
No. of arrangements = 3 2 1
No. of unordered selections = 120 6
No. of unordered selections = 20
P(red, yellow and orange) =
1
-----20
203
Popular gaming
There are many different forms of lottery that depend upon ordered or unordered
arrangements.
1 Lotto This requires the player to select six numbers out of 45. In how many
ways can the six numbers be chosen? Remember order does not matter.
2 Similar games to Lotto are:
a Oz Lotto seven numbers are chosen from 45.
b The Pools six numbers are chosen from 38.
In how many ways can the six numbers for each of these games be chosen?
3 Powerball This requires the player to choose five numbers from 45 in an
unordered selection. A sixth ball (the powerball) is chosen from a second barrel
containing 45 balls. In how many ways can this be selected?
4 Lotto Strike The player must select the first four balls drawn from 45 in the
correct order. In how many ways can this ordered selection be made?
remember
When we have calculated the number of arrangements and the number of ordered
or unordered selections that are possible, we can then calculate the probability of
a certain selection using the probability formula.
6C
WORKED
Example
1 Four people, Craig, Barry, Anne and Dimitri, are arranged in a line. Calculate the
probability that the four people are arranged in alphabetical order.
2 The numbers 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are arranged to form a five-digit number such that
no digit can be repeated. Calculate:
a how many five-digit numbers can be formed
b the probability that the number formed is 54 867
c the probability that the number formed is 86 574.
Single
event
probability
3 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 6, 8 and 9 and no digit may be
repeated. Calculate the probability that the number formed is:
a 896
b even
c greater than 800.
WORKED
Example
6.5
4 There are five candidates in an election for SRC president. The second placed
candidate will be made vice-president of the SRC. If Lauren and Meta are two of the
candidates, calculate the probability that they will occupy the two positions.
5 Seven surfers enter a competition. If two of the surfers are Kurt and Paul, calculate the
probability that:
a Kurt comes first and Paul comes second
b Paul comes first and Kurt comes second
c Kurt and Paul fill the first two places.
SkillS
HEET
Probability and counting

techniques
204
6 From the digits 1 to 9 a two-digit number is formed such that no digit can be repeated.
Calculate the probability that the number formed is:
a 67
b greater than 80
c less than 30.
WORKED
Example
10
7 From a deck of cards, the four aces are laid face down on a table. Two of the aces are
then turned face up. Calculate the probability that the two aces turned face up are the
ace of clubs and the ace of spades.
8 An ice-cream parlour offers a choice of 25 flavours. A triple scoop ice-cream places
three different flavours on top of each other. If the flavours are chosen randomly, find
the probability that the ice-cream is:
a vanilla, chocolate and strawberry in that order
b vanilla, chocolate and strawberry in any order.
9 Six boys try out for three places on a debating team. The boys are Gavin, David,
Andrew, Rhyse, Julius and Elliot.
a How many teams of three is it possible to choose?
b Calculate the probability that Gavin, Andrew and Elliot are on the team.
10 The letters M, A, I, D and G are written on cards and two of these are to be chosen.
Calculate the probability that the two cards chosen are:
a both vowels
b both consonants
c one vowel and one consonant.
1
1 Two coins are tossed in the air. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space of all
possible outcomes.
2 Two dice are rolled. How many possible outcomes are in the sample space?
3 In how many different ways can five cars be parked in a row?
4 A race has 10 runners. In how many different ways can the 10 runners finish?
5 A race has 10 runners. In how many different ways can the first three places be filled?
6 From a committee of nine people, a president and vice-president need to be chosen. In
how many different ways can the two positions be filled?
7 Eight people audition for four parts in a play. How many different groups of four
could be chosen?
8 Once the four people have been chosen in question 7, in how many different ways can
the four parts be allocated?
9 How many different ways can the parts be allocated among the original group of eight
in question 7?
10 Explain the difference between an ordered and unordered arrangement.
205
Probability trees
In the tree diagrams studied so far, the probability of each
outcome has been equally likely. When each result is not
equally likely we can still draw the diagram in the same way,
writing the probability of each single outcome on the
branches of the tree.
Consider the case where a bag contains three green marbles and two white marbles. A marble is drawn, its colour
noted and it is then replaced in the bag. A second marble is
then drawn. We could draw a tree diagram as shown on the
right.
1st marble
Green
Green
Green
White
White
2nd marble
Green
Green
Green
White
White
Green
Green
Green
White
White
Green
Green
Green
White
White
Green
Green
Green
White
White
Green
Green
Green
White
White
Using a probability tree simplifies the diagram. In a single drawing of the marble
P(green) =
3
--5
and P(white) =
2
--- .
5
These probabilities are drawn on the branches of the
tree as shown below.

1st marble
2nd marble
3
5
Green
5
3
5
White
Green
White
Green
White
There are four elements to the sample space: (green, green), (green, white), (white,
green) and (white, white). Each element of the sample space is not equally likely. To
calculate the probability of each, we use the multiplication rule of probability.
The multiplication rule of probability states that to calculate the probability, you
multiply along the branches of the tree that lead to each event. Therefore:
P(green, green) =
=
P(white, green) =
=
3
--5
3
--5
9
-----25
2
--5
6
-----25
P(green, white) =
=
3
--5
P(white, white) =
=
3
--5
2
--5
6
-----25
2
--5
2
--5
4
-----25
This is the method that must be used to calculate the probability in any situation
where each outcome is not equally likely.
206
WORKED Example 11
In a bag there are seven red marbles and three green marbles. A marble is drawn, its
colour noted and it is then replaced in the bag. A second marble is then drawn. Find the
probability that both marbles are red.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw the probability tree.
1st marble
2nd marble
7
10
10
Red
10
7
10
10
Green
Red
Green
Red
10
Green
2
Calculate the probability by

multiplying along the branches.
P(red, red) =
P(red, red) =
7
-----10
49
--------100
7
-----10
The PowerPoint icon will show you step by step how to construct this probability tree.
When asked to find the probability of an event that can occur in several ways, we
need to use the addition rule of probability. The addition rule for probability states that
for an event that can occur in several ways, the probability is the sum of the probabilities for each way that the event can occur.
WORKED Example 12
In a barrel there are four blue counters and six red counters. A counter is drawn, its
colour noted and a second counter is drawn. The first counter is not replaced in the barrel
before the second counter is drawn. Find the probability that:
a a blue counter is drawn, followed by a red counter
b two counters of a different colour are drawn.
THINK
1
Draw the probability tree.

If the first counter is blue, three blue
and six red counters remain in the
bag.
If the first counter is red, four blue
and five red counters remain in the
bag.
WRITE
1st counter 2nd counter
3
9
4
10
Blue
Blue
Red
4
9
6
10
Red
Blue
5
9
Red
THINK
2
207
WRITE
a Multiply along the white, red

branches to calculate the probability.
b This outcome can occur in two ways.
Add the probabilities (blue, red) and
(red, blue).
P(blue, red) =
4
-----10
4
-----15
6
--9
b P(different colour)
= P(blue, red) + P(red, blue)
4
= ( ----10
4
-----15
8
-----15
6
--- )
9
6
+ ( ----10
4
--- )
9
4
+ ----15
The PowerPoint icon will allow you to see how this probability tree was constructed.
We must read each example carefully to see if the probabilities change throughout
the experiment. In many cases we do not need to examine each possible outcome. In
some examples we consider only one outcome. The branches of the tree then show if
this outcome occurs or not.
WORKED Example 13
Along a road there are three sets of traffic lights. The probability of catching a green light
is 0.35. Calculate the probability of catching all three green lights.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a probability tree. We do not need

to consider if the light is red or amber,
only whether it is green or not green.
1st lights
0.35
0.65
Calculate the probability by

multiplying along the green branches.
2nd lights
0.35
Green
0.65
Not
green
Green
Not
green
0.35
Green
0.65
Not
green
0.35
0.65
0.35
0.65
0.35
0.65
0.35
0.65
P(three green lights) = 0.35 0.35

P(three green lights) = 0.042 875
3rd lights
Green
Not
green
Green
Not
green
Green
Not
green
Green
Not
green
0.35
Click on the PowerPoint icon to see worked example 13 solved step by step.
The complementary event method is particularly important with this type of
question. Complementary events are two events that account for all possible outcomes
of an experiment. For example, when rolling a die the complement of rolling a number
less than three is to roll a number greater than two. We discovered during the preliminary course that the sum of the probability of an event and its complement is one.
It is often easier to calculate the probability of the complement rather than that of the
event itself. We can then subtract the probability of the complementary event from one.
208
WORKED Example 14
Three dice are rolled. What is the

probability of rolling at
least one six?
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw the probability tree. (We need to draw the

tree with only two outcomes as we are
concerned only with whether we get a 6 or not.)
1st die
2nd die
3rd die
1
6
1
6
1
6
5
6
6
5
6
Not 6
1
6
5
6
1
6
5
6
1
6
5
6
Not 6
5
6
Not 6
1
6
5
6
2
3
The complement to getting at least one six in

three rolls is getting no sixes in three rolls.
Subtract the complement from one to find the
probability.
6
Not 6
6
Not 6
6
Not 6
6
Not 6
P(at least one six) = 1
P(no sixes)
( 5--6-
125
--------216
P(at least one six) =
5
--6
5
--- )
6
91
--------216
As with other probability tree diagrams, you can see this example completed step by
step by clicking on the PowerPoint icon.
remember
1. If each outcome is not equally likely, draw a probability tree with the
probability of each single event on the branches.
2. To calculate a probability, multiply along the branches that give the required
outcome.
3. If an outcome can be obtained in two or more ways, add the probability of
each.
4. Read each question carefully to see if the probabilities change during the
experiment.
5. Consider carefully what outcomes you need to include in your tree. You may
need only to consider if one event occurs or not.
6. For questions that involve finding at least one, use the complementary event
method.
7. The sum of the probability of an event and its complement is one.
6D
WORKED
Example
Probability trees
1 In a purse there are five 20-cent coins and three 50-cent

coins. A coin is selected from the purse and replaced,
and then a second coin is selected. The probability tree
on the right is drawn for this experiment. Find the
probability that the two coins drawn are both twenty
cent pieces.
1st coin
2nd coin
5
8
5
8
2 In a barrel there are four white marbles and five black

50c
marbles. Two marbles are drawn, the first being
replaced in the barrel before the second one is drawn.
a Draw the probability tree for this situation.
b Find the probability for each member of the sample space.
WORKED
Example
12
WORKED
Example
13
20c
20c
3
8
6.6
3
8
50c
5
8
20c
3
8
50c
SkillS
HEET
11
209
Determining
complementary
events
3 A hand of five cards contains three kings and two queens. A card is chosen and
then returned before a second card is chosen. Find the probability that:
a a queen is chosen followed by a king
b a king and a queen are chosen.
4 Jia is a shooter with an 80% chance of hitting a target. If he has three shots at a target,
find the probability that:
a he hits with all three shots
b he hits with exactly two shots.
of a
complementary
event
6 multiple choice
A bag contains four black and six white marbles. Two marbles are drawn from the bag
one after the other. If the first marble drawn is black, the probability that the second
marble drawn is white is:
A
4
--9
2
--5
2
--3
3
--5
7 multiple choice
A coin is biased such that the probability of it landing heads is 0.6. The coin is tossed
three times. Which of the following outcomes has the greatest probability of occurring?
A Tossing three heads
B Tossing two heads and one tail
C Tossing one head and two tails
D Tossing three tails
SkillS
HEET
5 A raffle has 100 tickets with two prizes. Kevin buys five tickets. Find the probability 6.7
that:
a Kevin wins 1st prize
b Kevin wins both prizes
Calculating
the probability
c Kevin does not win a prize
d Kevin wins exactly one prize.
210
8 A box contains three red and seven blue discs. Two discs
are chosen from the box. The probability tree for this
experiment is shown on the right. Find the probability of
selecting:
a two red discs
b two blue discs
c two discs the same colour
d two discs of a different colour.
1st disc
10
10
2nd disc
2
Red
Blue
Red
Blue
Red
Blue
9 The names of eight boys and five girls are placed into a
hat. Two people selected from the hat are to represent the
school at a function.
a Use a probability tree to find the sample space for this experiment.
b Find the probability of:
i two boys being chosen
ii two girls being chosen
iii one boy and one girl being chosen.
10 There are 25 students in class 12R and 24 students in class 12S. Two students are to
be chosen at random to attend a study skills course. Find the probability that the two
students chosen are:
a from the same class
b from different classes.
11 In a basket there are 15 balls, of which five are blue. Two are selected at random from
the basket. Find the probability that:
a two blue balls are selected
b no blue balls are selected
c exactly one blue ball is selected.
12 The probability that I will need to stop at a set of traffic lights is 0.55. If I twice travel
through this set of lights, what is the probability of:
a having to stop both times
b not having to stop either time.
13 Greg has an 80% chance of passing each Maths test. During the term he will
need to sit four tests.
14
a Find the probability that Greg will pass all four tests.
b Find the probability that Greg will fail at least one test.
WORKED
Example
14 A navy ship carries surface-to-air missiles with a probability of hitting a

target of 0.9. Two missiles are fired at an enemy warplane. Find the probability that the warplane escapes without being hit. (Hint: For the plane
to escape, both missiles that are fired must miss the target.)
15 In a certain town it is known that four-fifths of all school students
have been immunised against measles. For a medical test, four
students need to be chosen of which at least one must have been
immunised and at least one must not have been immunised. Find
the probability that if four students are chosen at random:
a at least one will have been immunised
b at least one will not have been immunised.
211
16 multiple choice
Veronica rolls three dice. To win the game she needs to throw at least one six. Which
of the following will give the probability of throwing at least one six?
A 1 P(three sixes)
B 1 P(two sixes)
C 1 P(one six)
D 1 P(no sixes)
17 There are 2 classes in Year 12:
Class 12A has 15 boys and 10 girls.
Class 12B has 12 boys and 18 girls.
The principal chooses a student to make a speech by first choosing a class at random
followed by a student at random from the chosen class. Find the probability that the
student chosen is:
a from class 12A
b a boy from class 12B
c a girl.
19 A missile that is fired from the ground has a 0.8 chance of hitting its target. A missile
fired from a plane has a 0.4 chance of hitting a target. A missile is fired from both
ground and air at separate targets. Find the probability that:
a both hit their target
b one hits its target
c at least one hits its target.
Work
18 In a radio contest, to win $10 000 in prize money the contestant is faced with five
money bags. Each money bag has 10 coins in it. To win, the contestant chooses a bag
and then chooses a coin from that bag. If the coin has the station logo on it, the
contestant wins.
Bag 1 has one winning coin.
Bag 2 has three winning coins.
Bag 3 has seven winning coins.
Bags 4 and 5 have two winning coins.
Find the probability of the contestant winning the $10 000.
T
SHEE
6.2
212
summary
Tree diagrams
A tree diagram is used in any probability experiment where there is more than one
stage to the experiment.
The sample space can be determined from a tree diagram by following the paths to
the end of each branch.
The probability of an event can then be calculated by the probability formula:
Counting techniques
The number of ways that n objects can be arranged in order is:
n! or n (n 1) (n 2) . . . 2 1.
In an ordered selection, a number of objects are chosen and are arranged in order.
The number of ordered selections can be calculated by multiplying the number of
first choices that can be made by the number of second choices possible and so on
until all choices have been included.
In an unordered selection, the order in which the objects have been chosen is not
important. The number of unordered selections that are possible is calculated by
dividing the number of ordered selections by the number of ways the ordered
selection can be arranged.
Once the number of selections has been determined, the probability of particular
selections can be determined.
Probability trees
When each outcome is not equally likely, you draw a probability tree.
On each branch of the tree is written the probability of that outcome.
To calculate any probability you multiply along the branches.
213
CHAPTER
review
1 Two coins are tossed in the air.
a Draw a tree diagram.
b Use the tree to list the sample space for this experiment.
6A
2 The digits 5, 7, 8 and 9 are used to form a two-digit number. Use a tree diagram to list the
sample space if:
a no digit can be used more than once
b digits can be repeated.
6A
3 There are three births in the maternity ward of a hospital. Calculate the probability that the
babies are:
a all boys
b two boys and a girl
c more girls than boys.
6A
4 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9. No digit is allowed to be repeated.
a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b Find the probability that the number formed is:
i 86
ii odd
iii greater than 65.
6A
5 In a barrel there are three black marbles and three white marbles. A marble is drawn and its
colour noted, and it is then replaced in the barrel. A second marble is then drawn. Find the
probability of selecting:
a two marbles of the same colour
b at least one black marble.
6A
6 A rowing crew has eight rowers. In how many different ways can the crew be seated in the boat?
6B
6B
7 From the rowing crew of eight, a captain and vice-captain are to be selected. Calculate the
number of different ways the captain and vice-captain can be selected.
8 From the rowing crew of eight, four are to be chosen to crew a four-person boat. How many
crews of four can be chosen from the group of eight?
6B
214
6B
9 From the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5:

a how many five-digit numbers can be formed if repetition is not allowed?
b how many three-digit numbers can be formed if repetition is not allowed?
6C
10 The letters D, S, T, U and Y are shuffled and placed in a line on a table. Calculate the
probability that the word STUDY is formed.
6C
11 Two students from Richard, Sandra, Talia and Ingo have to make a speech. They draw
straws to see who will go first and second.
a How many different ways can the first and second speaker be arranged?
b What is the probability that Ingo speaks first and Talia speaks second?
6C
12 Six teams A, B, C, D, E and F contest a basketball competition. The top four sides play in
the semi-finals, and later two will contest the grand final.
a In how many different ways can the top four sides be arranged?
b What is the probability that the top four teams finish D, C, F and A?
c How many pairs of teams is it possible to meet in the grand final?
d What is the probability of A playing B in the grand final?
e What is the probability that C plays in the grand final?
6C
13 Zita is doing an exam when she realises that she has almost run out of time. She has not
answered the last 10 questions.
a If each question requires True or False as an answer and Zita guesses each answer, what
is the probability that she guesses all 10 correctly?
b If each question is multiple choice and requires the choice of (A), (B), (C) or (D), what is
the probability that Zita will guess all 10 correctly?
6D
14 In a bag there are three red marbles and two green marbles. Two marbles are drawn in
succession without replacement. Find the probability that the two marbles drawn are:
a both red
b both green.
6D
15 In a box there are six batteries. Two of the batteries are flat. If two are chosen from the box,
find the probability that both batteries are charged.
6D
16 The probability that a set of lights show green is 2--- . If I pass through this set of lights three
5
times, find the probability that:
a I catch three green lights
b I catch at least one green light.
6D
17 In a tennis match it is noticed that Roger Federer gets 70% of serves in play. If he has two
serves, find the probability that he gets at least one into play.
6D
18 One in every eight light bulbs are faulty. If I buy three light bulbs, find the probability that
none are faulty.

1 multiple choice
Which of the following is an example of an ordered selection?
A A team of four people is chosen from a group of 12.
B Two representatives from a class of 30 students are elected to the SRC.
C A class of 30 students elect a class captain and vice-captain.
D From a barrel of 44 balls, six are chosen.
2 multiple choice
Six people are arranged in a line. The number of ways in which this can be done is:
A 6
B 12
C 120
D 720
3 multiple choice
In a race there are six runners. In how many ways can the first three places be filled?
A 6
B 12
C 120
D 620
215
216
4 multiple choice
A group of six people consists of Darren, Shintaro, Jim, Damien, John and Allan. From these
six people a group of three is chosen. The probability of choosing Darren, Jim and John is:
A
3
--6
1
-----20
1
-----12
1
--------120
5 Three coins are tossed in the air.

a Draw a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b Use your tree diagram to calculate the probability of tossing two heads and one tail.
c Calculate the probability of tossing at least one head.
CHAPTER
test
yourself
6 A basketballer has a probability of 0.4 of landing a three point shot. The basketballer has two
shots at the basket.
a Draw a probability tree showing all possible results of the two shots.
b Calculate the probability that the basketballer:
i lands both shots
ii lands exactly one shot
iii lands at least one shot.
Applications
of probability
7
syllabus reference
Probability 4
Applications of probability
In this chapter
7A Expected outcomes
7B Financial expectation
7C Two-way tables
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
7.1
Single event probability
7.2
Tree diagrams
7.3
Probability trees
1 Calculate the probability of each of the following.

a Rolling a die and getting a number greater than 2.
b Winning a raffle after purchasing 10 tickets and knowing there are 500 tickets in the draw.
c Selecting an even number from the numbers 1 to 99 inclusive.
2 Two of the digits 3, 5, 6 and 7 are used to form a two-digit number such that no digit can be
repeated. Draw a tree diagram to list all possible two-digits numbers that can be formed.
3 In any given hour of television there are 12 minutes of advertisements. If Tony turns the
television on at two randomly selected times between 7.00 pm and 8.00 pm.
a use a probability tree to show all possible outcomes
b calculate the probability that on both occasions Tony turns on the television during an
advertisement.
Chapter 7 Applications of probability
219
Expected outcomes
Suppose that we toss a coin 100 times. How many times would you expect the coin to
land Heads? As each outcome is equally likely, we would expect there to be 50 Heads
and 50 Tails. How can this be shown to be true?
The number of times that we expect a certain outcome to occur is found by multiplying the probability of each outcome by the number of trials. In the above case, the
probability of the coin landing heads is --1- , and this is multiplied by the number of trials
2
(100). The result is an expectation of 50 Heads in 100 tosses of the coin.

The expected outcome is the number of times that we expect a particular outcome to
occur in a certain number of trials.
WORKED Example 1
A die is rolled 120 times. How many 6s would you expect to occur in 120 rolls
of the die?
THINK
1
2
WRITE
Calculate the probability of rolling a 6.

Multiply the probability of a 6 by the
number of trials.
P(six) = 1--6
Expected number of 6s =
1
--6
120
Expected number of 6s = 20
If the expected number of 6s is 20 in 120 rolls of a die, this does not mean that this is
what will occur. It may be that on one occasion we may get 25 sixes in 120 rolls,
another occasion we may get only 10 sixes. However, we expect that if we repeat the
experiment often enough, we would get an average of 20 sixes in 120 rolls.
Rolling a die
1 Each person is to take a die
and roll it 120 times and
record the number of 6s
rolled.
2 What is the most number of
6s rolled by anyone in
120 rolls of the die?
3 What is the least number of
6s rolled by anyone in
120 rolls of the die?
4 What is the average number
of 6s rolled by the class in
120 rolls of the die? How
does this compare with the
expected outcome of 20?
220
The expected outcome does not need to be a whole number. In many cases this will
not be so. Consider the example below.
WORKED Example 2
Roger draws a card from a standard deck, notes the suit and replaces the card in the
deck. If Roger repeats this process 50 times, how many spades can Roger expect to
have drawn?
THINK
1
WRITE
Calculate the probability of drawing a

spade.
Calculate the expected number of
spades by multiplying the probability
by the number of trials.
P(spade) =
1
--4
Expected number of spades =
1
--4
50
Expected number of spades = 12.5
Obviously, after drawing 50 cards, Roger could not have drawn 12.5 spades. The
number of spades drawn must of course be a whole number. However, if this experiment were repeated a number of times, we would expect to have drawn an average of
12.5 spades in every 50 cards.
The expected outcome method can be applied to any probability experiment. This
includes multistage events in which it may be necessary to draw a tree diagram or probability tree to calculate the probability of a particular outcome.
WORKED Example 3
A psychologist is conducting a study on the upbringing of boys. For the study, the
psychologist selects 100 couples with exactly three children. How many of these couples
would the psychologist expect to have three boys?
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a tree diagram showing the

sample space for three children.
Boy
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Girl
2
3
Calculate the probability of three boys.

Calculate the expected number by
multiplying the probability of three
boys by the number of couples in the
study.
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
P(three boys) = 1--8

Expected number of couples with three boys
=
1
--8
100
= 12.5
221
remember
1. The number of times an event can be expected to occur in a number of trials is
calculated by multiplying the probability of that event by the number of trials.
2. The number of times we expect an event to occur does not mean the event will
occur that number of times. Rather, this is the average number of times we
would expect this event to occur.
7A
WORKED
Example
1 Calculate the number of times that a coin can be expected to land Tails in 40 tosses.
2 A die is rolled 300 times. Calculate the expected number of 6s to be rolled.
3 A card is drawn from a standard deck, its suit is noted and the card is replaced in
the deck. Calculate the expected number of hearts in 100 selections.
7.1
Single
event
probability
7.2
Tree
diagrams
7.3
SkillS
HEET
Example
5 Lorna spends a night at the greyhounds. There are 10 races, and in each race there
are eight greyhounds. Lorna bets on number 5 in every race. Calculate the number
of winning greyhounds that Lorna can expect to back.
SkillS
HEET
4 A barrel contains five red marbles, four blue marbles and a green marble. A marble
is drawn from the barrel. Its colour is noted, and it is then replaced in the barrel. In
70 selections from the barrel, how many times would we expect to select:
a a red marble?
b a blue marble?
c a green marble?
WORKED
SkillS
HEET
Expected outcomes
Probability
trees
6 A card is drawn from a standard deck; the

card is then noted and replaced in the deck.
This is repeated 100 times. Calculate the
number of times (where necessary, correct
to 2 decimal places) that we could expect
to select:
a a club
b a red card
c an ace
d a court card (ace, king, queen or jack)
e the king of diamonds.
7 Kevin buys a ticket in a meat raffle every week. There are 100 tickets and four prizes.
a Calculate the probability of Kevin winning a prize in the raffle.
b How many prizes can Kevin expect to win in one year?
8 Janice buys a ticket in every lottery. In each lottery there are 180 000 tickets, a first
prize and 3384 cash prizes. One lottery is drawn every weekday for 52 weeks a year.
Calculate the number of times in 10 years that Janice can expect to win:
a first prize (as a decimal, correct to 3 significant figures)
b a cash prize (as a decimal, correct to 3 significant figures).
222
9 multiple choice
A meeting is attended by 350 men and 150 women. At the meeting 100 people will be
chosen to make a speech. What is the expected number of women to make speeches?
A 15
B 30
C 50
D 150
10 multiple choice
A tennis club runs a raffle each week with 100 tickets. Fumiko buys one ticket each
week. The expected number of raffle wins over a period of 50 weeks is:
A 0.01
B 0.5
C1
D 20
11 Four coins are tossed simultaneously in the air. If this were repeated 80 times, on how
many occasions would you expect the coins to land with four Heads?
3
12 The digits 2, 5, 6, 7 and 9 are written on cards and placed face down. Three are then
chosen and arranged to form a three-digit number. If this is repeated 150 times, what
is the expected number of:
a odd numbers?
b numbers greater than 600?
c multiples of five?
WORKED
Example
EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
Die
rolling
13 Two dice are rolled 100 times. Copy and complete the table below to calculate the
expected number of occurrences of each total in 100 rolls of the dice. Give each answer
Outcome
10
11
12
Probability
Expected no.
14 A barrel contains 15 blue marbles and 5 red marbles. Two marbles are selected from
the barrel, the first not being replaced in the barrel before the second is chosen. This
experiment is repeated 100 times. On how many occasions (correct to 2 decimal places)
would you expect the two marbles chosen to be:
a both blue?
b both the same colour?
c different colours?
d selected with at least one being blue?
Computer Application 1 Simulations

EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
Simulations
A simulation is where a computer gives results to an experiment that are similar to

those that would occur if the experiment were actually performed. For example, if a
coin is tossed 100 times, a computer can randomly choose Heads or Tails in a fraction
of a second. In each case, the probability of each outcome is 1--- and we are saved the
2
process of actually tossing the coin.
1. Access the spreadsheet Simulations from your Maths Quest General Mathematics
HSC Course CD-ROM.
223
2. The first worksheet has a coin toss simulation. In cell B3 enter the number of times
you wish to toss the coin, in cell F4 enter the expected number of heads and in cell
F5 enter the expected number of tails.
3. How do the simulation results compare with the expected outcome? Complete 10
simulations and average the results. Is this answer closer to the expected number of
outcomes that you have calculated?
4. Repeat this process for each one of the other simulations on rolling a die and rolling
two dice.
Financial expectation
We can use expected outcomes to make an assessment of financial situations where
probability is concerned. In particular, this applies to many forms of gambling. The
average financial outcome from such a situation is called the financial expectation.
Consider a simple game where two people are betting $1 on the toss of a coin. The
probability of winning the toss is
1
--2
and this will give a financial return of $1, while the
probability of losing the game is
1
--2
and this will lead to a financial loss of $1. We need
to consider a financial loss as being negative.

To calculate the financial expectation, we multiply each financial outcome by the
probability of that outcome and then add the results together. In the above example:
Financial expectation =
1
--2
= $0
$1 +
1
--2
$1
224
This financial expectation tells us that we can expect to neither gain nor lose money
in this game over a long period of time. This does not mean that this will be the outcome, but it is the average expected outcome.
WORKED Example 4
A game is played where a die is rolled. If a six is rolled, the player wins $6; if a five is
rolled, the player wins $3; and if any other number is rolled, the player loses $3. What is
the financial expectation from this game?
THINK
WRITE
Financial expectation is calculated by

multiplying the financial result of each
outcome by the probability of each
outcome and adding the results together.
1
--6
$3 +
$3 +
1
--6
$3 +
1
--6
$3 +
Financial expectation = $3 + 1--6

Financial expectation = $0.50
1
--6
1
--6
$6
In worked example 4, the financial expectation is negative. This means that over an
extended period of time we can expect to lose 50c per game.
This type of calculation can be applied to other financial situations such as the share
market.
WORKED Example 5
Over the past 10 years the price of a particular share has risen by $2 on five occasions,
by $1 on two occasions and has fallen by $3 on three occasions. What is the financial
expectation for this share price in the next year?
THINK
1
WRITE
5
------ ,
10
Calculate the (experimental) probability

of each outcome.
P($2 profit) =
Calculate the financial expectation

using the experimental probabilities.
P($3 loss) =
P($1 profit) =
2
------ ,
10
3
-----10
5
-----10
Financial expectation = +
$2 +
3
-----10
2
-----10
$1
$3
Financial expectation = $0.30

In this example, where the financial expectation is positive, we can expect to make a
profit. Again this does not mean we will make a profit but the average share price
fluctuation is a gain of 30c.
remember
1. Financial expectation is the average return in a financial situation.
2. The financial expectation is calculated by multiplying each possible financial
outcome by the probability of that financial outcome and adding the results
together.
3. A financial loss is indicated by a negative financial outcome while a financial
gain is a positive financial outcome.
7B
WORKED
Example
225
1 A game is played where a die is rolled. If a 1 or a 6 is rolled, the player wins $2; if
any other number is rolled, the player loses $1. What is the financial expectation from
this game?
2 There are five cards labelled 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. A card is selected. If it is even, you win
$5, and if it is odd, you lose $4. Calculate the financial expectation.
3 Soon-Jung plays a game in which two coins are tossed. If he throws two Heads, he
wins $5; if he throws two Tails, he loses $3. For one Head and one Tail, he loses $2.
Calculate the financial expectation from this game.
4 In a card game, the player selects a card from a standard deck. The player then wins
$5 for an ace and $2 for a king, queen or jack. If any other card is selected, $1 is lost.
Calculate the financial expectation from this game.
5 A raffle has 1000 tickets that sell for $1 each. There is a first prize of $400, a second
prize of $200 and a third prize of $100. Calculate the financial expectation from the
purchase of one ticket in the raffle.
WORKED
Example
6 Over the past 20 years shares in the company FIA have increased by $5 on eight
occasions, increased by $2 on six occasions and fallen by $3 on six occasions.
Calculate the financial expectation for a person who buys FIA shares for the coming
year.
7 Look at the roulette wheel on the right.
a How many slots are on the wheel?
b How many of these slots are:
iii black?
iii red?
iii green?
c Francis bets $10 on black. If a black number
is spun, he wins $10; otherwise, he loses
$10. Calculate Franciss financial expectation.
8 multiple choice
A game is played where a die is rolled. The cost of the game is $1. The players are
returned their $1 plus an extra $5 if they can roll a 6. The financial expectation from
this game is:
A0
B 0.17
C 0.17
D 1
9 multiple choice
Which of the following games has the greatest financial expectation?
A A coin is tossed. Players win $1 if they toss a Head; otherwise, $1 is lost.
B Two coins are tossed. Players win $2 if they toss two Heads; otherwise, $1 is lost.
C A die is rolled. The player wins $6 for rolling a 6; otherwise, $1 is lost.
D Two dice are rolled. The player wins $6 for rolling a total of six; otherwise, $1 is
lost.
226
Work
10 In a dice game, two dice are rolled.

The player wins $1 for rolling a total of 7 or 11.
The player loses $1 for rolling a total of 2, 3 or 12.
If any other total is rolled, the dice are rolled again.
What is the financial expectation from this game?
T
SHEE
7.1
11 In the Jackpot lottery there are 180 000 tickets sold at $2 each. The prizes are shown
below.
1st prize $100 000
2nd prize $10 000
3rd prize $5000
2 prizes of $1000
2 prizes of $500
5 prizes of $200
12 prizes of $100
60 prizes of $50
600 prizes of $20
2700 prizes of $10
Calculate the financial expectation from purchasing a $2 lottery ticket.
1
1 Calculate the expected number of sixes in 120 rolls of a die.
Information for questions 2 to 5.
A pack of cards is shuffled, a card is chosen and then returned to the deck. The cards are
then shuffled again. If this process is repeated 100 times, calculate (correct to 1 decimal
place) the expected number of:
2 clubs
3 red cards
4 kings
5 court cards.
6 A game is played where a die is rolled. The player wins $3 for a six, $2 for a five and
loses $1 for any other result. Calculate the financial expectation for this game.
7 A game is played where two dice are rolled. The player wins $20 for a total of 12, $10
for a total of 2 and loses $1 for any other total. Calculate the financial expectation for
this game.
8 A game is played where the financial expectation is 0.2. Explain what this means.
9 A game is played where the financial expectation is 0.2. Explain what this means.
10 Over the past 10 years the share price in a company has risen by $5 in three of the
years and has fallen by $1.50 in the other seven years. Based upon these results, if I
purchase shares in this company, what would be my financial expectation for the year
ahead?
227
Two-way tables
A two-way table is a two-dimensional grid that shows the outcome of an experiment in
terms of two variables. A two-way table is used to display information and allows for
predictions to be made based on this information.
Consider an example where 400 newborn babies are tested for a genetic condition.
The two-way table below displays these results.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
85
94
Without condition
304
306
Total
389
11
With condition
The information that is given to us by this two-way table is that:

94 babies have the condition of which 85 were diagnosed and 9 were not
306 babies did not have the condition of which 304 were shown not to have the condition by the test and 2 who were told they had the condition but they did not (these
are known as false positives).
From such a two-way table we can tell the total number of babies with and without the
condition and the total number of correct and incorrect diagnoses made.
WORKED Example 6
A new test was designed to assess the reading ability of students entering high school.
The results were used to determine if the students reading level was adequate to cope
with high school. The students results were then checked against existing records.
150 adequate readers sat for the test and 147 of them passed.
50 inadequate readers sat for the test and 9 of them passed.
Present this information in a two-way table.
THINK
WRITE
Draw up the table showing the number of

students whose reading was adequate and
the number of students for whom the
results of the new test were confirmed.
Test results
Adequate
readers
Inadequate
readers
Total
Passed
Did not
pass
Total
147
150
41
50
156
44
228
When information is presented in a two-way table, conclusions can be made about the
accuracy of such a test and calculations can be made about the probability that such a
test is accurate.
WORKED Example 7
A batch of sniffer dogs is trained by customs to smell drugs in suitcases. Before they are
used at airports they must pass a test. The results of that test are shown in the two-way
table below.
Test results
Detected
Not detected
Total
No. of bags with drugs
24
25
No. of bags without drugs
11
164
175
Total
35
165
a
b
c
d
How many bags did the sniffer dogs examine?

In how many bags did the dogs detect drugs?
In what percentage of bags without drugs did the dogs incorrectly detect drugs?
Based on the above results, what is the probability that the dogs will not detect a bag
carrying drugs?
THINK
WRITE
a Add both total columns; they should

give the same result.
a 200 bags were examined.
b The total of the detected column.
b The dogs detected drugs in 35 bags.
c There were 175 bags without drugs but

dogs incorrectly detected them in
11 bags. Write this as a percentage.
c Percentage incorrectly detected
d Use the probability formula. Of 25 bags

with drugs, 1 went undetected.
d P(bag going undetected) =
11
--------175
100%
= 6.3%
1
-----25
As a result of studying a two-way table, we should also be able to make judgements

about the information given in the tables. In the above worked example only one bag
out of 25 with drugs went undetected. Although the dogs incorrectly detected drugs in
11 bags that did not have them, they still have an overall accuracy of 94%.
Many two-way tables will require you to make your own value judgements about the
conclusions established by the test. For example, the 94% overall accuracy recorded
above may be considered very acceptable.
229
remember
1. A two-way table is used to display test results and examine the accuracy of
these results.
2. The table displays horizontally the numbers with and without a certain
condition, and vertically displays information about accuracy.
3. The table can be used to make calculations about the accuracy of the test and
about the probability of those test results being accurate in an individual case.
7C
Two-way tables
1 A test is developed to test for the flu virus. To test the accuracy, the following 500
L Spre
XCE ad
people
are
tested.
6
100 people who are known to have the flu are tested and the test returns 98 positive Two-way
frequency
results.
tables
400 people who are known not to be infected with the virus are tested with 12 false
positives being returned.
WORKED
Display this information in the two-way table below.

Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
With virus
Without virus
Total
2 One thousand people take a lie detector test. Of 800 people known to be telling the
truth, the lie detector indicates that 23 are lying. Of 200 people known to be lying, the
lie detector indicates that 156 are lying. Present this information in a two-way table.
3 The two-way table shown below displays the information gained from a medical test
screening for a virus. A positive test indicates that the patient has the virus.
7
Test results
WORKED
Example
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
45
48
Without virus
922
30
952
Total
967
33
With virus
a How many patients were screened for the virus?

b How many positive tests were recorded? (that is, in how many tests was the virus
detected?)
c What percentage of test results were accurate?
d Based on the medical results, if a positive test is recorded, what is the probability
that you actually have the virus?
sheet
Example
230
4 The two-way table below indicates the results of a radar surveillance system. If the
system detects an intruder, an alarm is activated.
Test results
Alarm activated
Intruders
No intruders
Total
Not activated
Total
40
48
148
152
44
156
a Over how many nights was the system tested?

b On how many occasions was the alarm activated?
c If the alarm was activated, what is the probability that there actually was an
intruder?
d If the alarm was not activated, what is the probability that there actually was an
intruder?
e What was the percentage of accurate results over the test period?
f Comment on the overall performance of the radar detection system.
The information below is to be used in questions 5 to 7.
A test for a medical disease does not always produce the correct result. A positive test
indicates that the patient has the condition. The table indicates the results of a trial on a
number of patients who were known to either have the disease or known not to have the
disease.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
57
60
Without disease
486
54
540
Total
543
57
With disease
5 multiple choice
The overall accuracy of the test is:
A 90%
B 90.5%
C 92.5%
D 95%
6 multiple choice
Based on the table, what is the probability that a patient who has the disease has it
detected by the test?
A 90%
B 90.5%
C 92.5%
D 95%
231
7 multiple choice
A The test has a greater accuracy with positive tests than with negative tests.
B The test has a greater accuracy with negative tests than with positive tests.
C The test is equally accurate with positive and negative test results.
D There is insufficient information to compare positive and negative test results.
8 Airport scanning equipment is tested by scanning 200 pieces of luggage.
Prohibited items were placed in 50 bags and the scanning equipment detected 48 of
them.
The equipment detected prohibited items in five bags that did not have any forbidden
items in them.
a Use the above information to complete the two-way table below.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
Bags with prohibited

items
Bags with no
prohibited items
b Use the table to answer the following:

i What percentage of bags with prohibited items were detected?
ii What was the percentage of false positives among the bags that had no
prohibited items?
iii What is the probability of prohibited items passing through the scanning equipment undetected?
iv What is the overall percentage accuracy of the scanning equipment?
Work
Total
T
SHEE
7.2
232
summary
Expected outcomes
The expected number of times that an event will occur in a number of trials is
calculated by multiplying the number of trials by the probability of that event
occurring.
The expected number of outcomes is the average number of times that the event is
expected to occur. It does not mean this is the number of times the event will occur.
Financial expectation is the average financial position at the end of a situation
where either a profit or loss will be made.
The financial expectation is calculated by multiplying each possible financial
outcome by the probability of that outcome and then adding the results together.
Two-way tables
A two-way table is used to display the results of a test and assesses the accuracy of
such a test.
The table can be used to calculate the overall probability of the test achieving its
objectives.
233
CHAPTER
review
1 Thirty-six coins are tossed in the air. Calculate the expected number of coins landing Heads.
2 A die is rolled 60 times. Calculate the expected number of:
a 6s
b even numbers
c numbers less than 3.
7A
7A
3 A card is chosen from a standard deck, noted and replaced in the deck. In 100 trials,
calculate (where necessary, correct to 2 decimal places) the expected number of:
a red cards
b spades
c aces
d court cards
e black jacks.
7A
4 Two dice are rolled. The score in each roll is the total of the two dice. In 90 rolls of the dice,
calculate the expected number of:
a twos
b sevens
c tens
d doubles
e totals greater than 8.
7A
5 In a game, three coins are tossed in the air. In 100 tosses of the coins, on how many
occasions would you expect the coins to land:
a three Heads?
b two Tails and one Head?
c more Heads than Tails?
7A
6 Two-digit numbers are formed using the digits 2, 4, 7 and 8, and no digit may be repeated.
If 60 such numbers are formed, how many numbers can be expected to be:
a 47?
b even?
c less than 40?
7A
7 Alex bets $10 on the toss of a coin. He calls Heads. If the coin lands Heads, Alex wins $10;
if it lands Tails, he loses $10. What is his financial expectation?
7B
8 A bag contains 10 marbles, each with an amount of money written on it. Five marbles have
$1 written on them, two have $2 written on them and the others have $5, $10 and $20
written on them. A player pays $5 to draw a marble from the bag and is then returned the
amount of money on the marble that is drawn. Calculate the financial expectation from this
game.
7B
9 Explain the difference between a positive and negative financial expectation.
7B
7B
10 A roulette wheel is spun (see photograph page 210). Carly bets $1 on number 25. If 25 is the
number spun, Carly will win $35 and have her $1 returned; if not, she will lose $1. Calculate
the financial expectation from this game.
11 Jason plays a game where he rolls two dice. If he rolls a total greater than 9, he wins $5;
otherwise, he loses $1. Calculate the financial expectation from this game.
7B
12 A bag contains 20 marbles of which 10 are black, 9 are white and 1 is red. Kerry draws a
marble from the bag at random. If a black marble represents a $5 loss, a white marble a $4
gain and a red marble a $20 gain, calculate the financial expectation from this game.
7B
13 Over the past 15 years the share price of PHB has risen by $4 in 12 of the years, fallen by
$5 in two years and fallen by $10 in the others. If I buy shares in PHB, what would my
financial expectation be for the coming year?
7B
234
7C
14 A medical test screens 200 people for a virus. A positive test result indicates that the patient
has the virus.
Of 50 people known to have the virus, the test produced 48 positive results.
Of the remainder who were known not to have the virus, the test produced one positive result.
Use the above information to complete the table below.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
With virus
Without virus
Total
7C
15 The results of a lie detector test are given below.

Of 80 people known to be telling the truth, the lie detector indicates that three are lying.
Of 20 people known to be lying, the lie detector indicates that 17 are lying.
Display this information in a two-way table.
235
16 Below are the results of a test screening for a disease. A positive test indicates that the
patient has the disease.
7C
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
18
20
Without disease
108
12
120
Total
126
14
With disease
a How many people were tested for the disease?

b How many positive test results were recorded?
c What percentage of those people with the disease were correctly diagnosed by
the test?
d If a person without the disease is chosen at random, what is the probability that
they returned a positive test?
17 A reading test for people with dyslexia is given and the results are shown in the two-way
table below.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
With dyslexia
39
40
Without dyslexia
85
90
124
Total
a How many people were tested?

b What percentage of people tested positive to dyslexia?
c Based on the above results, if a person with dyslexia takes the test, what is the probability
that they will be accurately diagnosed?

1 multiple choice
A bag contains 3 red marbles, 13 blue marbles and 4 yellow marbles. A marble is chosen
from the bag and then replaced in the bag. In 90 selections, the expected number of blue
marbles selected is:
A 13
B 20
C 58.5
D 59
2 multiple choice
A game is played where the player tosses four coins in the air. If all four coins have the same
face up, the player wins $6. Otherwise the player loses $1. The financial expectation from this
game is:
A $1.00
B $0.125
C $0.125
D $6.00
7C
236
3 multiple choice
The two-way table below shows the results of a trial on new metal detectors for aircraft. The
metal detector scans a piece of hand luggage and lights up if metal is found.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
10
Without metal
87
90
Total
96
With metal
Based on the above results, the probability of metal going undetected in a piece of hand
luggage is:
A 10%
B 25%
C 75%
D 90%
4 A game is played where two dice are rolled.
a Calculate the probability of rolling a total of 7.
b How many times would you expect to roll a total of 7 in 90 rolls of two dice?
c Calculate the probability of rolling a total of 11.
d Xiao plays a game where he wins $3 for rolling a total of 7 and $7 for rolling a total of 11.
Otherwise he loses $1. Calculate the financial expectation for this game.
5 A medical test for a disease does not always give the correct result. A positive test indicates
that the patient has the disease. The two-way table below shows the results of a new screening
test for the disease. It was tested on a group of people, some of whom were known to be
suffering from the disease, some of whom were not.
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
28
30
Without disease
164
170
Total
192
With disease
CHAPTER
test
yourself
a
b
c
d
e
How many people were tested for the disease?

What percentage of the results were accurate?
How many patients tested positive to the disease?
What percentage of patients with the disease were correctly diagnosed by the new test?
Based on the above results, what is the probability that a patient with the disease will have
the disease detected by this test?
Annuities
and loan
repayments
8
syllabus reference
Annuities and loan
repayments
In this chapter
8A Future value of an annuity
8B Present value of an
annuity
8C Future and present value
tables
8D Loan repayments
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
8.1
Finding values of n and r in financial formulas
8.2
Calculating simple interest
1 Find the value of n and r in for each of the following investments.

a Interest of 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest calculated annually
b Interest of 6% p.a. for 4 years, with interest calculated six-monthly
c Interest of 7.6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest calculated quarterly
d Interest of 9.6% p.a. for 10 years, with interest calculated monthly
e Interest of 24% p.a. for November, with interest calculated daily
2 Find the simple interest on each of the following investments.

a $25 000 invested at 5% p.a. for 4 years
b $15 500 invested at 8.2% p.a. for 6 years
c $42 000 invested at 9.4% p.a. for 18 months
8.3
3 Find the compound interest earned on each of the following investments.

a $12 000 invested at 6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually
b $35 000 invested at 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
c $56 000 invested at 7.2% p.a. for 4 years, with interest compounded quarterly
8.4
Reading financial tables
4 The table below shows the amount to which $1 will grow under compound interest.
Interest rate per period
Periods
6%
7%
8%
9%
1.060
1.070
1.080
1.090
1.123
1.145
1.166
1.188
1.191
1.225
1.260
1.295
1.262
1.311
1.360
1.412
Use the table to find the future value of each of the following investments.
a $8000 at 6% for 2 years, with interest compounded annually
b $12 500 at 8% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually
c $18 000 at 12% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
Chapter 8 Annuities and loan repayments
239
Future value of an annuity

An annuity is a form of investment involving regular periodic contributions to an
account. On such an investment, interest compounds at the end of each period and the
next contribution to the account is then made.
Superannuation is a common example of an annuity. Here, people invest in a fund on
a regular basis, the interest on the investment compounds, while the principal is added
to for each period. The annuity is usually set aside for a persons entire working life
and is used to fund retirement. It may also be used to fund a long-term goal, such as a
trip in 10 years time.
To understand the growth of an annuity, we need to revise compound interest. The
compound interest formula is:
A = P(1 + r)n
where A is the final balance, P is the initial quantity, r is the interest rate per
compounding period and n is the number of compounding periods.
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the value of a $5000 investment made at 8% p.a. for 4 years.

THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Write the values of P, r and n.

Write the formula.
Substitute values for P, r and n.
Calculate the value of A.
P = $5000, r = 0.08, n = 4
A = P(1 + r)n
A = $5000 (1.08)4
A = $6802.44
An annuity takes the form of a sum of compound interest investments. Consider the
case of a person who invests $1000 at 10% p.a. at the end of each year for five years.
To calculate this, we would need to calculate the value of the first $1000 that is
invested for four years, the second $1000 that is
invested for three years, the third $1000 that is
invested for two years, the
fourth $1000 that is invested for
one year and the last $1000 that
is added to the investment.
240
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the value of an annuity in which $1000 is invested at the end of each year at
10% p.a. for 5 years.
THINK
1 Use the compound interest formula to
calculate the amount to which the first
$1000 will grow.
calculate the amount to which the
second $1000 will grow.
calculate the amount to which the third
$1000 will grow.
Use
the compound interest formula to
4
calculate the amount to which the
fourth $1000 will grow.
5 Find the total of the separate $1000
investments, remembering to add the
final $1000.
WRITE
A = P(1 + r)n
A = $1000 1.14
A = $1464.10
A = P(1 + r)n
A = $1000 1.13
A = $1331.00
A = P(1 + r)n
A = $1000 1.12
A = $1210.00
A = P(1 + r)n
A = $1000 1.1
A = $1100.00
Total value = $1464.10 + $1331.00 + $1210.00
Total value = + $1100.00 + $1000
Total value = $6105.10
In most cases it is more practical to calculate the total value of an annuity using a formula. The amount to which an annuity grows is called the future value of an annuity
and can be calculated using the formula:
( 1 + r )n 1
A = M ---------------------------r
where M is the contribution per period paid at the end of the period, r is the interest rate
per period expressed as a decimal, and n is the number of deposits.
( 1 + r )n 1
For the above example: A = M ---------------------------r
1.1 5 1
= $1000 -----------------0.1
= $6105.10
WORKED Example 3
Bernie invests $2000 in a retirement fund at 5% p.a. interest compounded annually at the
end of each year for 20 years. Calculate the future value of this annuity at retirement.
THINK
1 Write the values of M, r, and n.
WRITE
M = $2000, r = 0.05, n = 20
Write the formula.
( 1 + r )n 1
A = M ---------------------------r
Substitute values for M, r and n.
1.05 20 1
A = $2000 -----------------------0.05
Calculate.
A = $66 131.91
241
In some examples, calculations will need to be made when contributions are made
more often than once a year and when interest compounds more often than once a year.
WORKED Example 4
Christina invests $500 in a fund every 6 months at 9% p.a. interest, compounding
six-monthly for 10 years. Calculate the future value of the annuity after 10 years.
THINK
WRITE
9% p.a. = 4.5% for 6 months
So, r = 0.045 and n = 20.
Write the values of M, r and n by

considering the interest rate as 4.5% per
interest period and 20 interest periods.
Write the formula.
( 1 + r )n 1
A = M ---------------------------r
Substitute for M, r and n.
1.045 20 1
A = $500 --------------------------0.045
Calculate.
A = $15 685.71
If we rearrange the formula for an annuity to make M (the contribution per period) the
subject of the formula, we have:
Ar
M = --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
This formula would be used when we know the final amount to be saved and wish to
calculate the amount of each regular deposit.
WORKED Example 5
Vikki has the goal of saving $10 000 in the next five years. The best interest rate that she
can obtain is 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Calculate the amount of each
annual contribution that Vikki must make.
THINK
WRITE
Write the values of A, r and n.
A = $10 000, r = 0.08, n = 5
Write the formula.
Ar
M = --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
Substitute for A, r and n. Hint: insert

brackets when using your calculator.
( 10 000 0.08 )
M = -------------------------------------( 1.08 5 1 )
Calculate the value of M.
M = $1704.56
242
remember
1. The compound interest formula is:
A = P(1 + r)n
where A is the final balance, r is the interest rate per period expressed as a
decimal and n is the number of compounding periods.
2. An annuity is a form of investment where periodical equal contributions are
made to an account, with interest compounding at the end of each period.
3. The value of an annuity is calculated by adding the value of each amount
contributed as a separate compound interest investment.
4. We can calculate the value of an annuity by using the formula:
( 1 + r )n 1
A = M ---------------------------r
where M is the contribution per period, paid at the end of the period, r is the
interest rate per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of deposits.
5. The amount of each contribution to annuity to reach a certain goal can be
Ar
M = --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
SkillS
8A
HEET
8.1
WORKED
Example
SkillS
Finding
values of
n and r in
financial
formulas
HEET
8.2
Calculating
simple
interest WORKED
SkillS
Example
HEET
8.3
Calculating
compound
interest
1 Calculate the value after 5 years of an investment of $4000 at 12% p.a., with interest
compounded annually.
2 Calculate the value to which each of the following compound interest investments
will grow.
a $5000 at 6% p.a. for 5 years, with interest calculated annually
b $12 000 at 12% p.a. for 3 years, with interest calculated annually
c $4500 at 8% p.a. for 4 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
d $3000 at 9.6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
e $15 000 at 8.4% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded quarterly
f $2950 at 6% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded monthly
3 At the end of each year for four years Rodney invests $1000 in an investment fund
that pays 7.5% p.a. interest, compounded annually. By calculating each investment of
$1000 separately, use the compound interest formula to calculate the future value of
Rodneys investment after four years.
4 Caitlin is saving for a holiday in two years and so every six months she invests $2000
in an account that pays 7% p.a. interest, with the interest compounding every six months.
a Use the compound interest formula to calculate the amount to which the:
i first investment of $2000 will grow
ii second investment of $2000 will grow
iii third investment of $2000 will grow
iv fourth investment of $2000 will grow.
b If Caitlin then adds a final deposit of $2000 to her account immediately before her
holiday, what is the total value of her annuity?
WORKED
Example
( 1 + r )n 1
5 Use the formula A = M ---------------------------r
243
to find the future value of an annuity in
which $1000 is invested each year for 25 years at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
6 When baby Shannon was born, her grandparents deposited $500 in an account that
pays 6% p.a. interest, compounded annually. They added $500 to the account each
birthday, making the last deposit on Shannons 21st birthday.
a How many deposits of $500 were made?
b The investment was given to Shannon as a 21st birthday present. What was the
total value of the investment at this point? (Hint: Use the answer to part a.)
c Shannons grandparents advised Shannon to keep adding $500 to the investment
each birthday so that she had a retirement fund at age 60. If Shannon follows this
advice, what will the investment be worth at age 60? (Assume Shannon makes the
last deposit on her 60th birthday.)
7 Calculate the future value of each of the following annuities.
a $2000 invested at the end of each year for 10 years, at an interest rate of 5% p.a.
b $5000 invested at the end of each year for 5 years, at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
c $10 000 invested at the end of each year for 20 years, at an interest rate of
7.5% p.a.
d $500 invested at the end of each year for 30 years, at an interest rate of 15% p.a.
e $25 000 invested at the end of each year for 4 years, at an interest rate of 9.2% p.a.
8 Darlene is saving for a deposit on a unit. She hopes to buy one in four years and needs
a $30 000 deposit, so she invests $5000 per year in an annuity at 7.5% p.a. starting on
1 January 2007.
a After the last deposit is made on 1 January 2011, how many deposits has Darlene
made?
b Use the annuity formula to calculate if Darlene would have saved enough for her
deposit.
c How much interest was paid to Darlene on this annuity?
WORKED
Example
9 At the end of every six months Jason invests $800 in a retirement fund which pays
interest at 6% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly. Jason does this for
25 years. Calculate the future value of Jasons annuity after 25 years.
10 Calculate the future value of each of the following annuities on maturity.
a $400 invested at the end of every six months for 12 years at 12% p.a., with interest
compounded six-monthly
b $1000 invested at the end of every quarter for 5 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded every quarter
c $2500 invested at the end of each quarter at 7.2% p.a., for 4 years with interest
compounded quarterly
d $1000 invested at the end of every month for 5 years at 6% p.a., with interest compounded monthly
11 multiple choice
The interest earned on $10 000 invested at 8% p.a. for 10 years, with interest compounded annually, is:
A $11 589.25
B $21 589.25
C $134 865.62
D $144 865.62
244
12 multiple choice
Tracey invests $500 in a fund at the end of each year for 20 years. The fund pays
12% p.a. interest, compounded annually. The total amount of interest that Tracey
earns on this fund investment is:
A $4323.15
B $4823.23
C $26 026.22
D $36 026.22
13 Thomas has the goal of saving $400 000 for his retirement in 25 years. If the best
interest rate that Thomas can obtain is 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually,
5
calculate the amount of each annual contribution that Thomas will need to make.
WORKED
Example
14 Calculate the amount of each annual contribution needed to obtain each of the
following amounts.
a $25 000 in 5 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $100 000 in 10 years at 7.5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $500 000 in 40 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
15 Leanne is 24 years old and invests $30 per week in her superannuation fund. Leannes
employer matches this amount.
a If Leanne plans to retire at 60, calculate the total that Leanne will contribute to the
fund at this rate.
b Calculate the total contributions that will be made to the fund at this rate.
c If the fund returns an average 4% p.a. interest, compounded annually, calculate the
future value of Leannes superannuation.
Computer Application 1 Annuity calculator

EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
Annuity
calculator
Access the spreadsheet Annuity calculator from the Maths Quest General
Mathematics HSC Course CD-ROM. The spreadsheet will show you the growth of an
annuity in which $1000 is invested at the end of each year for 20 years at a rate of
8% p.a. interest, compounding annually.
245
1. The spreadsheet shows that after 20 years the value of this investment is $45 761.96.
Below is the growth of the annuity after each deposit is made. This will allow you to
see the growth for up to 30 deposits. From the Edit menu, use the Fill Down functions on the spreadsheet to see further.
2. Click on the tab, Chart1. This is a line graph that shows the growth of the annuity
for up to 30 deposits.
3. Change the size of the deposit to $500 and the compounding periods to 2. This will
show how much benefit can be achieved by reducing the compounding period.
4. Check your answers to the previous exercise by using the spreadsheet.
1
1 Find the future value of $5000 invested at 10% p.a. for 6 years, with interest compounded annually.
2 Find the total amount of interest earned on an investment of $3200 invested for
4 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded every six months.
3 Find the future value of an annuity of $1600 invested every year for 5 years at
12% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
4 Find the future value of an annuity of $2000 invested every year for 30 years at
7.2% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
5 Find the future value of an annuity in which $400 is invested every three months for
12 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly.
6 Find the future value of an annuity in which $350 is invested each month for 10 years
at 9.2% p.a. interest, compounding every six months.
7 Find the interest earned on an annuity of $750 invested per year for 10 years at
8.5% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
8 Find the amount of each annual contribution needed to achieve a future value of
$100 000 if the investment is made for 10 years at an interest rate of 11% p.a., with
interest compounding annually.
9 Find the amount of each quarterly contribution needed to save $15 000 in five years at
12% p.a., with interest compounding quarterly.
10 Find the amount of each six-monthly contribution to an annuity if the savings goal is
$50 000 in 15 years and the interest rate is 8% p.a., with interest compounding sixmonthly.
246
Present value of an annuity

To compare an annuity with a single sum investment, we need to use the present
value of the annuity. The present value of an annuity is the single sum of money
that, invested on the same terms as the annuity, will produce the same financial result.
To calculate the present value of an annuity, N, we can use the formula:
A
N = ------------------n(1 + r )
where A is the future value of the annuity
r is the percentage interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a decimal
n is the number of deposits to be made in the annuity
WORKED Example 6
Ashan has an annuity that has a future value of $500 000 on his retirement in 23 years.
The annuity is invested at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Calculate the
present value of Ashans annuity.
THINK
WRITE
Write the values of A, r and n.
A = $500 000, r = 1.08, n = 23
Write the formula.
A
N = ------------------n(1 + r )
Substitute for A, r and n.
Calculate.
500 000
N = -----------------1.08 23
N = $85 157.64
In many cases you will not know the future value of the annuity when calculating the
present value. You will know only the amount of each contribution, M. We know that:
A
N = ------------------n(1 + r )
( 1 + r )n 1
Using the formula A = M ---------------------------r
to substitute for A gives:
( 1 + r )n 1
N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
This formula allows us to calculate the single sum needed to be invested to give the
same financial result as an annuity where we are given the size of each contribution.
247
WORKED Example 7
Jenny has an annuity to which she contributes $1000 per year at 6% p.a. interest,
compounded annually. The annuity will mature in 25 years. Calculate the present value of
the annuity.
THINK
WRITE
Write the values of M, r and n.
M = $1000, r = 0.06, n = 25
Write the formula.
( 1 + r )n 1
N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
N = 1000
Calculate.
N = $12 783.36
1.06 25 1
------------------------------0.06 1.06 25
This present value formula can be used to compare investments of different types. The
investment with the greater present value will produce the greater financial outcome
over time.
WORKED Example 8
Which of the following investments would give the greater financial return?
Investment A: an annuity of $100 deposited per month for 20 years at 12% p.a. interest,
compounding six-monthly
Investment B: a single deposit of $10 000 invested for 20 years at 12% p.a., with interest
compounding six-monthly
THINK
WRITE
The investments can be compared by

calculating the present value of the
annuity.
Consider the deposits of $100 per
month to be $600 every six months.
Write the values of M, r and n.
Write the formula.
( 1 + r )n 1
N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
N = $600
Calculate.
Make a conclusion.
N = $9027.78
The annuity has a lower present value than the
single investment. Therefore, the investment of
$10 000 will produce a greater outcome over
20 years.
M = $600, r = 0.06, n = 40
1.06 40 1
------------------------------0.06 1.06 40
248
remember
1. The present value of an annuity is the single sum that can be invested under the
same terms as an annuity and will produce the same financial outcome.
2. The present value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula:
A
N = ------------------n(1 + r )
when we know the future value of the annuity.
3. If we know the amount of each contribution of the annuity, we can calculate the
present value using the formula
( 1 + r )n 1
N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
where M is the contribution per period, paid at the end of the period
r is the percentage interest rate per compounding period (expressed as a
decimal)
n is the number of interest periods
4. Investments can be compared using the present value formula. The investment
with the greater present value will produce the greater financial outcome over
time.
8B
WORKED
Example
1 Calculate the present value of an investment that is needed to have a future value of
$100 000 in 30 years time if it is invested at 9% p.a., with interest compounded
annually.
2 Calculate the present value of an investment required to generate a future value of:
a $20 000 in 5 years time at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $5000 in 4 years time at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $250 000 in 20 years time at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
3 Calculate the present value of an investment at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded
quarterly, if it is to have a future value of $100 000 in 10 years time.
4 Calculate the present value of the investment required to produce a future value of
$500 000 in 30 years time at 9% p.a., with interest compounded:
a annually
b six-monthly
c quarterly
d monthly
WORKED
Example
5 Craig is paying into an annuity an amount of $500 per year. The annuity is to run for
10 years and interest is paid at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Calculate
the present value of this annuity.
6 Calculate the present values of each of the following annuities.
a $1000 per year for 30 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $600 per year for 20 years at 7.5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $4000 per year for 5 years at 11% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $200 per month for 25 years at 8.4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
249
7 Darren pays $250 per month into an annuity that pays 5.6% p.a. interest, compounded
quarterly. If the annuity is to run for 10 years, calculate the present value of the annuity.
8 Calculate the present value of a 40-year annuity with interest at 9.6% p.a.,
compounded monthly, if the monthly contribution to the annuity is $50.
9 multiple choice
An annuity is at 12% p.a. for 10 years, with interest compounded six-monthly, and
has a future value of $100 000. The present value of the annuity is:
A $31 180.47
B $32 197.32
C $310 584.82
D $320 713.55
10 multiple choice
An annuity consists of quarterly deposits of $200 that are invested at 8% p.a., with
interest compounded quarterly. The annuity will mature in 23 years. The present value
of the annuity is:
A $1236.65
B $2074.21
C $8296.85
D $8382.72
11 Which of the following investments will have the greater financial outcome?
Investment A: an annuity of $400 per year for 30 years at 6.9% p.a., with interest
8
compounded annually
Investment B: a single investment of $5000 for 30 years at 6.9% p.a., with interest
compounded annually
WORKED
Example
12 multiple choice
Which of the following investments will have the greatest financial outcome?
A An annuity of $1200 per year for 30 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
B An annuity of $600 every six months for 30 years at 7.9% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
C An annuity of $300 every quarter for 30 years at 7.8% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
D An annuity of $100 per month at 7.5% p.a., for 30 years with interest compounded
monthly.
Work
13 Kylie wants to take a world trip in 5 years time. She estimates that she will need
$25 000 for the trip. The best investment that Kylie can find pays 9.2% p.a. interest,
compounded quarterly.
a Calculate the present value of the investment needed to achieve this goal.
b Kylie plans to save for the trip by depositing $100 per week into an annuity.
Calculate if this will be enough for Kylie to achieve her savings goal (take
13 weeks = 1 quarter).
T
SHEE
8.1
250
Future and present value tables

Problems associated with annuities can be simplified by creating a table that will show
either the future value or present value of an annuity of $1 invested per interest period.
Computer Application 2 Future value of $1

Consider $1 is invested into an annuity each interest period. The table we are going to
construct on a spreadsheet shows the future value of that $1.
1. Open a new spreadsheet.
2. Type in the following information as shown in step 3.
3. In cell B4 enter the formula =((1+B$3)^$A4-1)/B$3. (This is the future value formula
from exercise 2A with the value of M omitted, as it is equal to 1.) Format the cell,
correct to 4 decimal places.
4. Highlight the range of cells B3 to M13. From the Edit menu, use Fill Down and Fill
Right functions to copy the formula to all other cells in this range.
This completes the table. The table shows the future value of an annuity of $1 invested
for up to 10 interest periods at up to 10% per interest period. You can extend the
spreadsheet further for other interest rates and longer investment periods.
The following table is the set of future values of $1 invested into an annuity. This is
the table you should have obtained in computer application 2.
A table such as this can be used to find the value of an annuity by multiplying the
amount of the annuity by the future value of $1.
251
Future values of $1
Interest rate (per period)
Period
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2.0100 2.0200 2.0300 2.0400 2.0500 2.0600 2.0700 2.0800 2.0900 2.1000 2.1100 2.1200
3.0301 3.0604 3.0909 3.1216 3.1525 3.1836 3.2149 3.2464 3.2781 3.3100 3.3421 3.3744
4.0604 4.1216 4.1836 4.2465 4.3101 4.3746 4.4399 4.5061 4.5731 4.6410 4.7097 4.7793
5.1010 5.2040 5.3091 5.4163 5.5256 5.6371 5.7507 5.8666 5.9847 6.1051 6.2278 6.3528
6.1520 6.3081 6.4684 6.6330 6.8019 6.9753 7.1533 7.3359 7.5233 7.7156 7.9129 8.1152
7.2135 7.4343 7.6625 7.8983 8.1420 8.3938 8.6540 8.9228 9.2004 9.4872 9.7833 10.0890
8.2857 8.5380 8.8923 9.2142 9.5491 9.8975 10.2598 10.6366 11.0285 11.4359 11.8594 12.2997
9.3685 9.7546 10.1591 10.5828 11.0266 11.4913 11.9780 12.4876 13.0210 13.5795 14.1640 14.7757
10
10.4622 10.9497 11.4639 12.0061 12.5779 13.1808 13.8164 14.4866 15.1929 15.9374 16.7220 17.5487
WORKED Example 9
Use the table to find the future value of an annuity into which $1500 is deposited at the
end of each year at 7% p.a. interest, compounded annually for 9 years.
THINK
1
2
WRITE
Look up the future value of $1 at

7% p.a. for 9 years.
Multiply this value by 1500.
Future value = $1500
11.9780
Future value = $17 967
Just as we have a table for the future value of an annuity, we can create a table for the
present value of an annuity.
Computer Application 3 Present value table

The table we are about to make on a spreadsheet shows the present value of an annuity
of $1 invested per interest period.
1. Open a new spreadsheet.
2. Enter the following information.
3. In cell B4 type the formula =((1+B$3)^$A4-1)/(B$3*(1+B$3)^$A4).
4. Drag from cell B4 to K13, and then from the Edit menu use the Fill Down and Fill Right
functions to copy this formula to the remaining cells in your table.
252
The table created in computer application 3 shows the present value of an annuity of
$1 per interest period for up to 10% per interest period and for up to 10 interest periods.
The table that you have generated is shown below.
Present values of $1
Interest rate (per period)
Period
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
0.9901 0.9804 0.9709 0.9615 0.9524 0.9434 0.9346 0.9259 0.9174 0.9091 0.9009 0.8929
1.9704 1.9416 1.9135 1.8861 1.8594 1.8334 1.8080 1.7833 1.7591 1.7355 1.7125 1.6901
2.9410 2.8839 2.8286 2.7751 2.7232 2.6730 2.6243 2.5771 2.5313 2.4869 2.4437 2.4018
3.9020 3.8077 3.7171 3.6299 3.5460 3.4651 3.3872 3.3121 3.2397 3.1699 3.1024 3.0373
4.8534 4.7135 4.5797 4.4518 4.3295 4.2124 4.1002 3.9927 3.8897 3.7908 3.6959 3.6048
5.7955 5.6014 5.4172 5.2421 5.0757 4.9173 4.7665 4.6229 4.4859 4.3553 4.2305 4.1114
6.7282 6.4720 6.2303 6.0021 5.7864 5.5824 5.3893 5.2064 5.0330 4.8684 4.7122 4.5638
7.6517 7.3255 7.0197 6.7327 6.4632 6.2098 5.9713 5.7466 5.5348 5.3349 5.1461 4.9676
8.5660 8.1622 7.7861 7.4353 7.1078 6.8017 6.5152 6.2469 5.9952 5.7590 5.5370 5.3282
10
9.4713 8.9826 8.5302 8.1109 7.7217 7.3601 7.0236 6.7101 6.4177 6.1446 5.8892 5.6502
This table can be used in the same way as the future values table.
253
WORKED Example 10
Liam invests $750 per year in an annuity at 6% per annum for 8 years, with interest
compounded annually. Use the table to calculate the present value of Liams annuity.
THINK
1 Use the table to find the present value of a
$1 annuity at 6% for 8 interest periods.
Multiply
this value by 750.
2
WRITE
Present value = $750 6.2098

Present value = $4657.35
remember
1. A table of future values shows the future value of an annuity in which $1 is
invested per interest period.
2. A table of present values shows the present value of an annuity in which $1 is
invested per interest period.
3. A table of present or future values can be used to compare investments and
determine which will give the greater financial return.
8C
Future and present value

tables
1 Use the table of future values on page 251 to determine the future value of an annuity 8.4
of $800 invested per year for 5 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded annually.
9
2 Use the table of future values to determine the future value of each of the following Reading
financial
annuities.
tables
a $400 invested per year for 3 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $2250 invested per year for 8 years at 8% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $625 invested per year for 10 years at 4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $7500 invested per year for 7 years at 6% p.a., with interest compounded annually
3 Samantha invests $500 every 6 months for 5 years in an annuity at 8% p.a., with
interest compounded every 6 months.
a What is the interest rate per interest period?
b How many interest periods are there in Samanthas annuity?
c Use the table to calculate the future value of Samanthas annuity.
4 Use the table to calculate the future value of each of the following annuities.
a $400 invested every 6 months for 4 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded sixmonthly
b $600 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded
quarterly
c $100 invested every month for 5 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded sixmonthly
5 Use the table of future values to determine whether an annuity at 5% p.a. for 6 years or
an annuity at 6% p.a. for 5 years will produce the greatest financial outcome. Explain
your answer.
WORKED
Example
SkillS
HEET
254
6 multiple choice
Use the table of future values to determine which of the following annuities will have
the greatest financial outcome.
A 6% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded annually
B 8% p.a. for 6 years, with interest compounded annually
C 7% p.a. for 7 years, with interest compounded annually
D 10% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
WORKED
Example
10
7 Use the table of present values on page 252 to determine the present value of an
annuity of $1250 per year for 8 years invested at 9% p.a.
8 Use the table of present values to determine the present value of each of the following
annuities.
a $450 per year for 5 years at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $2000 per year for 10 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $850 per year for 6 years at 4% p.a., with interest compounded annually
d $3000 per year for 8 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded annually
2
1 Calculate the amount of interest earned on $10 000 invested for 10 years at 10% p.a.,
with interest compounding annually.
2 Calculate the future value of an annuity of $1000 invested every year for 10 years at
10% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
3 Calculate the future value of an annuity where $200 is invested each month for
5 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounding quarterly.
4 Calculate the amount of each annual contribution to an annuity that will have a future
value of $15 000 if the investment is for 8 years at 7.5% p.a., with interest
compounding annually.
5 Calculate the amount of each annual contribution to an annuity that will have a future
value of $500 000 in 25 years when invested at 10% p.a., with interest compounding
annually.
6 Calculate the present value of an annuity that will have a future value of $50 000 in
10 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
7 Calculate the present value of an annuity that will have a future value of $1 000 000 in
40 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
8 Calculate the present value of an annuity where annual contributions of $1000 are
made at 10% p.a., with interest compounding annually for 20 years.
9 Use the table on page 251 to find the future value of $1 invested at 16% p.a. for
4 years, with interest compounding twice annually.
10 Use the answer to question 9 to calculate the future value of an annuity of $1250
every six months for 4 years, with interest of 16% p.a., compounding twice annually.
255
Loan repayments
When a loan is taken out and is repaid in equal monthly instalments, the pattern of
repayments works similar to an annuity. Each month interest compounds on the balance
owing on the loan and then a repayment is made.
Consider a loan where the amount borrowed is equal to the present value of the
annuity, N, and the amount paid on the loan each month is equal to the contribution to
( 1 + r )n 1
- .
the annuity per period, M. Use the formula for present value, N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
To calculate the amount of each monthly repayment, we need to make M the subject of
this formula. When we do this the formula becomes:
r ( 1 + r )n
M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
In this formula, M is the amount of each repayment, N is the amount borrowed, r is the
interest rate per repayment period as a decimal and n is the number of repayments to be
made.
This formula is not given to you on the formula sheet but will be given to you if it is
needed to solve a problem in the exam.
WORKED Example 11
r( 1 + r )n
Use the formula M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
to calculate the monthly repayments on a loan of
$5000 to be repaid in monthly instalments over 4 years at an interest rate of 12% p.a.
THINK
WRITE
Calculate the values of r and n.
r = 0.01 and n = 48
Write the formula.
r ( 1 + r )n
M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
Substitute for N, r and n.
M = 5000
Calculate.
M = $131.67
0.01 1.01 48
------------------------------1.01 48 1
Having worked out the amount of each monthly repayment, we are also able to
calculate the total cost of repaying a loan by multiplying the amount of each repayment
by the number of repayments.
256
WORKED Example 12
Calculate the total cost of repaying a $100 000 home loan at 9% p.a. in equal monthly
repayments over a 25-year term.
THINK
WRITE
Calculate the values of r and n.
r = 0.0075, n = 300
Write the formula.
r ( 1 + r )n
M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
Substitute for N, r and n.
M = 100 000
Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.

Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
M = $839.20
Total repayments = $839.20 300
0.0075 1.0075 300

---------------------------------------------1.0075 300 1
By increasing the amount of each repayment, we are able to shorten the term of the
loan. There is no easy method to calculate the amount of time that it will take to repay
a loan. To do this we use a guess and refine method. We adjust the value of n in the
formula until the amount of the repayment is reached.
WORKED Example 13
A $100 000 home loan is taken out over a 25-year term at an interest rate of 12% p.a.
reducible interest. The minimum monthly repayment on the loan is $1053.22. How long
will it take the loan to be repaid at $1200 per month?
THINK
1
Calculate the value of r.
Write the formula.
Take a guess for the value of n (we will take 200

since for the original loan n = 300) and substitute.
WRITE
r = 0.01
r ( 1 + r )n
M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
If n = 200,
M = 100 000
Calculate the repayment with n = 200. As this is

less than $1200 we need to further reduce the value
of n.
Substitute into the formula with n = 150.
= $1158.33
If n = 150,
M = 100 000
Calculate the repayment. As the result is greater

than $1200, we need to increase the value of n.
0.01 1.01 200

---------------------------------1.01 200 1
= $1289.99
0.01 1.01 150

---------------------------------1.01 150 1
THINK
7
WRITE
Substitute into the formula with n = 180.
If n = 180,
M = 100 000
8
9
257
As this is approximately equal to $1200, it will

take 180 months to repay the loan.
0.01 1.01 180

---------------------------------1.01 180 1
= $1200.17
It will take 15 years to repay the
loan.
remember
1. By considering the amount borrowed in a loan as the present value of an
annuity, we can use the present value formula to calculate the amount of each
repayment.
2. The formula used to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment is:
r ( 1 + r )n
M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
where N is the amount borrowed, r is the interest rate per period expressed as a
decimal and n is the number of interest periods.
3. The total cost of a loan can be calculated by multiplying the amount of each
repayment by the number of repayments to be made.
4. The length of time that it will take to repay a loan can be calculated by using
guess and refine methods.
8D
Loan repayments
r ( 1 + r )n
- .
For questions 1 to 3 use the formula, M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
1 Yiannis takes out a $10 000 loan over 5 years at 10% p.a. reducible interest with five
equal annual repayments to be made. Use the formula to calculate the amount of each
annual repayment.
WORKED
Example
11
2 Use the formula to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on a loan of
$8000 to be repaid over 4 years at 12% p.a.
3 Use the formula to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment on each of the
following loans.
b $15 000 at 9% p.a. over 5 years
c $120 000 at 6% p.a. over 20 years
d $23 000 at 9.6% p.a. over 5 years
e $210 000 at 7.2% p.a. over 25 years
258
4 Javier and Diane take out a $175 000 home loan. If the interest rate on the loan is
8.4% p.a. reducible and the term of the loan is 25 years, calculate the amount of each
monthly repayment.
5 Jiro purchases a computer on terms. The cash price of the computer is $3750. The
terms are a deposit of 10% with the balance paid in equal monthly instalments at
9% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years.
a Calculate Jiros deposit on the computer.
b What is the balance owing on the computer?
c Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
6 Jeremy and Patricia spend $15 000 on new furnishings for their home. They pay a
15% deposit on the furnishings with the balance paid in equal monthly instalments at
18% p.a. interest over 4 years. Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
7 Thanh is purchasing a car on terms. The cash price of the car is $35 000 and he pays
a $7000 deposit.
a What is the balance owing on the car?
b If the car is to be repaid in equal weekly instalments over 5 years at an interest rate
of 10.4% p.a. reducible interest, calculate the amount of each weekly payment.
WORKED
Example
12
8 Ron borrows $13 500 to purchase a car. The loan is to be repaid in equal monthly
instalments over a 3-year term at an interest rate of 15% p.a. Calculate the total
repayments made on the loan.
9 Calculate the total repayments on each of the following loans.
a $4000 at 8.4% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 2 years in equal monthly
repayments
b $20 000 at 13.2% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 6 years in equal monthly
instalments
c $60 000 at 7.2% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 15 years in equal monthly
instalments
d $150 000 at 10.8% p.a. reducible interest to be repaid over 20 years in equal
monthly instalments
10 multiple choice
A loan of $5000 is taken out at 9% p.a. reducible interest over 4 years. Which of the
following will give the amount of each monthly repayment?
A M = 5000
0.09 1.09 4
----------------------------1.09 4 1
B M = 5000
0.09 1.09 48
------------------------------1.09 48 1
C M = 5000
0.0075 1.0075 4
----------------------------------------1.0075 4 1
D M = 5000
0.0075 1.0075 48
------------------------------------------1.0075 48 1
11 multiple choice
A loan of $12 000 is taken out at 12% p.a. reducible interest in equal monthly instalments over 5 years. The total amount of interest paid on the loan is:
A $266.93
B $4015.80
C $7200
D $16 015.80
259
12 A loan of $75 000 is taken out over 15 years at 9% p.a. reducible interest. The minimum
monthly repayment is $760.70. Calculate how long it will take to repay the loan at
13
$1000 per month.
WORKED
13 A $150 000 loan is taken out over a 25-year term. The interest rate is 9.6% p.a.
a Calculate the minimum monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
c Calculate the length of time that it will take to repay the loan at $1600 per month.
d Calculate the total saving on the loan by repaying the loan at $1600 per month.
Work
Example
T
SHEE
8.2
Types of loan arrangements

Research one example of each of the following types of loans.
A. Hire purchase agreement.
This is the type of loan where a major item is purchased on terms. Usually a
deposit is paid and then the balance plus interest is repaid over an agreed period
of time.
B. Personal loan
This is a loan taken out from a bank or other financial institution. It can be used for
any purpose and is unsecured. This means that there is no item of property that the
bank can claim if repayments are not made.
C. Home loan
This is a secured loan, which means that, if the repayments are not made, the bank
can claim the property and sell it to reclaim the amount outstanding on the loan.
For each of the above loans, answer the following questions.
1 What is the interest rate? Is interest calculated at a flat or reducible rate?
2 Over what term can the loan be repaid?
3 How regularly must repayments be made?
4 Can additional repayments be made to shorten the term of the loan?
5 Can the interest rate be altered after repayments have begun to be made?
6 What other fees and charges apply to borrowing the money?
Most financial institutions will provide graphs that show the growth of an annuity and
the declining balance of a loan. These graphs can be obtained by either visiting the
bank or by going to the internet site for the relevant financial institution.
Obtain a copy of a graph showing the growth of an investment and the declining
balance of a loan.
Alternatively, develop a spreadsheet that shows the growth of an annuity and the
declining balance of a loan and use the charting function of the spreadsheet to draw the
graph.
Access the Word file Annuities, Loans, Graphs from the Maths Quest General
Mathematics HSC Course CD-ROM.
Computer Application 4 Graphs of annuities and loans

ord
260
summary
An annuity is where regular equal contributions are made to an investment. The
interest on each contribution compounds as additions are made to the annuity.
The future value of an annuity is the value that the annuity will have at the end of a
fixed period of time.
The future value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula:
( 1 + r )n 1
A = M ---------------------------r
where M is the contribution per period paid at the end of the period, r is the
percentage interest rate per compounding period (expressed as a decimal) and n is
the number of compounding periods.
The amount of each contribution per period in an annuity can be found using the
Ar
-.
formula M = --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1

The present value of an annuity is the single sum that would need to be invested at
the present time to give the same financial outcome at the end of the term.
The present value of an annuity can be calculated using the formula:
A
N = ------------------n(1 + r )
where A is the future value of the annuity.
An alternative formula to use is:
( 1 + r )n 1
N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
where M is the contribution made to the annuity per interest period.
Use of tables
A table can be used to find the present or future value of an annuity.
The table shows the present or future value of $1 under an annuity.
The present or future value of $1 must be multiplied by the contribution per period
to calculate its present or future value.
Loan repayments
The present value of an annuity formula can be used to calculate the amount of
each periodical repayment in a reducing balance loan. This is done by considering
the present value of an annuity as the amount borrowed and making M the subject
of the formula.
r ( 1 + r )n
- .
The formula to be used is M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
The total amount to be repaid during a loan is calculated by multiplying the amount
of each monthly repayment by the number of repayments to be made.
261
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the amount to which each of the following investments will grow.
a $3500 at 12% p.a. for 3 years, with interest compounded annually
b $2000 at 8% p.a. for 5 years, with interest compounded six-monthly
c $15 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded quarterly
d $4200 at 13.2% p.a. for 2 years, with interest compounded monthly
8A
2 $400 per year is invested into an annuity at 7% p.a., with interest compounded annually. Use
8A
( 1 + r )n 1
the formula A = M ---------------------------r
to calculate the value of the annuity after 20 years.
( 1 + r )n 1
3 Use the formula A = M ---------------------------r
to calculate the future value of each of the
8A
following annuities.
b $1000 invested every 6 months for 10 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
c $600 invested every 3 months for 5 years at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded
quarterly
d $250 invested per month for 20 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded monthly
4 An annuity consists of $100 deposits every month for 15 years. The interest rate is 9% p.a.
and interest is compounded six-monthly. Find the future value of the annuity.
Ar
- to calculate the amount of each annual contribution to an
5 Use the formula M = --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
annuity to achieve a savings goal of $800 000 in 40 years at an interest rate of 8% p.a., with
interest compounded annually.
6 Calculate the amount of each contribution to the following annuities.
a $50 000 in 10 years at 6% p.a., with interest compounded annually and annual deposits
b $250 000 in 30 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly and
contributions made every six months
c $120 000 in 20 years at 16% p.a., with interest compounding quarterly and contributions
made quarterly
A
7 Use the formula N = ------------------n- to calculate the present value of an annuity if it is to have a
(1 + r )
future value of $350 000 in 30 years time at an interest rate of 10% p.a., with interest
compounded annually.
8 Calculate the present value of the following annuities with a future value of:
a $10 000 after 10 years at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually
b $400 000 after 40 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded annually
c $5000 after 5 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
d $120 000 after 8 years at 15% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly.
8A
8A
8A
8B
8B
262
8B
8B
9 Phuong wants to purchase a car in 3 years. He feels that he will need $15 000. The best
investment he can find is at 8.5% p.a., interest compounded quarterly. What is the present
value of this investment?
10 Gayle invests $400 per year in an annuity. The investment is at 6% p.a., with interest
compounded annually. Gayle plans to invest in the annuity for 25 years. Use the formula
( 1 + r )n 1
N = M --------------------------r ( 1 + r )n
to calculate the present value of this annuity.
8B
11 When Joanne begins work at 18, she invests $100 per month in a retirement fund. The
investment is at 9% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly.
a If Joanne is to retire at 60 years of age, what is the future value of her annuity?
b What is the present value of this annuity?
8C
12 Use the table of future values of $1 on page 251 to calculate the future value of an annuity
of $4000 deposited per year at 7% p.a. for 8 years, with interest compounded annually.
8C
13 Use the table of future values of $1 to calculate the future value of the following
annuities.
b $3500 invested every six months for 4 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
c $200 invested every 3 months for 2 years at 16% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
d $1250 invested every month for 3 years at 10% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
8C
14 Use the table of present values of $1 on page 252 to calculate the present value of an annuity
of $500 invested per year for 6 years at 9% p.a., with interest compounded
annually.
8C
15 Use the table of present values to calculate the present value of each of the following
annuities.
b $2000 invested every six months for 5 years at 14% p.a., with interest compounded
six-monthly
c $500 invested every three months for 2 1--- years at 16% p.a., with interest compounded
2
quarterly
d $300 invested every month for 4 years at 12% p.a., with interest compounded half-yearly
8D
r ( 1 + r )n
16 Use the formula M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment
on a loan of $28 000 to be repaid over 6 years at 12% p.a.
8D
17 Scott borrows $22 000 to purchase a car. The loan is taken out over a 4-year term at an
interest rate of 9.6% p.a., with the loan to be repaid in equal monthly repayments.
b Calculate the total amount that is repaid on the loan.
8D
18 Calculate the total repayments made on a home loan of $210 000 to be repaid in equal
monthly repayments over 25 years at an interest rate of 8.4% p.a.
263
19 Adam buys a new lounge suite for $4400 and pays for it on his credit card. The interest rate
on the credit card is 21% p.a. Adam hopes to pay the credit card off in two years by making
equal monthly repayments.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment that Adam should make.
b Calculate the total amount that Adam will make in repayments.
c Calculate the amount of interest that Adam will pay.

1 multiple choice
Jenny invests $1000 per year for 20 years in an annuity. The interest rate is 6.5% p.a. and
interest is compounded annually. The future value of the annuity is:
A $3523.65
B $11 018.51 C $18 825.31 D $38 825.31
2 multiple choice
Madeline invests $1000 per year for 20 years in an annuity. The interest rate is 6.5% p.a. and
interest is compounded annually. The present value of the annuity is:
A $3523.65
B $11 018.51 C $18 825.31 D $38 825.31
3 multiple choice
Which of the following investments has the greatest future value after 10 years?
A An annuity of $500 per year at 7.75% p.a., with interest compounded annually
B An annuity of $250 per six months at 7.6% p.a., with interest compounded six-monthly
C An annuity of $125 per quarter at 7.2% p.a., with interest compounded quarterly
D A single investment of $3400 at 7.9% p.a., with interest compounded annually
8D
264
4 multiple choice
A loan of $80 000 is taken out over a 20-year term at an interest rate of 9% p.a. The monthly
repayment is $719.78. What would the total saving be if the term were reduced to 15 years?
A $91.63
B $16 493.40 C $21 991.20 D $26 693.40
5 Lien invests $2000 per year in an annuity. The term of the annuity is 20 years and the interest
rate is 8% p.a., with interest compounding annually.
a Calculate the future value of this annuity.
b Calculate the present value of this annuity.
c By how much will the future value of the annuity increase if Lien deposits $500 per
quarter and interest is compounded quarterly?
6 Eddie has the goal of saving $1 000 000 over his working life, which he expects to be 40
years. Over the period of his working life, Eddie expects to be able to obtain an average 7%
p.a. in interest with interest compounded every six months.
a Calculate the present value of this annuity.
Ar
- to calculate the amount of each six-monthly
b Use the formula M = --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
contribution to the annuity.
c For the first 10 years of the annuity Eddie makes no contributions, preferring to direct all
his money into paying off a mortgage. At that time he makes a single contribution to catch
up on the annuity. What amount must Eddie deposit?
7 Jim and Catherine take out a $150 000 loan. The interest rate on the loan is 12% p.a. and the
loan is to be repaid in equal monthly repayments over a 20-year term.
r ( 1 + r )n
a Use the formula M = N --------------------------( 1 + r )n 1
CHAPTER
test
yourself
to calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
b Calculate the total amount of interest that Jim and Catherine will need pay on this loan.
c Calculate the saving that Jim and Catherine will make by repaying the loan over a 12-year
term.
Modelling
linear and
non-linear
relationships
9
syllabus reference
Algebraic modelling 4
Modelling linear and
In this chapter
9A
9B
9C
9D
9E
Linear functions
Quadratic functions
Other functions
Variations
Graphing physical
phenomena
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
9.1
9.2
Recognising linear functions
1 For each of the following linear equations, find the y-values corresponding to x, when x equals
3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 and 3. Show the results as a table of values.
a y = 2x
b y = 3x 1
c y = 7 3x
2 State which of the following are linear functions.
9.3
a y = 4x 1
b y = x2
d 2x 3y + 5 = 0
e y = 2x
Gradient of a straight line
3 Calculate the gradient of the line joining the following points.

a (1, 1) and (5, 6)
b (4, 0) and (6, 6)
9.4
1
c y = --x
f 2y = 5x
c (3, 7) and (2, 3)
Graphing linear equations
4 Sketch the graph of the linear functions.

a y = 3x
b y = 2x 3
c y = 5 2x
Chapter 9 Modelling linear and non-linear relationships
267
Linear functions
As discussed in chapter 5, a linear function is a function in which the independent and
dependent variables have only a power of 1. When graphed, these values form a
straight line.
An example of a linear function is y = 2x 1. The function is graphed by creating a
table of values, plotting the pair of coordinates that are formed on a number plane and
joining them with a straight line. The independent variable is x, and as such values of x
are substituted into the equation to find the corresponding values of y.
If we recognise the function as linear, we need to plot only three points. Two points
are sufficient to fix a line and the third is a check. If all three points are not in a straight
line, we know that an error has been made.
WORKED Example 1
Graph the equation y = 2x
1.
THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a table of values for x.

(Choose three easy values of x.)
x
y
Substitute each value of x into the

equation to find the corresponding
values of y.
Plot each of the points formed on a
number plane.
y
5
4
3
2
1
5 4 3 2 1 0
1
2
3
4
5
Join the points formed with a straight

line and label the line with the
equation.
1 2 3 4 5
y
5
4
3
2
1
5 4 3 2 1 0
1
2
3
4
5
y = 2x 1
1 2 3 4 5
The straight line in worked example 1 has the equation y = 2x 1, which is

written in gradientintercept form. Any equation in the form y = mx + b
is said
to be in gradientintercept form, because the gradient of the straight line is
represented by m and the y-intercept is represented by b.
268
This can be used to sketch any straight line. Considering worked example 1, we can
begin by plotting the point (0, 1) as the y-intercept. Other points can then be plotted
using the gradient, by plotting points 1 across and 2 up. That is, starting with (0, 1),
we plot (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5) and so on.
At this point it is worth remembering the gradient formula:
vertical change in position
m = --------------------------------------------------------------------horizontal change in position
We use this formula when we know two points on the graph, and this is useful on many
occasions to help us find the equation of a straight line.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a linear function

1. From the MENU select GRAPH.
2. Delete any existing equation and enter Y1 = 2X 1.
3. Press SHIFT F3 [V-Window]. This allows you to

set the lower and upper limits to draw on both the xand y-axes. Enter the setting shown on the screen at
right.
then press F6 (DRAW) to draw the graph.
WORKED Example 2
A store owner finds that the number of televisions sold each week, N, decreases as the
price, P, increases. This relationship can be given by the rule N = 200 0.2P.
a Complete the table below.
P
100
200
500
N
b Graph the relationship between the number of televisions sold and their price.
c How many televisions will be sold if they are priced at $900 each?
d The store can sell only a maximum of 50 televisions each week. At what price should the
televisions be sold?
THINK
WRITE
a Substitute the given values of P into the

equation to find the corresponding
values of N.
Plot the points given by the table.

(Note: Only positive values of N and
P are needed in this example.)
100
200
500
180
160
100
269
N
200
160
120
80
40
0
Join the points with a straight line

and label the equation.
0
60
0
80
0
10
00
40
20
N
200
N = 200 0.2P
160
120
80
40
0
80
0
10
00
0
60
0
40
20
c Use the graph to find N when P = 900.
c When P = 900, N = 20; they will sell

20 televisions at $900 each.
d Use the graph to find P when N = 50.
d When N = 50, P = 750; the televisions

should be sold for $750 each.
N
200
160
N = 200 0.2P
120
80
40
N = 0.05P
0
0
20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
10
00
When two linear functions are graphed on the same pair

of axes, the intersection of the two graphs shows the
point where both equations hold true. This can have
applications in a practical context.
Consider worked example 2, in which the number of
televisions sold each week was given by N = 200 0.2P.
Now consider that the company producing the televisions
is prepared to produce more if the price is higher. This
is given by the rule N = 0.05P. When these two functions
are graphed on the same pair of axes, we can see that the
point of intersection is (800, 40).
270
The company would want to sell all of the televisions that they produce and similarly
would want to produce enough to meet this demand. This will be done if the televisions
are sold at $800 each, as the company would be prepared to produce 40 per week at
this price, and this would be the number that would be sold.
Graphing linear functions can be used to determine profit, loss or break-even points.
If cost and receipts are graphed, the difference between the y-values at any point will
determine the profit or loss. The point where the graphs intersect will be the break-even
point, where no profit or loss is made.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a practical linear function

Many practical functions need to have different limits than worked example 1, which
we have drawn, with the simple limits of 5 to 5 on both the x- and y-axes. In worked
example 2, negative values are not realistic, while the maximum possible value on the
vertical axis is 200. We need a value on the horizontal axis that will show the greatest
possible value of P.
2. Delete any existing equation and enter Y1 = 200 0.2X.
Note: We replace N with Y1 and P with X.

right.
WORKED Example 3
The cost of producing shoes in Asia is given by the equation C = 2000 + 15n, where n is the
number of pairs of shoes produced per day. The cost of producing shoes in Australia is
given by the equation C = 1000 + 20n.
a On the same pair of axes, graph the cost equations for producing shoes in Asia and
Australia.
b When is it more cost efficient to produce the shoes in Asia?
THINK
WRITE
a C = 2000 + 15n
Draw a table of values for each cost

equation.
100
200
2000
3500
5000
271
C = 1000 + 20n
Plot a pair of points generated by

each cost equation.
Join each with a straight line
labelling each with its equation.
100
200
1000
3000
5000
C
10 000
C = 1000 + 20n
8000
C = 2000 + 15n
6000
4000
2000
0
b It will be more efficient to produce the

shoes in Asia after the point of
intersection.
0
00
10
80
60
40
20
b If more than 200 pairs of shoes are produced

per day, it will be cheaper to produce the
shoes in Asia. This is because if n > 200 the
value of C is less, if the shoes are produced
in Asia.
the intersection of
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding
two graphs
Consider the two graphs drawn in worked example 3. It will be cheaper to produce the
shoes in Asia when the value of C = 200 + 15n is less than C = 1000 + 20n. To find
when this occurs we need to locate the point of intersection of the two graphs as shown
below.
2. Delete any existing equations and enter

Y1 = 2000 + 15X and Y2 = 1000 + 20X. Note that we
replace C with Y1 and Y2 and n with X.
272

right.
then press F6 (DRAW) to draw the graphs.
5. Press SHIFT F5 [G-Solv], followed by F5 [ISCT]

(intersection). This will find the point of intersection
and display the coordinates of this point. Be patient:
this may take a moment.
From this we can see that the intersection occurs at x = 200 and y = 5000. Interpreting
this result in terms of the question shows us that when 200 pairs of shoes are produced
the cost will be $5000 in either Australia or Asia. From that point on it will be cheaper
to produce the shoes in Asia.
remember
1. A linear function has powers of only 1 for both the independent and dependent
variables.
2. Linear functions, when graphed, will appear as a straight line and can be
written in the form y = mx + b , where m is the gradient and b is the yintercept.
3. To graph a linear function, draw a table with at least three values for the
independent variable and calculate the corresponding value for the dependent
variable. Plot the pairs of coordinates generated and join with a straight line.
4. Linear functions can also be graphed using a graphics calculator.
5. Many practical situations can be graphed using linear functions. When two
linear functions are graphed on the same pair of axes, the point of intersection
will give some important information about the question.
SkillS
9A
HEET
9.1
WORKED
Example
SkillS
Substitution
into a
formula
HEET
9.2
Recognising
linear
functions
Linear functions
1 Graph the function y = x + 3.

2 Graph each of the following linear functions on separate axes.
a y = 2x
b y = 3x 2
c y= x
d y = 5 2x
e y = 1--- x + 3
f y=1
2
3 Consider the linear function 3x + 2y 6 = 0.

a Copy and complete the table at right.
b Graph the function 3x + 2y 6 = 0.
x
y
1
--- x
4
WORKED
Example
4 The cost, C, of a taxi hire is given by the linear equation C = 3 + 1.5d, where d is the 9.3
distance travelled in kilometres.
Gradient of
d
10
30
SkillS
HEET
273
a straight
line
9.4
HEET
b Graph the cost function for the taxi hire.

c Use the graph to determine the cost of a 20 km taxi journey.
d Katie has $24. How far can Katie afford to travel in a taxi?
SkillS
Graphing
linear
equations
E
5 A concert promoter finds that the profit made on a performance is given by the
Plotting
equation P = 3n - 24 000, where n is the number of people who attend the concert.
linear
a Complete this table of values, and use it to graph the profit equation.
graphs
n
P
10 000
0
b What profit will the promoter make if 20 000 people attend the concert?
c What will be the financial outcome for the promoter if 5000 people attend the
concert?
d How many people will need to attend the concert for the promoter to break even?
6 It is found that the number of ice-creams that will be sold during a day at the beach
decreases as the price of the ice-creams increases. The number of ice-creams that will
be sold can be determined by the equation N = 1000 - 5P, where P is the price of the
ice-creams in cents.
a Graph the function.
b How many ice-creams will be sold at $1 each?
c If the ice-cream salesman has only 100 ice-creams to sell, at what price should he
sell them?
7 Two linear functions are represented by y = 4 - x and y = 3x.
a Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
b What is the point of intersection of the two graphs?
8 By graphing both functions on the same pair of axes, find the point of intersection of
the graphs y = 2x - 6 and y = x - 1.
9 Find the point of intersection of the graphs x + 2y - 4 = 0 and y = 2x + 2.
10 A factory produces two types of computer games: game A and game B.
a The factory can produce a maximum of 120 games per week. This can be repre3
sented by the linear equation A + B = 120. Graph this function.
b Sales research shows that twice as many copies of game A will sell as game B. This
can be represented by the equation 2A = B. On the same pair of axes graph this
function.
c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs and make a conclusion about the
number of each game that should be produced by the factory each week.
WORKED
Example
sheet
L Spre
XCE ad
274
11 The cost of running an old refrigerator is $1.20 per day. This can be represented by the
equation C = 1.2d. A new refrigerator will cost $900 but the cost to run will be only
30c per day. This can be represented by the equation C = 900 + 0.3d.
0
1000
2000
C (old)
C (new)
b Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs; hence, state after how many days
it will become more economical to purchase a new refrigerator.
12 The cost, in dollars, of producing calculators can be given by the equation
C = 15n + 1500, where n is the number of calculators produced. When selling the
calculators the receipts can be given by the equation C = 20n.
a Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
b Determine the number of calculators that need to be sold in order for the manufacturer to break even.
Conversion of temperature
To convert a temperature from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, you can use
9C
the formula F = ------- + 32 . A simpler but less accurate way is to double degrees
5
Celsius and add 30. This approximation written as a formula becomes F = 2C + 30.
1 Use a spreadsheet or graphics calculator to graph each function on the same set
of axes.
2 Describe the accuracy of the simpler formula and state the values for which it is
most accurate.
Quadratic functions
A quadratic function is a function that involves the independent variable (x) to the
power of 2. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, a curved line that comes to
either a minimum or maximum point.
The graph of a quadratic function is again drawn by creating a table of values and
plotting the pairs of coordinates generated. Because the graph is not a straight line, it is
necessary to plot more than just three points to show the shape of the curve.
275
The most basic quadratic function is y = x2. The table of values is drawn showing at
least nine values of x.
x
1
--2
1
--2
1
--4
1
--4
9
y
Plotting these points gives the graph shown on

the right.
This graph has a minimum at (0, 0) and
forms the basic shape for all parabolas.
In general, the form of a quadratic function
is y = ax2 + bx + c, and we need consider only
positive values of x.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
4 3 2 1 0
1
WORKED Example 4
Consider the quadratic function y = x2

a Complete the table of values below.
x
y
b Graph the function for x 0.

c State the minimum value of y = x2
4x + 7.
WRITE
a Substitute each value of x into the

function.
1 2 3 4
4x + 7.
THINK
y = x2
Plot the points generated by the table

of values.
Join the points plotted with a smooth
curve.
x
y
1
4
2
3
y
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 0
1
c The minimum value is the y-value at the

point where the graph turns.
0
7
1 2 3 4 5
For y = x2 4x + 7,
minimum value = 3.
3
4
4
7
5
12
276
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a quadratic function

Your graphics calculator can graph quadratic functions as well as linear functions (and
many other types of functions as well). The calculator can also find any maximum or
minimum point on the graph. Consider worked example 4.
2. Delete any existing equation and enter

Y1 = X2 4X + 7.
3. Press SHIFT F3 [V-Window]. In this course you

will not need to consider negative values for x. Enter
the setting shown on the screen at right.

5. Press SHIFT F5 [G-Solv], followed by F3 (MIN).

This will find the minimum point and display the
coordinates of that point. Be patient: this may take a
moment.
Note:
1. When setting the view window you do not have to get the limit right the first time.
It may take a bit of trial and error, especially with the y-values to make sure that you
have the minimum (or maximum) point in your display.
2. Any question that has a negative value of x2 (such as worked example 5) will be concave downwards and as such will have a maximum point and not a minimum point.
In step 5 after pressing SHIFT F5 [G-Solv] you will need to press F2 (MAX).
3. The display on the graphics calculator can sometimes lead to a slight inaccuracy in
the answer. This can be seen in step 6. In cases such as this we can see that the
calculator should display X = 2.
For quadratic functions that have a positive x2 term, the parabola is concave up. This
means that the graph comes to a minimum point. When the x2 term is negative, the
graph is concave down and the graph comes to a maximum point.
277
WORKED Example 5
Graph the function y = 1 + 4x
x2.
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Draw a table of values.

Substitute each value of x into the
function.
Plot the points formed by each pair of
coordinates.
Join the points with a smooth curve.
Note: For this function, the maximum
value is 5.
y
5
4
3
2
1
1 0
1
2
3
4
5
1 2 3 4 5
Quadratic models can be used to solve several practical situations.
WORKED Example 6
A ball is thrown in the air. Its height, h, after t seconds can be given by the formula
h = 20t 5t 2. Graph the function to calculate the maximum height the ball will reach.
THINK
1
2

Substitute the values of t to calculate
the corresponding values of h.
Plot the points formed by each pair of
coordinates. Negative values of h can
be ignored because height must be
positive.
Join the points formed with a smooth
curve.
WRITE
15
20
15
25
h
20
16
12
8
4
1 0
1
The maximum height reached by the

ball will be the h value at the turning
point on the curve.
1 2 3 4 5
The maximum height reached by the ball is

20 m.
278
remember
1. A quadratic function is a function where the independent variable is raised to
the power of 2.
2. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The parabola is a curved graph
and can be drawn using a table of values that has several points to allow the
shape of the graph to be formed.
3. If the x2 term is positive, the graph is concave up and has a minimum point. If
the x2 term is negative, the graph is concave down and has a maximum point.
4. The maximum or minimum value in a practical situation is the dependent
variable at the maximum or minimum point.
9B
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WORKED
Example
4
Graphing
quadratics
Quadratic functions
1 For the quadratic function y = x2 2x + 3:

a copy and complete the table of values below
x
y
b draw the graph of the function
c state the minimum value of x2 2x + 3.
2 For the quadratic function y = x2 4x 2, draw up a table of values and use the table
to draw the graph of the function for x 0.
3 Graph each of the following functions for x
a y = x2 6x + 5
b y = x2 + x + 5
c y = (x 2)2
0.
4 On the one set of axes, graph the following quadratic functions for x
a y = x2
b y = 2x2
c y = 1--- x2
0.
5 On the one set of axes, graph each of the following quadratic functions for x
a y = x2
b y = x2 + 2
c y = x2 3
0.
6 Use your answers to questions 5 and 6 to answer the following.

a Describe the effect a coefficient of x2 has on the graph of a quadratic function.
b Describe the effect adding a constant term has on the graph of a quadratic function.
7 Graph the function y = (x
Explain why this occurs.
WORKED
Example
1)2 + 4. Compare this with the graph of y = x2
8 Graph the function y = 2 + 2x
x2 for x
0.
9 Graph each of the following functions for x

a y = 4 + 6x x2
b y = 8 x2
0.
c y = (2
x)2
2x + 5.
279
10 multiple choice
Which of the following functions is not a quadratic function?
A y = x2 + 5x 4
B y = (x 4)2
x2
C y = (x 2)(x + 2)
D y = -----------x+2
11 multiple choice
The graph drawn on the right could have the equation:
A y = (x 2)2 + 3
B y = (x 2)2 3
2
C y = 4 (2 x)
D y = (2 x)2 3
12 multiple choice
Which of the following functions will produce the same graph as y = (x
A y = x2 4x 1
B y = x2 4x + 19
2
C y = x 8x 1
D y = x2 8x + 19
13 Graph the quadratic function y = 2x2
4x + 8 for x
14 An object dropped from a height falls

to Earth according to the equation
6
d = 5t 2, where d is the distance fallen
in metres and t is the time in seconds
since the object was dropped.
a Draw the graph of d against t.
b How far will the object fall in
4 seconds?
c How long will it take for an object
to fall a distance of 500 m?
WORKED
Example
15 The height of a ball which is thrown

vertically upwards is given by the
equation h = 30t 5t2.
a Draw the graph of h against t.
b Find the maximum height reached
by the ball.
c Find the length of time taken for
the ball to return to Earth.
16 A rectangular field is to be made out of
100 m of fencing. If the length of the field
is x metres:
a show that the width of the field is
(50 x) metres
b show that the area is given by
the quadratic function A = 50x x2
c draw the graph of the function
d find the maximum area of the field
and what dimension the field must
be to give the maximum area.
0.
4)2 + 3?
Work
280
T
SHEE
9.1
17 Another rectangular field is to be built with 100 m

of fencing using a river as one side of the field as
River
shown on the right.
x
a Show that the area of the field can be given by
the equation A = 100x 2x2.
100 2x
b Graph the function.
c Calculate the dimensions of the field so that the area of the field is a maximum.
Maximising areas
1 Sketch ten rectangles that each have a perimeter of 40 m.
2 Show the length, width and area of each rectangle in a table.
3 If the length of the rectangle is x:
a explain why the width of the rectangle will be 20 x
b write a quadratic equation for the area of the rectangle.
4 Use a spreadsheet or graphics calculator to graph your function.
5 What is the maximum area of the rectangle?
1
1 Graph the function y = 2x
3.
2 State the gradient of the function.

3 What is the y-intercept of the function?
4 State the linear function with a gradient of 3 and a y-intercept of 2.
5 Give an example of a linear function with a negative gradient.
6 Copy and complete the table below for the function y = 4
x
x2.
y
x2 for x
0.
8 State the maximum value of the function y = 4
x2.
7 Draw the graph of the function y = 4

9 Is the function y = (x
5)2 concave up or concave down? Explain your answer.
10 Find the minimum value of y = (x
6)2 + 5.
281
Other functions
There are several other types of function that we should be able to graph. In each of
these cases the graphs are curves and so several points should be found to demonstrate
the shape of the curve.
Cubic functions
A cubic function has the independent variable (x) raised to a power of 3.
WORKED Example 7
Graph the function y = 2x3.
THINK
1 Draw a table of values.
2 Substitute values of x to find the
corresponding values of y.
3 Plot the points generated by the table.
4 Join the points with a smooth curve.
WRITE
x
16
54
y = 2x 3
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4
Hyperbolas
a
A hyperbolic function is of the form y = --- , where a is a constant. For hyperbolas,
x
x 0, and so we graph only values of x > 0. As the value of x increases, the value of y
will decrease, and therefore we need to look at values close to 0 when creating our
table of values.
WORKED Example 8
2
Graph the function y = --- .
x
THINK
1 Draw a table of values.
2 Substitute the x-values into the equation
to find the corresponding y-values.
3
4
Plot each pair of coordinates generated

by the table.
Join each point with a smooth curve.
WRITE
x
1
--4
1
--2
2
--3
1
--2
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
y = 2x
1 2 3 4
282
Exponential graphs
An exponential function is of the form y = ax or y = b(ax ), where a and b are both
constants. An exponential graph can increase rapidly.
WORKED Example 9
Graph the function y = 2x.

THINK
WRITE
Substitute values of x to find the

corresponding values of y.
Plot the points generated by the table.
16
y
20
16
12
8
4
0
y = 2x
1 2 3 4 5
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing other functions

To graph the functions shown in worked examples 7, 8 and 9, enter the functions as
shown below. In each case set the view window as shown in the diagrams on the x- and
y-axes.
An exponential function of the form y = b(ax ) represents an example of exponential

growth. These functions show the growth of an investment over a period of time. In
examples where the value of a is between 0 and 1, the function models exponential
decay. An example of this is the depreciation of an asset over time.
283
WORKED Example 10
Glenn invests $10 000 at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually. The growth of
this investment can be given by the exponential function A = 10 000(1.08)n, where n is
the number of years of the investment and A is the amount to which the investment
grows.
Graph the growth of this investment.
THINK
WRITE
Substitute values of n to find the

corresponding values of A.
A 10 800 11 664 12 597 13 605 14 693

6
10
A 15 869 17 138 18 509 19 990 21 589

Plot the points generated by the table.
35 000
Investment ($)
A = 10 000 (1.08)n
30 000
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5000
0
0
10
15
Number of years
20
remember
1. A cubic equation is of the form y = ax3.
a
2. A hyperbola is an equation of the form y = --- . In such a function x 0, and
x
we need to examine values of x close to 0 to observe the behaviour of the curve
near the y-axis.
3. An exponential function is of the form y = b(ax ). An exponential function can
be used to model a growth function such as the growth of an investment. If
0 < a < 1, the function will model an exponential decay such as the
depreciation of an item.
284
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WORKED
Example
7
Function
grapher
Other functions
1 Graph the cubic function y = x3 for x
0.
2 Graph the following functions for x 0.

a y = 3x3
b y = 1--- x3
c y = x3
WORKED
Example
WORKED
Example
4
3 Graph the hyperbolic function y = --- for x > 0.
x
4 Graph each of the following functions for x > 0.
1
10
a y = --b y = -----x
x
1
c y = --x
5 Graph the function y = 3x.

6 Graph each of the following functions.
a y = 4x
b y = 10x
c y = ( 1--- )x
2
7 Graph the function y = 5(2x ).

8 multiple choice
The equation of the graph shown on the right could be:
A y = x3
B y = 3x
C y = 3x
3
D y = --x
9 multiple choice
2
Which of the graphs shown below could be the graph of y = --- ?
x
A y
B y
C x
D y
10 Ming Lai invests $1000 at 10% p.a. interest with interest compounded annually. This
investment can be represented by the function A = 1000(1.1)n, where A is the amount
10
to which the investment grows and n is the number of years of the investment. Draw
the graph of the function.
WORKED
Example
11 Kevin invests $50 000 at 12% p.a. interest, compounded annually.

a Write an equation for the amount, A, to which the investment will grow in terms of
the number of years of the investment, n.
c Use the graph to estimate the amount of time that it will take for the investment to
reach $70 000.
12 A new car is purchased for $40 000. The car depreciates at the rate of 15% p.a. The
value, V, of the car after a number of years, n, can be given by the equation
V = 40 000(0.85)n. Graph this function.
285
Compound interest
The amount to which an investment will grow under compound interest can be
found using the following formula:
A = P(1 + r)n
.
Consider an investment of $10 000 at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
1 If interest is compounded annually, the amount to which the investment will
grow can be given by the function A = 10 000(1.08)n, where n is the number of
years. Graph this function using graphing software or a graphics calculator.
2 If interest is compounded six-monthly, the function becomes A = 10 000(1.04)2n.
On the same set of axes graph this function.
3 Write a function that will show the amount to which the investment will grow if
interest is compounded quarterly, and graph this function on the same set of axes.
4 Use the graphs drawn to describe the overall effect of shortening the
compounding period.
Variations
From our work on measurement we know that the area of a circle is given by the
formula A = r 2, where A is the area and r is the radius of the circle.
This is an example of a quantity (area) that varies in proportion with the power of
another quantity (radius). This can be written as A
r2. The symbol
means in
proportion to. In this example is the constant of variation, that is, the amount by
which r 2 must be multiplied to calculate the area.
An equation of the form y = ax2 or y = ax3 can be used to model several variations.
In such cases we may need to calculate the constant of variation from some known or
given information.
WORKED Example 11
It is known that y varies directly with the cube of x. It is known that y = 24 when x = 2.
Write an equation connecting the variables x and y.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write a proportion statement.

Insert a constant of variation (k) to form
an equation.
Substitute the known values of x and y
to find the value of k.
Replace the known value of k in the

equation.
y x3
y = kx3
When x = 2, y = 24.
24 = k 23
= 8k
k=3
y = 3x3
Once we have calculated the constant of variation, we are able to calculate one quantity
given the other.
286
WORKED Example 12
The surface area of a cube varies directly with the square of the length of the cubes edge.
a A cube of edge length 5.5 cm has a surface area of 181.5 cm2. Find the constant of
variation.
b Find the surface area of a cube with an edge length of 7.2 cm.
THINK
WRITE
a s
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
Write a proportion statement

choosing pronumerals s and e.
Insert the constant of variation, k, to
form an equation.
Substitute known information.
s = ke2
When e = 5.5, s = 181.5
181.5 = k 5.52
181.5 = k 30.25
181.k = 6
Calculate 5.52.
Solve the equation (divide by 30.25).
Rewrite the proportion statement
with k = 6.
Substitute e = 7.2.
e2
b s = 6e2
When e = 7.2,
s = 6 7.22
s = 311.04
The surface area of a cube with an edge of
7.2 cm is 311.04 cm2.
Calculate s.
Hyperbolic functions represent inverse variations. These variations occur when one
a
quantity decreases as the other increases. An inverse variation is of the form y = --- .
x
WORKED Example 13
It is known that y varies inversely with x and that when y = 8, x = 4. Write an equation
connecting y with x.
THINK
1
Write an inverse proportion statement.
Insert a constant of variation (k) to form

an equation.
Substitute the known values of x and y
to find the value of k.
Replace the known value of k in the

equation.
WRITE
1
--x
k
y = -x
y
When x = 4, y = 8.
k
8 = --4
k = 32
32
y = -----x
287
Such variations can also be applied to practical situations.
WORKED Example 14
It is known that the time taken for a journey varies inversely with speed. The trip takes
6 hours at 60 km/h.
a Find the constant of variation.
b How long will it take at 90 km/h?
THINK
WRITE
a t
Write a proportion statement

choosing pronumerals t and s.
2
3
Insert the constant of variation, k, to

form an equation.
Substitute known information.
Solve the equation (multiply by 60).
Rewrite the equation with k = 360.
Substitute s = 90.
Calculate t.
1
--s
k
t = -s
When t = 6, s = 60
k
6 = -----60
k = 360
360
b t = --------s
When s = 90,
360
t = --------90
t=4
The trip will take 4 hours at 90 km/h.
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing variations

Once we have established the value of the constant of variation, we can use the
graphics calculator to graph the variation and then find the value of one variable given
the other. Consider worked example 14. Having found in part a the value of k, we can
360
graph t = --------- .
s
2. Enter the equation Y1 = 360 X, which replaces t with

Y1 and s with X.
288
3. Press SHIFT F3 [V-Window]. In this situation you

will not need to consider negative values for x. Enter
the setting shown on the screen at right.

5. To find the value of t (Y) when s (X) = 20, press

SHIFT
F5 [G-Solv], then F6 ( ) for more
options and then F1 (Y-CAL). Enter x = 90 and the
calculator will return the y-value.
remember
1. A variation can be expressed as a function.
2. If one quantity varies as the square of another, the variation is of the form
y = ax2.
3. If one quantity varies as the cube of another, the variation is of the form
y = ax3.
a
4. If one quantity varies inversely as another, the variation is of the form y = --- .
x
5. An inverse variation occurs when one quantity decreases while the other
decreases.
9D
WORKED
Example
11
Variations
1 It is known that y varies directly with the square of x. If y = 88 when x = 4, write an

equation connecting y with x.
2 It is known that b varies directly with the cube of a. When a = 6, b = 108. Write an
equation connecting b with a.
3 It is known that the distance, d, an object will fall varies directly with the square of
the time, t, it has been falling. An object that has been falling for 2 seconds falls a
distance of 19.6 metres.
a Write an equation connecting d with t.
b Graph the relationship between d and t.
WORKED
Example
12
4 The surface area of a cube varies directly with the square of its side length.
a A cube of side length 15 cm has a surface area of 1350 cm2. Find the constant of
variation.
b What is the surface area of a cube that has a side length of 6.2 cm?
289
5 The area of a circle varies directly with the square of its radius.
a If the area of a circle with side length 6 cm is 113.1 cm2, find the constant of
variation. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
b What is the area of a circle with a radius of 12 cm?
6 The mass of an egg varies directly as the cube of the
eggs length.
a An egg of length 5 cm has a mass of 31.25 g.
Find the constant of variation.
b What will be the mass of an egg with a
length of 6 cm?
c If an egg has a mass of 70 g, what
would be the eggs length? (Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal
place.)
WORKED
Example
13
7 It is known that y varies inversely with

x. When y = 10, x = 5; write an
equation connecting y with x.
8 It is known that m varies inversely with
n. When m = 0.5, n = 2; write an
equation connecting m and n.
9 The time taken, t, to travel between two points
varies inversely with the average speed, s, for the
trip. If the journey takes 2.5 hours at 60 km/h:
a write an equation that connects t with s
b graph the relationship between t and s.
10 The time, t, taken to dig a trench varies inversely with the number of workers, n,
digging. It takes four workers 5 hours to dig the trench.
14
a Find the constant of variation.
b How long would it take 10 workers to dig the same trench?
WORKED
Example
11 The fuel economy, f, of a car varies inversely with the speed, s, at which it is driven.
A car that averages 40 km/h has a fuel economy of 15 km/L. What will be the fuel
economy of a car that averages 50 km/h?
12 In an electricity circuit, the current (measured in amps, a) is inversely proportional to
the resistance (measured in ohms, r). When the resistance is 40 ohms, the current is
measured at 3 amps. What will be the current when the resistance is 15 ohms?
Graphing physical phenonema

In many cases, an algebraic function can be used to graph a physical situation. Consider the case of a sphere of radius r. The volume of a sphere can be given by the formula V = 4--- r 3. We can create a table of values that allows us to graph the function for
3
volume.
r
4.19
33.51
3
113.10
4
268.08
5
523.60
10
4189
290
We can then plot each pair of points from the table

and join the points with a smooth curve. The
graph shown at right shows the volume for a
sphere of any radius.
4000
3500
3000
Volume
2500
2000
1500
1000
4 r3
V =
3
500
0
5 10 15
Radius
WORKED Example 15
The surface area of a sphere is given by the formula A = 4 r2.
r
10
A
b Graph the surface area function.
THINK
WRITE
a Substitute each
value of r into the
formula.
Plot each pair of

points generated
by the table.
Join the points
with a smooth
curve and
extrapolate the
graph.
0 12.57 50.27 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 615.75 804.25 1017.88 1256.64
3000
10
A = 4 r2
2500
Area
2000
1500
1000
500
0
10
15
Radius
Many graphs have physical restrictions placed on them.

Consider the case of a ball that is thrown vertically
upwards. The height, h, of the ball at any time, t, can be
given by the equation h = 15t 5t 2. The height of the ball
must always be positive, and when the ball returns to Earth
the graph stops as shown on the right.
h
h = 15t 5t 2
12
9
6
3
0
291
When we graph several points, we try to estimate other values by interpolating

(estimating values between given points by drawing the graph joining the points) or
extrapolating (estimating values by extending the graph beyond the points given).
Other graphs need to have restrictions placed upon them when we try to interpolate
or extrapolate. There may be a limit placed upon one or both of the variables, and this
will indicate a change in the graph.
WORKED Example 16
A cinema owner believes that more people will attend the movies on cold days and so
believes the number of people attending each session of a movie varies inversely with the
temperature of the day. When the temperature is 15C, 80 people attend a movie. The
cinema has a maximum of 120 seats, and the cinema owner believes that a minimum of 40
people will attend, regardless of temperature.
a Write an equation connecting the number of people attending the movie, N, with the
temperature, T.
b Graph the relationship between attendance and temperature.
THINK
WRITE
a 1 Write an inverse proportion
1
a N --statement.
T
k
2 Insert a constant of variation, k, to
N = --form an equation.
T
When T = 15, N = 80.
3 Substitute the known values of N and
k
T to find the value of k.
80 = -----15
k = 1200
1200
4 Replace the known value of k in the
N = -----------equation.
T
b
1
2
3
Create a table of values.

Substitute each value of T into the
equation.
If the value of N > 120, then we
enter 120 for N (maximum
attendance); if N < 40, enter 40 for N
(minimum attendance).
10 15
20
25
30
35
N 120 120 80
60
48
40
40
N
120
100
80
60
40
20
Plot the points and join with a

smooth curve. The minimum and
maximum attendance is drawn with
a straight line.
10
20
30
40
292
remember
1. An algebraic model can be used to represent many physical situations.
2. When modelling a situation, there may be restrictions on one or both of the
variables.
9E
Graphing physical
phenomena
1 The surface area of a cube is given by the formula A = 6s2.

15
WORKED
Example
A
b Draw the graph to represent the surface area of a cube of a given side length.
2 The distance that an object will fall when dropped from a height can be given by the
formula d = 5t 2, where d is in metres and t is in seconds. Draw a graph of the function.
3 A car is travelling at v km/h and the driver needs to brake. It takes 2.5 seconds to react
and in that time the car will travel a distance of 0.7v m. The total stopping distance, d,
can be given by the function d = 0.01v2 + 0.7v.
v
10
20
30
40
d
b Draw the graph of the stopping distance of a vehicle.
4 Lorraine organises a lottery syndicate at her work. If they win a prize of $100 000, the
amount is shared equally between the members of the syndicate. There must be at least
16
one member of the syndicate and a maximum of 10.
a Write an equation putting the amount, A, each person receives in terms of the
number of members, n.
WORKED
Example
5 A car is purchased new for $40 000. After one year the depreciated value of the car is
$30 000. After the first year the car depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a.
Age (years)
Value
b The car will always be worth a minimum of $2000 in scrap metal and accessories.
Graph the value of the car against the age of the car.
6 The mass of a newborn baby increases by 20% per month for the first four months of
life. If the average mass of a newborn baby is 3.3 kg, graph the mass function up to
n = 4.
7 A square piece of sheet metal has a side length of 12 m. A

square of side length x m is to be cut from each corner of the
sheet metal and the sides bent up to form an open rectangular
prism.
a What is the maximum possible value of x?
b Show that the volume of the prism formed can be given by
the function V = x(12 2x)2.
c Graph the volume function.
293
12 m
xm
8 The population of a city is growing at a rate of 5% p.a. If the population in 2000 is

1.5 million, the population function can be given by the function P = 1.5(1.05)n, where
P is the population, in millions. The city cannot sustain a population greater than
4 000 000.
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
b Plot the points given and extrapolate to graph the population function.
c Use your graph to state when the population will reach its maximum sustainable
level.
d What will happen to the graph when it reaches this level?
Force of gravity
When an object is dropped, the
distance that it will fall in t
seconds can be approximated by
the formula d = 5t 2. The
coefficient of t 2 is half the force of
gravity (10 m/s2) and so will
change if an object were to be
dropped on another planet. For
example, on the moon this
equation would become d = 0.8t2.
1 Use a graphics calculator or
graphing software to graph the
equations for both the Earth
and the moon.
2 Find out the force of gravity on
other planets and compare the
graphs formed with that for the
Earth.
Work
Population (million)
T
SHEE
9.2
294
summary
Linear functions
Linear functions have powers of only 1 for both the independent and dependent
variables and are graphed as straight lines.
To graph a linear function, a table of at least three values is drawn; the points
generated are plotted on a number plane and then joined with a straight line.
The intersection of two linear functions will give the point where both conditions
hold true.
Quadratic functions
A quadratic function is a function where the independent variable is raised to the
power of 2.
The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, a curved graph with either a
minimum (positive x2 term) or a maximum (negative x2 term).
A quadratic function is graphed by plotting the points formed from a table of at
least seven values.
Other functions
A cubic function uses a power of 3 for the independent variable. It is of the form
y = ax3.
a
A hyperbola is a function of the form y = --- . In a hyperbolic function, as one
x
variable increases the other decreases.
An exponential function is of the form y = ax. When a > 1, an exponential function
models exponential growth, while if 0 < a < 1, the function models exponential
decay.
Each of these functions is graphed by plotting points from a table of values.
Variations
A variation occurs when one quantity changes in proportion with another.
If one quantity varies directly with another, as one increases so does the other.
If the quantity varies directly with the square of the other, it can be expressed as a
function in the form y = ax2. If it varies with the cube of another, it can be
expressed in the form y = ax3.
An inverse variation occurs when one quantity decreases, while the other increases.
a
An inverse variation can be expressed in the form y = --- .
x
The constant of variation, a, is calculated by using a known quantity of each
variable. Once this has been calculated, if we know one quantity we can calculate
the other.
Graphing physical phenomena

Algebraic models can be used to represent many physical situations.
When graphing physical phenomena, we need to consider any restrictions that may
exist on one or both of the variables.
295
CHAPTER
review
1 Graph each of the following linear functions.
a y = 3x
b y=x+3
d y = 5 3x
e 2y = 4x 3
c y=2 x
f 3x 2y + 6 = 0
2 The cost, C, of a taxi fare is given by the formula C = 3 + 0.4d, where d is the distance
travelled by the car, in kilometres.
d
10
15
9A
9A
20
C
b Graph the cost function.
3 At a fete, 400 cans of soft drink are purchased for $320. The cans are then sold for $1.25
each.
a Write, as a linear function, an expression for the profit on the sale of the cans, where n is
the number of cans sold.
b Graph the profit function.
c What will be the financial outcome if:
i 300 cans are sold?
ii 142 cans are sold?
d How many cans will need to be sold for the drink stall to break even?
9A
4 Graph the linear functions y = 6
9A
9A
x and y = x + 2, and hence state the point of intersection.
5 Andrew needs to purchase a new washing machine.

a A brand new washing machine will cost $1000, and running costs will be approximately
20c per wash. Express this as a linear function.
b Alternatively, Andrew could purchase a second-hand washing machine for $200, but
running costs will be about $1.00 per wash. Express this as a linear function.
c Graph both linear functions on the same pair of axes.
d By finding the point of intersection, find out after how many washes does it become more
economical to purchase the new machine.
6 For the quadratic function y = x2 4x + 5:
a copy and complete the table of values below
x
9B
5
y
b draw the graph of the function for x 0
c state the minimum value of the function y = x2
7 For the quadratic function y = x2
the graph for x 0.
2x
4x + 5.
2, draw a table of values and use the table to sketch
9B
296
9B
8 Sketch each of the following quadratic functions for x

a y = (x 4)2
b y = 5 x2
9B
9 An object is dropped from a height of 500 m. Its height above the ground at any time, t, is
given by the function h = 500 5t 2.
a Draw the graph of the function.
b How many seconds does it take for the object to fall to Earth?
9B
10 A team of workers are digging a mine shaft. The number of kilograms of earth moved each
hour by the team is given by the function E = 24n n2, where n is the number of workers
digging the shaft.
b What is the maximum amount of earth that can be moved by the team of workers in one
hour? How many workers are needed to move this amount of earth?
c Explain possible reasons why the amount of earth moved each hour then begins to
decrease as more workers are used.
9C
11 Graph each of the following cubic functions for x

a y = x3
b y = 1--- x3
0.
c y = 4 + 2x
x2
0.
9C
12 Graph each of the following hyperbolic functions for x > 0.

2
1
a y = --b y = --x
x
9C
13 Graph each of the following exponential functions.

a y = 2x
b y = ( 1--- )x
2
9C
14 The average inflation rate is 4% p.a. In 2006 it cost the average family $500 per week in
living expenses. The future cost of living, C, can be estimated using the function
C = 500(1.04)n where n is the number of years since 2006.
a Graph the cost of living function.
b Use the graph to estimate the cost of living in 2016.
c When will the cost of living first reach $1000 per week?
9C
15 If the value of a computer purchased for $5000 depreciates by 20% p.a., the future value of
the computer, V, can be given by the equation V = 5000(0.8)n, where n is the age of the
computer, in years.
b Find when the value of the computer is approximately $1000.
9D
16 It is known that y varies directly with the square of x. When x = 4, y = 80. Write an equation
connecting x with y.
9D
17 The mass, m, of an egg varies directly with the cube of its length, l. An egg of length 5.5 cm,
has a mass of 75 g.
a Write an equation connecting m with l.
b Find the mass of an egg with a length of 5 cm.
c Find the length of a 50 g egg.
297
18 It is known that y varies inversely with x. When x = 8, y = 8; write an equation connecting y

with x.
9D
19 The amount of food in a camp varies inversely with the number of people to feed. There is
enough food to feed 100 campers for 10 days.
a Write an equation connecting the amount of food, A, with the number of campers, n.
b Calculate how long the food would last 125 campers.
c If the food lasts for four days, calculate the number of campers.
9D
20 The area of a circle is given by the formula A = r2.

9E
A
b Draw the graph of A against r.
21 A ball is thrown directly up in the air. The height, h, of the ball at any time, t, can be found
using the equation h = 20t 5t 2.
a Draw a graph of the height equation.
b Use the graph to find:
i the maximum height of the ball
ii the time taken for the ball to fall back to earth.
9E
22 An investment of $10 000 at 6% p.a. can be modelled using the equation A = 10 000(1.06)n,
where n is the number of years of the investment.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the investment after 8 years.
c Use your graph to find the amount of time that it will take for the investment to grow to
$15 000.
9E

1 multiple choice
Which of the following equations is not an example of a linear function?
2
A y = 2x + 1
B y = --C 2y = x + 1
D x + 2y + 1 = 0
x
2 multiple choice
Which of the following quadratic equations is equivalent to y = (x 3)2 + 7?
A y = x2 3x 2
B y = x2 3x + 16
2
C y = x 6x 2
D y = x2 6x + 16
3 multiple choice
The graph shown at right could have the equation:

2
A y = x2
B y = --x
x
1 x
Cy=2
D y = ( --- )
2
298
4 multiple choice
It is known that y varies inversely with x. The variation can be modelled by the equation:
A y = ax
B y = ax2
a
C y = ax3
D y = --x
5 As a fundraising activity, a school hires a cinema to show the premiere of a movie. The cost
of hiring the cinema is $500. People are then charged $10 to attend the movie.
a Write a function for the profit or loss made on the movie in terms of the number of people
attending.
c Use the graph to calculate the number of people who must attend the movie for the school
to break even.
d A rival cinema offers to waive the hire fee but the school will receive only $5 per person
attending. On the same axes graph the function P = 5n.
e The school chose to pay the $500 and receive $10 per person. How many people must
attend the premiere to make this the better of the two options?
6 A rock is thrown from a cliff 20 m above ground level. The height of the rock at any time is
given by the quadratic function h = 20 + 15t 5t 2.
t
h
b Graph the function and use your graph to find the maximum height reached by the ball.
2
7 a On the one set of coordinate axes, sketch the graphs of y = 2x3 and y = --- .
x
2
b Use your graphs to find the point of intersection of the graphs y = 2x3 and y = --- .
x
CHAPTER
test
yourself
8 The growth of an investment made at 8% p.a. can be modelled by the equation y = 1.08x.
b Use your graph to determine the amount of time that it will take for the investment to
double in value.
c The depreciation of an item at 8% p.a. can be modelled by the equation y = 0.92x. Graph
this function.
d Use your graph to determine the amount of time that it will take for the item to halve in
value.
Depreciation
10
syllabus reference
Depreciation
In this chapter
10A Modelling depreciation
10B Straight line depreciation
10C Declining balance method
of depreciation
10D Depreciation tables
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
10.1
Graphing linear equations
1 Draw the graphs of the following equations.

a y = 2x 1
b y = 8 4x
10.2
Graphing exponential functions
2 Draw the graphs of the following equations for x 0.

a y = 2x
b y = (0.8)x
10.3
Solving linear equations
3 Solve the equations.

a 7x 5 = 79
10.4
c y = 5( 1--- )x
b 3000x 500 = 12 500
c 6000 500x = 3500
4 Calculate:
a The amount to which $10 000 will grow at 6% p.a. over 5 years with interest compounded
annually
b The amount to which $50 000 will grow at 8.2% p.a. over 4 years with interest compounded
six-monthly.
10.6
Reading financial tables
5 The table below shows the amount to which $1 will grow under compound interest.
Interest rate per period
Periods
6%
7%
8%
9%
1.060
1.070
1.080
1.090
1.123
1.145
1.166
1.188
1.191
1.225
1.260
1.295
1.262
1.311
1.360
1.412
Use the table to find:

a the amount to which $10 000 will grow at 7% p.a. over 4 years with interest compounded
annually.
b the amount to which $50 000 will grow at 12% p.a. over 2 years with interest compounded sixmonthly.
Chapter 10 Depreciation
301
Modelling depreciation
An asset is an item that has value to its owner. Many assets such as cars and computers
lose value over time. This is called depreciation.
Consider the case of a new motor vehicle. The value of the car depreciates the
moment that you drive the car away from the showroom. This is because the motor
vehicle is no longer new and if it were sold, it would have to be sold as a used car. The
car then continues to lose value steadily each year.
Depreciation of motor vehicles

Choose a make of car and find out the price for a new vehicle of this make and
model. Look through NRMAs Open Road magazine or the classified advertisements in the newspaper to find the price of the same model as a second-hand car.
Age of car (years)
Price
New (0)
1
2
3
4
5
Draw a graph that shows the price of this car as it ages.
There are two types of depreciation: the straight line method and the declining
balance method. The straight line method is where the asset depreciates by a constant
amount each year. When this type of depreciation is graphed, a straight line occurs and
the asset will reduce to a value of 0.
In such a case, a linear function can be derived that will allow us to calculate the
value of the item at any time. The function can be found using the gradientintercept
method. The purchase price of the asset (V0) will be the vertical intercept, and the
gradient will be the negative of the amount that the item depreciates, D, each period.
The equation of this linear function will be:
V = V0
Dn
where V is the salvage value of the item and n is the age of the asset, in years.
Note: Gradients for depreciation will always be negative.
302
WORKED Example 1
The table below shows the declining

value of a computer. Graph the value
against time and write an equation
for this function.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
WRITE
Draw a set of axes with age on the

horizontal axis and value on the
vertical.
Plot each point given by the table.
Join all points to graph the function.
Value ($)
THINK
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0123456789
Age (years)
Write the initial value as V0 and use the

gradient to state D.
V0 = 4000, D = 500
Write the equation using V = V0
V = V0 Dt
V = 4000 500t
Dt.
Note: To solve worked example 1 you can use the graphics calculator methods demonstrated in chapter 9.
In worked example 1, how long does it take for the computer to depreciate to a value
of $0? The computer is said to be written off when it reaches this value.
The other method of depreciation used is the declining balance method of
depreciation. Here, the value of the item depreciates each year by a percentage of its
current value. Under such depreciation, the value of the item never actually becomes
zero. This type of depreciation is an example of exponential decay that we saw in
chapter 9.
303
WORKED Example 2
The table below shows the value of a car that is purchased new for $40 000.
Age of car (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
40 000
32 000
25 600
20 480
16 384
13 107
Plot the points on a set of axes and graph the depreciation of the car. Use the graph to
estimate the value of the car after 10 years.
2
3
WRITE
Draw a set of axes with age on the

horizontal axis and value on the
vertical.
Plot the points from the table.
Value ($)
THINK
40 000
35 000
30 000
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Age (years)
Estimate the value after 10 years from

the graph you have drawn.
From the graph, the approximate value of the

car after 10 years is $4000.
remember
1. Depreciation is the loss in the value of an item over time.
2. Depreciation can be of two types:
(a) Straight line depreciation.
The item loses a constant amount of value each year
(b) Declining value depreciation.
The value of an item depreciates by a percentage of its value each year.
3. Straight line depreciation can be graphed using a linear function in which the
new value of the item is the vertical intercept and the gradient is the negative of
the annual loss in value.
4. Declining value depreciation is an example of exponential decay and is
graphed with a smooth curve.
304
SkillS
10A
HEET
10.1
WORKED
Example
SkillS
Graphing
linear
equations
HEET
10.2
Graphing
exponential
functions
1 The table below shows the depreciating value of a tractor.

Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
100 000
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
a Draw a graph of the value of the tractor against the age of the tractor.
b Write a function for the value of the tractor.
2 The table below shows the depreciating value of a tow truck.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
50 000
42 000
34 000
26 000
18 000
10 000
Draw a graph of value against age; hence, write a value as a linear function of age.
3 The function V = 50 000 6000A shows the value, V, of a car when it is A years old.
a Draw a graph of this function.
b Use the graph to calculate the value of the car after 5 years.
c After how many years would the car be written off?
4 A computer is bought new for $6400 and depreciates at the rate of $2000 per year.
a Write a function for the value, V, of the computer against its age, A.
b Draw the graph of this function.
c After how many years does the computer become written off?
WORKED
Example
305
5 The table below shows the declining value of a new motorcycle.

Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
20 000
15 000
11 250
8 450
6 350
4 750
a Plot the points shown by the table, and draw a graph of the value of the motorcycle
against age.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the motorcycle after 8 years. Give your
answer correct to the nearest $1000.
6 The table below shows the declining value of a semi-trailer.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
600 000
420 000
295 000
205 000
145 000
100 000
a Plot the points as given in the table, and then draw a curve of best fit to graph the
depreciation of the semi-trailer.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the semi-trailer after 10 years.
c After what number of years will the value of the semi-trailer fall below $50 000?
7 a A gymnasium values its equipment at $200 000. Each year the value of the equipment depreciates by 20% of the value of the previous year. Calculate the value of the
equipment after:
i 1 year
ii 2 years
iii 3 years
iv 4 years.
b Plot these points on a set of axes and draw a graph of the value of the equipment
against its age.
306
8 multiple choice
Which of the tables below shows a straight line depreciation?
A
Age (years)
Value ($)
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
4000
New (0)
4000
3600
3600
3240
3200
2916
2800
2624
2400
2362
2000
Age (years)
Value ($)
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
4000
New (0)
4000
3600
3000
3300
2500
3100
1500
3000
1000
2950
500
9 A car is bought new for $30 000.

a The straight line method of depreciation sees the car lose $4000 in value each year.
Complete the table below.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
30 000
1
2
3
4
5
b Draw a graph of this depreciation.
307
c The declining balance method of depreciation sees the value of the car fall by 20%
of the previous years value. Complete the table below.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
30 000
1
2
3
4
5
d On the same set of axes draw a graph of this depreciation.
e After how many years is the car worth more under declining balance depreciation
than under straight line depreciation?
Straight line depreciation

We have already seen that the method of straight line depreciation is where the value of
an item depreciates by a constant amount each year. The depreciated value of an item is
called the salvage value, S. The salvage value of an asset can be calculated using the
formula:
S = V0 Dn
where V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount of depreciation apportioned
per period and n is the number of periods.
WORKED Example 3
A laundry buys dry-cleaning
equipment for $30 000. The
equipment depreciates at a
rate of $2500 per year.
Calculate the salvage value
of the equipment after
6 years.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute the values of V0, D and n.
Calculate the value of S.
S = V0 Dn
S = $30 000
S = $15 000
$2500
By solving an equation we are able to calculate when the value of an asset falls below
a particular amount.
308
WORKED Example 4
A plumber purchases equipment for a total of $60 000. The value of the equipment is
depreciated by $7500 per year. When the value of the equipment falls below $10 000 it
should be replaced. Calculate the number of years after which the equipment should be
replaced.
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute for S, V0 and D.
10 000 = 60 000
Solve the equation to find the value

of n.
7500n = 50 000
n = 6 2---
Give a written answer, taking the value

of n up to the next whole number.
The equipment must be replaced after 7 years.
S = V0
Dn
7500n
Graphics Calculator tip! Solving a depreciation equation

Your graphics calculator can be used as shown below to solve equations such as that
arising in worked example 4.
2. Press F3 (Solver).
3. Delete any existing equation, and enter the equation

that arises after the substitution is made.
Note: You may have a different value of N, but at this
stage this can be ignored.
309
remember
1. Straight line depreciation occurs when the value of an asset depreciates by a
constant amount each year.
2. The formula to calculate the salvage value, S, of an asset is:
S = V0 Dn
where V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount of depreciation
apportioned per period and n is the total number of periods.
3. To calculate a value of V0, D or n we substitute all known values and solve the
equation that is formed.
10B
WORKED
Example
1 A car that is purchased for $45 000 depreciates by $5000 each year. Calculate the
salvage value of the car after 5 years.
10.3 SkillS
Solving
2 Calculate the salvage value:
linear
a after 5 years of a computer that is purchased for $5000 and depreciates by $800 equations
per year
b after 7 years of a motorbike that is purchased for $25 000 and depreciates by $2100
per year
c after 6 years of a semi-trailer that is purchased for $750 000 and depreciates by
$80 000 per year
d after 2 years of a mobile phone that is purchased for $225 and depreciates by $40
per year
e after 4 years of a farmers plough that is purchased for $80 000 and depreciates by
$12 000 per year.
3 A bus company buys 15 buses for $475 000 each.

a Calculate the total cost of the fleet of buses.
b If each bus depreciates by $25 000 each year, calculate the salvage value of the
fleet of buses after 9 years.
4 The price of a new car is $25 000. The value of the car depreciates by $300 each
month. Calculate the salvage value of the car after 4 years.
WORKED
Example
5 An aeroplane is bought by an airline for $600 million. If the aeroplane depreciates by

$40 million each year, calculate when the value of the aeroplane falls below $300
million.
6 Calculate the length of time for each of the following items to depreciate to the value
given.
a A computer purchased for $5600 to depreciate to less than $1000 at $900 per year
b An electric guitar purchased for $1200 to depreciate to less than $500 at $150 per
year
c An entertainment unit purchased for $6000 to become worthless at $750 per year
d Office equipment purchased for $12 000 to depreciate to less than $2500 at $1500
per year
HEET
310
7 A motor vehicle depreciates from $40 000 to $15 000 in 10 years. Assuming that it is
depreciating in a straight line, calculate the annual amount of depreciation.
8 Calculate the annual amount of depreciation in an asset that depreciates:
a from $20 000 to $4000 in 4 years
b from $175 000 to $50 000 in 10 years
c from $430 000 to $299 500 in 9 years.
9 A computer purchased for $3600 is written off in 4 years. Calculate the annual
amount of depreciation.
Work
10 A car that is 5 years old has an insured value of $12 500. If the car is depreciating at
a rate of $2500 per year, calculate its purchase price.
T
SHEE
11 Calculate the purchase price of each of the following assets given that:
a after 5 years the value is $50 000 and is depreciating at $12 000 per year
b after 15 years the value is $4000 and is depreciating at $1500 per year
c after 25 years the value is $200 and is depreciating at $50 per year.
10.1
12 An asset that depreciates at $6500 per year is written off after 12 years. Calculate the
purchase price of that asset.
Declining balance method of

depreciation
The declining balance method of depreciation occurs when the value of an asset
depreciates by a given percentage each period.
Consider the case of a car purchased new for $30 000, which depreciates at the rate
of 20% p.a. Each year the salvage value of the car is 80% of its value at the end of the
previous year.
After 1 year: S = 80% of $30 000
= $24 000
After 2 years: S = 80% of $24 000
= $19 200
After 3 years: S = 80% of $19 200
= $15 360
WORKED Example 5
A small truck that was purchased for $45 000 depreciates at a rate of 25% p.a. By
calculating the value at the end of each year, find the salvage value of the truck after
4 years.
THINK
1
The salvage value at the end of each

year will be 75% of its value at the end
of the previous year.
Find the value after 1 year by
calculating 75% of $45 000.
WRITE
After 1 year: S = 75% of $45 000

= $33 750
THINK
3
4
5
311
WRITE
Find the value after 2 years by

calculating 75% of $33 750.
calculating 75% of $25 312.50.
calculating 75% of $18 984.38.
After 2 years: S = 75% of $33 750

= $25 312.50
After 3 years: S = 75% of $25 312.50
= $18 984.38
After 4 years: S = 75% of $18 984.38
= $14 238.28
The salvage value under a declining balance can be calculated using the formula:
S = V0(1
r)n
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price, r is the percentage depreciation
per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods.
This formula can be considered as being similar to the compound interest formula.
In the case of depreciation, however, you need to subtract rather than add the depreciation expressed as a decimal from 1.
WORKED Example 6
The purchase price of a boat is $15 000. The value of the boat depreciates by 10% p.a.
Calculate the salvage value of the boat after 8 years.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute values for V0, r and n.
Calculate the salvage value.
S = V0(1 r)n
S = $15 000 0.98
S = $6457.00
To calculate the amount by which the asset has depreciated, we subtract the salvage
value from the purchase price.
WORKED Example 7
The purchase price of a motor vehicle is $40 000. The vehicle depreciates by 12% p.a.
Calculate the amount by which the vehicle depreciates in 10 years.
THINK
1
2
3
4
Write the formula.

Substitute the value of V0, r and n.
Calculate the value of S.
Calculate the amount of depreciation by
subtracting the salvage value from the
purchase price.
WRITE
S = V0(1 r)n
S = $40 000 0.8810
S = $11 140.04
Depreciation = $40 000 $11 140.04
Depreciation = $28 859.96
312
remember
1. The declining method of depreciation occurs when the value of an asset
depreciates by a fixed percentage each year.
2. The salvage value of an asset can be calculated by subtracting the percentage
depreciation each year.
3. The salvage value can be calculated using the formula:
S = V0(1 r)n
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price, r is the percentage
depreciation per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods.
4. To calculate the amount of depreciation, the salvage value should be subtracted
from the purchase price.
SkillS
10C
HEET
10.4
WORKED
Example
SkillS
Calculating
compound
interest
HEET
Declining balance method

of depreciation
1 The purchase price of a forklift is $50 000. The value of the forklift depreciates by
20% p.a. By calculating the value of the forklift at the end of each year, find the
salvage value of the forklift after 4 years.
2 A trailer is purchased for $5000. The value of the trailer depreciates by 15% each
year. By calculating the value of the trailer at the end of each year, calculate:
a the salvage value of the trailer after 5 years (to the nearest $10)
b the amount by which the trailer depreciates:
i in the first year
ii in the fifth year.
10.5
Finding a
percentage
of a
quantity
(money)
3 A company purchases a mainframe computer for $3 000 000. The value of the
computer depreciates by 15% p.a. By calculating the value at the end of each year,
find the number of years that it takes for the salvage value of the mainframe to fall
below $1 000 000.
WORKED
Example
4 Use the formula S = V0(1 r)n to calculate the

salvage value after 7 years of a power generator
purchased for $800 000 that depreciates at a rate
of 10% p.a. (Give your answer correct to the
nearest $1000.)
5 Calculate the salvage value of an asset (correct to
the nearest $100) with a purchase price of:
a $10 000 that depreciates at 10% p.a. for 5 years
b $250 000 that depreciates at 15% p.a. for
8 years
c $5000 that depreciates at 25% p.a. for 5 years
d $2.2 million that depreciates at 30% p.a. for
10 years
e $50 000 that depreciates at 40% p.a. for
5 years.
313
6 A plumber has tools and equipment valued at $18 000. If the value of the equipment
depreciates by 30% each year, calculate the value of the equipment after 3 years.
WORKED
Example
7 A yacht is valued at $950 000. The value of the yacht depreciates by 22% p.a.
Calculate the amount that the yacht will depreciate in value over the first 5 years
(correct to the nearest $1000).
8 A new car is purchased for $35 000. The owner plans to keep the car for 5 years and
then trade the car in on another new car. The estimate is that the value of the car will
depreciate by 16% p.a. Calculate:
a the amount the owner can expect as a trade in for the car in 5 years (correct to the
nearest $100)
b the amount by which the car will depreciate in 5 years.
9 multiple choice
A shop owner purchases fittings for her store that cost a total of $120 000. Three years
later, the shop owner is asked to value the fittings for insurance. If the shop owner
allows for depreciation of 15% on the fittings, which of the following calculations
will give the correct estimate of their value?
A 120 000 0.853
B 120 000 0.153
C 120 000 0.55
D 120 000 0.45
10 multiple choice
A computer purchased for $3000 will depreciate by 25% p.a. The salvage value of the
computer after 4 years will be closest to:
A $0
B $10
C $950
D $2000
11 An electrician purchases tools of trade for a total of $8000. Each year the electrician
is entitled to a tax deduction for the depreciation of this equipment. If the rate of
depreciation allowed is 33%, calculate:
a the value of the equipment at the end of one year (correct to the nearest $1)
b the tax deduction allowed in the first year
c the value of the equipment at the end of two years (correct to the nearest $1)
d the tax deduction allowed in the second year.
12 An accountant purchased a computer for $6000. The value of the computer depreciates
by 33% p.a. When the value of the computer falls below $1000, it is written off and a
new one is purchased. How many years will it take for the computer to be written off?
Rates of depreciation
In the previous investigation you chose a make and model of car and researched the
salvage value of this car after each year.
1 Calculate the percentage depreciation for each year.
2 Calculate if this percentage rate is approximately the same each year.
3 Using the average annual depreciation, calculate a table of salvage values for the
first 5 years of the cars life.
4 Draw a graph showing the depreciating value of the car.
314
1
1 The price of a new DVD player is $1250. The player will depreciate under straight
line depreciation at a rate of $200 per year. Calculate the value of the player after
3 years.
2 An asset that was valued at $39 000 when new depreciates to $22 550 in 7 years.
Calculate the annual amount of depreciation under straight line depreciation.
3 A computer that is purchased new for $9000 depreciates at a rate of $1350 per year.
Calculate the length of time before the computer is written off.
4 A car dealer values a used car at $7000. If the car is 8 years old and the rate of
depreciation is $1750 per year, calculate the value of the car when new.
5 Write the formula for depreciation under the declining balance method.
6 A truck is valued new at $50 000 and depreciates at a rate of 32% p.a. Calculate the
value of the truck after 5 years (correct to the nearest $50).
7 An asset that has a purchase price of $400 000 depreciates at a rate of 45% p.a.
Calculate the assets value after 6 years (correct to the nearest $1000).
8 For the asset in question 7, calculate the amount by which it has depreciated in
6 years.
9 Office equipment valued at $250 000 depreciates at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate the
amount by which it depreciates in the first year.
10 Calculate the length of time it will take for the salvage value of the office equipment
in question 9 to fall below $20 000.
Depreciation tables
The computer application below will prepare a table that will show the depreciated
value of an asset with a purchase price of $1 over various periods of time and various
rates of depreciation.
Computer Application 1 Depreciation table

1. Open a new spreadsheet and enter the following information.
2. In cell B3 enter the formula =(1-B$2)^$A3.
3. Highlight the range of cells B3 to J12. Then use the Edit and then the Fill and Right
and Fill and Down functions to copy the formula throughout the table.
4. The table that you now have should have the values shown in the table on page 315.
315
Rate of depreciation (per annum)

Time
(years)
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
0.9500 0.9000 0.8500 0.8000 0.7500 0.7000 0.6500 0.6000 0.5500 0.5000
0.9025 0.8100 0.7225 0.6400 0.5625 0.4900 0.4225 0.3600 0.3025 0.2500
0.8574 0.7290 0.6141 0.5120 0.4219 0.3430 0.2746 0.2160 0.1664 0.1250
0.8145 0.6561 0.5220 0.4096 0.3164 0.2401 0.1785 0.1296 0.0915 0.0625
0.7738 0.5905 0.4437 0.3277 0.2373 0.1681 0.1160 0.0778 0.0503 0.0313
0.7351 0.5314 0.3771 0.2621 0.1780 0.1176 0.0754 0.0467 0.0277 0.0156
0.6983 0.4783 0.3206 0.2097 0.1335 0.0824 0.0490 0.0280 0.0152 0.0078
0.6634 0.4305 0.2725 0.1678 0.1001 0.0576 0.0319 0.0168 0.0084 0.0039
0.6302 0.3874 0.2316 0.1342 0.0751 0.0404 0.0207 0.0101 0.0046 0.0020
10
0.5987 0.3487 0.1969 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010
5. Use the spreadsheets graphing facility to draw a depreciation graph for each of the
depreciation rates shown in the table.
The table produced by the computer application shows the depreciated value of $1 and
can be used to make calculations about depreciation.
316
WORKED Example 8
An item is purchased for $500 and depreciates at a rate of 15% p.a. Use the depreciation
table on page 315 to calculate the value of the item after 4 years.
THINK
1
WRITE
Look up the table to find the

depreciated value of $1 at 15% p.a. for
4 years.
Multiply the depreciated value of $1 by
$500.
Depreciated value = 0.5220

Depreciated value = $261
$500
The computer application on pages 31415 will produce a general table for a declining
balance depreciation. We should be able to use the formula to create a table and graph
showing the salvage value of an asset under both straight line and declining balance
depreciation.
WORKED Example 9
A car is purchased new for $20 000. The depreciation can be calculated under straight line
depreciation at $2500 per year and under declining balance at 20% p.a.
a Complete the table below. (Give all values to the nearest $1.)
Age of car (years)
Straight line value ($)
Declining balance value ($)
New (0)
20 000
20 000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
b Draw a graph of both the straight line and declining balance depreciation and use the
graph to show the point at which the straight line value of the car falls below the
declining balance value.
THINK
a
1
2
Copy the table.

Complete the straight line column by
subtracting $2500 from the previous
years value.
WRITE
WRITE
Complete the declining balance by

multiplying the previous years value
by 0.8.
Plot the points generated by the

table.
Join the points for the straight line
depreciation with a straight line.
Join the points for the declining
balance depreciation with a smooth
curve.
a
Age of
car
(years)
Straight line
value ($)
Declining
balance value
($)
New (0)
20 000
20 000
17 500
16 000
15 000
12 800
12 500
10 240
10 000
8 192
7 500
6 554
5 000
5 243
2 500
4 194
3 355
b
25 000
Value ($)
THINK
317
20 000
Straight line
value
Declining
balance value
15 000
10 000
5 000
0
(New)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Age (years)
The graph shows the straight line

going below the curve after 6 years.
The straight line depreciation value becomes

less than the declining balance depreciation
value after 6 years.
Depreciation is an allowable tax deduction for people in many occupations. A tax

deduction for depreciation is allowed when equipment used in earning an income
depreciates in value and will eventually need replacing. Depending on the equipment
and the occupation, either straight line or declining balance depreciation may be used.
Under declining balance depreciation, when the salvage value falls below a certain
point the equipment may be written off. This means that the entire remaining balance
can be claimed as a tax deduction and as such is considered worthless. From this point
on, no further tax deductions can be claimed for this equipment.
318
WORKED Example 10
A builder has tools of trade that are purchased new for $14 000. He is allowed a
tax deduction of 33% p.a. for depreciation of this equipment. When the salvage
value of the equipment falls below $3000, the builder is allowed to write the
equipment off on the next years return. Complete the depreciation table below.
(Use whole dollars only.)
Years
Salvage value ($)
Tax deduction ($)
1
2
3
4
5
THINK
1
WRITE
Calculate the salvage value by

by 0.67.
Calculate the tax deduction by
by 0.33.
When the salvage value is less than
$3000, claim the entire amount as a tax
deduction.
Year
Salvage value
($)
Tax deduction
($)
9380
4620
6285
3095
4211
2074
2821
1390
2821
remember
1. Graphs can be drawn to compare the salvage value of an asset under different
rates of depreciation, or to compare declining balance and straight line
depreciation.
2. The amount by which an asset depreciates can, in many cases, be claimed as a
tax deduction.
10D
319
Depreciation tables
1 Use the table of depreciated values of $1 to calculate:

a the value of a computer purchased for $5000 after 5 years, given that it depreci8
ates at 20% p.a.
b the value of a car after 8 years with an initial value of $35 000, given that it
depreciates at 15% p.a.
c the value of a boat with an initial value of $100 000 after 10 years, given that it
depreciates at 10% p.a.
WORKED
10.5 SkillS
Example
HEET
Finding a
percentage
of a
quantity
(money)
Example
SkillS
HEET
2 A taxi owner purchases a new taxi for $40 000. The taxi depreciates under straight line 10.6
depreciation at $5000 per year and under declining balance depreciation at 20% p.a.
9
Reading
a Copy and complete the table below. Give all values to the nearest $100.
WORKED
financial
tables
Declining balance
value ($)
New (0)
40 000
40 000
10.7 SkillS
HEET
Age of car
(years)
Increase or
decreasee by
a percentage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
b Draw a graph of the salvage value of the taxi under both methods of depreciation.
c State when the value under straight line depreciation becomes less than under
declining balance depreciation.
3 A company has office equipment that is valued at $100 000. The value of the equipment can be depreciated at $10 000 each year or by 15% p.a.
a Draw a table that will show the salvage value of the office equipment for the first ten
years using both methods. (Give all values correct to the nearest $50.)
b Draw a graph of the depreciating value of the equipment under both methods of
depreciation.
320
4 A computer purchased new for $4400 can be depreciated at either 20% p.a. or 35% p.a.
Draw a table and a graph that compare the salvage value of the computer at each rate of
depreciation over a 6-year period.
5 A teacher purchases a laptop computer for $6500. A tax deduction for depreciation of
the computer is allowed at the rate of 33% p.a. When the value of the computer falls
10
below $1000, the computer can be written off. Copy and complete the table below.
(Give all values correct to the nearest $1.)
WORKED
Example
Year
Salvage value ($)
Tax deduction ($)
1
2
3
4
5
6
6 A plumber purchases a work van for $45 000. The van can be depreciated at a rate of
25% p.a. for tax purposes, and the van can be written off at the end of 8 years. Copy
and complete the depreciation schedule below. (Give all answers correct to the nearest
$1.)
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Salvage value ($)
Tax deduction ($)
321
7 A truck is purchased for $250 000. The truck can be depreciated at the rate of $25 000
each year or over 10 years at 20% p.a.
a Copy and complete the table below. (Give all values correct to the nearest $1.)
Age of truck
(years)
Declining balance
value ($)
New (0)
250 000
250 000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
b Draw a graph of the depreciating value of the truck under both methods of
depreciation.
c Complete a depreciation schedule for each method of calculation.
9 Calculate the amount of depreciation on each of the following assets.

a A tractor with an initial value of $80 000 that depreciates at 15% p.a. for 3 months
b A bicycle with an initial value of $600 that depreciates at 25% p.a. for 6 months
c Office furniture with an initial value of $8000 that depreciates at 30% p.a. for
8 months
d A set of encyclopedias with an initial value of $2500 that depreciates at 40% p.a. for
9 months
Work
8 Tony is a plumber and on 1 March purchases a panel van for work purposes. The cost
of the panel van is $40 000, and for tax purposes the panel van depreciates at the rate of
25% p.a.
a Calculate the amount that the panel van will depreciate in the first year.
b The financial year ends on 30 June. For what fraction of the financial year did Tony
own the panel van?
c Tony is allowed a tax deduction for depreciation of his work van. Calculate the
amount of tax deduction that Tony is allowed for the financial year ending on
30 June.
T
SHEE
10.2
322
summary
Depreciation can be calculated in two ways. The depreciation can be straight line
depreciation or declining balance depreciation.
Straight line depreciation occurs when the value of an asset decreases by a constant
amount each year. The graph of the salvage value is a straight line, the vertical
intercept is the purchase price and the gradient is the negative of the annual
depreciation.
Declining balance depreciation occurs when the salvage value of the item is a
percentage of the previous years value. The graph of a declining balance
depreciation will be an exponential decay graph.

The salvage value of an asset under straight line depreciation can be calculated
using the formula:
S = V0 Dn
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount
of depreciation apportioned per period and n is the number of periods of
depreciation.
Values of V0, D or n can be calculated by substitution and solving the equation
formed.
Declining balance depreciation

Under declining balance depreciation the salvage value of an asset can be
S = V0(1 r)n
where r is the percentage depreciation per period expressed as a decimal.
To calculate the amount by which an asset depreciates in a year, we subtract the
salvage value at the end of the year from the salvage value at the beginning of the
year.
Depreciation tables
Depreciation can be compared using either a table or a graph.
Tax deductions are allowed for depreciation of assets that are used as part of
earning an income.
A depreciation schedule is used to calculate tax deductions over a period of years
on an asset.
323
CHAPTER
review
1 The table below shows the depreciating value of a pleasure cruiser.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
200 000
180 000
160 000
140 000
120 000
100 000
10A
a Draw a graph of the value of the pleasure cruiser against its age.
b Write a function for the value of the pleasure cruiser.
2 The table below shows the depreciating value of a racing bike.
Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
3500
3250
3000
2750
2500
2250
10A
a Draw a graph of the value of the bike against age.

b Write a function for the straight line depreciation.
c Use your graph to estimate the value of the bike after 9 years.
3 The function V = 15 000 900A shows the value, V, of a motorcycle when it is
A years old.
a Draw a graph of this function.
b Use the graph to calculate the value of the motorcycle after 5 years.
c After how many years would the motorcycle be written off?
10A
324
10A
4 The table below shows the declining value of a delivery van.

Age (years)
Value ($)
New (0)
60 000
48 000
38 400
30 720
24 576
19 660
a Plot the points as given in the table, and then draw a curve of best fit to graph the
depreciation of the van.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of the van after 10 years.
c After what number of years will the value of the van fall below $10 000?
10A
5 A laundry buys dry-cleaning equipment for $8000. Each year the equipment depreciates by
25% of the previous years value. Calculate the value of the equipment at the end of the first
five years, and use the results to draw a graph of the depreciation.
10B
6 The purchase price of a car is $32 500. The car depreciates by $3250 each year. Use the
formula S = V0 Dn to calculate the salvage value of the car after 8 years.
10B
7 Calculate the salvage value of an asset:

a after 6 years, that was purchased for $4000 and depreciates by $450 each year
b after 10 years, that was purchased for $75 000 and depreciates by $6000 each year
c after 9 years, that was purchased for $640 000 and depreciates by $45 000 each year.
10B
8 A movie projector is purchased by a cinema for $30 000. The projector depreciates by $2500
each year. Calculate the length of time it takes for the projector to be written off.
10B
9 A camera that was purchased new for $1500 has a salvage value of $500 four years later.
Calculate the annual amount of depreciation on the camera.
10B
10 Arthur buys a car for $25 000. The depreciation on the car is $2250 each year. He decides
that he will trade the car in on a new car in the final year before the salvage value falls below
$10 000. When will Arthur trade the car in?
10C
11 The purchase price of a mobile home is $40 000. The value of the mobile home depreciates
by 15% p.a. By calculating the value of the mobile home at the end of each year, find the
salvage value of the mobile home after 4 years. (Give your answer correct to the nearest $1.)
10C
12 Use the formula S = V0(1 r)n to calculate the salvage value after 7 years of a crop duster
that was purchased for $850 000 and depreciates at 8% p.a. (Give your answer correct to the
nearest $1000.)
10C
13 Calculate the salvage value of an asset (correct to the nearest $10) with a purchase price of:
a $40 000 that depreciates at 10% p.a. for 5 years
b $1500 that depreciates at 4% p.a. for 10 years
c $180 000 that depreciates at 12.5% p.a. for 15 years
d $4.5 million that depreciates at 40% p.a. for 10 years
e $250 000 that depreciates at 33 1--- % p.a. for 4 years.
3
325
14 A company buys a new bus for $600 000. The company keeps buses for 10 years and then
trades them in on a new bus. The estimate is that the value of the bus will depreciate by
12% p.a. Calculate:
a the amount the owner can expect as a trade-in for the bus in 10 years
b the amount by which the bus will depreciate in 10 years.
10C
15 A company has office equipment that is valued at $100 000. The value of the equipment can
be depreciated at $10 000 each year or by 15% p.a.
a Draw a table to show the salvage value of the office equipment for the first ten years.
b Draw a graph of the depreciating value of the equipment under both depreciation methods.
10D
16 A personal computer is purchased for $4500. A tax deduction for depreciation of the
computer is allowed at the rate of 33% p.a. When the value of the computer falls below
$1000, the computer can be written off. Copy and complete the table below.
10D
Year
Salvage value ($)
Tax deduction ($)
1
2
3
4
5

1 multiple choice
Which of the following tables gives an example of declining balance depreciation?
A
Year
Salvage value
Year
Salvage value ($)
New (0)
20 000
New (0)
20 000
18 000
18 200
16 200
16 400
14 580
14 600
13 122
12 800
Year
Salvage value
Year
Salvage value ($)
New (0)
20 000
New (0)
20 000
18 000
17 000
16 500
15 000
15 500
14 000
15 000
13 500
326
2 multiple choice
A helicopter is purchased by a company for $3.3 million. The salvage value of the helicopter
depreciates in a straight line at a rate of $240 000 per year. After how many years will the
value of the helicopter be less than $1 million?
A 8
B 9
C 10
D 11
3 multiple choice
Trevor purchases a new computer for $5000. It depreciates under declining balance
depreciation at a rate of 20% p.a. Each year Trevor claims the amount of depreciation on the
computer as a tax deduction. The amount of Trevors tax deduction in the third year is:
A $640
B $1000
C $2560
D $3200
4 multiple choice
The value of a new car depreciates by 12.5% p.a. The salvage value in 5 years of a car that
was purchased new for $37 500 is (to the nearest $100):
A $9375
B $18 300
C $19 200
D $32 800
5 The value of a home theatre system when purchased new is $3000. The system depreciates at
the rate of 15% p.a. under declining balance depreciation.
a Calculate the salvage value of the system in 4 years (correct to the nearest $1).
b By how much has the system depreciated in this time?
c Calculate the equivalent rate of straight line depreciation over the four years.
d Graph the salvage value of the home theatre system under both declining balance and
straight line depreciation.
6 An office is fitted with $200 000 of office equipment. The company claims tax deductions for
the depreciation of the equipment at the rate of 12% p.a.
a Calculate the amount of tax deduction claimed by the company in the first year.
b Complete the depreciation schedule below.
Year
Salvage value ($)
Tax deduction ($)
1
2
3
4
CHAPTER
test
yourself
10
5
c When the value of the equipment falls below $50 000, the equipment is written off and
replaced. After how many years will the equipment be written off?
The normal
distribution
11
syllabus reference
Data analysis 6
The normal distribution
In this chapter
11A z-scores
11B Comparison of scores
11C Distribution of scores
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
11.1
11.2
Finding the mean
1 Find the mean of each of the following data sets.

a 4, 6, 2, 7, 9, 3, 6, 9
b 45, 72, 90, 70, 69, 48, 62, 99, 47, 55
c
d
Score
Frequency
Score
Frequency
6
15
12
13
16
36
16
17
42
12
18
15
10
19
11
20
Finding the standard deviation
2 Find the population standard deviation of each of the data sets in question 1. Give each answer
11.3
Choosing the appropriate standard deviation
3 In each of the following choose the appropriate measure of standard deviation.

a On entering a certain music store people are asked how many CDs they own.
b The number of parliamentarians who vote in favour of bills brought before parliament.
Chapter 11 The normal distribution
329
z-scores
A normal distribution is a statistical occurrence where a data set
of scores is symmetrically distributed about the mean. Most
continuous variables in a population, such as height, mass and
time, are normally distributed. In a normal distribution, the
frequency histogram is symmetrical and begins to take on a
x
bell shape as shown by the figure on the right.
The normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean, which has the same value as
the median and mode in this distribution. The graph of a normal distribution will extend
symmetrically in both directions and will always remain above the x-axis.
The spread of the normal distribution will depend on the standard deviation. The lower
the standard deviation, the more clustered the scores will be around the mean. The figure
below left shows a normal distribution with a low standard deviation, while the figure
below right shows a normal distribution with a much greater standard deviation.
x
x
To gain a comparison between a particular score and the rest of the population, we
use the z-score. The z-score (or standardised score) indicates the position of a
particular score in relation to the mean. z-scores are a very important statistical measure
and later in the chapter some of their uses will be explained.
A z-score of 0 indicates that the score obtained is equal to the mean, a negative
z-score indicates that the score is below the mean and a positive z-score indicates a
score above the mean.
The z-score measures the distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation.
A score that is exactly one standard deviation above the mean has a z-score of 1. A
score that is exactly one standard deviation below the mean has a z-score of 1.
To calculate a z-score we use the formula:
xx
z = ----------s
where x is the score, x is the mean and s is the standard deviation.
WORKED Example 1
In an IQ test the mean IQ is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. Dales test results give
an IQ of 130. Calculate this as a z-score.
THINK
1
Write the formula.
Substitute for x, x and s.
Calculate the z-score.
WRITE
xx
z = ----------s
130 100
z = -----------------------15
z=2
330
Dales z-score is 2, meaning that his IQ is exactly two standard deviations above the mean.
Not all z-scores will be whole numbers; in fact most will not be whole numbers. A
whole number indicates only that the score is an exact number of standard deviations
above or below the mean.
WORKED Example 2
A sample of professional basketball players gives the mean height as 192 cm with a
standard deviation of 12 cm. Dieter is 183 cm tall. Calculate Dieters height as a z-score.
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
xx
z = ----------s
183 192
z = -----------------------12
z = 0.75
The negative z-score in worked example 2 indicates that Dieters height is below the
mean but, in this case, by less than one standard deviation.
When examining z-scores, care must be taken to use the appropriate value for the
standard deviation. If examining a population, the population standard deviation ( n)
should be used and if a sample has been taken, the sample standard deviation ( n 1
or sn) should be used.
Remember: Your graphics calculator displays all of this information once data is stored
and calculated using the statistics function.
WORKED Example 3
To obtain the average number of hours study done by students in her class per week,
Kate surveys 20 students and obtains the following results.
12 18 15 14 9 10 13 12 18 25
15 10 3 21 11 12 14 16 17 20
a Calculate the mean and population standard deviation (correct to 3 decimal places).
b Robert does 16 hours of study each week. Express this as a z-score based on the above
results. (Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.)
THINK
WRITE
1
2
3
Enter the data into your calculator.

Obtain the mean from your calculator.
Obtain the standard deviation from your
calculator using the sample standard deviation.
Write the formula.
x = 14.25
sn = 4.753
xx
b z = ----------s
16 14.25
z = ------------------------4.753
z = 0.368
331
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the z-score

Your graphics calculator can be used to find a z-score once the data is stored and the
calculator has in its memory the mean and standard deviation. The z-score calculated
here is found using the population standard deviation. Make sure that this is the appropriate standard deviation for the question that you are doing. Consider worked example 3.
2. Delete any existing data and enter the scores from

worked example 3 in List 1.
3. Press F2 (CALC). You may need to press F6 first

for more options.
4. Press F6 (SET). Check that 1Var Xlist is set to List 1

and 1Var Freq is set to 1.

then press F1 (1VAR) to display the summary
statistics.
6. Press MENU and then select RUN.
7. Press OPTN
(PROB).
F6 for more options and then F3
8. Again press F6 for more options and then F4 t().

This is the z-score function, so enter 16, close
brackets and press EXE .
332
remember
1. A data set is normally distributed if it is symmetrical about the mean.
2. The graph of a normally distributed data set is a bell-shaped curve that is
symmetrical about the mean. In such a distribution the mean, median and mode
are equal.
3. A z-score is used to measure the position of a score in a data set relative to the
mean.
4. The formula used to calculate a z-score is:
xx
z = ----------s
where x is the score, x is the mean, and s is the standard deviation.
SkillS
11A
HEET
11.1
WORKED
Example
SkillS
3 Tracy is a nurse and samples the mass of

50 newborn babies born in the
hospital in which she works.
She finds that the mean
mass is 3.5 kg, with a
standard deviation of
0.4 kg. What would be
the standardised score of
a baby whose birth mass
was:
a 3.5 kg?
b 3.9 kg?
c 2.7 kg?
d 4.7 kg?
e 3.1 kg?
11.2
SkillS
Finding
the
standard
deviation
HEET
1 In a Maths exam the mean score is 60 and the standard deviation is 12. Chifunes
mark is 96. Calculate her mark as a z-score.
2 In an English test the mean score was 55 with a standard deviation of 5. Adrian scored
45 on the English test. Calculate Adrians mark on the test as a z-score.
Finding
the
mean
HEET
z-scores
11.3
Choosing the
appropriate
standard
deviation
4 Ricky finds that the mean number of hours spent watching television each week by
Year 12 students is 10.5 hours, with a standard deviation of 3.2 hours. How many
hours of television is watched by a person who has a standardised score of:
a 0?
b 1?
c 2?
d 1?
e 3?
WORKED
Example
5 IQ tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Calculate the z-score for
a person with an IQ of 96. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
6 The mean time taken for a racehorse to run 1 km is 57.69 s, with a standard deviation
of 0.36 s. Calculate the z-score of a racehorse that runs 1 km in 58.23 s.
333
7 In a major exam every subject has a mean score of 60 and a standard deviation of
12.5. Clarissa obtains the following marks on her exams. Express each as a z-score.
a English 54
b Maths 78
c Biology 61
d Geography 32
e Art 95
8 The mean time for athletes over 100 m is 10.3 s, with a standard deviation of 0.14 s.
What time would correspond to a z-score of:
a 0?
b 2?
c 0.5?
d 3?
e 0.35?
f 1.6?
WORKED
Example
9 The length of bolts being produced by a machine needs to be measured. To do this, a

sample of 20 bolts are taken and measured. The results (in mm) are given below.
20 19 18 21 20 17 19 21 22 21
17 17 21 20 17 19 18 22 22 20
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.
b A bolt produced by the machine is 22.5 mm long. Express this result as a z-score.
(Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
10 A garage has 50 customers who have credit accounts with them. The amount spent by
each credit account customer each week is shown in the table below.
Amount ($)
Class centre
Frequency
020
2040
4060
19
6080
15
80100
a Copy and complete the table.

b Calculate the mean and standard deviation.
c Calculate the z-score that corresponds to a customers weekly account of:
i $50
ii $100
iii $15.40.
11 multiple choice
In a normal distribution, the mean is 21.7 and the standard deviation is 1.9. A score of
20.75 corresponds to a z-score of:
A 1
B 0.5
C 0.5
D1
12 multiple choice
In a normal distribution, the mean is 58. A score of 70 corresponds to a standardised
score of 1.5. The standard deviation of the distribution is:
A6
B 8
C 10
D 12
13 multiple choice
In a normal distribution, a score of 4.6 corresponds to a z-score of 2.4. It is known
that the standard deviation of the distribution is 0.8. The mean of the distribution is:
A 2.2
B 2.68
C 6.52
D 6.8
334
14 The results of 24 students sitting a Maths exam are listed below.

95 63 45 48 78 75 80 66 60 58 59 62
52 57 64 75 81 60 65 70 65 63 62 49
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks.
b Calculate the standardised score of the highest score and the lowest score, correct
Work
15 The results of Lukes exams are shown in the table below.
T
SHEE
11.1
Subject
Lukes mark
Mean
Standard deviation
English
72
60
12
Maths
72
55
13
Biology
76
64
Computing studies
60
70
Visual arts
60
50
15
Music
50
58
10
Convert each of Lukes results to a standardised score.
Comparison of scores
An important use of z-scores is to compare scores from different data sets. Suppose that
in your Maths exam your result was 74 and in English your result was 63. In which
subject did you achieve the better result?
It may appear, at first glance, that the Maths result is better, but this does not take
into account the difficulty of the test. A mark of 63 on a difficult English test may in
fact be a better result than 74 if it was an easy Maths test.
The only way that we can fairly compare the results is by comparing each result with
its mean and standard deviation. This is done by converting each result to a z-score.
If for Maths x = 60 and
= 12, then
xx
z = ----------s
74 60
= -----------------12
= 1.17
And if for English x = 50 and
xx
= 8, then z = ----------s
63 50
= -----------------8
= 1.625
The English result is better because the higher z-score shows that the 63 is higher in
comparison to the mean of each subject.
335
WORKED Example 4
Janine scored 82 in her Physics exam and 78 in her Chemistry exam. In Physics, x = 62
and n = 10, while in Chemistry, x = 66 and n = 5.
a Write both results as a standardised score.
b Which is the better result? Explain your answer.
THINK
WRITE
xx
xx
a Physics: z = ----------- Chemistry: z = ----------s
s
82 62
78 66
= -----------------= -----------------10
5
=2
= 2.4
Write the formula for each subject.
Calculate each z-score.
b Explain that the subject with the highest

z-score is the better result.
b The Chemistry result is better because of the

higher z-score.
In each example the circumstances must be read carefully to see whether a higher or
lower z-score is better. For example, if we were comparing times for runners over
different distances, the lower z-score would be the better one.
WORKED Example 5
In international swimming the mean time for the mens 100 m freestyle is 50.46 s with a
standard deviation of 0.6 s. For the 200 m freestyle, the mean time is 1 min 51.4 s with a
standard deviation of 1.4 s. Sams best time is 49.92 s for 100 m and 1 min 49.3 for 200 m.
At a competition Sam can enter only one of these events. Which event should he enter?
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula for both events.
Substitute for x, x and s. (For 200 m

convert time to seconds.)
Calculate the z-scores.
The best event is the one with the lower
z-score.
3
4
xx
100 m: z = ----------200 m: z =
s
49.92 50.46
= --------------------------------=
0.6
xx
----------s
109.3 111.4
--------------------------------1.4
= 0.9
= 1.5
The z-score for 200 m is lower, indicating that
Sams time is further below the mean and that
this is the event that he should enter.
remember
1. Scores can be compared by their z-scores as they compare the score with the
mean and the standard deviation.
2. Read each question carefully to see if a higher or lower z-score is a better
outcome.
336
11B
EXCE
et
reads
L Sp he
One
variable
statistics
WORKED
Example
1 Kens English mark was 75 and his Maths mark was 72. In English the mean was 65
with a standard deviation of 8, while in Maths the mean mark was 56 with a standard
deviation of 12.
a Convert the mark in each subject to a z-score.
b In which subject did Ken perform better? Explain your answer.
2 In the first Maths test of the year the mean mark was 60 and the standard deviation
was 12. In the second test the mean was 55 and the standard deviation was 15.
Barbara scored 54 in the first test and 50 in the second test. In which test did Barbara
do better? Explain your answer.
3 multiple choice
The table below shows the mean and standard deviation in four subjects.
Subject
Mean
Standard deviation
English
60
12
Maths
65
Biology
62
16
Geography
52
7.5
Kellys marks were English 66, Maths 70, Biology 50 and Geography 55. In which
subject did Kelly achieve her best result?
A English
B Maths
C Biology
D Geography
4 multiple choice
The table below shows the mean and standard deviation of house prices in four
Australian cities. The table also shows the cost of building the same three-bedroom
house in each of the cities.
City
Mean
Standard deviation
Cost
Sydney
$230 000
$30 000
$215 000
Melbourne
$215 000
$28 000
$201 000
Adelaide
$185 000
$25 000
$160 000
Brisbane
$190 000
$20 000
$165 000
In which city is the standardised cost of building the house least?

A Sydney
B Melbourne
C Adelaide
D Brisbane
WORKED
Example
337
5 Karrie is a golfer who scored 70 on course A, which has a mean of 72 and a standard
deviation of 2.5. On course B, Karrie scores 69. The mean score on course B is 72
and the standard deviation is 4. On which course did Karrie play
the better round? (In golf the lower score is better.)
6 Steve is a marathon runner. On the Olympic course in Sydney
the mean time is 2 hours and 15 minutes with a standard deviation
of 4.5 minutes. On Athens Olympic course the mean time is
2 hours and 16 minutes with a standard deviation of 3 minutes.
In Sydney Steves time was 2 hours 17 minutes and in Athens his
time was 2 hours 19 minutes.
a Write both times as a z-score.
b Which was the better performance? Explain your
answer.
7 multiple choice
The table below shows the mean and standard deviation
of times in the 100 m by the same group of athletes on
four different days. It also shows Matts time on each of these days.
Day
Mean
Standard deviation
Matts time
8 Jan.
10.21
0.15
10.12
15 Jan.
10.48
0.28
10.30
22 Jan.
10.14
0.09
10.05
29 Jan.
10.22
0.12
10.11
On what day did Matt give his best performance?

A 8 Jan.
B 15 Jan.
C 22 Jan.
D 29 Jan.
8 multiple choice
In which of the following subjects did Alyssa achieve her best standardised result?
Subject
Alyssas mark
Mean
Standard deviation
English
54
60
12
Maths
50
55
15
Biology
60
65
Music
53
62
A English
B Maths
C Biology
D Music
9 Shun Mei received a mark of 64 on her Maths exam and 63 on her Chemistry exam.
To determine how well she actually did on the exams, Shun Mei sampled 10 people
who sat for the same exams and the results are shown below.
Maths:
56 45 82 90 41 32 65 60 55 69
Chemistry: 55 63 39 92 84 46 47 50 58 62
338
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for Shun Meis sample in each subject.
b By converting each of Shun Meis marks to z-scores, state the subject in which she
performed best.
10 Ricardo scored 85 on an entrance test for a job. The test has a mean score of 78 and a
standard deviation of 8. Kory sits a similar exam and scores 27. In this exam the mean
is 18 and the standard deviation is 6. Who is better suited for the job? Explain your
answer.
1
1 In a normal distribution the mean is 32 and the standard deviation 6. Convert a score
of 44 to a z-score.
2 In a normal distribution the mean is 1.2 and the standard deviation is 0.3. Convert a
score of 0.6 to a z-score.
3 The mean of a distribution is 254 and the standard deviation is 39. Write a score of
214 as a standardised score, correct to 2 decimal places.
4 The mean mark on an exam is 62 and the standard deviation is 9.5. Convert a mark of
90 to a z-score. (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
5 Explain what is meant by a z-score of 1.
6 Explain what is meant by a z-score of 2.
7 In a distribution, the mean is 50 and the standard deviation is 10. What score
corresponds to a z-score of 0?
8 In a distribution the mean score is 60. If a mark of 76 corresponds to a standardised
score of 2, what is the standard deviation?
9 Cynthia scored a mark of 65 in English where the mean was 55 and the standard
deviation is 8. In Maths Cynthia scored 66 where the mean was 52 and the standard
deviation 10. Convert the mark in each subject to a z-score.
10 In which subject did Cynthia achieve her best result?
Comparison of subjects
1 List all the subjects that you study. Arrange the subjects in the order that you
feel is from your strongest subject to your weakest.
2 List your most recent exam results in each subject.
3 From your teachers, find out the mean and standard deviation of the results in
each subject.
4 Convert each of your marks to a standardised score.
5 List your subjects from best to worst based on the standardised score and see
how this list compares with the initial list that you wrote.
339
Distribution of scores
In any normal distribution, the percentage of scores that lie within a certain number
of standard deviations of the mean is always the same, provided that the sample is
large enough. This is true irrespective of the values of the mean and standard
deviation.
In any normal distribution, approximately
68% of the values will lie within one standard
deviation of the mean. This means 68% of
scores will have a z-score between 1 and 1.
68%
This can be shown on a normal curve as:
z
3 2 1
Approximately 95% of the values lie within

2 standard deviations, or have a z-score of
between 2 and 2.
95%
z
3 2 1
Approximately 99.7% of scores lie within 3

standard deviations, or have a z-score that lies
between 3 and 3.
99.7%
z
3 2 1
If we know that a random variable is approximately normally distributed, and we

know its mean and standard deviation, then we can use this rule to quickly make some
important statements about the way in which the data values are distributed.
WORKED Example 6
Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be
assumed to be normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
Approximately what percentage of the distribution lies:
a between 85 and 115?
b between 70 and 130?
c between 55 and 145?
THINK
WRITE
85 100
115 100
a z = --------------------z = -----------------------15
15
= 1
=1
68% of the scores will lie between
85 and 115.
Calculate the z-scores for

85 and 115.
68% of scores have a z-score

between 1 and 1.
Continued over page
340
THINK
WRITE
70 100
130 100
b z = --------------------z = -----------------------15
15
= 2
=2
95% of the scores will lie between 70 and 130.

70 and 130.
95% of scores have a z-score

between 2 and 2.

55 and 145.
99.7% of scores have a z-score

between 3 and 3.
55 100
145 100
c z = --------------------z = -----------------------15
15
= 3
=3
99.7% will lie between 55 and 145.
We can also make statements about the percentage of scores that lie in the tails of the
distribution by using the symmetry of the distribution and remembering that 50% of
scores will have a z-score greater than 0 and 50% will have a z-score less than 0.
WORKED Example 7
In an exam x = 60 and
above 84?
= 12. What percentage of candidates in the exam scored
THINK
WRITE
Calculate 84 as a z-score.
Draw a sketch showing 95% of z-scores

lie between 2 and 2.
5% of z-scores therefore lie outside this
range. Half of these scores lie below 2
and half are above 2.
xx
z = ----------s
84 60
z = -----------------12
z=2
2.5%
95%
95%
60
2.5%
84
2.5% of scores are greater than 84.
Some important terminology is used in connection with this rule. We can say that if
95% of scores have a z-score between 2 and 2, then if one member of the population
is chosen, that member will very probably have a z-score between 2 and 2.
If 99.7% of the population has a z-score between 3 and 3, then if one member of
that population is chosen, that member will almost certainly have a z-score between 3
and 3.
341
WORKED Example 8
A machine produces tyres that have a mean thickness of 12 mm, with a standard deviation
of 1 mm. If one tyre that has been produced is chosen at random, within what limits will
the thickness of the tyre:
a very probably lie?
b almost certainly lie?
THINK
WRITE
Tyre thickness will very probably

have a z-score between 2 and 2.
A z-score of 2 corresponds to a tyre
of 10 mm thickness.
of 14 mm thickness.
a If z = 2
If z = 2
x = x 2s
x = x + 2s
= 12 2 1
= 12 + 2 1
= 10
= 14
A tyre chosen will very probably have a
thickness of between 10 and 14 mm.
Tyre thickness will almost certainly

have a z-score between 3 and 3.
of 9 mm thickness.
of 15 mm thickness.
b If z = 3
If z = 3
x = x 3s
x = x + 35
= 12 3 1
= 12 + 3 1
= 9
= 15
A tyre chosen will almost certainly have a
thickness of between 9 and 15 mm.
Because it is almost certain that a member of the data set will lie within three standard
deviations of the mean, if a possible member of the data set is found to be outside this
range one should suspect a problem.
For example, if a machine is set to deposit 200 mL of liquid into a bottle, with a
standard deviation of 5 mL, and then a bottle is found to have contents of 220 mL, one
would expect there to be a problem with the settings on the machine.
This knowledge of z-scores is then used in industry by the quality control department. In the above example a sample of bottles would be tested and the z-scores
recorded. The percentage of z-scores between 1 and 1, 2 and 2, and 3 and 3 are
checked against the above rule. If these percentages are not correct, the machinery
needs to be checked for faults.
remember
1. In a normal distribution:
68% of scores will have a z-score between 1 and 1
95% of scores will have a z-score between 2 and 2
99.7% of scores will have a z-score between 3 and 3.
2. The symmetry of the normal distribution allows us to make calculations about
the percentage of scores lying within certain limits.
3. If a member of a normally distributed population is chosen, it will:
very probably have a z-score between 2 and 2
almost certainly have a z-score between 3 and 3.
4. Any score further than three standard deviations from the mean indicates that
there may be a problem with the data set.
342
11C
WORKED
Example
1 The temperature on a January day in a city is normally distributed with a mean of 26

and a standard deviation of 3. What percentage of January days lie between:
a 23 and 29?
b 20 and 32?
c 17 and 35?
2 The marks of students sitting for a major exam are normally distributed with x = 57
and sn = 13. What percentage of marks on the exam were between:
a 44 and 70?
b 31 and 83?
c 18 and 96?
3 The mean thickness of bolts produced by a machine is 2.3 mm, with a standard
deviation of 0.04 mm. What percentage of bolts will have a thickness between
2.22 mm and 2.38 mm?
WORKED
Example
4 Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be
assumed to be normally distributed with a mean = 100 and a standard deviation
s = 15. What percentage of scores lie above 115?
5 The heights of young women are normally distributed with a mean x = 160 cm and a
standard deviation sn = 8 cm. What percentage of the women would you expect to
have heights:
a between 152 and 168 cm?
b greater than 168 cm?
c less than 136 cm?
6 The age at which women give birth to their first child is normally distributed with
x = 27.5 years and sn = 3.2 years. From these data we can conclude that about 95%
of women have their first child between what ages?
7 Fill in the blanks in the following statements. For any normal distribution:
a 68% of the values have a z-score between ___ and ___
b ___% of the values have a z-score between 2 and 2
c ___% of the values have a z-score between ___ and ___.
8 multiple choice
Medical tests indicate that the amount of an antibiotic needed to destroy a bacterial
infection in a patient is normally distributed with x = 120 mg and sn = 15 mg. The
percentage of patients who would require more than 150 mg to clear the infection is:
A 0.15%
B 2.5%
C 5%
D 95%
9 multiple choice
The mean mark on a test is 55, with a standard deviation of 10. The percentage of
students who achieved a mark between 65 and 75 is:
A 13.5%
B 22.5%
C 34%
D 95%
10 In a factory, soft drink is poured into cans such that the mean amount of soft drink is
500 mL with a standard deviation of 2 mL. Cans with less than 494 mL of soft drink
are rejected and not sold to the public. What percentage of cans are rejected?
343
11 The distribution of IQ scores for the inmates of a certain prison is approximately

normal with a mean of 85 and a standard deviation of 15.
a What percentage of this prison population have an IQ of 100 or higher?
b If someone with an IQ of 70 or less can be classified as mentally disabled, what
percentage of the prison population could be classified as mentally disabled?
12 The distribution of blood pressures (systolic) among women of similar ages is normal
with a mean of 120 (mm of mercury) and a standard deviation of 10 (mm of mercury).
Determine the percentage of women with a systolic blood pressure:
a between 100 and 140
b greater than 130
c between 120 and 130
d between 90 and 110
e between 110 and 150.
13 The mass of packets of chips is normally distributed with x = 100 g and n = 2.5 g. If
I purchase a packet of these chips, between what limits will the mass of the packet:
8
a very probably lie?
b almost certainly lie?
WORKED
Example
14 The heights of army recruits are normally distributed about a mean of 172 cm and a
standard deviation of 4.5 cm. A volunteer is chosen from the recruits. The height of
the volunteer will very probably lie between what limits?
16 The average mass of babies is normally distributed with a mean of 3.8 kg and a standard
deviation of 0.4 kg. A newborn baby will almost certainly have a mass between what
limits?
Examining a normal distribution

Complete a sample of the
heights or masses of 50 people.
1 Calculate the mean and the
standard deviation of your
sample.
2 Calculate the percentage of
people whose height or mass
has a standardised score of
between 1 and 1.
between 2 and 2.
between 3 and 3.
Work
15 A machine is set to deposit a mean of 500 g of washing powder into boxes with a
standard deviation of 10 g. When a box is checked, it is found to have a mass of 550 g.
What conclusion can be drawn from this?
T
SHEE
11.2
344
summary
z-scores
A data set is normally distributed if it is
symmetrical about the mean.
A z-score measures the position of a score
relative to the mean and standard deviation.
A z-score is found using the formula
x
xx
z = ----------s
where x is the score, x is the mean, and s is the standard deviation.
Standardising both scores best compares scores from different data sets.
When comparing exam marks, the highest z-score is the best result.
A data set that is normally distributed will be symmetrical about the mean.
68% of scores will have a z-score of between 1 and 1.
95% of scores will have a z-score between 2 and 2. A score chosen from this data
set will very probably lie in this range.
99.7% of scores will have a z-score of between 3 and 3. A score chosen from the
data set will almost certainly lie within this range.
345
CHAPTER
review
1 Measurements of the amount of acid in a certain chemical are made. The results are
normally distributed such that the mean is 6.25% and the standard deviation is 0.25%.
Harlan gets a reading of 5.75%. What is Harlans reading as a z-score?
11A
2 A set of scores is normally distributed such that x = 15.3 and n = 5.2. Convert each of the
following members of the distribution to z-scores.
a 15.3
b 20.5
c 4.9
d 30.9
e 10.1
11A
3 On an exam the results are normally distributed with a mean of 58 and a standard deviation
of 7.5. Jennifer scored a mark of 72 on the exam. Convert Jennifers mark to a z-score,
giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
11A
4 A set of scores is normally distributed with a mean of 2.8 and a standard deviation of 0.6.
Convert each of the following members of the data set to z-scores, correct to 2 decimal
places.
a 2.9
b 3.9
c 1
d 1.75
e 1.6
11A
5 Anji conducts a survey on the water temperature at her local beach each day for a month.
The results (in C) are shown below.
20 21 19 22 21 18 17 23 17 16 22 20 20 20 21
20 21 18 22 17 16 20 20 22 19 21 22 23 24 20
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the scores.
b Find the highest and lowest temperatures in the data set and express each as a z-score.
11A
6 The table below shows the length of time for which a sample of 100 light bulbs will burn.
11A
Length of time (hours)
Class centre
Frequency
0500
5001000
28
10001500
59
15002000
10
a Find the mean and standard deviation for the data set.
b A further sample of five light bulbs are chosen. The length of time for which each light
bulb burned is given below. Convert each of the following to a standardised score.
i 1000 hours
ii 1814 hours
iii 256 hours
iv 751 hours
v 2156 hours
7 Betty sat exams in both Physics and Chemistry. In Physics the exam results showed a mean
of 48 and a standard deviation of 12, while in Chemistry the mean was 62 with a standard
deviation of 9.
a Betty scored 66 in Physics. Convert this result to a z-score.
b Betty scored 71 in Chemistry. Convert this result to a z-score.
c In which subject did Betty achieve the better result? Explain your answer.
11B
346
11B
8 In Geography Carlos scored a mark of 56, while in Business studies he scored 58. In
Geography x = 64 and n = 10. For Business studies x = 66 and n = 15.
a Convert each mark to a standardised score.
b In which subject did Carlos achieve the better result?
11B
9 A psychologist records the number of errors made on a series of tests. On a literacy test the
mean number of errors is 15.2 and the standard deviation is 4.3. On the numeracy test the
mean number of errors is 11.7 with a standard deviation of 3.1. Barry does both tests and
makes 11 errors on the literacy test and 8 errors on the numeracy test. In which test did
Barry do better? Explain your answer.
11C
10 A data set is normally distributed with a mean of 40 and a standard deviation of 8. What
percentage of scores will lie in the range:
a 32 to 48?
b 24 to 56?
c 16 to 64?
11C
11 The value of sales made on weekdays at a store appears to be normally distributed with a
mean of $1560 and a standard deviation of $115. On what percentage of days will the days
sales lie between:
a $1445 and $1675?
b $1330 and $1790?
c $1215 and $1905?
11C
12 A data set is normally distributed with a mean of 56 and a standard deviation of 8. What
percentage of scores will:
a lie between 56 and 64?
b lie between 40 and 56?
c be less than 40?
d be greater than 80?
e lie between 40 and 80?
11C
13 A machine is set to produce bolts with a mean diameter of 5 mm with a standard deviation
of 0.1 mm. A bolt is chosen and it is found to have a diameter of 4.5 mm. What conclusion
can be drawn about the settings of the machine?

1 multiple choice
The mean time for 12-year-old boys to
swim 50 m is 50.5 s with a standard
deviation of 4.2 s. Kyle swims 50 m in
44.2 s. Kyles time as a standardised score
is:
A 6.3
B 1.5
C 1.5
D 6.3
2 multiple choice
A teacher converts the marks on every test that she gives her class to a standardised score. On
a test the mean mark was 50 and the standard deviation was 10. Adams standardised score on
the test was 0.6. Adams mark on the test was:
A 40
B 44
C 56
D 60
347
3 multiple choice
The details of Andreas half-yearly exams are shown in the table below.
Subject
Andreas mark
Mean
Standard deviation
English
65
50
12
Maths
62
52
History
75
58
15
Geography
50
44
In which subject did Andrea achieve her best result?

A English
B Maths
C History
D Geography
4 multiple choice
The details of Bretts half-yearly exams are shown in the table below.
Subject
Bretts mark
Mean
Standard deviation
English
40
50
12
Maths
48
52
History
49
58
15
Geography
42
44
In which subject did Brett achieve his best result?

A English
B Maths
C History
D Geography
5 multiple choice
A data set is normally distributed with x = 25 and
lie in the range 25 to 30 is:
A 34%
B 47.5%
C 68%
= 2.5. The percentage of scores that will

D 95%
6 multiple choice
A fishing boat catches a load of fish and finds the mass of each fish. The masses of the fish are
normally distributed with a mean of 800 g and a standard deviation of 75 g. If a fish is chosen
from the catch, its mass will almost certainly lie between:
A 725 g and 875 g
B 650 g and 950 g
C 575 g and 1025 g
D 800 g and 1025 g
348
7 Theresa attempts to review her exam results in Physics and Chemistry. Theresa samples 10 of
her friends and finds the following results.
Physics:
65 64 67 69 72 50 66 66 63 69
Chemistry: 72 50 69 55 62 68 51 75 78 44
a Find the mean and standard deviation in each subject.
b Theresas marks were 65 in Physics and 67 in Chemistry. Convert each to a standardised
score.
c In which subject did Theresa score her best result? Explain your answer.
d A student is chosen at random from the Physics class. Between what two marks will this
persons result very probably lie?
e If the marks within the class follow a normal distribution, within what two marks will
approximately 99.7% of all Chemistry scores lie?
CHAPTER
test
yourself
11
8 A machine is set to cut lengths of metal such that the mean length of metal cut is 12.5 cm
with a standard deviation of 0.05 cm.
a A piece of metal is measured to have a length of 12.4 cm. Express this as a standardised
score.
b A second piece of metal is measured and found to have a length of 13 cm. What conclusion
can be drawn from this measurement?
Correlation
12
syllabus reference
Data analysis 7
Correlation
In this chapter
12A Scatterplots
12B Fitting a straight line by
eye
12C Fitting a straight line
the 3-median method
12D Correlation
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
12.1
12.2
Finding the median
1 Find the median of:

a 3, 5, 6, 3, 4, 2, 5, 2, 7
Using the regression equation to make predictions
2 For the equation y = 5x 2 find:

a y if x = 40
12.3
b 12, 15, 10, 11, 15, 15, 16, 11, 19, 16.
b x if y = 258.
Finding the gradient I
3 Find the gradient of the line joining the points:

a (1, 3) and (4, 12)
b (2, 4) and (6, 2).
12.4
Finding the gradient II
4 Calculate the gradient of the following lines, and state whether the gradient is positive or
negative.
a Vertical rise = 12, horizontal run = 2
b Vertical rise = 6, horizontal run = 4
Chapter 12 Correlation
351
Scatterplots
The manager of a small ski resort has a problem. He wants to be able to predict the
number of skiers using his resort each weekend in advance, so that he can organise
additional resort staffing and catering if needed. He knows that good deep snow will
attract skiers in big numbers but scant covering is unlikely to attract a crowd. To
investigate the situation further, he collects the following data over twelve consecutive
weekends at his resort.
Depth of snow (m)
Number of skiers
0.5
120
0.8
250
2.1
500
3.6
780
1.4
300
1.5
280
1.8
410
2.7
320
3.2
640
2.4
540
2.6
530
1.7
200
Number of skiers
As there are two types of data in this example, they are called bivariate data. For
each item (weekend), two variables are considered (depth of snow and number of
skiers). When analysing bivariate data, we are interested in examining the relationship
between the two variables. In the case of the ski resort data we might be interested in
answering the following questions.
Are visitor numbers related to depth of snow?
800
If there is a relationship between visitor
numbers and depth of snow, is it always true? or
600
is it just a guide? In other words, how strong is
400
the relationship?
200
How much confidence could be placed in the
0
prediction?
0 1 2 3 4
To help answer these questions, the data can be
Depth of snow (m)
arranged on a scatterplot.
Each of the data points is represented by a single visible point on the graph.
When drawing a scatterplot, it is important to choose the correct variable to assign to
each of the axes. The convention is to place the independent variable on the x-axis and
the dependent variable on the y-axis. The independent variable in an experiment or
investigation is the variable that is deliberately controlled or adjusted by the
investigator. The dependent variable is the variable that responds to changes in the
independent variable.
352
Neither of the variables involved in the ski resort data was controlled directly by the
investigator, but Number of skiers would be considered the dependent variable
because it is likely to change depending on depth of snow. (The snow depth does not
depend on numbers of skiers). As Number of skiers is the dependent variable, we
graph it on the y-axis and the Depth of snow on the x-axis.
Notice how the scatterplot for the ski resort data shows a general upward trend. It is
not a perfectly straight line, but it is still clear that a general trend or relationship has
formed: as the depth of snow increases, so too does the number of skiers.
WORKED Example 1
The table below shows the height and mass of ten Year 12 students.
Height (cm)
Mass (kg)
120
124
130
135
142
148
160
164
170
175
45
50
54
59
60
65
70
78
75
80
Display the data on a scatterplot.
1
2
WRITE
Show the height on the horizontal axis

and the mass on the vertical axis.
Plot the point given by each pair.
Mass (kg)
THINK
80
70
60
50
40
30
0
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Height (cm)
Graphics Calculator tip! Drawing a scatterplot

Your graphics calculator can draw a scatterplot by storing the two sets of data in
separate lists. Consider worked example 1.
2. Delete any existing data, and store the data for height
in List 1 and mass in List 2.
353
3. Press F1 (GRPH) (you may have to press F6 for

more options first); then press F6 (SET). Set the
graph type to Scatter by arrowing down to graph type
and pressing F1 (Scat) (again you may have to
press F6 for more options first). Ensure that XList
is List 1, YList is List 2 and Frequency is 1 as shown
at right.
4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, and
then press F1 (GPH1). The scatterplot will then be
drawn.
Note that the graphics calculator sets the values on the x- and y-axes automatically.
You can press SHIFT F3 (V-Window) to set the scale as you see fit.
Once the scatterplot has been drawn, we can determine if any pattern is evident.
Worked example 1 shows how, as a general rule, as height increases so does mass.
We can also look to see if the pattern is linear. In worked example 1, although the
points are not in a perfect straight line, they approximate a straight line. The figures
below show examples of linear and non-linear relationships.
Linear relationships
y
Non-linear relationships
y
354
In other cases it may be that there is no relationship

at all between the two variables. Such a scatterplot
would look like the one shown on the right.
WORKED Example 2
The table below shows the length and mass of a dozen eggs.
Length (cm)
6.2
3.9
4.5
5.8
7.2
7.6
6.1
6.7
7.3
5.1
6.0
7.3
Mass (g)
60
15
25
50
95
110
55
75
95
35
54
96
a Display this information in a scatterplot.

b Determine if there is any relationship between the length and mass of the eggs and state
if the relationship is linear.
THINK
WRITE
120
100
Mass (kg)
Display length on the x-axis and mass

on the y-axis.
Plot the point given by each pair.
80
60
40
20
0
0
1
2
Study the scatterplot to see if mass

increases as length increases.
Study the scatterplot to see if the points
seem to approximate a straight line.
4 5 6
Length (cm)
b As length increases, so does the mass of

the egg.
The points do not approximate a straight
line, and so the relationship is not linear.
remember
1. A scatterplot is a graph that is used to compare two variables.
2. One variable (the independent variable) is on the horizontal axis, and the other
variable (the dependent variable) is on the vertical axis.
3. Points are plotted by the pair formed by each variable.
4. A relationship between the variables exists if one increases as the other
increases or if one decreases as the other increases.
5. If the points on the scatterplot seem to approximate a straight line, the
relationship can be said to be linear.
12A
355
Scatterplots
E
65
82
72
58
39
58
74
82
66
Geography
45
78
66
72
50
51
61
70
60
88
L Spre
XCE ad
36
Two
variable
2 The table below shows the maximum temperature each day, together with the number statistics
of people who attend the cinema that day. Display the information on a scatterplot.
Temperature (C)
No. at cinema
25
33
30
22
15
18
27
22
28
20
256
184
190
312
458
401
200
357
312
423
3 The table below shows the wages, W, of 20 people and the amount of money they spend
each week on entertainment, E. Display this information in a scatterplot.
Wages ($)
370
380
500
510
395
430
535
490
495
550
55
85
150
75
145
100
130
115
70
150
Wages ($)
810
460
475
520
530
475
610
780
350
460
Amount spent on
entertainment ($)
220
50
100
150
140
160
90
130
40
50
Amount spent on
entertainment ($)
WORKED
Example
4 The table below shows the marks obtained by nine students in English and History.
English
55
20
27
33
73
18
37
51
79
History
72
37
53
74
73
44
59
55
84
a Display the information on a scatterplot.

b Is there any relationship between the mark obtained in English and in History? If
there does appear to be a relationship, is the relationship linear?
5 The table below shows the daily temperature and the number of hot pies sold at the
school canteen.
Temperature (C)
24
32
28
23
16
14
26
20
29
21
No. of pies sold
56
20
24
60
84
120
70
95
36
63

b Determine if there appears to be any relationship between the two variables and if
the relationship appears to be linear.
sheet
History
sheet
L Spre
XCE ad
1 The table below shows the marks obtained by a group of ten students in History and
Example
Scatterplot
Geography. Display this information on a scatterplot.
1
WORKED
356
6 Container ships arriving on a wharf are unloaded by work

teams. The table below shows the number of people in the
work team and the time taken to unload the container ship.
No. in work
team
15 18 12 19 22 21 17 16 18 20
Hours taken
20 16 25 15 14 13 18 20 17 14

b Determine if there appears to be a relationship between
the number of people in the work team and the time taken
to unload the container ship. If there is a relationship,
does the relationship appear to be linear?
7 multiple choice
Which of the following scatterplots does not display a linear relationship?
A y
B y
x
x
C y
D y
8 multiple choice
In which of the following is no relationship evident between the variables?
A y
B y
x
x
Cy
Dy
357
9 Give an example of a situation where the scatterplot may look like the ones below.
a y
b y
Collecting bivariate data

1 Choose one of the following and collect data from within your class.
a Each persons hand span and height.
b Each persons resting heart rate and the time it takes for them to run 400 m.
c Each persons mark in Mathematics and in Science.
2 Display the results on a scatterplot.
3 Discuss any relationship that may be evident between the two variables.
Regression lines
The process of fitting straight lines to bivariate data enables us to analyse relationships between the data and possibly make predictions based on the given data set.
Fitting a straight line by eye

Consider the set of bivariate data points shown at right. In this case
the x-values could be heights of married women, while y-values
could be the heights of their husbands. We wish to determine a
linear relationship between these two random variables.
358
Of course, there is no single straight line that would go through all the points, so we
can only estimate such a line.
Furthermore, the more closely the points appear to be on or near a straight line, the
more confident we are that such a linear relationship may exist and the more accurate
our fitted line should be.
Consider the estimate, drawn by eye in the figure below. It is clear that most of the
points are on or very close to this straight line. This line was easily drawn since the
points are very much part of an apparent linear relationship.
However, note that some points are below the line and some are above it. Furthermore, if x is the height of wives and y is the height of husbands, it seems that husbands
are generally taller than their wives.
y
Regression analysis is concerned with finding
these straight lines using various methods so that
the number of points above and below the lines
are balanced.
Method of fitting lines by eye
There should be an equal number of points above and below the line. For example, if
there are 12 points in the data set, 6 should be above the line and 6 below it. This may
appear logical or even obvious, but fitting by eye involves a considerable margin of error.
WORKED Example 3
Fit a straight line to the data in the figure using
the equal-number-of-points method.
THINK
1
2
Note that the number of points (n) is 8.

Fit a line where 4 points are above the line. Using a
clear plastic ruler, try to fit the best line.
DRAW
y
x
3
The first attempt has only 3 points below the line

where there should be 4. Make refinements.
The second attempt is an improvement, but the line is

too close to the points above it. Improve the position
of the line until a better balance between upper and
lower points is achieved.
x
y
359
remember
To fit a straight line by eye, when using bivariate data, make sure there are an
equal number of points above and below the fitted line.
12B
Fitting a straight line by eye
The questions below represent data collected by groups of students conducting different
environmental projects. The students have to fit a straight line to their data sets.
Note: For many of these questions your answers may differ somewhat from those in the
back of the book. The answers are provided as a guide but there are likely to be individual differences when fitting straight lines by eye.
Example
1 Fit a straight line to the data in the scatterplots using the equal-number-of-points method.
a y
b y
d y
c y
e y
f y
x
x
g y
h y
i y
Work
WORKED
Fitting a straight line the 3-median method

Fitting lines by eye is useful, but it is not the most accurate of methods. Greater accuracy
is achieved through closer analysis of the data. Upon closer analysis it is possible to find
the equation of a line of best fit of the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c
is the y-intercept. Several mathematical methods provide a line with a more accurate fit.
T
SHEE
12.1
360
One of these methods is called the 3-median method and

involves the division of the data set into 3 groups, and the
use of the 3 medians in these groups to determine a line of
best fit. It is used when data show a linear relationship. It
can even be used when the data contain outliers. The
3-median method is best described as a step-by-step method.
Step 1. Plot the points on a scatter diagram. This is shown in
figure 1.
Step 2. Divide the points into 3 groups using vertical
divisions (see figure 2). The number of points in a
data set will not always be exactly divisible by 3.
Thus, there will be three alternatives, as follows.
(a) If the number of points is divisible by 3, divide
them into 3 equal groups, for example, 3, 3, 3 or
7, 7, 7.
(b) If there is 1 extra point, put the extra point in the
middle group, for example, 3, 4, 3 or 7, 8, 7.
(c) If there are 2 extra points, put 1 extra point in
each of the outer groups, for example, 4, 3, 4 or
8, 7, 8.
Step 3. Find the median point of each of the 3 groups and
mark each median on the scatterplot (see figure 3).
Recall that the median is the middle value. So the
median point of each group has an x-coordinate that
is the median of the x-values in the group and a
y-coordinate that is the median of the y-values in the
group.
(a) The left group is the lower group and its median
is denoted by (xL, yL).
(b) The median of the middle group is denoted by
(xM, yM).
(c) The right group is the upper group and its median
is denoted by (xU, yU).
Note: Although the x-values are already in ascending order on
the scatterplot, the y-values within each group may need reordering before you can find the median.
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Figure 1
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Figure 2
FM Fig 03.13
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
(xU, yU)
(xM, yM)
(xL, yL)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Figure 3
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
(xM, yM)
(xU, yU)
(xL, yL)
Step 4. Draw in the line of best fit. Place your ruler so that it
passes through the lower and upper medians. Move the
ruler a third of the way toward the middle group
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
median while maintaining the slope. Hold the ruler
Figure 4
there and draw the line.
Step 5. Find the equation of the 3-median regression line (general form y = mx + c).
Draw on your knowledge of finding equations of lines to find the equation of
the line drawn on the scatterplot. If the scale on the axes begins at zero, you
can read off the y-intercept of the line and calculate the gradient of the line.
This will enable you to find the equation of the line.
361
The equation of a straight line can be found using y = mx + b , where m is the

gradient and b is the y-intercept. The gradient of the regression line is best found with
a ruler and using the formula:
WORKED Example 4
Find the equation of the regression line for the

data in the table at right using the 3-median
method.
THINK
1
WRITE
Plot the points on a scatterplot, and

divide the data into 3 groups. Note
there are 6 points, so the division will
be 2, 2, 2.
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Find the median point of each group.

Since each group has only 2 points,
medians are found by averaging them.
Mark in the medians, and place a ruler
on the outer 2 medians. Maintaining the
same slope on the ruler, move it onethird of the way towards the middle
median. Draw the line.
(xL, yL) = (1.5, 2)

(xM, yM) = (3.5, 4)
(xU, yU) = (6, 5.5)
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Read off the y-intercept from the graph.
Use (xL, yL) and (xU, yU) to calculate the

gradient.
Write the equation of the 3-median

regression line.
y-intercept = 1
5.5 2
Gradient (m) = ---------------6 1.5
3.5
= ------4.5
7
= --9
7
y = --- x + 9 or
9
9y = 7x + 81
362
WORKED Example 5
Weight (kg)
The scatterplot below shows a comparison between the heights and weights of 12 boys.
The median points A and B in the first and last sections have been found for you.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)
a Find the coordinates of median point C, and hence find the median regression line.
b Find the gradient and y-intercept of the regression line, and hence find the equation of
the regression line.
THINK
WRITE
a x-values are: 165, 170, 170 and 175

170 + 170
Median x-value = ------------------------ = 170
2
y-values are: 65, 70, 70 and 80
70 + 70
Median y-value = ------------------ = 70
2
The coordinates of C are (170, 70).
Find the coordinates of point C by

finding the median of the x-values
and finding the median of the yvalues.
Mark point C on the diagram.
Rule a line through points A and B.
Move the line AB one-third of the way

towards C, keeping the new line parallel
to AB.
Weight (kg)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
A
C
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)
THINK
WRITE
rise
b m = -------run
78 70
m = -----------------------190 140
m = 0.16
b = 49
Calculate the gradient, m, by finding

the rise and run between two points on
the line.
Read the value from the graph to state

the y-intercept, b.
Substitute m and b into the formula
y = mx + b to find the equation of the
regression line.
363
The equation is of the form y = mx + b,

where x represents height in cm and
y represents weight in kg.
y = 0.16x + 49
the equation of
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding
a regression line
The Casio graphics calculator can be used to find the equation of a median regression
line. Consider worked example 5.
2. Enter the data into List 1 and List 2 and draw the scatterplot as shown in the previous section. Since we are
using the calculator it is not necessary to draw the
scatterplot from 0 on the axes.
3. Press F2 (Med) to find the equation of the median
regression line. The value of a is the gradient of the
line and the value of b is the y-intercept.
4. If you want to see the regression line drawn on the

scatterplot, press F6 (DRAW).
In the above example we would give the equation y = 0.15x + 49, which is slightly different from the example done on paper. Because the method relies on the eye to find
two points on the regression line to find the gradient and y-intercept, minor differences
are insignificant and quite acceptable.
Once the regression line has been found, we are able to use the equation to make
predictions about other pieces of data.
364
WORKED Example 6
A casino records the number of people, N, playing a jackpot game and the prize money, p,
for that game and plots the results on a scatterplot. The regression line is found to have the
equation N = 0.07p + 220.
a Find the number of people playing when the prize money is $2500.
b Find the likely prize on offer when there are 500 people playing.
THINK
WRITE
a N = 0.07p + 220
Write the equation of the regression line.
Substitute 2500 for p.
Calculate N.
Write the equation of the regression line.
Substitute 500 for N.
500 = 0.07p + 220
Solve the equation.
280 = 0.07p
p = 4000
The prize would be approximately $4000.
N = 0.07
2500 + 220
= 395
There would be approximately
395 people playing.
b
N = 0.07p + 220
remember
1. The median regression line is the line of best fit that is drawn on a scatterplot.
2. The median regression line can be drawn using the method of three medians.
3. To find the median regression line:
(a) divide the points into three approximately equal sections. If the number of
points is not divisible by three, make sure there is the same number of
points in the first and last sections.
(b) mark median points in the first and last sections by finding the median of
the x-values and finding the median of the y-values for each section. Label
these points A and B.
(c) find the median point in the middle section and label this point C.
(d) draw the line AB and then move the line one-third of the way towards C,
keeping the line parallel to AB.
4. The equation of the regression line can be found by measuring the gradient and
the y-intercept of the regression line and using the formula y = mx + b .
Sometimes the gradient of the median regression line will be negative.
5. Once the equation of the regression line has been found, it can then be used to
make predictions about the variables.
365
12C
WORKED
Example
Fitting a straight line the

3-median method
1 The table below shows the marks achieved by a class of students in English and Maths.
English
64
75
81
63
32
56
47
59
73
64
Maths
76
62
89
56
49
57
53
72
80
50
12.1 SkillS
HEET
Show these data on a scatterplot, and on the graph show the regression line using the
3-median method.
Finding
the
median
12.2 SkillS
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
to make
predictions
12.3 SkillS
HEET
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
HEET
2 Position the median regression line, using the 3-median method, through each of the
Using
following graphs, and find the equation of each.
the regression
a 70
b 70
equation
20 40 60 80 100 120
Finding the
gradient I
3000
12.4 SkillS
2500
HEET
2000
Finding the
gradient II
1500
1000
0
0
Example
3-median
regression
10 15 20 25
3 In an experiment, a student measures the length of a spring when different masses

are attached to it. Her results are shown below.
Mass (g)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Length of spring (mm)

220
225
231
235
242
246
250
254
259
264
Making
predictions
a Draw a scatterplot of the data, and on it draw the median line of regression, using
the 3-median method.
b Find the gradient and y-intercept of the regression line, and hence find the equation
of the regression line.
sheet
L Spre
XCE ad
WORKED
sheet
L Spre
XCE ad
500
366
4 A scientist who measures the volume of a gas

at different temperatures provides the table of
values at right.
a Draw a scatterplot of the data and on it
draw the line of regression using the
3-median method.
b Give the equation of the line of best fit. Write
your equation in terms of the variables:
volume of gas, V, and its temperature, T.
5 A sports scientist is interested in the
importance of muscle bulk to strength. He
measures the biceps circumference of ten
people and tests their strength by asking them
to complete a lift test. His results are given in
the following table.
Circumference of biceps (cm)
25
25
27
28
30
30
31
33
34
36
Temperature
(C)
40
30
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Volume
(L)
1.2
1.9
2.4
3.1
3.6
4.1
4.8
5.3
6.1
6.7
Lift test (kg)

50
52
58
51
60
62
53
62
61
66
a Draw a scatterplot of the data and draw the median line of regression using the
3-median method.
b Find a rule for determining the ability of a person to complete a lift test, S, from
the circumference of their biceps, B.
WORKED
Example
6 A taxi company adjusts its meters so that the fare is charged according to the
following equation: F = 1.2d + 3, where F is the fare, in dollars, and d is the distance
travelled, in km.
a Find the fare charged for a distance of 12 km.
b Find the fare charged for a distance of 4.5 km.
c Find the distance that could be covered on a fare of $27.
d Find the distance that could be covered on a fare of $13.20.
7 Detectives can use the equation H = 6.1f 5 to estimate the height of a burglar who
leaves footprints behind. (H is the height of the burglar, in cm, and f is the length of
the footprint.)
a Find the height of a burglar whose footprint is 27 cm in length.
b Find the height of a burglar whose footprint is 30 cm in length.
c Find the footprint length of a burglar of height 185 cm. (Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.)
d Find the footprint length of a burglar of height 152 cm. (Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.)
367
8 A pie seller at a football match finds that the number of pies sold is related to the
temperature of the day. The situation could be modelled by the equation
N = 870 23t, where N is the number of pies sold and t is the temperature of the day.
a Find the number of pies sold if the temperature was 5 degrees.
b Find the number of pies sold if the temperature was 25 degrees.
c Find the likely temperature if 400 pies were sold.
d How hot would the day have to be before the pie seller sold no pies at all?
9 The following table shows the average annual costs of running a car. It includes all
fixed costs (registration, insurance etc.) as well as running costs (petrol, repairs etc.).
Distance (km)
Annual cost ($)
5 000
4 000
10 000
6 400
15 000
8 400
20 000
10 400
25 000
12 400
30 000
14 400
a Draw a scatterplot of the data.

b Using the 3-median method, draw in the line of best fit.
c Find an equation which represents the relationship between the cost of running a
vehicle, C, and the distance travelled, d.
d Use your graph and its equation to find:
i the annual cost of running a car if it is driven 15 000 km
ii the annual cost of running a car if it is driven 1000 km
iii the likely number of kilometres driven if the annual costs were $8000
iv the likely number of kilometres driven if the annual costs were $16 000.
10 A market researcher finds that the number of people
who would purchase Wise-up (the thinking mans
deodorant) is related to its price. He provides the
table of values at right.
b Draw in the line of best fit.
c Find an equation that represents the relationship
between the number of cans of Wise-up sold, N
(in thousands), and its price, p.
d Use the equation to predict the number of cans
sold each week if:
ii the price was $3.10
ii the price was $4.60.
e At what price should Wise-up be sold if the
manufacturers wished to sell 80 000 cans?
f Given that the manufacturers of Wise-up can
produce only 100 000 cans each week, at what
price should it be sold to maximise production?
Price
($)
Weekly sales
( 1000)
1.40
105
1.60
101
1.80
97
2.00
93
2.20
89
2.40
85
2.60
81
2.80
77
3.00
73
3.20
69
3.40
65
368
11 The following table gives the adult return air fares between some Australian cities.
City
MelbourneSydney
PerthMelbourne
AdelaideSydney
BrisbaneMelbourne
HobartMelbourne
HobartAdelaide
AdelaideMelbourne
Distance (km)
713
2728
1172
1370
559
1144
669
Price ($)
580
1490
790
890
520
820
570
a Draw a scatterplot of the data and on it draw the median regression line using the
line of best fit.
b Find an equation that represents the relationship between the air fare, A, and the
distance travelled, d.
c Use the equation to predict the likely air fare (to the nearest dollar) from:
i Sydney to the Gold Coast (671 km)
ii Perth to Adelaide (2125 km)
iii Hobart to Sydney (1024 km)
iv Perth to Sydney (3295 km).
12 Rock lobsters (crayfish) are sized according to the length of their carapace (main body
shell). The table below gives the age and carapace length of 16 male rock lobsters.
Age (years)
3
2.5
4.5
4.5
3.25
7.75
8
6.5
12
14
4.5
3.5
2.25
1.76
10
9.5
Length of
carapace (mm)
65
59
80
80
68
130
150
112
200
210
82
74
51
48
171
160
a Display this information on a scatterplot, and on your scatterplot draw the median
line of regression using the line of best fit.
b Find the equation of the median regression line.
369
c Use the equation to find the likely size of a 5-year-old male rock lobster.
d Use the equation to find the likely size of a 16-year-old male rock lobster.
e Rock lobsters reach sexual maturity when their carapace length is approximately
65 mm. Use the equation to find the age of the rock lobster at this stage.
f The fisheries department wants to set minimum size restrictions so that the rock
lobsters have three full years from the time of sexual maturity in which to breed
before they can be legally caught. What size should govern the taking of a male
rock lobster?
Note: Answers for this exercise are approximate and may vary due to the precise
location of the line of best fit.
Relationship between variables

Earlier in the chapter you would have completed an investigation of bivariate data.
You should have displayed the information on a scatterplot.
1 On your scatterplot draw the median regression line.
2 Find the equation of the median regression line.
3 Find a few more people to test your data. See how accurately your equation
predicts the results. (For example measure a persons hand span and use your
equation to predict their height.)
1
An electrical repair business charges its customers using the formula C = 40h + 35,
where C is the cost of the repairs and h is the time taken for the repairs, in hours. Find
the cost of a repair job that took:
1 2 hours
2 5 hours
3 1 hour and 15 minutes.
Estimate the time taken for repairs if the cost of the repairs were:
4 $175
5 $275
6 $145.
The information below is to be used for questions 7 to 10.

A survey relating exam marks to the amount of television watched finds that the median
regression line has the equation M = 95 15t, where M is the mark obtained and t is the
average number of hours of television watched each night by the students.
7 Estimate the mark of a person who averages one hour of television per night.
8 Estimate the mark of a person who watches an average 4 hours of television per night.
9 Estimate the amount of television watched per night by a person who scores a mark of
65.
10 Jodie scored 27.5 on the exam. Estimate the average amount of television that Jodie
watches each night.
370
Correlation
Correlation is a description of the relationship that exists between two variables. When
one variable increases with another, it is said that there is a positive correlation between
the variables. In such a case, the median regression line will have a positive gradient.
Similarly, if one variable decreases while the other increases, the median regression
line will have a negative gradient and the correlation is negative.
Consider the following example in which ten Year 11 students were surveyed to find
the amount of time that they spend doing exercise each week. This was compared with
their blood cholesterol level.
6
12
16
12
Blood cholesterol level
In this example there seems to be a

general downward trend, and the median
regression line therefore has a negative
gradient. As the amount of exercise
increases, the level of blood cholesterol
decreases.
Notice that in this case the points are
not as closely aligned as in the previous
examples. We can say that the relationship (or correlation) between the variables is only weak. In general terms, the
closer that the points are to forming a
straight line, the stronger the relationship
is between the variables.
Sometimes we find that there is no
relationship between the variables. In the
scatterplot below, a researcher was
looking for a link between peoples
heights and their IQs. The points appear
to be randomly dispersed across the scatterplot. In cases like this, it can be concluded that there is no clear relationship
between the variables.
140
IQ
120
100
80
60
120 140 160 180 200
Height (m)
Blood cholesterol level
Period of exercise (h)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
6 8 10 12 14 16
Period of exercise
371
WORKED Example 7
In the figure on the right, describe the

correlation as being positive or negative.
THINK
WRITE
Add a median regression line to the

scatterplot.
The gradient of the regression line is positive.

Therefore the correlation is positive.
There is a positive correlation.
The strength of a correlation is based on the correlation coefficient. The correlation

coefficient is a measure of a correlation.
Correlation coefficient
1
Description
Perfect positive correlation
Between 0.75 and 1
Strong positive correlation
Between 0.5 and 0.75
Moderate positive
correlation
Weak positive correlation
No correlation
Weak negative correlation
Scatterplot
372
Correlation coefficient
Description
Moderate negative
correlation
Between 1 and 0.75
Strong negative correlation
Perfect negative correlation
Scatterplot
WORKED Example 8
The operators of a casino keep records of the number of people playing a Jackpot type
game and compare the numbers playing to the size of the jackpot. The correlation
coefficient for this game is calculated to be 0.65. Describe the correlation between the
prize and the number of players.
THINK
WRITE
The correlation coefficient is between 0.5

and 0.75 and so it is a moderate positive
correlation.
There is a moderate positive correlation

between the jackpot and the number of players
in the game.
Causality
Causality refers to one variable causing another.
For example, there is a high correlation between
a persons shoe size and shirt size. However, one
does not cause the other. Similarly, there is a
high correlation between number of cigarettes
smoked and lung cancer but, in this case,
smoking causes lung cancer.
Explain whether a positive or negative
relationship exists and discuss causality in each
of the following.
1. Hours of study and exam marks
2. Hours of exercise and resting pulse rate
3. Weight and shirt size
4. The number of hotels and churches in country
towns
5. The number of motels in a town and the number of flights landing at the nearest
airport
373
It is possible to make a qualitative judgement as to the type of correlation that is

involved in a relationship by the general appearance of the graph. Care must be taken
before making a statement about one variable causing the other.
Just because there is a strong relationship between two variables, it does not mean
that one variable causes the other. For example, there is a very strong positive correlation
in people between their shoe size and their shirt size, but one does not cause the other.
Similarly, there is a very strong correlation between the amount of study done for an
exam and the result achieved on the exam. In this case it can be argued that the study
causes the high exam mark. Each case needs to be considered on its merit.
WORKED Example 9
A manufacturer who is interested in minimising the cost of training gives 15 of his plant
operators different amounts of training and then measures the number of errors made by
each of the operators. The results of the experiment are placed on a scatterplot and the
correlation between the number of hours of training and the number of errors made is
measured to have a correlation coefficient of 0.69.
a What can be said of the correlation between training and errors?
b What conclusion could the manufacturer make about causality in this case?
THINK
WRITE
The correlation coefficient is

between 0.75 and 0.5.
2 A correlation coefficient in this
range indicates a moderate
negative correlation.
b In this case it would seem logical
that those that have undertaken more
training would make fewer errors.
1
There is a moderate negative correlation between

the amount of training and the number of errors
made.
b The manufacturer could reasonably presume that
the more training a person is given, the less likely
they are to make errors with the machinery.
remember
1. The pattern of the scatterplot gives an
indication of the level of association
(correlation) between the variables.
2. When one variable increases with
another, there is a positive correlation
between them.
3. When one variable decreases while the
other increases, there is negative
correlation.
4. The extent of the correlation is then
measured by the correlation coefficient.
The description of the correlation is
given in the figure on the right.
5. Strong correlation between two
variables does not necessarily mean that
one variable causes the other.
Strong positive
correlation
Moderate positive
correlation
Weak positive
correlation
No correlation
Weak negative
correlation
Moderate negative
correlation
Strong negative
correlation
Perfect positive
correlation
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
Perfect negative
correlation
374
12D
WORKED
Example
Correlation
1 For each of the following, state whether a positive or negative correlation exists.
a
2 A sample of 10 drivers was taken. Each driver was asked their age and the number of
speeding offences they had committed in the past five years. The results are in the
table below.
Age
Speeding offences
22
36
48
40
58
64
23
25
30
45

b State if there is a positive or a negative correlation between age and speeding
offences.
3 Match each of the following scatterplots with the correlation that it shows.
a

Moderate positive correlation

No correlation
Moderate negative correlation
375
4 A pie seller at a football match notices that there seems to be a relationship between
the number of pies that he sells and the temperature of the day. He collects the
following data.
Daily temperature (C)
12
Number of pies sold
22
26
11
18
14
16
15
16
620 315 295 632 660 487 512 530 546 492

b State the type of correlation that the scatterplot shows and draw a conclusion from
the graph.
5 A researcher is investigating the effect of living in airconditioned buildings upon
general health. She records the following data.
Hours spent each week in
airconditioned buildings
13
48 40
10
Number of days sick due

to flu and colds
15 13
14
16
18 10
a Plot the data on a scatterplot.

b State the type of correlation the graph shows and draw a conclusion from it.
c The researcher finishes her experimental report by concluding that airconditioning
is the cause of poor health. Is she correct to say this? What other factors could have
influenced the relationship shown by the scatterplot?
6 The data below show the population and area of the Australian states and territories.
State
Area ( 1000 km2)
Population ( 1000)
Vic.
228
5092
NSW
802
6828
ACT
329
Qld
1727
4053
NT
1346
207
WA
2526
2051
SA
984
1555
Tas.
68
489

b State the type of correlation the graph shows and draw a conclusion from it.
376
7 In an experiment, 12 people were administered different doses of a drug. When the

drug had taken effect, the time taken for each person to react to a set stimulus was
measured. The results are detailed below.
Amount of drug (mg)
Reaction time (s)
0.1
0.030
0.2
0.025
0.3
0.028
0.4
0.036
0.5
0.040
0.6
0.052
0.7
0.046
0.8
0.068
0.9
0.085
1.0
0.092
1.1
0.084
1.2
0.096

b State the type of correlation the graph shows, and draw a conclusion from it.
8 multiple choice
What type of correlation is shown by the graph on
the right?
A No correlation
B Weak negative correlation
C Moderate negative correlation
D Strong negative correlation
9 multiple choice
What type of correlation is shown by the graph on
the right?
A No correlation
B Weak positive correlation
C Moderate positive correlation
D Strong positive correlation
10 What type of correlation would be represented by scatterplots that had the following
correlation coefficients?
a 1.0
b 0.4
c 0.8
d 0.7
e 0.35
f 0.21
g 0.75
h 0.50
i 0.25
j 1.0
377
11 A researcher investigating the proposition that tall mothers have tall sons measures
the heights of 12 mothers and the heights of their adult sons. The correlation coefficient
8
is found to be 0.67. Describe the correlation between tall mothers and tall sons.
WORKED
Example
12 A teacher who is interested in the amount of time students

spend doing homework asks 15 students to record the amount
of time that they spend on homework and on watching
television. The correlation coefficient is found to be 0.45.
Interpret the correlation between homework and television
watching.
13 A psychologist asked 20 people to rate their level of
contentment on a scale of 0 to 10 (10 representing
perfectly content). This rating is compared to annual
income.
a The correlation coefficient is found to be 0.18.
Describe the correlation between income and level
of contentment.
b The researcher then intends to write an essay entitled
Money cant buy happiness. Do the results confirm
this statement?
14 An experimenter who is investigating the
relationship between exercise and obesity
9
measures the weights of 30 boys (of
equal height) and also documents the
amount of physical exercise that the
boys completed each week.
The correlation coefficient is found to be 0.47.
a What can be said of the correlation between obesity and exercise?
b What conclusion could be made about causality in this case?
WORKED
Example
A researcher is interested in the association between the work rate of production

workers and the level of incentive that they are offered under a certain scheme. After
drawing a scatterplot, she calculates the correlation between the two variables at 0.82.
The researcher can conclude that:
A There is a strong positive correlation between the variables; the greater the incentive, the lower the work rate.
B There is a strong positive correlation between the variables; the greater the incentive, the greater the work rate.
C There is a strong negative correlation between the variables; the greater the
incentive, the lower the work rate.
D There is a strong negative correlation; incentives cause an increase in the work rate.
Work
15 multiple choice
T
SHEE
12.2
378
summary
Scatterplots
When looking for a relationship between two variables, data can be represented on
a scatterplot.
One variable (the independent variable) is on the x-axis and the other variable (the
dependent variable) is on the y-axis.
Points are plotted by the coordinates formed by each piece of data.
If the dependent variable consistently increases or decreases as the independent
variable increases, a relationship exists.
If all points on the scatterplot form a straight line, the relationship is said to be
linear.
The pattern of the scatterplot gives an indication of the strength of the relationship
or level of association between the variables. This level of association is called
correlation.
A strong correlation between variables does not imply that one variable causes the
other to occur.
Median regression lines

A regression line is the line of best fit on a scatterplot.
By measuring the gradient and the y-intercept on the regression line, we can use the
formula y = mx + b to find the equation.
When the equation of a regression line has been found, it can then be used to make
predictions about the data.
We can find the regression line by using the eye method or the method of
3-medians.
Correlation
Correlation is the measure of the relationship between two variables.
A correlation can be positive or negative and has the same sign as the gradient of
the median regression line.
A positive correlation means that one quantity will increase as the other increases.
A negative correlation means that one quantity will decrease as the other increases.
Correlation can be quantified by using a correlation coefficient.
The correlation coefficient may be interpreted as follows:
q=1
Perfect positive correlation
0.75 q < 1
0.5 q < 0.75
0.25 q < 0.5
0.25 < q < 0.25
No correlation
0.5 < q
0.25
0.75 < q
0.5
1<q
0.75
q = 1
Perfect negatve correlation
The correlation coefficient will always be a number between 1 and 1 or equal to
1 or 1.
379
CHAPTER
review
1 The table below shows the maximum and minimum temperature on 10 days chosen at
random throughout the year. Display this information on a scatterplot.
12A
Maximum temperature (C)
25
36
21
40
24
26
30
18
20
25
Minimum temperature (C)
12
21
11
23
12
15
19
10
13
2 The table below shows the number of sick days taken by ten employees and relates this to
the number of children that they have.
No. of children
No. of sick days
10
12
12
12A
a Show this information on a scatterplot.

b Does a relationship appear to exist between the number of sick days taken and the
number of children they have? If so, is the relationship linear?
3 The table below shows the number of cars and number of televisions in each household.
No. of cars
No. of televisions
12A
a Show this information on a scatterplot.

b Does a relationship appear to exist between the number of televisions in each household
and the number of cars they have? If so, is the relationship linear?
4 The table below shows the relationship between two variables, x and y.
12B
18
12
11
10
16
103
75
20
66
70
50
95
40
27
42
30
a Prepare a scatterplot of the data.

b On the scatterplot, fit a regression line by eye.
c By measuring the gradient and the y-intercept of the median regression line, find its
approximate equation.
5 A survey is conducted comparing household income, I, with house value, V. A scatterplot is
drawn and the regression line is found to have the equation V = 3.7I + 50 000. Use the
equation to find:
a the likely value of a house owned by a family with an income of $52 000
b the likely income (to the nearest $1000) of a family living in a house valued at $320 000.
12C
380
12C
6 An entomologist conducted an experiment in which small amounts of insecticide were

introduced to a container of 100 blowflies. The results are detailed below.
Insecticide (I)
(micrograms)
No. remaining after 2 h (F)
10
99
92
81
74
62
68
52
45
38
24
a Display the above information on a scatterplot and, on the scatterplot, draw the median
line of regression.
b Find the equation of the regression line.
c Use the equation to predict the number of blowflies that would remain after two hours if
4.25 micrograms of insecticide was introduced.
d Estimate the amount of insecticide needed to remove all blowflies.
12D
7 For each of the following scatterplots, state whether the correlation is positive or negative.
a
b
c
12D
8 The table below shows the relationship between the crowd at cricket matches and the
number of matches the home team has won during the season.
No. of wins by home team
Crowd
8 000
10
21 000
11 000
14
22 000
13 000
12 000
12
19 000
a Display this information on a scatterplot.

b On the scatterplot, draw the median regression line.
c State if a positive or negative correlation exists between the number of wins by the home
team and the crowd at their matches.
12D
12D
9 For each of the following, state the type of correlation if the correlation coefficient is:
a 0
b 1
c 0.5
d 0.84
e 0.3
10 An experiment that tested the strength of wooden beams of different thickness demonstrated
a correlation of 0.9 between the variables.
a What type of correlation exists in this case?
b What can be said about causality in this case?
381
11 A survey in which people were asked to state their age and the age of their car revealed a
correlation coefficient of 0.65.
a What type of correlation exists in this case?
b What can be said about causality in this case?

1 multiple choice
A researcher administers different amounts of fertiliser to a number of trial plots of potato
crop. She then measures the total mass of potatoes harvested from each plot. When drawing
the scatterplot, the researcher should graph:
A mass of harvest on the x-axis because it is the independent variable, and amount of
fertiliser on the y-axis because it is the dependent variable
B mass of harvest on the y-axis because it is the independent variable, and amount of
fertiliser on the x-axis because it is the dependent variable
C mass of harvest on the x-axis because it is the dependent variable, and amount of fertiliser
on the y-axis because it is the independent variable
D mass of harvest on the y-axis because it is the dependent variable, and amount of fertiliser
on the x-axis because it is the independent variable.
2 multiple choice
Which of the following graphs best depicts a strong negative correlation between variables?
A y
B y
C y
D y
3 multiple choice
What type of correlation is shown by the graph on the right?
A Strong positive correlation
B Moderate positive correlation
C Moderate negative correlation
D Strong negative correlation
4 multiple choice
A researcher finds that there is a correlation coefficient of 0.62 between the number of pedestrian
crossings in a town and the number of pedestrian accidents. The researcher can conclude that:
A Pedestrian crossings cause pedestrian accidents.
B Pedestrian crossings save lives.
C There is evidence to show that pedestrian crossings cause accidents.
D There is evidence to show that the greater the number of pedestrian crossings, the smaller
the number of pedestrian accidents.
12D
382
5 multiple choice
A researcher, who counts the amount of time taken for production line workers to assemble
components, relates it to the number of weeks that each worker has spent on the production
line. He finds a correlation of 0.82 and can conclude that:
A the greater the number of weeks spent on the production line, the quicker the assembly of
components
B the greater the number of weeks spent on the production line, the slower the assembly of
components
C many weeks doing the same task causes production workers to become efficient
D many weeks doing the same task causes production workers to become bored and slow as
a result.
Number of skiers
6 The scatterplot on the right shows the

number of skiers at a resort and the depth of
800
snow. The median regression line has been
600
drawn on the scatterplot and has the equation
400
N = 191s + 25, where N is the number of
200
skiers and s is the snow depth.
a Does a linear relationship exist between
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
depth of snow and number of skiers?
Snow depth (m)
b Use the equation of the median regression line to estimate:
i the number of skiers if the depth of snow is 3.6 m
ii the depth of snow if there are 500 skiers (correct to 1 decimal place).
c By studying the scatterplot:
i state if the correlation between depth of snow and number of skiers is positive or
negative
ii describe the correlation as strong, moderate or weak.
7 The table below shows world population from 1955 to 2005.
CHAPTER
test
yourself
12
Year
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
World pop.
(million)
2750 3000 3400 3700 4000 4400 4800 5300 5750 6073 6451
a Display this information on a scatterplot.

b Draw the median regression line on your scatterplot.
c Let Y be the number of years since 1950 and P the world population. Find the equation of
your median regression line.
d Use your graph to estimate the world population in 2010.
e Estimate from your graph when world population will exceed 10 billion.
Spherical
geometry
13
syllabus reference
Measurement 7
Spherical geometry
In this chapter
13A Arc lengths
13B Great circles and small
circles
13C Latitude and longitude
13D Distances on the Earths
surface
13E Time zones
areyou
READY?
Are you ready?
a copy.
13.1
Circumference of a circle
1 Find the circumference of the following circles. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
11 cm
13.2
6400 km
28 m
Calculating arc length
2 Find the arc length of each of the following. Answer correct to 3 significant figures.
a
b
c
6m
240
120
9.9 m
12.2 cm
13.3
Converting units of time
3 Convert each of the following to the unit indicated in brackets.

a 160 minutes (hours and minutes)
b 3 1--- hours (minutes)
2
c 4 weeks (days)
d 15 months (years)
4 Use 1 nautical mile 1.852 km to convert the following.
a 6 nautical miles to kilometres
b 80 kilometres to nautical miles
c 4.2 nautical miles to metres
d 7530 metres to nautical miles
Chapter 13 Spherical geometry
385
Arc lengths
An arc is a section of the circumference of a circle. To calculate an arc length we must
first revise the circumference of a circle. The circumference of a circle can be found
using either of the formulas:
C = d, where d is the diameter
C = 2 r, where r is the radius.
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a radius of 6 m. Give your answer correct
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Calculate the circumference.
C=2 r
C=2
6
C = 37.70 m
The length of an arc can be calculated as the fraction of

the circle determined by the angle subtended by the arc
at the centre, as shown in the figure on the right.
The arc length, l, can be calculated using the formula:
l = --------- 2 r
360
where
= number of degrees in the central angle.
WORKED Example 2
Calculate the length of the arc shown on the right,

7.1 cm
60
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.
Substitute the value of
Calculate the arc length.
and r.
l = --------- 2 r
360
60
l = --------- 2
360
l = 7.4 cm
7.1
The arc length formula is then used to make calculations about the distance between
points on the Earths surface.
386
WORKED Example 3
The radius of the Earth at the equator is approximately 6400 km.
a Calculate the circumference of the Earth at the equator, correct to the nearest
kilometre.
b Two points on the equator subtend at a 5 angle at the centre of the Earth. Calculate the
distance between them, correct to the nearest kilometre.
THINK
WRITE
Write the formula.

a C=2 r
=2
6400
= 40 212 km
Write the formula.
Substitute for
Calculate the distance.
b d = --------- 2 r
360
5
= --------- 2
360
= 559 km
1
2
and r.
6400
remember
1. The circumference of a circle can be found using either of the formulas C = d
or C = 2 r.
2. An arc length is calculated by using the angle the arc subtends at the centre of
a circle. The arc length is calculated using the formula:
l = --------- 2 r
360
where is the number of degrees in the central angle.
3. The arc length formula can be used to find the distance between points on the
equator.
SkillS
13A
HEET
13.1
WORKED
Example
Arc lengths
1 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
Circumference
of a circle
62 mm
4 cm
9m
Cabr
omet
i Ge ry
Arc
length
f
13.9 km
4.1 km
8.3 m
387
2 Calculate the circumference of a circle with a radius of 100 km. Give your answer
correct to the nearest 10 km.
3 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles. Give your answer correct
to 3 significant figures.
a
b
c
60 km
14 cm
e
117 mm
39 m
f
3.7 km
219 km
4 Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a diameter of 3000 km. Give your
answer correct to the nearest 100 km.
5 Use the formula C = d to find the diameter of a circle with a circumference of
100 cm. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
6 Find (correct to 3 significant figures):
a the diameter of a circle with a circumference of 80 m
b the radius of a circle with a circumference of 42.3 cm
c the diameter of a sphere with a circumference of 2500 km.
Example
7 Calculate the length of the arc shown on the right,

correct to 2 decimal places.
50
10 cm
Calculating
arc
length
45
120
72 cm
13 m
13.2 SkillS
HEET
8 Calculate the lengths of each of the arcs drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
mm
43
WORKED
220
m
c
7.2
72 km
150
7.9 km
4
388
WORKED
Example
9 The radius of the Earth at the equator is 6400 km.

a Calculate the circumference of the Earth at the equator, correct to the nearest
100 km.
b Two points on the equator subtend an angle of 40 at the centre. Calculate the
distance between them, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 A circle has a radius of 30 km.
a Two points on the circle subtend an angle of 100 at the centre. Calculate the
length of the arc joining them, correct to the nearest kilometre.
b The outer arc between the two points subtends an angle of 260. Calculate the
length of the outer arc, correct to the nearest kilometre.
c Show that the sum of the lengths of the two arcs is equal to the circumference of
the circle.
11 A sphere has a radius of 40 cm.
a Calculate the circumference of the sphere, correct to the nearest centimetre.
b Calculate the distance between two points on the sphere that subtend an angle of
90 at the centre, correct to 1 decimal place.
12 Calculate the distance, correct to 1 decimal place, between two points on a sphere:
a of radius 10 cm, which subtend an angle of 30 at the centre
b of radius 2 m, which subtend an angle at 122 at the centre
c of radius 6400 km, which subtend an angle of 51 at the centre.
13 Calculate the distance between two points on the Earths surface that subtend an angle
of 1 at the centre. Give your answer correct to the nearest kilometre.
389
Great circles and small circles

Consider the sphere drawn on the right. The axis of
the sphere is a diameter of that sphere. The ends of
the axis are called the poles.
If we draw any lines around the sphere passing
through both poles, a great circle is formed. A great
circle is the largest possible circle that can be drawn
around the sphere.
Great circle
Pole
Axis
Pole
The length of a great circle is found using the formulas for the circumference of a
circle:
C = d, where d is the diameter of the sphere
or C = 2 r, where r is the radius of the sphere.
WORKED Example 4
Calculate the length of a great circle on a sphere with a radius of 40 cm. Give your answer
correct to the nearest centimetre.
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula.

Substitute the radius of the sphere.
Calculate the length of the great circle.
C=2 r
C=2
40
C = 251 cm
Now consider a circle drawn perpendicular to the axis of

the sphere. Only one circle, called the equator, will be a
great circle. The centre of the equator will be the centre of
the sphere as shown on the right.
Other circles that are perpendicular to the axis of the
sphere will be smaller than a great circle and are called
small circles.
Small circle
Equat o r
Equato r
390
To calculate the length around a small circle, we need to

know the small circles radius. The small circle will have a
radius smaller than that of the great circle, as shown in the
figure on the right.
Radius of small circle
Radius of great circle
WORKED Example 5
Calculate the length of the small circle on the right, correct to
1 decimal place.
2m
1.5 m
THINK
1
2
3
WRITE
Write the formula for the circumference

of a circle.
Substitute for r.
C=2 r
C=2
1.5
C = 9.4 cm
remember
1. A great circle is the circle of the greatest possible size that lies on the surface
of a sphere.
2. The length of a great circle is calculated using the formula for the
circumference of a circle.
3. A small circle is any circle smaller in size than the great circle.
13B
WORKED
Example
Great circles and

small circles
1 Calculate the length of a great circle around a sphere of radius 7 cm. Give your
2 Calculate the length of a great circle on each of the spheres drawn below. Give each
answer correct to 3 significant figures.
a
b
c
9m
30 m
74 mm
3 The Earth is a sphere with a radius of approximately 6400 km. Calculate the length of
a great circle around the Earths surface, correct to the nearest 10 km.
391
4 Calculate the length of a great circle that lies on a sphere with a diameter of 1 m. Give
your answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
5 Below are the diameters of the other planets in our solar system. Calculate the length
of a great circle on the surface of each planet, correct to the nearest 10 km.
a Mercury 4878 km
b Venus 12 100 km
c Mars 6796 km
d Jupiter 142 984 km
e Saturn 120 540 km
f Uranus 51 118 km
g Neptune 49 100 km
5
6 Calculate the length of a small circle on a sphere of radius 4 m if the radius of the
small circle is 2 m. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
7 Calculate the length of each of the small circles below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
1100 km
80
6.4 m
25
7.1 m
6400 km
9m
10
8.8 m
8 multiple choice
The diameter of the moon is 3476 km. The length of a great circle on the moons surface is closest to:
A 5460 km
B 10 920 km
C 21 840 km
D 43 680 km
9 The diameter of the sphere drawn on the right
is 50 cm. Calculate the distance along the
surface from one pole to the other. Give your
answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
10 Calculate the distance between the north and
south poles along the Earths surface, correct
to the nearest 100 km. (Take the radius of the
Earth to be 6400 km.)
11 A and B are two points on a small circle of radius
60 cm, as shown in the figure on the right.
a Calculate the circumference of the small
circle, correct to the nearest centimetre.
b Calculate the length of the arc, AB, correct to
the nearest centimetre.
12 Calculate the length of each arc below, correct to
a
b
X
60 cm
1000 km
100 Y
50 m
60
Q
P
Work
Example
50 cm
WORKED
T
SHEE
13.1
392
1
1 Calculate the circumference of a circle that has a radius of 4.7 m. Give your answer
2 Calculate the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 56 cm. Give your answer
3 An arc on a circle of radius 9 cm subtends an angle of 60 at the centre. Calculate the
length of the arc, correct to 1 decimal place.
4 What is a great circle?
5 What is a small circle?
6 Calculate the length of a great circle that lies on a sphere of radius 15 cm. Give your
7 Calculate the distance between the north and south poles on a planet that has a
diameter of 4500 km. Give your answer correct to the nearest 100 km.
8 Calculate the distance between two points on the great circle of the planet in question 7
that subtend an angle of 80 at the centre. Give your answer correct to the nearest 10 km.
9 A planet has a radius of 2300 km. Calculate the length of a great circle lying on the
surface of the planet, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 Sydney lies on a small circle of the Earth that has a radius of approximately 5400 km.
Calculate the circumference of the small circle (correct to the nearest 100 km).
393
Latitude and longitude
Equat o r
South Pole
30
30S
Sydney
North Pole
enwich Meridian
Gre
As the Earth is a sphere, great circles and small circles on the surface of the Earth are used to locate
points on the surface.
Consider the axis of the Earth to be the diameter
joining the North Pole and the South Pole. The only
great circle that is perpendicular to this axis is the
equator. The angular distance either north or south of
the equator is the latitude.
Small circles parallel to the equator are called
parallels of latitude. These small circles are used to
describe how far north or south of the equator a place
is. For example Sydney lies close to the small circle
30S.
This means Sydney subtends a 30 angle at the
centre of the Earth and is south of the equator.
The maximum latitude for any point on the Earth
is 90 N or 90 S. The north and south poles lie at
these points.
For latitude, the equator is the line of reference for
all measurements.
To locate a place on the globe in an eastwest
direction, the line of reference is the Greenwich
Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian is half a great
circle running from the North to the South Pole.
The Greenwich Meridian is named after Greenwich, a suburb of London through which the circle
runs.
All other places on the globe are located by the
half great circle on which they lie. These half great
circles are called meridians of longitude.
Each meridian of longitude is identified by the
angle between it and the Greenwich Meridian and by
whether it is east or west of Greenwich.
The meridian of longitude opposite the Greenwich
Meridian is the International Date Line. The International Date Line has longitude 180 either east or
west. On either side of the International Date Line
the day changes. (This will be explained in more
detail later in the chapter.)
For the convenience of some small island nations
and Russia, the International Date Line is bent so not
to pass through them.
World maps or globes are drawn with both parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude shown.
Any location on a map or globe can be giv en a pair
of coordinates: the first is the parallel of latitude that
it lies on, the second is the meridian of longitude. For
example, the coordinates of Sydney are 30S, 150E.
North Pole
Equato r
South Pole
40
Greenwich
Meridian
International
Date Line
30S
30N
60N
30W
ANGOLA
NIGER
30E
60E
MADAGASCAR
Johannesburg
SOUTH AFRICA
Cape Town
Baghdad
IRAQ
Beijing
90E
Perth
Darwin
120E
150E
Hobart
Melbourne
Sydney
Brisbane
Port Moresby
PAPUA
NEW GUINEA
Tokyo
AUSTRALIA
SINGAPORE
Manila
PHILIPPINES
TAIWAN
Shanghai
INDONESIA
150E
JAPAN
NORTH KOREA
120E
CHINA SOUTH KOREA
90E
Colombo
INDIA
RUSSIA
60E
SRI LANKA
30E
Moscow
KENYA
LIBYA Cairo
EGYPT
Rome
ITALY
NAMIBIA
MALI
ALGERIA
SPAIN
Madrid
FRANCE
PORTUGAL
Oslo
Amsterdam
London NETHERLANDS
IRELAND
FINLAND
NORWAY SWEDEN
30W
UK
ICELAND
GREENLAND
60W
180
90W
120W
JAMAICA
90W
Santiago
60W
30W
Buenos Aires
URUGUAY
PARAGUAY
ARGENTINA
CHILE
Rio de Janeiro
BRAZIL
BOLIVIA
Lima
PERU
COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
MEXICO
30W
New York
Montreal
60W
UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
CANADA
Los Angeles
Vancouver
120W
150W
Hawaii (USA)
Alaska
(USA)
150W
NEW
ZEALAND
Auckland
Suva
FIJI
180
International Date Line
30S
30N
60N
394
395
WORKED Example 6
Identify the major cities closest to each of the following locations using the map on
page 394.
a 30S, 30E
b 30N, 120E
c 45N, 75W
THINK
WRITE
a Look for the city closest to the

intersection of the 30S parallel of
latitude and the 30E meridian of
longitude.
a Johannesburg
b Look for the city closest to the

intersection of the 30N parallel of
latitude and the 120E meridian of
longitude.
b Shanghai
c Look for the city closest to the

intersection of the 45N parallel of
latitude and the 75W meridian of
longitude.
c Montreal
WORKED Example 7
Write down the approximate coordinates of each of the following cities using the map on
page 394.
a Singapore
b Perth
c Los Angeles
THINK
WRITE
Use the parallels of latitude drawn to

estimate the latitude.
Use the meridians of longitude
drawn to estimate the longitude.


1
2
1
2
1
2
1N, 104E
32S, 115E
35N, 118W
396
remember
1. The Earths axis runs from the North Pole to the South Pole.
2. The only great circle perpendicular to the Earths axis is the equator.
3. Places are located either north or south of the equator using parallels of
latitude. Each parallel of latitude is a small circle parallel to the equator and is
identified by the angle it subtends at the centre.
4. Places are located as being east or west of the Greenwich Meridian. The
Greenwich Meridian is half a great circle from the North Pole to the South
Pole.
5. All meridians of longitude are half great circles and are measured by the angle
made to the east or west of the Greenwich Meridian.
6. A pair of coordinates can identify every point on the Earths surface. These are
called its latitude and longitude.
13C
For the following questions use the map on page 394.

1 Write down the name of the city closest to each of the following pairs of coordinates.
a 30N, 30E
b 30N, 120E
6
c 15S, 135E
d 45N, 75W
e 50N, 0
f 37S, 175E
g 35N, 140E
h 40N, 115E
1
i 22 --- S, 43W
j 60N, 11E
WORKED
Example
2 State the approximate latitude and longitude of each of the following major cities or
Example
islands.
7
a Melbourne
b New York
c Jamaica
d Johannesburg
e Rome
f Buenos Aires
g Baghdad
h Moscow
i Singapore
j Suva
WORKED
397
Important parallels of latitude

Four significant parallels of latitude on the surface of the Earth are the:
1 Arctic Circle
2 Antarctic Circle
3 Tropic of Cancer
4 Tropic of Capricorn.
Find out the latitude of these small circles and state the significance of each.
Distances on the Earths surface

From the previous section on latitude and longitude
it can be seen that angular geometry is of great
importance when making measurements on the
Earths surface.
Now consider a meridian of longitude on the

Earths surface with two points on it. The angular
distance between them will be the difference
between their latitudes.
The angular distance is calculated by subtracting the latitudes of points if both are on
the same side of the equator and adding the latitudes if on opposite sides of the equator.
WORKED Example 8
The coordinates of A are (20S, 130E) and the coordinates of B are (15N, 130E).
Find the angular distance between them.
THINK
WRITE
A and B are on opposite sides of the

equator so add the latitudes.
Angular distance = 20 + 15
Angular distance = 35
398
Now consider two points on the same great circle that have an angular distance of
1 minute. (Remember 60 = 1.) The distance between these two points is defined to be
1 nautical mile (M). Therefore, an angular distance of 1o on a great circle will equal
60 nautical miles.
1 nautical mile 1.852 km
Using this information, we are able to calculate the distance between two points on a
great circle on the Earths surface in both nautical miles and kilometres.
WORKED Example 9
P and Q are two points on the Earths surface with coordinates (27N, 30W) and
(39N, 30W) respectively.
a Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles.
b Use 1 M 1.852 km to give the distance, PQ, to the nearest kilometre.
THINK
WRITE
P and Q are on the same great circle.

Calculate the angular distance, PQ.
Convert the angular distance to
nautical miles using 1 = 60 M.
Distance = 12 60
Distance = 720 M
b Multiply 720 by 1.852 to convert to

kilometres.
b Distance = 720 1.852

Distance = 1333 km
2
3
27
We can also calculate the distance between two points on the same great circle, in kilometres, using the fact that the radius of the Earth is 6400 km.
WORKED Example 10
X and Y are two points on the Earths surface with coordinates (32N, 120E) and
(45S, 120E). Calculate the distance, XY, correct to the nearest 100 km.
THINK
WRITE
Calculate the angular distance, XY.
Use the arc length formula to calculate

the distance between X and Y, correct
to the nearest 100 km.
l = --------- 2 r
360
77
l = --------- 2 r
360
77
l = --------- 2
360
l = 8600 km
6400
In marine and aerial navigation, speed on the Earths surface is measured in knots.
1 knot = 1 nautical mile/hour
399
WORKED Example 11
The coordinates of two points on the Earths surface are given by the coordinates
A(50N, 120W) and B(30S, 120W). Calculate the time taken for a ship to sail the
shortest distance between these two points at an average speed of 40 knots.
THINK
1
2
WRITE
Calculate the angular distance between

A and B.
Calculate the distance, AB, in nautical
miles.
distance
Use the formula time = ------------------- to
speed
calculate the time taken for the journey.
Distance = 80 60
Distance = 4800 M
distance
Time = ------------------speed
4800
Time = -----------40
Time = 120 hours (5 days)
remember
1. The angular distance between two points on the same great circle (meridian of
longitude) can be found by:
subtracting the latitudes if the points are on the same side of the equator
adding the latitudes if the points are on opposite sides of the equator.
2. An angular distance can be converted to a linear distance using the relationship,
1 = 1 nautical mile (M).
3. 1 M 1.852 km
4. The distance between two points on the same great circle can also be found
using the arc length formula and taking the radius of the Earth as being
6400 km.
5. Speed can be measured in knots. A speed of 1 knot = 1 M/hour.
13D
WORKED
Example
Distances on the Earths

surface
1 Two points, A and B, on the Earths surface are at (30N, 25W) and (20S, 25W).
Calculate the angular distance between A and B.
2 In each of the following calculate the angular distance between the pairs of points
given.
a (70N, 150E) and (30N, 150E)
b (25N, 40W) and (15S, 40W)
c (64N, 0) and (7S, 0)
d (42S, 97W) and (21S, 97W)
e (0, 60E) and (0, 20W)
3 The city of Durban is at approximately (30S, 30E) while Cairo is at approximately
(30N, 30E). What is the angular distance between Durban and Cairo?
400
WORKED
Example
4 P and Q are two points on the Earths surface with coordinates (45N, 10W) and
(15N, 10W) respectively.
a Calculate the distance between P and Q in nautical miles (M).
b Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest km.
5 Calculate the distance between each of the points below in nautical miles.
a A (10N, 45E) and B (25S, 45E)
b C (75N, 86W) and D (60S, 86W)
c E (46S, 52W) and F (7S, 52W)
d G (34N, 172E) and H (62S, 172E)
6 The city of Osaka is at (37N, 135E) while Alice Springs is at (23S, 135E).
a Calculate the distance between Osaka and Alice Springs in nautical miles.
b Use 1 M = 1.852 km to write this distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
7 The Tropic of Cancer is at latitude 22 1--- N while the Tropic of Capricorn is at latitude
2
22 1--- S. Calculate the distance between these two tropics along the same great circle in:
2
a nautical miles
b kilometres (correct to the nearest km).
WORKED
Example
10
8 M and N are two points on the Earths surface with coordinates (56N, 122W) and
(3S, 122W). Calculate the distance, MN, correct to the nearest 100 km, using the
arc length formula. (Take the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km.)
9 Calculate the distance between each of the points below, correct to the nearest
kilometre, using the arc length formula and taking the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km.
a P (85S, 89E) and Q (46S, 89E)
b R (24N, 0) and S (12S, 0)
c T (34S, 17W) and U (0, 17W)
10 multiple choice
Perth is at approximately (31S, 115E) while Hong Kong is at approximately (22N,
115E). The distance between Perth and Hong Kong is approximately:
A9M
B 53 M
C 540 M
D 3180 M
11 multiple choice
Rachel is a flight navigator. She is responsible for calculating the distance between
Stockholm (60N, 18E) and Budapest (47N, 18E). Rachel calculates the distance
using the arc length formula, assuming the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. Rachels
answer would be closest to:
A 1445 km
B 1452 km
C 11 952 km
D 11 890 km
WORKED 12 The coordinates of two points on the Earths surface are X (40S, 30E) and Y (10S,
Example
30E). Calculate the time taken for a plane to fly from X to Y at a speed of 240 knots.
11
13 Quito (0, 78W) and Kampala (0, 32E) are two cities on the Equator.
a Calculate the angular distance between Quito and Kampala.
b Calculate the distance between them in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to find the distance, correct to the nearest 100 km.
d Calculate the time taken to fly from Quito to Kampala at a speed of 480 knots.
14 Calculate the distance between the North Pole and the South Pole in nautical miles.
15 The city of Kingston is at approximately (18N, 76W). Ottawa is at approximately
(46N, 76W).
a Calculate the angular distance between Kingston and Ottawa.
b Calculate the distance between Kingston and Ottawa in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
d Use the arc length formula to calculate the distance between the two cities, correct
to the nearest kilometre.
e Explain the discrepancy between the two answers.
401
2
1 Calculate the length of a great circle lying on the surface of a sphere of radius 24 cm.
Give your answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
Using the map on page 394, give the coordinates of the following cities.
2 Amsterdam
3 Brisbane
4 Vancouver
Using the same map, state the name of the major city closest to the following
coordinates.
5 (40N, 10E)
6 (12N, 77E)
Two points on the Earths surface are P (13N, 75W) and Q (49N, 75W).
7 What is the angular distance between P and Q?
8 Calculate the distance, PQ, in nautical miles.
9 Use 1 M = 1.852 km to give the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest 10 km.
10 Use the arc length formula to calculate the distance, PQ, correct to the nearest 10 km.
Time zones
As the Earth rotates, different parts of the globe are experiencing day and night. This
means that each meridian of longitude on the Earths surface should have a different
time of day. To simplify this, the Earth is divided into time zones.
Time zones are all calculated in relation to Greenwich. The time on the Greenwich
Meridian is known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Time zones are then stated in
terms of the number of hours they are ahead or behind GMT. All places with longitudes
east of Greenwich are ahead of GMT, while all place with longitudes west of Greenwich are behind GMT. For example, Eastern Standard Time is GMT +10, meaning that
Sydney is 10 hours ahead of GMT. When GMT is noon, EST is 10.00 pm.
The International Date Line is 12 hours ahead of Greenwich when travelling east and
12 hours behind when travelling west, so this totals 24 hours, or one day. Therefore, the
day changes on either side of the International Date Line.
The time difference between two places is calculated by subtracting the comparative
time with GMT.
402
WORKED Example 12
Sydney is GMT +10 while New York is GMT 5. Calculate the time difference between
Sydney and New York.
THINK
WRITE
Subtract the comparative times.
State the difference and which city is

ahead in time.
Time difference = 10 ( 5)
Time difference = 15
Sydney is 15 hours ahead of New York.
Once we have calculated the time difference, we are able to calculate the time in one
place given the time in another. To calculate the time in a city further ahead of GMT we
add time, or to calculate the time in a city further behind GMT we subtract time.
WORKED Example 13
Perth is GMT +8 while Cape Town is GMT +1. When it is 11.00 am in Cape Town, what is
the time in Perth?
THINK
WRITE
Calculate the time difference and state

which city is ahead.
Add the time difference to the time in

Cape Town to calculate the time in
Perth.
Time difference = 8 1
Time difference = 7 hours
Perth is 7 hours ahead of Cape Town.
Time in Perth = 11.00 am + 7 hours
Time in Perth = 6.00 pm
The time as calculated by the longitude is called the standard time. Time zones are calculated to approximate all the standard times within a region.
Australian time zones

At times when daylight saving time does not apply, Australia is divided into three
time zones, Eastern Standard Time (EST), Central Standard Time (CST) and
Western Standard Time (WST).
1 Which states are in each of the three time zones?
2 What is the time difference between each of these zones?
3 In which states does daylight saving time apply in summer?
4 When daylight saving is in force in each of the states that have daylight saving,
how many time zones is Australia divided into?
403
As there are 24 hours in a day and 360 of longitude (180E and 180W), we can
calculate that:
1 hour = 15 of longitude
1 = 4 minutes
We are now able to compare the time in various cities given the longitude of each.
WORKED Example 14
Calculate the time in Los Angeles (34N, 120W) when it is 8.00 am on Wednesday in
Sydney (33S, 150E).
THINK
1 Calculate the difference in longitudes.
2
Convert this angular distance into hours

using 1 = 4 minutes.
Subtract the time difference from the

time in Sydney.
WRITE
Longitude difference = 150 + 120
Longitude difference = 270
Time difference = 1080 minutes
Time in Los Angeles = 8.00 am Wednesday
Time in Los Angeles = 18 hours
Time in Los Angeles = 2.00 pm Tuesday
It is important to note that, for convenience, places that have almost the same longitude
have the same time. An example of this is Australias time zones where all of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania are in the same standard time zone
although there is a difference of 12 in longitude from the easternmost and westernmost
points in this zone.
These calculations can then be used to calculate the arrival and departure times for
international travel.
WORKED Example 15
A plane leaves London (50N, 0) at 9.00 am Sunday, London time, and flies to Sydney
(33S, 150E). The flight takes 20 hours. Calculate the time in Sydney when the plane
arrives.
THINK
1 Calculate the longitude difference
between Sydney and London.
2 Use 1 = 4 minutes to calculate the time
difference.
3
Calculate the time in Sydney when the

plane is departing London by adding
the time difference.
Add the flying time to calculate the

time when the plane lands.
WRITE
Longitude difference = 150 0
Longitude difference = 150
Time difference = 600 minutes
When the plane leaves London at 9.00 am
(London time)
Time in Sydney = 9.00 am Sunday + 10 hours
Time in Sydney = 7.00 pm Sunday
Plane arrives at 7.00 pm Sunday + 20 hours
Time in Sydney = 3.00 pm Monday.
More challenging examples will require you to allow for daylight saving time. When
daylight saving time applies, we add one hour to the standard time at that location.
404
remember
1. Time zones are calculated by comparison with Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
2. For places to the east we add time, for places to the west we subtract time to
calculate the time zone.
3. The time zone is calculated using the longitude.
1 hour = 15 of longitude
1 of longitude = 4 minutes
4. To calculate the time, subtract the time when heading west and add time when
heading east.
5. Care must be taken when crossing the International Date Line as you will need
to add a day when travelling east or subtract a day when heading west.
6. Time differences need to be used when calculating departure time and arrival
time for international travel.
7. When daylight saving time applies, we add one hour to the standard time.
SkillS
13E
HEET
13.3
WORKED
Example
12
Time zones
1 The time zone in New Zealand is GMT +12 while in Turkey it is GMT +2. Calculate
the time difference between New Zealand and Turkey.
2 Calculate the time difference between each of the following locations.
a Tokyo GMT +9 and New York GMT 5
b Los Angeles GMT 8 and Dakar GMT 1
c Rio De Janeiro GMT 3 and Perth GMT +8
d Hawaii GMT 11 and Fiji GMT +11
Converting
units of
time
WORKED
Example
13
3 Sydney is GMT +10, while San Francisco is GMT 8. When it is 5.00 pm on Tuesday
in Sydney, what is the time in San Francisco?
4 For each of the following calculate:
a the time in Perth (GMT +8) when it is 10.00 pm in Sydney (GMT +10)
b the time in Washington (GMT 5) when it is 4.00 am Saturday in Sydney
(GMT +10)
c the time in Auckland (GMT +12) when it is 7.00 am Wednesday in Johannesburg
(GMT +2)
d the time in Sydney (GMT +10) when it is 6.00 am Tuesday in Salt Lake City
(GMT 7)
e the time in Adelaide (GMT +9.5) when it is 8.15 pm Sunday in the Cook Islands
(GMT 10).
5 Jane is in Sydney (GMT +10) and wants to telephone her friend in Paris (GMT) at
7.00 pm Friday, Paris time. At what time must she call from Sydney?
6 Carl is holidaying in Hawaii (GMT 11). If he wants to call his parents in Sydney
(GMT +10) at 8.00 pm on Wednesday, what time must he call from Hawaii?
7 Neville is in Sydney (GMT +10). He wants to set his video recorder to tape the
Superbowl which is being played in Atlanta (GMT 5) and televised live in Sydney.
The Superbowl is due to begin at 7.00 pm on Sunday in Atlanta. At what day and time
will Neville need to set his video to begin taping?
405
8 Sydney is GMT +10.

a What is the time in Sydney when it is noon GMT?
b When daylight saving time is applied, describe the time zone in Sydney as
compared to GMT.
c During daylight saving time, what will the time be in Sydney when it is:
i 4.00 am Monday GMT?
ii 9.00 pm Thursday GMT?
9 Sydney is GMT +10 and Los Angeles is GMT 8. Calculate the time difference
between Sydney and Los Angeles when:
a both cities are on standard time
b Sydney has daylight saving time and Los Angeles is on standard time
c Los Angeles has daylight saving time and Sydney is on standard time.
10 Beijing is at approximately (40N, 120E). Rome is at approximately (40N, 15E).
Calculate the difference in standard time between Beijing and Rome.
14
11 Calculate the time difference in standard time between each of the following cities.
a Mumbai (19N, 73E) and Casablanca (23N, 82W)
b Tokyo (36N, 140E) and Adelaide (23S, 134E)
c Miami (26N, 80W) and Seattle (47N, 122W)
WORKED
Example
12 multiple choice
At a point on the Earths surface, the coordinates are (45N, 135W). The standard
time at this point would be:
A GMT 3
B GMT +3
C GMT 9
D GMT +9
13 multiple choice
It is 11.00 am Tuesday at a point X with coordinates (32S, 90W). At a point, Y, with
coordinates (51N, 120E), what is the time if daylight saving time applies at Y?
A 9.00 pm Monday
B 10.00 pm Monday
C 1.00 am Wednesday
D 2.00 am Wednesday
14 A plane leaves Sydney (32S, 150E) at 2.00 pm on Tuesday. If it is an 18-hour flight
to Los Angeles (33N, 120W), at what time will the plane touch down in Los Angeles?
15
15 A plane leaves Perth (32S, 120E) on an 8-hour flight to Cape Town (33S, 15E) at
3.00 pm Wednesday.
a At what time will the plane arrive in Cape Town?
b The return flight leaves Cape Town at 5.00 pm Saturday. At what time will it arrive
in Perth?
WORKED
16 A flight leaves Melbourne (40S, 150E) at 5.00 pm Tuesday on an 18-hour flight to

Frankfurt (50N, 15E). Calculate the time of arrival in Frankfurt if it is:
a daylight saving time in Melbourne
b daylight saving time in Frankfurt.
The keepers of time

Information about the world time zones can be found at the internet site for the
Royal Observatory Greenwich, which is recognised worldwide as the keeper of
time. Information can be found here about all time zones throughout the world and
other facts about time. Their address is www.rog.nmm.ac.uk.
Work
Example
T
SHEE
13.2
406
summary
Arc lengths
The circumference of a circle is found using either C = d or C = 2 r.
The length of an arc can be found using the formula:
where
l = --------- 2 r
360
is the number of degrees in the central angle.
Great circles and small circles

An axis of the sphere is any diameter. A diameter must pass through the centre of
the sphere. The endpoints of the axis are called the poles.
A great circle is any circle of maximum diameter that can be drawn on the surface
of a sphere. The circumference of a great circle can be found using the formula
C = 2 r.
A small circle is any circle on the surface of the sphere that is smaller than a great
circle.

A point on the Earths surface is located using a pair of coordinates.
A point is located as being either north or south of the equator using latitude.
Latitude is the angle subtended at the centre of the sphere by the small circle on
which the point lies.
A point is located as being either east or west of the Greenwich Meridian by the
meridian of longitude. Each meridian of longitude is measured by the angle
between the meridian of longitude and the Greenwich Meridian.
Distances on the Earths surface

If two points lie on the same great circle, the angular distance between them can be
found by finding the difference between their latitudes.
The distance between two points can then be found in nautical miles using
1 = 60 M.
1 M 1.852 km.
The distance between two points can also be found in kilometres using the arc
length formula.
Speed can be measured in knots, where 1 knot = 1 M/h.
Time zones
The longitude of a city determines its time zone.
The standard time at any location can be calculated using 15 = 1 hour or
1 = 4 minutes.
Points to the east of the Greenwich Meridian have standard time ahead of GMT.
Points to the west of the Greenwich Meridian have standard time behind GMT.
407
CHAPTER
review
1 Calculate the circumference of each of the following circles, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
8.6 cm
19.2 cm
92 mm
2 Calculate the length of each of the following arcs, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
9m
13A
13A
260
6.2 cm
40
135
9.3 m
3 A sphere has a radius of 7.5 cm.

a Calculate the circumference of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Calculate the distance between two points on the surface of the sphere that subtend an
angle of 60 at the centre. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
13A
4 Calculate the circumference of each of the following spheres, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
13B
7 cm
33 cm
9.2 m
5 Calculate the circumference of a great circle that lies on the surface of a sphere with a radius
of 9 km. (Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
13B
6 A sphere has a diameter of 45 cm. Calculate the distance between the poles on this sphere.
Give your answer correct to the nearest centimetre.
13B
7 Calculate the circumference of each of the small circles drawn below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a
b
c
2.8 m
13B
48
8.1 m
7 cm
20
6.6 cm
1500 km
3000 km
408
13C
8 Use the world map on page 394 to identify the cities at each of the following locations.
a (14N, 121E)
b (12S, 76W)
c (33S, 71W)
13C
9 Use the world map on page 394 to give the approximate coordinates of each of the following
cities.
a Madrid
b Singapore
c Hobart
13D
10 The points X and Y on the Earths surface have coordinates (32N, 120E) and (26S,
120E). Calculate the angular distance between X and Y.
13D
11 A ship gives its coordinates as (56N, 14W) and is sailing to a port at (40N, 14W).
a Calculate the angular distance through which the ship must sail to reach port.
b Calculate the distance the ship must sail, in nautical miles.
c Use 1 M = 1.852 km to calculate the distance, correct to the nearest kilometre.
13D
12 The angular distance between two points on the same great circle is 120. Calculate the time
that it would take to sail between these points at a speed of 48 knots.
13D
13 Santiago has approximate coordinates (33S, 70W), while Santo Domingo has approximate
coordinates (18N, 70W).
a Calculate the distance between Santiago and Santo Domingo:
i in nautical miles
ii correct to the nearest kilometre.
b Calculate the time taken to fly from Santiago to Santo Domingo at a speed of 480 knots.
13D
14 The coordinates of Perth are approximately (32S, 115E), while Hong Kong is
approximately at (22N, 115E). Taking the radius of the Earth to be 6400 km, use the arc
length formula to calculate the distance between Perth and Hong Kong, correct to the
nearest 100 km.
409
15 Calculate the time difference between each of the following cities.

a Sydney (GMT +10) and Istanbul (GMT +2)
b Perth (GMT +8) and New York (GMT 3)
c Ottawa (GMT 5) and Fiji (GMT +12)
13E
16 In Dhahran (GMT +4) the time is 10.00 pm on Wednesday. Calculate the time in Tokyo
(GMT +9).
13E
17 Ann is on a skiing holiday in Winnipeg, Canada (GMT 6). She needs to call her parents at
7.30 pm on Tuesday night, Sydney time. At what time should she make the call from
Winnipeg?
13E
18 Kingston, Jamaica is at approximately (18N, 75W) while Oslo, Norway is at

approximately (60N, 15E). Calculate the time:
a in Oslo when it is 5.00 am in Kingston
b in Kingston when it is 5.00 pm in Oslo.
13E
19 A plane is flying from Munich (48N, 15E) to New York (41N, 75W). The flight departs
Munich at 6.00 pm and takes 7 hours. Calculate the time of arrival in New York.
13E

1 multiple choice
A circle has a diameter of 12 cm. An arc is drawn on the circumference of the circle such that
the arc subtends an angle of 45 at the centre of the circle. The length of the arc is closest to:
A 4.7 cm
B 9.4 cm
C 14.1 cm
D 37.7 cm
2 multiple choice
A great circle on the surface of a planet has a circumference of approximately 10 700 km. The
diameter of the planet would be closest to:
A 850 km
B 1700 km
C 3400 km
D 6800 km
3 multiple choice
Point X on the Earths surface has coordinates (69S, 12E), while point Y is at (8S, 12E).
The distance between X and Y is:
A 61 M
B 77 M
C 3660 M
D 4620 M
4 multiple choice
The coordinates of two points, M and N, on the surface of the Earth are (45N, 45W) and
(30S, 60E). Which of the following statements is correct about the time difference between
M and N?
A M is 5 hours behind N.
B M is 5 hours ahead of N.
C M is 7 hours behind N.
D M is 7 hours ahead of N.
410
5 The city of St Petersburg is at approximately (60N, 30E), while the city of Johannesburg
has approximate coordinates of (25S, 30E).
a Calculate the angular distance between St Petersburg and Johannesburg.
b Taking the radius of the Earth to be equal to 6400 km, calculate the distance between
St Petersburg and Johannesburg, correct to the nearest 100 km.
c In Sydney (30S, 150E) daylight saving time applies. Calculate the time difference
between St Petersburg and Sydney.
CHAPTER
test
yourself
13
6 The approximate coordinates of Tokyo are (36N, 140E), while San Francisco is at
approximately (36N, 120W).
a Do San Francisco and Tokyo lie on the same great circle or the same small circle? Explain
your answer.
b An aeroplane takes 8 hours to fly between Tokyo and San Francisco. If a plane leaves
Tokyo at 10.00 pm on Saturday, Tokyo time, what day and time will it arrive in San
Francisco?
c If the return flight leaves San Francisco at 8.00 am Tuesday, what day and time will it
arrive in Tokyo?
Glossary
411
Glossary
Annuity A form of investment involving
regular periodical contributions to an account.
On such an investment, interest compounds at
the end of each period and the next contribution to the account is made.
Annulus The area between two circles that
have the same centre (concentric).
Area chart When line graphs are stacked on
top of each other so that the area between
each of the lines can be used to compare each
data set.
Asset An item that is of value to its owner.
Causality When the occurrence of one
variable causes another. For example there is
a strong positive correlation between a
persons shirt size and shoe size but one does
not cause the other. On the other hand, there
is a strong positive correlation between the
amount of a Lottery jackpot and the number
of tickets sold. In this case, it would seem
that one does cause the other.
Cosine rule A trigonometric formula used in

non-right-angled triangles that allows:
a side length to be found when given the
two other side lengths and the size of the
included angle
an angle to be found when given the three
side lengths of the triangle.
Cubic function A function where the
independent variable is raised to the power of
3. A cubic function is in the form y = x3.
Declining balance method The depreciation
of an item is calculated as a percentage of the
value at the beginning of the period.
Depreciation The reduction in value of an
asset.
Ellipse An oval shaped figure. The shortest
distance from the centre of an ellipse to the
circumference is called the semi-minor axis
and the longest distance from the centre to
the circumference is called the semi-major
axis.
Compass radial survey A survey taken from

a central point in a field. Critical points are
sighted from this central point and radial lines
are drawn. The distance from the central
point to each critical point is then measured
and the compass bearing of each radial line is
noted on the survey.
Expected outcome The number of times that

an outcome can be expected to occur in a
given number of trials.
Correlation A statement reflecting the

relationship between two variables. A positive correlation indicates that as one variable
increases so does another, while a negative
correlation indicates that as one variable
increases, the other decreases.
Extrapolate To extend a graph so as to make

predictions about future trends.
Correlation coefficient A figure between 1

and 1 which indicates the strength of a
correlation. The closer to 1 the coefficient is,
the stronger the positive correlation; the
closer to 1 the coefficient is, the stronger the
negative correlation. A coefficient close to
zero indicates no correlation or, at best, a
very weak correlation.
Exponential function A function where the

independent variable is in the exponent
(index). An exponential function is of the
form y = ax or y = b(ax).
Financial expectation The average financial

result from a situation where money will be
gained or lost.
Flat rate loan A loan where the interest is
calculated using only the initial amount
borrowed.
Future value of an annuity The value of an
annuity at the end of a given period of time.
Great circle A circle of the greatest possible
diameter that can be drawn on the surface of
a sphere.
412
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) The standard time in Greenwich which is used as the
basis for calculating the time in all other parts
of the world.
Greenwich Meridian The meridian of longitude from which angular distances in the
eastwest direction are measured. Using the
longitude calculated from the Greenwich
Meridian, time in different places on the
Earths surface is calculated.
Hyperbolic function A function where the
independent variable is in the denominator of
the function. A hyperbolic function is of the
a
form y = --- .
x
International Date Line The meridian of
longitude opposite to the Greenwich Meridian.
The International Date Line is, however, bent
for convenience. When crossing the International Date Line, the date changes.
Interpolate Drawing a graph using data
found at the end points.
Latitude The angular distance of a point on
the Earths surface either north or south of the
equator.
Line of best fit A line drawn on a scatterplot
that passes through or is close to as many
points as possible.
Meridian of longitude A line on the Earths
surface that runs from the North Pole to the
South Pole. Each meridian of longitude is
measured by the number of degrees east or
west it is of the Greenwich Meridian.
Nautical mile (M) A distance on the surface
of the Earth that is equal to an angular distance
of 1 minute on a great circle. 1 M = 1.852 km.
Normal distribution Occurs when a data set
of scores is symmetrically distributed about
the mean.
Offset survey A survey where critical points
are measured when they are sighted at right
angles to a traverse line.
Outlier A score in a data set which is an
extreme value. The outlier can be much
greater or much less than all other scores in
the data set. The effect of an outlier is to
greatly increase or decrease the mean such
that the mean is no longer a reliable indicator
of a typical score in the data set.
Parallel of latitude A line on the Earths

surface parallel to the equator. Each parallel
of latitude is measured in terms of the angular
distance either north or south of the equator.
Plane table radial survey A survey taken
from a central point in a field where critical
points are sighted from this central point and
radial lines are drawn. The distance from the
plane table to each critical point is then
measured and the angle between the radial
lines is measured with a protractor.
Present value of an annuity The single sum
of money which, if invested at the present
time, will produce the same financial outcome as an annuity.
Quadrant A quarter of a circle.
Quadratic function A function where the
independent variable is raised to the power of
2. A quadratic function will take the form
y = ax2 or y = ax2 + bx + c.
Reducing balance loan A loan where the
interest is calculated periodically on the outstanding balance at that point in time.
Salvage value The current value of an item
that has depreciated in value.
Scatterplot A graph that shows two
variables, one on each axis, and their relationship by plotting the points generated by each
data pair.
Sector The area between any two radii of a
circle.
Simulation An experiment where a computer
or other device replicates the results that
would be obtained if an experiment were performed in reality.
Sine rule A trigonometric formula used in
non-right-angled triangles that allows:
a side length to be found when given one
other side length and the size of two angles
an angle to be found when given two side
lengths and one non-included angle.
Skewness The distribution of a set of scores
in a data set.
(a) Positively skewed more scores are
gathered at the lower end of the
distribution.
Glossary
(b) Negatively skewed more scores are

distributed at the upper end of the
distribution.
Small circle A circle that is drawn on the
surface of a sphere that is of a smaller diameter than a great circle.
Standardised score (also called z-score)
A figure which represents the distance of a
score from the mean in terms of the standard
deviation. The standardised score is the
number of standard deviations that a member
of the data set is from the mean.
Straight line method The depreciation of an
item is calculated by subtracting a constant
amount from the value each year.
413
Term of the loan The length of time that a

loan is repaid over.
3-median regression line A line of best fit
that is extrapolated to make predictions about
data. This is found by using the 3-median
method.
Two-way table A 2-dimensional table that
displays the results of an experiment in terms
of two variables.
z-score see standardised score
414
FORMULA SHEET
Simple interest
Sine rule
I = Prn
P = initial quantity
r = percentage interest rate per period,
expressed as a decimal
a
b
c
------------ = ------------ = ------------sin A sin B sin C
Area of a triangle
A = 1--- ab sin C
2
Area of a sector
Cosine rule
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
A = --------- r
360
= number of degrees in central angle
Area of an annulus
A = (R2 r2)
R = radius of outer circle
r = radius of inner circle
or
2
a +b c
cos C = ---------------------------2ab
Mean of a sample
Area of an ellipse
A = ab
a = length of semi-major axis
b = length of semi-minor axis
Simpsons rule for area approximation

h
--- (df + 4dm + dl)
3
h = distance between successive measurements
df = first measurement
dm = middle measurement
dl = last measurement
A
Surface area
x
x = -----n
fx
x = -------f
x = mean
x = individual score
n = number of scores
f = frequency
Probability of an event
The probability of an event where outcomes are
equally likely is given by:
Future value (A) of an annuity

2
Sphere
A=4 r
Closed cylinder A = 2 rh + 2 r2
r = radius
h = perpendicular height
Volume
Cone
V = --1- r 2h
3
Cylinder
V = r 2h
Pyramid
V = 1--- Ah
3
Sphere
V = 4--- r 3
3
r = radius
h = perpendicular height
A = area of base
(1 + r ) 1
A = M ---------------------------r
M = contribution per period, paid at the end of
the period
Compound interest
A = P(1 + r)n
A = final balance
P = initial quantity
n = number of compounding periods
r = percentage interest rate per compounding
period, expressed as a decimal
Formula sheet
415
FORMULA SHEET
Present value (N) of an annuity
n
(1 + r ) 1
N = M --------------------------n
r(1 + r )
Formula for a z-score

xx
z = ----------s
s = standard deviation
or
A
N = ------------------n(1 + r )
Straight-line formula for depreciation

S = V0 Dn
S = salvage value of asset after n periods
V0 = purchase price of the asset
D = amount of depreciation apportioned per
period
Declining balance formula for

depreciation
S = V0(1 r)n
S = salvage value of asset after n periods
r = percentage interest rate per period,
expressed as a decimal
Gradientintercept form of a straight line

y = mx + b
m = gradient
b = y-intercept
Gradient of a straight line

Arc length of a circle

l = --------- 2 r
360
= number of degrees in central angle
417
Answers
CHAPTER 1 Credit and
borrowing
4 a
Are you ready?

1 a
d
g
2 a
d
3 a
4 a
b
c
d
e
5 a
c
6 a
0.40
b 0.12
c 0.08
0.024
e 0.003
f 0.075
0.0025
h 0.0002
$1500
b $369.50 c $9250
$16.20
e $410
f $46.80
$2520
b $7475
c $16 875 d $2340
n = 5, r = 6% = 0.06
n = 8, r = 4.5% = 0.045
n = 12, r = 2.2% = 0.022
n = 120, r = 0.6% = 0.006
n = 30, r = 0.058% = 0.000 58
$9881.07
b $108 184.55
$5439.07
d $194 445.84
d = 10
b A = 45
c s = 32.75
Exercise 1A Flat rate interest

1 a $700
b
d $2850
e
2 $1584
4 a $4060
b
d $308.25
e
5 a $1650
b
d $6193
6 a $1600
b
7 a $800
b
8 a $2000
b
d $8160
e
9 $43.33
10 B
13 a $2400
b
c $16 319.88
d
14 15%
$1200
c $7500
$390
3 $5000
$21 330 c $1803.75
$275 000
$3850
c $693
$6600
c $137.50
$2800
c $53.85
$6000
c $2160
$226.67
11 C
12 8%
$9600
15%
Exercise 1B Home loans

1 a $800
2 a $1125, $179 456.38
c $1121.60, $178 909.36
3
Principal
Principal
($)
Interest
($)
Balance
($)
255 000.00
1912.50
254 618.19
254 618.19
1909.64
254 233.52
254 233.52
1906.75
253 845.96
253 845.96
1903.85
253 455.49
253 455.49
1900.92
253 062.10
253 062.10
1897.97
252 665.75
252 665.75
1894.99
252 266.44
252 266.44
1892.00
251 864.13
251 864.13
1888.98
251 458.80
10
251 458.80
1885.94
251 050.43
11
251 050.43
1882.88
250 639.00
12
250 639.00
1879.79
250 224.48
Month
Principal
($)
Interest
($)
Balance
($)
255 000.00
1912.50
254 412.50
254 412.50
1908.09
253 820.59
253 820.59
1903.65
253 224.25
253 224.25
1899.18
252 623.43
252 623.43
1894.68
252 018.11
252 018.11
1890.14
251 408.24
251 408.24
1885.56
250 793.80
250 793.80
1880.95
250 174.76
Month
b $79 950
b $543.62
d $547.02
($)
Interest ($)
Balance
($)
150 000.00
1200.00
149 791.99
149 791.99
1198.34
149 582.32
149 582.32
1196.66
149 370.96
250 174.76
1876.31
249 551.07
149 370.96
1194.97
149 157.92
10
249 551.07
1871.63
248 922.70
149 157.92
1193.26
148 943.18
148 943.18
1191.55
148 726.71
11
248 922.70
1866.92
248 289.62
148 726.71
1189.81
148 508.51
12
248 289.62
1862.17
247 651.79
148 508.51
1188.07
148 288.57
148 288.57
1186.31
148 066.87
10
148 066.87
1184.53
147 843.40
Month
c $2572.69
5 $243 123
6 a $302 308.80
b $241 500 c $60 808.80
answers
Answers
1A
1B
answers
418
Answers
7 A
8 B
9 a $112 034
b $86 072
c $61 789.40
d $39 329.60
10 a Smith family pays $24 000; Jones family pays $36 000
b
Smith family
Month
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
Principal ($)
Interest ($)
Balance ($)
200 000.00
1583.33
199 583.33
200 000.00
1583.33
198 583.33
199 583.33
1580.04
199 163.37
198 583.33
1572.12
197 155.45
199 163.37
1576.71
198 740.08
197 155.45
1560.81
195 716.27
198 740.08
1573.36
198 313.44
195 716.27
1549.42
194 265.69
198 313.44
1569.98
197 883.42
194 265.69
1537.94
192 803.62
197 883.42
1566.58
197 450.00
192 803.62
1526.36
191 329.98
197 450.00
1563.15
197 013.14
191 329.98
1514.70
189 844.68
197 013.14
1559.69
196 572.83
189 844.68
1502.94
188 347.62
196 572.83
1556.20
196 129.03
188 347.62
1491.09
186 838.70
10
196 129.03
1552.69
195 681.72
186 838.70
1479.14
185 317.84
11
195 681.72
1549.15
195 230.87
185 317.84
1467.10
183 784.94
12
195 230.87
1545.58
194 776.44
183 784.94
1454.96
182 239.91
c $12 536.53
10 Quick Questions 1
1
3
5
7
9
Jones family
$420
$7025
$5525
$8342.75
$1640
2
4
6
8
10
$1135.20
$975
$2817.75
$231.74
$265 577
Exercise 1C The cost of a loan

1 11.6%
2 a 11.6%
b 8.32%
c 15.2%
d 10.6%
e 12.2%
3 a 8.32%
b 8.66%
c 9.01%
d 9.39%
e 11.6%
f 18.3%
4 a $213 996
b $128 996 c 6.0704%
5 9.01%
6 Loan 1
7 a $231 546
b $200 745.60
c $145 593.60
8 Loan 2 they will save $6041
9 C
10 a $341 376
b $337 578
11 D
12 a $562 279.20 b 6.25%
c 5.8%
Exercise 1D Credit cards

1 $136.50
2 a $175
d $10
3 $27.75
b $59.73
e $46.03
c $24.64
4 $18.13
5 a $1800
b $31.50
c $1831.50
d $1863.55
6 a $1767.50
b $88.38
c $20.26, $2046.68
7 a $296.40, $256.40
b $4.12, $260.52
8 a 0.0452%
b $19.34
c $73.34
d $1411.37
9 a $1000
b $15
c $530.23
d $17.50
e $11.87
f $535.55
g The card with the interest-free period
1
3
5
6
$2835
2 160% p.a.
$299 191.20
4 10.3%
6.0%
The customer has until the due date of the next
statement to pay the whole balance before any
interest is charged.
7 $164.88
8 $41.96
9 $32.98
10 $61.28
Exercise 1E Loan repayments

1 $674.25
2 a $90.46
b $341.25 c $819.84
d $1101.00
e $1515.54
3 a $400
b $3600
c $123.05
4 They will not need to increase their repayments.
5 a $1510.20
b $1620.14
6 Yes. The repayment is $744 and the most he can
afford is $750.
7 a $7000
8 a $733.40
9 a $2895
d $19 740
10 a $1696.80
d 4.481%
b $1750
c $178 000
b $174.80
b $868 500 c $493 500
e 5.262%
b $509 040 c $269 040
e i 4.3% ii 4.12%
Chapter review
1 a $1120
d $39.60
2 $6760
3 $191.02
4 6.15%
5 a $1250
6 a
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
b
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
b $7187.50 c $1281.60
e $12 285.00
b $124 873.64
Principal
($)
130 000.00
129 779.30
129 557.12
129 333.47
129 108.32
128 881.67
128 653.51
128 423.83
128 192.62
127 959.87
127 725.56
127 489.70
Interest
($)
866.67
865.20
863.71
862.22
860.72
859.21
857.69
856.16
854.62
853.07
851.50
849.93
Balance
($)
129 779.30
129 557.12
129 333.47
129 108.32
128 881.67
128 653.51
128 423.83
128 192.62
127 959.87
127 725.56
127 489.70
127 252.26
Principal
Interest
Balance
Month
($)
($)
($)
1
130 000.00
866.67
129 366.67
2
129 366.67
862.44
128 729.11
3
128 729.11
858.19
128 087.31
4
128 087.31
853.92
127 441.22
5
127 441.22
849.61
126 790.83
6
126 790.83
845.27
126 136.10
7
126 136.10
840.91
125 477.01
8
125 477.01
836.51
124 813.52
9
124 813.52
832.09
124 145.61
10
124 145.61
827.64
123 473.25
11
123 473.25
823.16
122 796.40
12
122 796.40
818.64
122 115.05
c $5137.21
a $596 844
b $18 884
a 7.25%
b 13.70%
c 25.65%
d 14.11%
a $18 223.20 b $4723.20 c 7%
Loan 2
$21.15
$17.00
$3.21
14 a
c
15 a
c
16 a
b
d
b
d
b
0.0534%
$102.98
$316.75
$2369.11
$2453.49
419
$34.82
$32.82
$599.40
$5100
$2618.06

1 C
2 C
3 A
4 D
5 a $4140
b $6292.80
c $30.25
d 15.76%
6 a $1678.50
b $402 840
c $1825.34
d $422 193.55
7 a $13.78
b $261.72 c $4.58
d The card with this interest-free period is cheaper as
the card without the interest-free period would
have charged $6.75 interest.
answers
Answers
CHAPTER 2 Further applications

of area and volume
Are you ready?
1 a 50.3 cm2
b 1206.9 cm2
c 63.6 cm2
d 304.8 cm2
2
2 a 20.25 cm
b 40.33 cm2 c 52.44 cm2
3 a 5832 cm2
b 2376 cm2 c 624 cm3
3
4 a 3820 cm
b 7238.2 cm3
5 163.3 cm3
6 a 14.5 cm15.5 cm
b 8.25 m8.36 m
c 4750 km4850 km
Exercise 2A Area of parts of the

circle
1 128.7 cm2
2 a 254.47 cm2
c 172.03 m2
e 46.32 m2
3 176.7 m2
4 40.7 m2
5 a 14.16 cm2
c 92.33 m2
e 796.39 m2
6 827.3 cm2
7 339.3 cm2
8 a 239 cm2
9 a 2.5 m
10 188.5 cm2
11 a 5892 mm2
12 B
13 B
14 A
15 a 78.5 m2
16 a 314.16 cm2
b 3421.19 mm2
d 2206.18 cm2
f 113.85 m2
b 6451.26 mm2
d 110.79 mm2
f 955.67 mm2
b 240 m2
b 3.5 m
c 18 100 mm2
c 18.8 m2
b 308 m2
c 924 cm2
b 122.5 m2
b 5 cm
c 25.5 m2
c 157.08 cm2
Exercise 2B Area of composite

shapes
1 248 m2
2 a 222 cm2
d 228.5 cm2
3 a 8 cm
b 375 cm2 c 335 cm2

e 44.6 cm2 f 130.3 cm2
b 84 cm2
1B
2B
answers
420
4
5
6
7
8
9
Answers
a 5.3 m
a 120 m2
a 174 cm2
A
B
a
b 31.8 m2
b 168 cm2 c 6658 mm2
b 510 m2
c 4032 mm2
b 250 m
50 m
10 a 80 m2
c 12.2 cm2
e 4600 mm2
11 2513 m2
12 a
1m
25 m
c 3582.5 m2
b 109.7 cm2
d 58.4 cm2
f 20.1 m2
11 B
12 a 565 cm2
13 a 113 cm2
c 28 cm2
b 452 cm2
b r = 3 cm, h = 18 cm
d 368 cm2 e 339 cm2
Exercise 2E Volume of composite

solids
1 a 178 cm2
b 712 cm3
2 a 700 cm3
b 3000 cm3 c 3720 cm3
d 2.128 m3
e 12.75 m3 f 18 m3
3 a 8 m3
b 2 m3
c 10 m3
4 a 22 619 cm3 b 6032 cm3 c 28 651 cm3
5 a 19 000.4 cm3
b 103.7 cm3
c 157 724.9 cm3
6 B
7 D
8 a 16 875 cm3 b 16.875 L
9 a
2.5 cm
40 m
2
b 1000 m
c 134 m2
1
3
5
7
9
452.4 cm2
171.3 cm2
306 cm2
1428.3 m2
17 121.8 mm2
2
4
6
8
10
31.2 m2
13 939.2 mm2
625 cm2
1147.6 cm2
670.9 cm2
Exercise 2C Simpsons rule

1 a 30 m
b df = 40 m, dm = 9 m, dl = 18 m
c 940 m2
2 a 1296 m2
b 1560 m2 c 936 m2
2
3 a 620 m
b 880 m2
c 1500 m2
4 a 2535 m2
b 1184 m2 c 2934 m2
5 C
6 B
7 2514 m2
8 a 2970 m2
b 11 840 m2 c 1386 m2
9 a 768 m2
b 640 m2
2
10 2484 m
Exercise 2D Surface area of

cylinders and spheres
1 502.7 cm2
2 a 282.7 cm2
d 785.4 cm2
3 37.4 m2
4 452 cm2
5 a 395.4 cm2
c 2199.1 cm2
e 640.9 cm2
6 a 231 cm2
7 113 cm2
8 a 804.2 cm2
c 2463.0 cm2
e 145.3 cm2
9 5542 cm2
10 A
5 cm
d $2345
b 18.7 m2
c 3141.6 cm2
e 437.4 cm2 f 54.9 m2
b
d
f
b
1616.5 cm2
367.9 cm2
52.8 m2
154 cm2
b 55.4 cm2
d 12.6 m2
f 40.7 m2
b 50 mL
10 a 8.64 m2
11 a 8 cm
12 5.76 g
c 20
b 86.4 m3
b 332 cm3
1
3
5
7
9
58.1 cm2
129.2 cm2
77.47 cm2
2073 cm2
2100.6895 cm3
2
4
6
8
10
c 35%
226.19 cm2
452 cm2
3710 m2
21.237 cm2
536 cm3
Exercise 2F Error in measurement

1 a 1152 cm3
b
2 a 0.05 cm
b
c 2.4 cm2
d
3 a 4096 mm3
b
c 4492.125 mm3
d
e 1536 mm2
f
g 1633.5 mm2
h
4 a 302 cm3 b 212 cm3 c
5 24%
6 a 11.5 m3
b 1.3 m3
2
d 24.6 m
e 1.8 m2
7 a 382 L
b 89 L
8 a 39 032 cm3
b
c 60 cm 40 cm 20 cm
d 23%
e
9 a 27.72 m2
b 28 L
10 a 17 m 10 m
b
c $5142.50
d
Chapter review
1 a
c
2 a
3 a
4 a
43.0 cm2
2.3 m2
2215.9 mm2
7147.1 mm2
4241.2 mm2
118.625 cm3
181.5 cm2
1.3%
3723.875 mm3
9.7%
1441.5 mm2
6.3%
414 cm3 d 37%
c 11.1%
f 7.3%
c 23%
7890 cm2
11.5%
c 1L
170 m2
$221.43
b 8494.9 mm2
b 18.1 m2
b 37.7 m2
b 329.5 m2
c 323.2 cm2
c 2723.8 cm2
c 19.8 cm2
705 cm2
a 5.75 m2
1722 m2
a 840 m2
4190 m2
2010 m2
a 747.7 cm2
488 cm2
a 314 cm2
3.438 m3
a 5797 cm3
c 1260 cm3
16 5343.85 cm3
17 a 0.25 cm
18 a 500 mL
2 a
b 27 cm2
c 1804.94 cm2
b 2672 m2
c 5548 m2
b 728.8 cm2 c 11.7 m2

c 76 454 mm2
3
b 2145 cm3 c 9.7%

b 20%
b 30.4 M
c 56.3008 km
B
x
43 M
45
4 B
7 a
5 B
d
8M
b 14 283 cm
45
x
3 a
b 72 m2
b 34 km
34 km
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
CG
70
290
b 19.30 km c 20.62 m
b 56
c 37
b 53
c 47
b 27 M
d 1.92 M
b 46
c 7
b x = 1.5
d x = 22.5
14.26 m
44
63
7.408 km
2222.4 m
32
x = 15
x = 14.25
Exercise 3A Review of right-angled

triangles
1 a 12.2 cm
d 409.9 mm
2 a 27
3 62 m
4 a R
b 110.9 mm c 10.0 m
e 29.8 m
f 19.3 cm
b 56
c 57
28
5 km
b 2.659 km
5 15
6 a
b 16
239 m
b 25
Exercise 3B Bearings
b 2.970 km
x
4.2 km
3.5 km
Exercise 3C Using the sine rule to

find side lengths
a
b
c
1 a ------------ = ------------ = ------------sin A
sin B
sin C
x
y
z
b ------------ = ------------ = -----------sin X
sin Y
sin Z
p
q
r
c ------------ = ------------- = -----------sin P
sin Q
sin R
2 a 14.8 cm
b 1.98 km
3 a 10.0 mm
b 22.1 cm
4 B
5 C
6 9.8 cm
7 27.0 m
8 37.8 m
9 a B
b 43.2 m
45
c 112 mm
c 39.6 km
c 33 m
34
49
7 a 28.01 m
8 52
1 a
4 km
c 5.663 km
65 m
11 A
b 229
13 342
Are you ready?

a
a
a
a
c
5 a
6 a
c
b 11.1 km
3.8 km
8 437 km
9 a CP
10 D
12 a
1
2
3
4
6 6.4 km
b 13.9 M
60

1 D
2 B
3 A
4 C
5 a 12.6 m2 b 62.8 m3 c 35 300 L d 151 m2
6 a 292 m2
b 233 600 m3 c 6.25%
CHAPTER 3 Applications of
trigonometry
421
answers
Answers
N 20 m
10 a WYX = 40
80
XY
In LWYX ---------------- = ---------------sin 40 sin 30
80 sin 30
\ XY = -----------------------sin 40
h
b In LYXZ sin 70 = -------XY
80 sin 30
\ h = ------------------------ sin 70
sin 40
c 58.5 m
2B
3C
Answers
Exercise 3D Using the sine rule to

find angles
1 a 43
d 75
2 B
5 20
7 a 57
8 54
b
e
3
6
c 27
f 2
4 38
34
37
B
84
2 157 mm
5 860 mm
8 43
26.9 m
60
15 cm
32
3 69.8 cm
6 110 m
9 50
1 a Area = 1--2- ab sin C
b Area = 1--2- yz sin X
c Area = 1--2- am sin G
c Area =
13.6
14
b 25
1 452 mm
1
--- bh
2
2
a 42.4 cm
a 133 cm2
D
B
3.865 cm2
a
A
b Area = --12- bh
1
--2
d Area = bh
b 3522.6 mm2 c 4660.9 mm2
b 555.4 cm2
c 608 cm2
b 12.2 m2
70
D
5.2 m
b 59 cm2
9 a 72
10 710 m2
Exercise 3F Using the cosine rule to

find side lengths
1 a a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b r2 = p2 + q2 - 2pq cos R
c n2 = l2 + m2 - 2lm cos N
2 a 8.05 m
b 14.3 cm c 12.0 m
3 a 185.1 cm
b 14.4 m
c 104.4 mm
4 D
5 A
6 C
7 14.4 cm
8 1140 mm
9 6.742 km
10 40 m
11 a
b 8.5 cm c 15.5 cm
5.3
cm
134
46
11.3 cm
12 55 cm
Exercise 3G Using the cosine rule to

find angles
b2 + c2 a2
1 a cos A = ---------------------------2bc
p2
r2
5 12.7 m
7 c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
10 49
Exercise 3H Radial surveys

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
102 m
a 286 m
12 993 m2
a 4923 m2
a 85
389 m
a 214 m
a 2719 m2
b 432 m
c 540 m
b 8861 m2
b 75 m
c 18 382 m2
b 531 m
c 301 m
b 12 425 m2 c 5809 m2
Chapter review
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
a 8.6 cm
a 61
3087 m
a 106 m
56.569 km
21.7 km
a 297
a 1.67 cm
12.4 cm
a 52
809 cm2
3000 m2
a 8.64 m
84.0 cm
985 m
a 60
34
29
a 284 m
a 783 m
b 13.6 km
b 66
+
b cos Q = ---------------------------2 pr
20 m
25 m
c 45
c 10
c 11.2 cm
c 45
b 28
b 117
b 81.7 mm
c 9.81 km
b 21
c 68
b 8.80 m
c 11.8 cm
b 112
c 139
b 4020 m2
b 34 910 m2

1 D
2 B
3 A
5 a
b 13
7m
q2
a2 + m2 p2
cos P = -----------------------------2am
2 a 85
b 83
3 a 103
b 137
2 0.782 m
a
b
c
4 ------------ = ------------ = ------------sin A
sin B
sin C
6 32
a2 + b2 c2
9 cos C = ---------------------------2ab
8 210 m
2 a Area = --12- ab sin C
7 23
b 73
3 40
Exercise 3E Area of a triangle
3
4
5
6
7
8
6 42
10 32
11 a 39
12 148
1
4
7
10
4 A
5 D
8 81, 54, 44
9 a W 9.2 X
b 63
2.5
answers
422
4 D
6 a 15
d
7 a
CHAPTER 4 Interpreting sets of

data
Are you ready?
25
20
15
10
5
0
8 13 18 23 28
Class centre
5 a 7
b 1
c Mean = 27.3, sn = 1.7
6 a 6
b i 9 ii Lower quartile = 8, upper quartile = 10
iii 2
c i Mean = 9.04 ii sn = 1.44
d
6
7 8
9 10 11 12
7a
1 a Mean = 5
b Mean = 19.5
c Mean = 3.31
2 a 3
b 12 and 30
c 3
3 a Median = 4.5
b Median = 17
c Median = 3
4 a 6
b 21
c 4
5 a 3.5
b 15
c 1
6 a Sample standard deviation = 1.32
b Population standard deviation = 1.41
7 Key: 1 | 9 = 19
Stem Leaf
0 9
1 14599
2 0122336677788
3 012234789
4 0015
8
Crowd
Class
Cumulative
centre Frequency frequency
10 00015 000
12 500
15 00020 000
17 500
13
20 00025 000
22 500
19
25 00030 000
27 500
23
30 00035 000
32 500
26
Cumulative frequency
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0
0 0
0
50 50 50 50 50
12 17 22 27 32
Exercise 4A Measures of location

and spread
1 a 1.6
b 1
2 a Mean = 49, median = 44, mode = no mode
b Mean = 3.4, median = 3.5, mode = 1
c Mean = 9.575, median = 9.7, mode = 9.8, 9.9
d Mean = 15.2, median = 15, mode = 13, 15
3 a 6.5
b 6.5
c 7
4 a
Class
Cumulative
Score centre Frequency
frequency
15
610
1115
13
14
1620
18
21
2125
23
24
2630
28
25
b 14.6
Median 14
BT
30
30 sin 20
In LABT ---------------- = ---------------- \ BT = -----------------------sin 20 sin 15
sin 15
h
In LTBC sin 35 = ------BT
\ h = BT sin 35
30 sin 20
h = ------------------------ sin 35
sin 15
22.7 m
100.3 m
b
1625 m2
423
answers
Answers
Class centre
c 9500
d x = 21 000, sn = 6300
8 a Team A = 16, Team B = 16
b i Team A = 10, Team B = 40
ii Team A = 4, Team B = 20
iii Team A = 3.1, Team B = 12.5
c Both teams had the same mean score. However,
Team A was more consistent as shown by a lower
reading in all three measures of spread.
9 B
10 A
11 A
12 C
13 a i 80
ii 80
iii 80
b i 70
ii 79
iii 80
c The outlier had a great effect on the mean, a
small effect on the median and no effect on the
mode.
14 The outlier will greatly increase the mean.
15 A
16 a Mean = $647.00
Median = $397.50
Mode = $397.50
b i Increase
ii None
iii None
c i The median or mode as it is a lower figure,
making it look as though they deserve a rise.
ii The mean as it is a much greater figure, making
it look as though the employees are well paid.
3D
4A
Answers
Exercise 4B Skewness
Frequency
1 a Yes
2 a No
3 a
4
5
b 3
c Yes, both equal 3
b 59 and 2024
c No
b Yes
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
3 a Ford: median = 15, Holden: median = 16

b Ford: range = 26, Holden: range = 32
c Ford: interquartile range = 14,
Holden: interquartile range = 13.5
d
Ford
Holden
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Scale
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of goals
0 and 5
12
Negatively skewed
Positively skewed
Positively skewed
Frequency
6
7
c
a
a
c
a
a
25
20
15
10
5
0
d Yes, both equal 2.5

b Positively skewed
b Symmetrical
b Negatively skewed
b Negatively skewed
Brand A
Brand B
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 Scale
5 a Key: 85 = 8.5
Station A
Station B
8 7 5 8 1 2 4 5 7 7 8 9
9 7 5 4 3 2 2 1 0 9 0 2
1105
112 4
b
Station A
0 0 0 0 0
2 3 4 5 6
11 21 31 41 51
Number of goals
8 A
10 a
Station B
9 A
b No
Frequency
answers
424
10
8
6
4
2
0
50 00 50 00 50
1 11 11 12 12
5 10 15 20
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 Scale
6 a Team A
b Team A: range = 60, Team B: range = 90
c Team A: interquartile range = 13,
Team B: interquartile range = 11
7 a
Emad
Number of people
c
d
11 a
b
c
151200 and 201250

Negatively skewed
Chemistry is symmetrical.
Maths is negatively skewed.
Chemistry: mode = 4150 and 8190,
Maths: mode = 7180
d Maths, because there are more scores further
away from the centre of the distribution.
12 Check with your teacher.
1
4
7
9
10
23.3
2 21.5
3 16
29
5 5
6 7.93
Positively skewed
8 Yes, 45 is an outlier.
Median, because the outlier inflates the mean.
The outlier makes the range very large. The outlier
also affects the mean. There is no change to the IQR.
Exercise 4C Displaying multiple data

sets
1 Key: 1.55 = 1.55
Boys
Girls
9 9 7 1.51 2 5 6 7 8 8
9 8 6 6 5 5 4 0 1.64 4 6 7 8 9 9
4 4 2 1 1.70
2 Key: 18 = 18
Team A
Team B
8 0 7 9
9 8 7 1
9 5 4 3 2 0 1 3 4 7
4 2 3 0 5 8
2 0 4 1 6
Larry
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Scale
b Emad: range = 35, Larry: range = 24

c Emad: interquartile range = 12,
Larry: interquartile range = 14
8 C
9 a July
b 13
c 21.7
10 a Supermarket X, range = 111
Supermarket Y, range = 90
b Both supermarkets follow a similar pattern.
There are very few customers from midnight to
6 am. Then the number peaks between 10 am and
noon, remaining fairly constant until 8 pm, when
the number reduces.
11 Month
Sydney Melbourne Brisbane
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
12
12
13
12
12
12
10
10
10
12
11
12
8
7
9
12
14
14
15
16
15
14
12
11
13
14
15
11
10
8
7
7
7
9
10
12
Boys
Girls
1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 Scale
b
c
d
e
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Boys 1.64, girls 1.62

The spread of heights is much greater among
boys than among girls.
a Year 7: range = 0.4, Year 12: range = 0.26
b Year 7: interquartile range = 0.15,
Year 12: interquartile range = 0.11
c The range of heights is greater in Year 7 as
shown by the range and the IQR. The heights
become less spread by the time they get to
Year 12.
The pattern of software sales follows after the
pattern of hardware sales with a slight time delay.
a Southern
b Western
c Similar peaks and troughs
a 43.2%
b 1.9%
c 0.9%
d 2.6%
e More evident in males with three times the
number of drivers over the limit
a 90.5%
b 55.6%
c Yes, as a much greater percentage of games are
won with Ashley playing.
a 9.5%
b 9.7%
c i 48.7%
ii 51.3%
d There is no significant difference between the
city and country results.
a Chemistry, 69.25
b Physics, because of the lower standard deviation
a Point A: x = 61, sn = 4.27,
Point B: x = 58.8, sn = 12.06
b Point A because of the higher mean
c Point B because of the greater standard deviation
a Aaron: x = 38.1, Sunil: x = 39.3
b Aaron: range = 76, Sunil: range = 65
c Aaron: interquartile range = 16,
Sunil: interquartile range = 57
d Aaron is more consistent because although he
has a larger range this is caused by one outlier.
Aarons interquartile range is much less, showing
his consistency.
C (based on the interquartile range)
B
A
Matchbox A
Matchbox B
42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 Scale
b Machine A: x = 49.96, sn = 2.90,

Machine B: x = 50.12, sn = 2.44
c Machine B has a lower standard deviation and so
is more dependable.
Chapter review
1 a 25.4
b 26
2 a
Number of
Cumulative
house calls
Frequency
frequency
0
1
1
1
6
7
2
8
15
3
9
24
4
6
30
5
2
32
b 2.593 75
c 3
d 3
3 a 80.6
b 84
c 20
d 24.4
4 x = 10.3 sn = 1.6
5 a
Waiting
Class
Cumulative
time
centre Frequency frequency
01 minute
0.5
1
1
12 minutes 1.5
4
5
23 minutes 2.5
10
15
34 minutes 3.5
13
28
45 minutes 4.5
9
37
56 minutes 5.5
3
40
b x = 3.35 sn = 1.17
c
1 a English 66, Maths 63.5

b English 32, Maths 53
c The marks are more spread in Maths than in
English.
2 a
15 a
d
6 a
c
7 a
c
8 a
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5

Waiting time (minutes)
1.75
29.5
b 34.5
Outlier reduces the mean greatly.
Yes
b Both are 17.5.
17 and 18
b Positively skewed
Frequency
Exercise 4D Comparison of
data sets
425
answers
Answers
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Class centre
9 A histogram that shows more columns to the right of

centre than to the left.
4B
4D
Answers
D $25 000 J
N
O
$20 000
$15 000
$10 000
$5 000
$0
M
A
S
J
Day
Economy
Night
Price per minute
30
20
10
Omtus
Company
1 a 2300
2 a 5r
d a 5b
3 a r10
d 35q6
4 a d4
5 a a8
6 a z = 118
d v = 5 1--3-
Tel One
13 a Home: 23 000
b Home: 27 000
c Home: 19 000
d
Away: 16 000
Away: 19 000
Away: 9000
Scale
b 161.2
c 3120
d 375.9
b 10m
c 16x + 15
e 4y x
f 9m 8n
b 18a3
c 28p6
e 48m6
f 27r3s11
b 6m4
c 42x5
2
e 8s5
k
----8
c 16c8
c w = 13
f n = 34
f
b 64b3
b y = 24
e t = 14
7 a 2.5 104
c 4 105
b 2.36 108
d 2.6 1013
Exercise 5A Substitution
Home
Away
15 a
c
16 a
b
c
d
e Boys: x = $107, sn = 22.4,

Girls: x = $97, sn = 53.1
f Generally, the girls is more consistent. The range
and standard deviation for the girls is inflated by
the outlier so the best measure of consistency is the
interquartile range which is lower for the girls.
7 a Sharks: median = 24, Bulldogs: median = 24
b Bulldogs scores are more clustered around the
median and so can be seen to be more consistent.
c Negatively skewed
d x = 23.96, sn = 5.58
d 2q5
0
Telecomm
14 a
b
c
d
Girls
Are you ready?
b There is a peak in surf sales through summer,

while the ski sales are greatest in winter, with a
short peak occurring around Christmas.
12
Boys
CHAPTER 5 Algebraic skills and

techniques
M
A
20
40
60
80
10
0
12
0
14
0
16
0
18
0
20
0
24
0
26
0
10 a Key: 56 = 56
English
Maths
5 4 9
7 6 6 2 5 0 1 5 8
8 7 6 6 5 4 0 6 0 1 5 6 6 6 8 9
7 7 4 4 7 0 0 1 1 4
4 2 0 8 5
1 9 9
b English: median = 66.5, Maths: median = 66
c English: range = 46, Maths: range = 50
d English: interquartile range = 18.5,
Maths: interquartile range = 11.5
11 a
Surf sales
Ski sales
30
00
60
00
90
12 00
0
15 00
0
18 00
0
21 00
0
24 00
0
27 00
0
30 00
0
33 00
0
36 00
00
0
answers
426
Scale
2003: median = 7, 2004: median = 8

2004
2003
2004 Higher median, lower limit, lower
quartile and upper limit
9.7%
b 8.0%
No significant difference
English: x = 71, maths: x = 69.3
English: range = 43, maths: range = 37
English: sn = 11.6, maths: sn = 12.0
English, because of the lower standard deviation

1 B, C and D
2 A
3 C
4 B
5 B
6 a Boys: median = $105, Girls: median = $85
b Boys: range = 75, Girls: range = 200
c Boys: interquartile range = 35,
Girls: interquartile range = 20
1 32.16
2 a 30.75
d 120
3 26.4
4 29.8 m
5 181.5
6 a 1.41
d 82.8
7 126 cm2
8 101.25
9 6.3
10 a 15
d 6.0
11 5.2 cm
12 a 10.5
b 2327.5
e -154
c 27.1
b 12.06
e 254.04
c 137.26
b 16.2
e 30.5
c 8.5
b 16.0 cm2
Exercise 5B Algebraic manipulation

1 a
d
g
j
2 a
d
g
j
12a
b
41d
e
-7g
h
11j
k
11m - 9
b
3r + 11s
e
6w2 - 4w3
h
10x + 4y - 6xy
18b
4e
5h
4k
8n - 4
3t - 6
5xz - xy
c
f
i
l
c
f
i
14c
f
-9i
-2l
10p2 + 4p
-u - 6v
5p2 - 16
3 a
d
g
j
4 a
d
a13
7d4
28m6n5
48u4v5w9
k3
2x4
5 6
g mn
j
5 a
d
6 a
c
e
g
i
7 a
c
e
8 a
d
b b4
e 12p9q5
h 20p5q4
c 12c7
f 63g3h4
i 24x3y3z
b 3m5
e 8m2n2
8 p3
h --------q3
c 6n5
f 5x5
11a
i --------b
Exercise 5D Solution by substitution

1 x = 6.6
2 x=7
3 x=7
4 n = 14
5 a 500 000 = 265 000(1.04)n
b 16 years
6 5 years
7 a
2
4
6
8
10
10
15.3
a - 6b
6g3h2
10x - 5x2
12.7 cm
38 m
a 7.3
b 12.4
5
10.22 cm
a 0.75 b 2.20
y1
7 x = ----------2
A
8 l = --b
2A
9 a a = ------- b
h
8 a
x + 2x
18q6 - 6q2
14a6b4 - 21a2b10
-3m2 + 6mn
18p2q2r - 6pqr2
a2 + 13a - 10
18x - 45
7x2y - 8xy2 - xy
c 16mn5
f m
101.87
-5x
15b6
25p6q8
6a2 - 19ab + 24b2
c 4.1
c 3.19
13 B
V
15 a r = ---p
3V
------4p
r =
a = c2 b2
10
Length
10
15
20
25
30
35
Width
35
30
25
20
15
10
d 26
d 4.70
e 20.4
Area
1
3
5
7
9
2
4
6
8
10
10
3
20
20x7y4
3mn2
32
127.3
a - 3b
64m9n12
x = 12
Exercise 5E Scientific notation

1
2
3
4
a
a
a
a
c
e
5 a
c
6 a
c
7
e 0.6
2A
b h = -----------a+b
E
b c = ---m
14 D
b u = v 2 as
T 2
d L = g ------
2 p
175 300 375 400 375 300 175
b 20 m 20 m
c 40 m 20 m
A
10 r = --p
E
11 a m = ----c2
12 D
Exercise 5C Equations and formulas

1
2
3
4
5
6
b 8 seconds
c 27m6
1
3
5
7
9
d 5 20 45 80 125 180 245 320 405 500
4qr
a12
b 4b8
4 6
16x y
e 16p4q8
2m + 10
b
9a2 + 6ab
d
5mn - 25n2
f
-3d - 15
h
-12r3 + 18r6
j
10x + 6
b
2m2 + 4mn - 12n2
d
4p2 - 15p + 30
f
a7
b m3
10xy11
e 1
t 1
answers
427
Answers
8 a
c
e
g
i
9 104
b 2 1010
c 7 102
1.458 106 b 2.365 1013 c 2.589 103
2 10-8
b 4.57 10-3 c 4.9321 10-11
9.32 107 km
b 7.85 1010 mm
4
4.59 10 t
d 3.65 10-3 g
2.14 10-1 mL
f 5.69 10-6 s
34 000
b 2 870 000
30 248 000 000
0.000 585
b 0.000 001 97
0.001 002
Planet
Distance
(AU)
Distance in km
(Scientific notation)
Mercury
0.39
5.85 107
Venus
0.72
1.08 108
Earth
1.0
1.50 108
Mars
1.52
2.28 108
Jupiter
5.20
7.80 108
Saturn
9.54
1.43 109
Uranus
19.18
2.88 109
Neptune
30.06
4.51 109
2.35 104 m
6.4 106 mm
7.802 109 kg
1.87 105 kL
5.55 1010 mL
b
d
f
h
8.4 104 km
6.58 103 t
8.29 1013 g
2.178 1010 L
5A
5E
answers
428
Answers
Chapter review
1
2
3
4
5
9
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
162
36.952
13
a 136.00 b 37.78
c 8.57
d 8
a 5m
b 16q
c 12p
d t
e 4m + 4n f 4x - 5
g 3k - 2l
h 8x2 + 14x i ab + 7a - 2b
a 28a9
b 45b2
c 21g4h8
6 7
2
d 12m n
e 6x
f 8s3
g 7q
h 27p6q12
i 4m2
2
a 2a + 18
b 2p - 4p
c -3x5 + x2
d 12m7 - 8m5n
e -16xy + 4xy2
f 12a5b3 - 24a2b5
a 8m + 40
b 2p2 - 3p
c 11x - 52
d 7yz + 8y2 - 6z2
e 2p2q - 4pq2 + 8p
15
10 21.6 m 11 s = 6 12 7.2 cm
a x = 2.9
b x = 3.8
c x = 4.8
8 years
3 years
a 6 105
b 2 10-10
13
c 7.892 10
d 1.25 10-3
e 4.589 10-6
f 1.245 89 1014
4
a 1.26 10
b 1.25 10-4
c 3.21 10-2
d 5.86 108
e 1.24 104
f 5.19 10-8
a 250
b 38 700
c 98 504 000
d 0.289
e 0.000 000 367 02
f 0.0011
a 2.5 108 mm
b 2.8 105 kg
c 3.43 107 L
d 1.45 103 km
10
e 4.243 10 kg
f 1.3 105 L

1 A
2 A
3 A
4 B
5 A
6 a 304.8 cm3
b 8.3 cm
SA 2 p r 2
c 6.4 cm
d h = ------------------------2pr
7 a n = 10
b (0.85)n = 0.5
c n = 4.3
CHAPTER 6 Multi-stage events

Are you ready?
1 a
b
c
2 a
3 a
c
4 a
5 a
{hearts, diamonds, spades, clubs}

{red, blue, white}
{a, b, c, x, y, z}
Unlikely
b Probable c Impossible
Equally likely
b Equally likely
Impossible
500
b 240
c 45 697 600
1
1
3
-------b
c ----8
50
14
6 a Selecting a consonant
b Selecting a white or clear marble
c Selecting a number greater than 9
7 a 3--5b 1--5c 0.27
Exercise 6A Tree diagrams

1
1st
child
2nd
child
3rd
child
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
1st die
1
1st bag
Red
Blue
Yellow
Green
Male
George
Frank
Stanisa
Ian
4th
child
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
2nd die
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
2nd bag
R
B
Y
G
R
B
Y
G
R
B
Y
G
R
B
Y
G
Female
Thuy
Petria
Joan
Wendy
Amelia
Thuy
Petria
Joan
Wendy
Amelia
Thuy
Petria
Joan
Wendy
Amelia
Thuy
Petria
Joan
Wendy
Amelia
S = {George Thuy, George Petria, George

Joan, George Wendy, George Amelia, Frank
Thuy, Frank Petria, Frank Joan, Frank
Wendy, Frank Amelia, Stanisa Thuy,
Stanisa Petria, Stanisa Joan, Stanisa
Wendy, Stanisa Amelia, Ian Thuy, Ian
Petria, Ian Joan, Ian Wendy, Ian Amelia}
1st digit
2
4
5
7
1
4
5
7
1
2
5
7
1
2
4
7
1
2
4
5
Exercise 6C Probability and counting

techniques
2nd digit
Belinda
Dean
Belinda
Kate
Adrian
Kate
Belinda
Dean
Adrian
Adrian
Belinda
Dean
Kate
1st digit
3
4
7
11 a
12
1
-----20
1
--4
1
--6
2
--3
2
--3
5 a
1
-----42
1
-----42
1
-----21
6 a
1
-----72
2
--9
2
--9
1
---------------13 800
1
-----------2300
1
-----20
3
-----10
3
--5
1
-----10
1
--6
8 a
9 a 20
10 a
1
-----10
1
2
5
8
10
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

36
3 120
4 3 628 800
720
6 72
7 70
24
9 1680
An ordered selection occurs when the order in which
each choice is made is important but in an unordered
selection, order is not important.
Exercise 6D Probability trees

1
25
-----64
2 a
7
-----12
1st marble
4
9
5
2nd marble
4
9
White
White
5
9 4
3
-----10
2
--5
3 a
13 B
b 120
3 120
6 12
9 210
12 C
b 6
b 504
P(BW) =
3
--5
c 362 880
4 6
7 12 144
10 15
13 D
c 36
Black
16
-----81
20
-----81
P(WB) =
20
-----81
P(WW) =
25
-----81
6
-----25
4 a 51.2%
1
5 a ----20
6 C
7 B
8 a
Black
White
Black
b P(WW) =
Exercise 6B Counting techniques

a 6
24
720
35
72
B
a 20
a 362 880
1
--------120
Kate
Adrian
Dean
Adrian
Dean
Kate
Kate
Adrian
Belinda
Adrian
Belinda
Kate
Dean
Adrian
Belinda
Adrian
Belinda
Dean
Dean
Kate
Belinda
Kate
Belinda
Dean
14 a S = {Bris Peak Ec, Bris Peak BC, Bris

Peak FC, Bris Off-peak Ec, Bris Off-peak
BC, Bris Off-peak FC, GC Peak Ec, GC
Peak BC, GC Peak FC, GC Off-peak
Ec, GC Off-peak BC, GC Off-peak FC,
Cairns Peak Ec, Cairns Peak BC, Cairns
Off-peak Ec, Cairns Off-peak BC}
b i 3--8ii 1--4iii 1--81
2
5
8
11
14
15
16
2nd digit
3
4
7
2
4
7
2
3
7
2
3
4
1
--------120
3 a
7 S = {357, 358, 375, 378, 385, 387, 537, 538, 573,

578, 583, 585, 735, 738, 753, 758, 783, 785,
835, 837, 853, 857, 873, 875}
8 C
9 1--210 a
2 a 120
President Secretary Treasurer

Dean
Kate
Adrian
1
-----24
answers
429
Answers
1
-----15
b
b
1
--------495
7
-----15
b 38.4%
--------c 893
990
9 a S = {BB, BG, GB, GG}

5
-----b i 14
ii ----ii
39
39
10 a
24
-----49
11 a
2
-----21
12
13
14
15
a 0.3025
a 40.96%
0.01
--------a 624
625
16 D
b
b
12
-----25
3
--7
8
-----15
19
--------198
7
-----15
20
-----39
25
-----49
10
-----21
b 0.2025
b 59.04%
b
369
--------625
6A
6D
answers
430
Answers
1
--2
17 a
1
--5
CHAPTER 7 Applications of
probability
1
--2
3
-----10
18
19 a 0.32
b 0.56
Are you ready?
c 0.88
Chapter review
1 a
1st coin
1 a
2nd coin
2
--3
First digit
3
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
6
b S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

2 a S = {57, 58, 59, 75, 78, 79, 85, 87, 89, 95, 97, 98}
b S = {55, 57, 58, 59, 75, 77, 78, 79, 85, 87, 88, 89,
95, 97, 98, 99}
3 a 1--8b 3--8c 1--2-
3 a
1
--2
1
4
5
6
7
b 60
11 a 12
12 a 360
1
--------360
1
-----12
c 15
1
-----15
13 a
1
-----------1024
1
----------------------1 048 576
14 a
3
-----10
1
-----10
8
--------125
98
--------125
1
--3

1 C
2 D
3 C
4 B
5 a 1st coin 2nd coin 3rd coin
Heads
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
1st shot
No ad
Ad
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
3
--8
Lands
0.6
Miss
0.4
Lands
0.6
Miss
ii 0.48
c 7.69
d 30.77 e 1.92
b 48.9
10 B
b 90
11 5
c 30
10
11
12
Probability
1
-----36
1
-----18
1
-----12
1
--9
5
-----36
1
--6
5
-----36
1
--9
1
-----12
1
-----18
1
-----36
Expected
no.
2.8 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7 13.9 11.1 8.3 5.6 2.8
b 60.53
c 39.47
d 94.74
7
--8
1 $0.00
2 $0.40
4 $0.15
5 -$0.30
7 a 37
b i 18
ii 18
iii 1
c -$0.27
8 A
9 C
10 $0.11
3 -$0.50
6 $1.70
11 -$1.10
2nd shot
0.4
3 25
c 7
Exercise 7B Financial expectation
Miss
b i 0.16
b 50
b 2.08
14 a 55.26
0.4 Lands
0.6
No ad
2 50
b 28
8 a 0.0144
9 B
12 a 90
13
Outcome
17 91%
--------18 343
512
6 a
5
1
No ad
20
a 35
1.25
a 25
1
a ----25
2
--5
16 a
Ad
Ad
Exercise 7A Expected outcomes
1
--------120
15
1
-----25
3
--4
40 320
56
70
a 120
6
7
8
9
10
Second time
1
4 a S = {46, 47, 48, 49, 64, 67, 68, 69, 74, 76, 78, 79,
84, 86, 87, 89, 94, 96, 97, 98}
1
b i ----ii 2--5iii 3--420
5 a
First time
49
-----99
Second digit Sample space

5
35
6
36
7
37
3
53
6
56
7
57
3
63
5
65
7
67
3
73
5
75
6
76
Heads
Heads
1
-----50
iii 0.64
1 20
2 25
3 50
4 7.7
5 30.8
6 $0.17
7 -$0.11
8 The player can expect to have an average profit of
20% per game.
9 The player can expect to have an average loss of
20% per game.
10 $0.45
Exercise 7C Two-way tables

1
14
Test results
Test results
Accurate Not accurate Total
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
98
100
Without virus
388
12
400
Total
486
14
With virus
48
50
Without virus
149
150
Total
197
With virus
15
2
Test results
Test results
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
Telling truth
777
23
800
Telling lies
156
44
200
Total
933
67
3
--5
3 a 1000
b 75
c 96.7%
d
4 a 200
b 44
c 90.9%
d 5.1%
e 94%
f A range of factors should be considered, e.g. for
an expensive system a 6% fail rate might be
unsatisfactory.
5 B
6 D
7 A
8 a
Test results
Accurate
Not
accurate
Total
48
50
Bags with no
prohibited
items
145
150
Total
193
Bags with
prohibited
items
b i 96%
ii 3.3%
iii 4%
iv 96.5%
Chapter review
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
431
18
a 10
b 30
c 20
a 50
b 25
c 7.69 d 30.8 e 3.85
a 2.5
b 15
c 7.5
d 15
e 25
a 12.5
b 37.5
c 50
a 5
b 45
c 15
$0.00
-$0.60
A positive financial expectation means that on
average a profit should be made while a negative
financial expectation means that on average a loss
should be made.
-$0.03
$0.00
$0.30
$1.87
answers
Answers
Accurate
Not accurate
Total
Telling truth
77
80
Telling lies
17
20
Total
94
16 a 140
17 a 130
b 30
b 33.8%
c 90%
39
c ----40

1 C
2 B
1
4 a 1--6b 15
c ----18
5 a 200
b 96%
c 34
1
-----10
3 A
d $0.11
d 93 1--3- % e
14
-----15
CHAPTER 8 Annuities and loan

repayments
Are you ready?
1 a
c
e
2 a
3 a
4 a
n = 5, r = 0.08
b n = 8, r = 0.03
n = 12, r = 0.019
d n = 120, r = 0.008
n = 30, r = 0.000 66
$5000
b $7626
c $5922
$2292.19
b $16 808.55
c $18 499.35
$8984
b $15 750
c $22 716
Exercise 8A Future value of an

annuity
1 $7049.37
2 a $6691.13
b $16 859.14
c $6158.56
d $3974.56
e $17 713.21
f $3530.21
3 $4472.93
4 a i $2295.05 ii $2217.44 iii $2142.45
iv $2070.00
b $10 724.94
5 $73 105.94
6 a 22
b $21 696.15
c $283 057.94
7 a $25 155.79
b $29 333.00
c $433 046.81
d $217 372.57
e $114 665.87
8 a 5
b No she has saved $29 041.96.
c $4041.96
9 $90 237.49
10 a $20 326.23
b $24 297.37
c $45 881.32
d $69 770.03
11 A
12 C
13 $4067.23
6D
8A
answers
432
Answers
14 a $4524.37
15 a $56 160
b $7068.59 c $1930.08
b $112 320 c $242 106.74
1
4
7
10
$8857.81
$195 857.88
$3626.32
$891.50
2 $1179.42
5 $31 741.41
8 $5980.14
3 $10 164.56
6 $66 574.26
9 $558.24
Exercise 8B Present value of an

annuity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
13
$7537.11
a $12 418.43
b $3786.09 c $94 222.37
$48 987.91
a $37 685.57
b $35 644.50
c $34 623.58
d $33 943.00
$3511.79
a $11 257.78
b $6116.69
c $14 783.59
d $24 767.78
$22 851.87
$6113.60
A
10 D
Investment A
C
a $15 864.53
b Yes, Kylie will have $32 547.59.
Exercise 8C Future and present

value tables
1 $4787.76
2 a $1324.00
b $23 932.35
c $7503.81
d $62 953.50
3 a 4%
b 10
c $6003.05
4 a $4103.92
b $5535.38 c $7546.74
5 5% for 6 years. $1 will grow to $6.8019 but at 6%
for 5 years it will grow to $5.6371.
6 D
7 $6918.50
8 a $1845.09
b $12 289.20
c $4455.79
d $16 604.40
Chapter review
1 a $4917.25
c $31 053.57
2 $16 398.20
3 a $66 666.94
c $14 291.59
4 $36 604.24
5 $3088.13
6 a $3793.40
7 $20 057.99
8 a $6139.13
c $3219.64
9 $11 654.84
10 $5113.34
11 a $524 573.59
12 $41 039.20
13 a $4399.95
c $1842.84
14 $2242.95
15 a $1516.32
c $4055.45
16 $547.41
17 a $553.76
18 $503 055
19 a $226.10
$15 937.42
$1435.91
$22 094.93
$13 295.75
2 $15 937.42
5 $5084.04
8 $8513.56
3 $13 537.79
6 $19 277.16
9 $10.63
Exercise 8D Loan repayments

1 $2637.97
2 $210.67
3 a $94.15
b $311.38 c $859.72
d $484.17
e $1511.14
4 $1397.37
5 a $375
b $3375
c $107.32
6 $374.53
7 a $28 000
b $138.21
8 $16 847.35
9 a $4359.36
b $29 059.20
c $98 285.40
d $366 700.80
10 D
11 B
12 9 years, 3 months
13 a $1320.99
b $396 297.00
c 14 years, 6 months
d $117 897
b $31 371.42
d $247 313.84
b $468.93
c $217.69
b $4298.72
d $36 945.53
b $13 002.83
b $34 641.25
d $51 014.25
b $14 047.20
d $11 177.64
b $26 580.48
b $5426.40 c $1026.40

1 D
2 B
3 B
5 a $91 523.93
b $19 636.30
6 a $63 792.85
b $2384.89
7 a $1651.63
b $246 391.20
4 D
c $5362.05
c $67 443.86
c $112 692.48
CHAPTER 9 Modelling linear and

Are you ready?
1 a
x
10
16
13
10
1
4
7
10
b $2960.49
d $5461.06
2 a Linear
d Linear
3 a 5--44 a
b Not linear
e Not linear
b 3
b
y
5
3
1
y =3x
5 3 1
1 1
3
5
3 x
c Not linear
f Linear
c 2
y
5
3
1 0
x
5 3 1
1 1 3
3
5 y =2x 3
5 a
y
5
3
Exercise 9A Linear functions
3 x
24 000
6 000
y
4
3 y = x
2
10
3 1 1 2 3 x
2
3
4
y
5
4
3 y = 1 x + 3
2
2
10
x
3 1
1 1 2 3 4
y y = 3x 2
4
3
2
10
4 2 1 1 2 3 4 x
2
3
4
y
5 y = 5 2x
4
3
2
10
x
3 1
1 1 2 3 4
3
y
5
4
3
1
2 y = 1 x
4
1
0
x
3 11 1 2 3 4
2
3
-3
c $9000 loss d 8000 people

b 500
N
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
7 a
b (1, 3)
y
5
y = 3x
4
3
2
1
3 1 01 2 3 4 5 x
3 y = 4 x
Intersection (5, 4)
y
5
4 y=x1
3
2
1
3 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
y = 2x 6
9 (0, 2)
10 a, b
c $1.80
N = 1000 5P
6 a
y
4
3
2 y = 2x
1
4 2 0 1 2 3 x
2
3
3 a
10 000
b $36 000
2 a
8 000
10
5 3 1
1 1
20
y
5
3 y=x+3
12
20
10
000
000
1
x
5 3 1
1 1 3
3
5 y =5 2x
P P = 3n 24 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000 0
n
10 000
20 000
30 000
40
433
answers
Answers
B
120
100
2A = B
80
60
A + B = 120
40
y
5
4 3x + 2y 6 = 0
3
2
10
x
3 1
1 1 2 3 4 5
2
3
4 a
20
0
0
40
c Game A: 40; Game B: 80.

11 a
1000
2000
1200
2400
900
1200
1500
10
30
C (old)
10.5
18
48
C (new)
120 A
80
C = 3 + 1.5d
c After 1000 days
C = 1.2d
C
2000
40
1500
C = 900 + 0.3d
1000
20
500
c $33
d 14 km
00
40
20
20
10
00
8A
9A
12 a
Answers
6 a The coefficient will make the graph steeper if it is

greater than 1 and flatten the graph if it lies
between 0 and 1.
b Adding a constant will lift the graph while
subtracting a constant will lower the graph.
7
They are the same function.
y
2
b 300
C
10 000
C = 20n
8000
C = 15n + 1500
6000
4000
30
16
12
Exercise 9B Quadratic functions

1 a
11
18
4
0
8
b
9 a
b
y
16 y = 4 + 6x x2
12
2
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
2
4
y
10
y
25
20
15
10 D
10
13
5
0
y = (x 2)2
3 4 x
y
25
20
15
10
5
14 a
2
0
1 2
3 4
y = 2x2
(b)
25
11 C
y = x2
(a)
3 4
d = 5t2
3 4
5 t
h = 30t 5t2
h
40
20
2
2
y y=x +3 y=x
9
y = x2 3
0
0
(b)
b 45 m c 6 s
3
0
3
(a)
1
16 a
(c)
2
3 4
b 80 m c 10 s
5 x
2 4 x
5 x
25
15 a
1
50
0
2
4
12 D
75
y = 1_ x2
2
(c)
10
d
125
100
20
15
0 12 45 x
3
6
9
y = 8 x2
2
y y = (2 x)
4
2
y = 2x2 4x + 8
6
4
0 12345 x
4
8
y = x2 + x + 5
y
9
6
8
4
5 x
y
6 y = x2 6x + 5
4
5 x
0 12 45 x
2
4
6
y = 2 + 2x x2
3 a
3 4
y y = x2 4x 2
6
3 0 1 3
3
6
1 2
y
4
c Min. value = 2
y y = x2 2x + 3
18
15
12
9
6
3
10 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
1
y = x 2x + 5
20
50
2000
10
answers
434
x
50 x
Sum of adjacent sides = 50 m
b A=lb
A = x(50 x)
A = 50x x2
c
A
A = 50x x2
2 a
600
400
200
0
0
20
6
4
2
0
4 x
1 2 3
2 3 4 x
2 3 4 x
y = x3
y = 13x3
y = 3x3
0
2
4
d 625 m2 when the field is 25 m 25 m

17 a A = l b
A = x(100 2x)
A = 100x 2x2
b
A = 100x 2x2
y
10
40
y
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
answers
435
Answers
y
4
1200
y = x
2
800
0
400
0 1
4 a
0
0
20
40
1
0
2 2
c
-5
-12
y = 4 x2
2
1
0
1
2
2 4
6 8
3 4
5
x
y = 1x
y = 3x
0 1
6 a
2 3 4 x
y
40
30
y = 4x
20
10
0
y
100
80
60
y = 10 x
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 x
20
10
4 5 x
y = x3
10
y=
x
2
0
4 x
2 3
y
40
30
Exercise 9C Other functions

y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
6
4
0
1
2
3
4
8 4
9 Concave up because the x2 term is positive.
10 5
1
y
4
3
8
1
y = x
0
1
3 -3
4 y = 3x + 2
5 Coefficient of x must be negative: e.g. y = 2x + 7
6
3
2
y y = 2x 3
3
2
10
x
3 1
1 1 2 3
3
y
4
c 25 m 50 m
1
2 3
4 x
2 3
2 3
4 x
y
3
2
1
0
y = (12 )
0 1
2 3
4 5 x
9A
9C
answers
436
7
Answers
10 a 20
b 2 hours
11 12 km/L or 8 1--3- L/100 km
12 8 amps
y
40
30
20
10
0
y = 5(2x)
8 C
9 B
10
Exercise 9E Graphing physical

phenomena
1 2 3 4
1 a
A
1600
1400
1200
1000
0
b
A = 1000(1.1)n
0 2
8 n
4 6
11 a A = 50 000(1.12)n
b
A
65 000
2
A = 50 000(1.12)n
55 000
0
0 1
2 3
4 5 n
c 3 years
12
V
40 000
d
500
400
300
200
100
0
24
54
96
150
A
400
320
240
A = 6s2
160
80
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 s
d = 5t2
0
2 4
6 8 10 t
V = 40 000(0.85)n
30 000
3 a
20 000
10 000
0
0 1
2 3
4 5
Exercise 9D Variations
2
1 y = 5.5x
2 b = 0.5a3
3 a d = 4.9t 2
d
50
40
30
20
10
0
150
9 a t = --------s
10
20
30
40
18
30
44
d
40
30
20
10
0
d = 0.01v 2 + 0.7v
0 10 20 30 40 50 v
100 000
4 a A = ------------------n
d = 4.9t
2 3
4 t
60 000
b 230.64 cm
b 452.16 cm2
b 54 g
c 6.5 cm
5 a
Age
(years)
V
40 000
V = 30 000(0.8)n1
30 000
150
20 000
t=
s
0 10 20 30 40 50
10 000
0
0 2
4 6
8 10 n
$30 000 $24 000 $19 200 $15 360 $12 288
Value
t
50
40
30
20
10
0
000
A = 100
n
40 000
20 000
A
100 000
80 000
0 1
4 a 6
5 a 3.14
6 a 0.25
50
7 y = -----x
1
8 m = --n
2 4
8 10
W
8 W = 3.3(1.2)n
C
24
6
4
C = 3 + 0.4d
18
0 1
2 3
12
6
0
7 a 6
b V = l b h = (12 2x)(12 2x)x = x(12 2x)2
c
V
125
100
0
100
400
4 5
2007
Year
Population
(million)
1.5
c i $55 profit
d 256
6 x
2008
1.58
2009
1.65
2010
1.74
2011
1500
1000
0
8 12 16 20 n
Chapter review
b
y
4
3 y=x+3
y
4
3 y=2x
2
10
x
3 1
1 1 2 3 4
2
3
4
y
3
2
1 0 2y = 4x 3
x
3 1
1 1 2 3 4
3
4
5
y
5
4
3 3x 2y + 6 = 0
10
x
3 1
1 1 2 3 4
2
3
10
c 1
6
4
2
0
y
5
4 y = 5 3x
3
2
10
x
3 1
1 1 3 4
2
3
y
10
y = x2 4x + 5
8
10
x
5 3 1
1 1 2 3
2
3
4
25
0
50
0
75
0
10
0
12 0
50
6 a
y
4
3
2 y = 3x
1
3 1 01 2 3 4 x
C = 1000 + 0.2w
500
c 2027
d The graph will become a straight, horizontal line.
0 1
4 5 x
y = x2 2x 2
y
6
4
2
0
2
2 3
4 x
8 a
y
20
16
b
y = (x 4)2
10
15
20
11
4
0
y
4
1 0
4
8
12
12
2 a
b C = 200 + w
d 1000 washes
C = 200 + w
2000
y=6x
5 a C = 1000 + 0.2w
c
C
y=x+2
10
3 1 1 2 3 4 5
1
1 a
ii $142.50 loss
Intersection (2, 4)
y
5
4
3
1.82
P
4 P = 1.5(1.05)n
3
200
300
0 1 2 3
P = 1.25n 320
200
100
V = x(12 2x)2
75
50
25
0
8 a
0 10 20 30 40 50 d
3 a P = 1.25n - 320
b
P
24
0
32
0
40
0
2
0
80
16
0
answers
437
Answers
0 2
6 8x
y = 5 x2
1 2
4 x
9C
9E
Answers
y
4
1 0
4
8
12
9 a
10 a
2 3
4 5 x
b 10 s
h
500
400
300
200
100
0
16 y = 5x2
17 a m = 0.45l 3
64
18 y = -----x
1000
19 a A = -----------n
y = 4 + 2x x2
h = 500 5t2
A 0
b
0
E
150
8 10 t
E = 24n n2
90
60
30
21 a
0 4
8 12 16 20 24
b 144 kg, 12 workers

c Too many people getting in each others way etc.
11 a y
b y
10
8
6
4
2
8
y = x3
6
4
2
0
0 1 2
b
1
y = x
y
4
3
1
y = 23x3
2 3 4 x
0 1
y
y = 2x
8
4
0
0 1
C
1000
750
2 3
3.14
12.57
28.27
50.27
78.54
1 2 3 4 t
b i 20 m
22 a
A
1 2 3 4 x
14 000
12 000
10 000
0
y = x
ii 4 s
A = 10 000(1.06)n
2 4
b $16 000
0 1
2 3 4 x
y
2
1 x
y = ( 2)
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 x
4 5
h = 20t 5t2
18 000
16 000
0
2 3
6 8 10 n
c 7 years

1 B
2 D
3 B
5 a P = 10n 500
b, d
4 D
P
2000
1500
1000
500
0
500
P = 10n 500
P = 5n
1000
c 2024
5000
4000
3000
6 a
e 100
t
20
30
30
20
8 12 16 20 n
b $740
15 a
V
2000
1000
0
4 x
C = 500(1.04)n
c 250 campers
c 50
500
250
0
h
20
16
12
8
4
0
2
1
16
12
14 a
y
4
3
2
13 a
3 4
b 8 days
A = r 2
1
0
A
80
60
c 4.8 cm
40
20
0
120
12 a
20 a
b 56.25 g
50
10
0
15
0
20
0
answers
438
h
30
h = 20 + 15t 5t2
20
V = 5000(0.8)n
10
b 7 years
6 8 10 n
1 2
3 4
Max. height = 31.25 m when t = 1.5
6
4
2
0
8 a
Exercise 10A Modelling depreciation
b (1, 2)
y
10
8
1 a
y = 2x3
y = 2x
4 5 x
2 3
b 10 years
y
4
x
3 y = 1.08
b V = 100 000 - 10 000A

Value ($)
4 6 8 10 x
0 2
d 8 years
y
1
y = 0.92x
0.75
0.5
4 6 8 x
0 2
y
10
8
6
6
4
2
4 2 0
2
y =2x 1
2 4
4
2
y =8 4x
0
4
6
4 2
2
2 4
6 8 10 12 x
y
5
4
Value ($)
2
3 4
x
y = 5(12 )
2 3
4 a $13 382.26
5 a $13 110
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
4 5 x
b x = 4 --13-
ii $128 000 iii $102 400

b
200 000
160 000
120 000
80 000
40 000
0
Value ($)
(2, 114 )
3 a x = 12
b $17 000 c 7
620 000
480 000
360 000
240 000
120 000
0
7 a i $160 000
iv $81 920
3
2
1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
6 a
(2, 0.64)
0.4
0.2
0
b $2000
y = 0.8x
y
1.0
0.8
0.6
0 1 2 3 4
Age (years)
20 000
16 000
12 000
8 000
4 000
0
Value ($)
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
5 a
4
6
8
10
12
y
y = 2x
10
9
(3, 8)
8
7
6
5
(2, 4)
4
3
(1, 2)
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Value ($)
1 a
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
b $20 000
c 9 years
4 a V = 6400 - 2000A
b
c 4
Are you ready?
V = 50 000 - 8000A
3 a
CHAPTER 10 Depreciation
2 a
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
Value ($)
0.25
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
2
1
0
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
Value ($)
7 a
439
answers
Answers
c x=5
b $68 956.60
b $63 100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
10A
Answers
New (0)
30 000
26 000
9 A
10 C
11 a $5360
c $3591
12 5 years
22 000
18 000
14 000
10 000
Age (years)
b See part d
c
Age (years)
Value ($)
30 000
24 000
19 200
15 360
12 228
9 830
1 a $1683.50
2 a
e 6 years
Exercise 10B Straight line

depreciation
c $270 000
3 a
b 5 years
d 7 years
b $12 500/year c $14 500/year
b $26 500
c $1450
Exercise 10C Declining balance

method of depreciation
1
2
3
4
5
$20 480
a $2220
7 years
$383 000
a $5900
d $62 100
6 $6174
7 $676 000
8 a $14 600
b i $750
b $68 100
e $3900
$2350/year
$21 000
$7250
$389 000
16 years
b $9537.50 c $34 870
Age of car
(years)
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
b $10 300
e $32 000
b $3 750 000
2
4
6
8
10
$650
7 years
S = V0(1 - r)n
$11 000
$37 500
Straight line value

Declining balance
value
1 $20 000
2 a $1000
d $145
3 a $7 125 000
4 $10 600
5 8 years
6 a 6 years
c 8 years
7 $2500/year
8 a $4000/year
9 $900/year
10 $25 000
11 a $110 000
12 $78 000
b $2640
d $1769
Exercise 10D Depreciation tables
Value ($)
New (0)
30 000
24 000
18 000
12 000
6 000
0
1
3
5
7
9
Value ($)
8 B
9 a
Value ($)
answers
440
ii $390
c $1200
b $20 400
Straight line
value ($)
Declining
balance
value ($)
New (0)
40 000
40 000
35 000
32 000
30 000
25 600
25 000
20 500
20 000
16 400
15 000
13 100
10 000
10 500
5 000
8 400
6 700
40 000
32 000
24 000
16 000
8 000
0
c After 6 years
Straight line value

Declining balance
value
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Age of
equipment
(years)
Straight
line value
($)
Declining
balance
value ($)
100 000
100 000
90 000
85 000
80 000
72 250
70 000
61 400
60 000
52 200
50 000
44 350
40 000
37 700
30 000
32 050
20 000
27 250
10 000
23 150
10
19 700
New (0)
7 a
Value ($)
Straight line value

100 000
Declining balance
value
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Age of
computer
(years)
Age of
truck
(years)
Straight
line value
($)
Declining
balance
value ($)
New (0)
250 000
250 000
225 000
200 000
200 000
160 000
175 000
128 000
150 000
102 400
125 000
81 920
100 000
65 536
Salvage
value at 20%
($)
Salvage
value at 35%
($)
4400.00
4400.00
3520.00
2860.00
2816.00
1859.00
2252.80
1208.35
75 000
52 429
1802.24
785.43
50 000
41 943
1441.79
510.53
25 000
33 554
1153.43
331.85
10
26 843
Salvage value
($)
Tax deduction
($)
4355
2145
2918
1437
1955
963
1310
645
Years
878
432
878
b
Value ($)
441
250 000
Straight line
200 000
value
150 000
100 000
Declining
50 000
balance
value
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Salvage
value
straight line
($)
Tax
deduction
($)
225 000
25 000
200 000
25 000
175 000
25 000
150 000
25 000
125 000
25 000
Age of
truck
(years)
Salvage value
($)
Tax deduction
($)
33 750
11 250
25 313
8 437
18 985
6 328
14 239
4 746
100 000
25 000
10 679
3 560
75 000
25 000
8 009
2 670
50 000
25 000
6 007
2 002
25 000
25 000
4 505
1 502
10
25 000
Years
answers
Answers
10A
10D
Answers
5
Tax
deduction
($)
200 000
50 000
160 000
40 000
128 000
32 000
102 400
25 600
81 920
20 480
65 536
16 384
52 429
13 107
41 943
10 486
33 554
8 389
10
26 844
6 711
Age of
truck
(years)
8 a $10 000
9 a $3000
1
--3
b $75
10 000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Value ($)
Salvage
value
declining
balance ($)
$6500
a $1300
12 years
$250/year
After 6 years
$20 880
$474 000
a $23 620
d $27 210
14 a $167 100
15 a
c $3333.33
c $1600
Value ($)
1 a
200 000
160 000
120 000
80 000
40 000
0
d $750
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
b V = 3500 - 250A
3 a
Value ($)
16 000
12 000
8 000
4 000
0
c $1250
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
b $6500
c 17 years
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
c 9 years
c $235 000
b $1000
e $49 380
b $432 900
c $24 290
Salvage value
straight line
($)
Salvage
value
15% p.a. ($)
New (0)
100 000
100 000
90 000
85 000
80 000
72 300
70 000
61 500
60 000
52 300
50 000
44 500
40 000
37 800
30 000
32 100
20 000
27 300
10 000
23 200
10
19 700
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
b $10 500
4 a
b $15 000
Age
(years)
Value ($)
Value ($)
b V = 200 000 - 20 000A

2 a
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Chapter review
Value ($)
answers
442
16
Salvage
value straight line
Salvage
value
15% p.a.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Year
Salvage value
($)
Tax deduction
($)
3015
1485
2020
995
1353
667
907
446
907

1 A
2 C
3 A
4 C
5 a $1566
b $1434
c $358.50/year
3000
2000
1000
0
Straight line
value
Declining
balance
value
Value ($)
Year
Salvage value
($)
Tax deduction
($)
176 000
24 000
154 880
21 120
136 300
18 580
119 900
16 400
105 500
14 400
c 11 years
CHAPTER 11 The normal

distribution
b 65.7
b 17.3
c 8.1
d 17.032
c 1.1
d 1.3
b Population
Exercise 11A z-scores

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3
-2
a 0
b 1
c -2
d 3
e -1
a 10.5 b 13.7 c 16.9 d 7.3
e 0.9
-0.27
1.5
a -0.48 b 1.44 c 0.08 d -2.24 e 2.8
a 10.3 s
b 10.58 s
c 10.37 s
d 9.88 s
e 10.251 s
f 10.524 s
9 a x = 19.55, sn = 1.76
b 1.68
10 a
Amount
($)
Class
centre
Frequency
020
$10
2040
$30
4060
$50
19
6080
$70
15
80100
$90
b x = 56, sn = 20.1
c i 0.30
ii 2.2
11 B
12 B
iii -2.0
1 a English 1.25, Maths 1.33

b Maths mark is better as it has a higher z-score.
2 2nd test, Barbaras z-score was -0.33 compared to
-0.5 in the first test.
3 B
4 D
5 Course A, z-score of -0.8 compared to -0.75 on
course B
6 a Sydney 0.44, Athens 1
b In Sydney because of the lower z-score
7 C
8 B
9 a Maths x = 59.5, sn = 17.9
Chemistry x = 59.6, sn = 16.8
b Maths 0.25, Chemistry 0.20. Maths is the better
result.
10 Kory is the better candidate with a z-score of 1.5
compared with 0.875 for Ricardo.
Are you ready?

1 a 5.75
2 a 2.4
3 a Sample
13 C
14 a x = 64.7, sn = 11.4
b Highest score z = 2.66, Lowest score z = -1.73
15 English 1, Maths 1.31, Biology 1.5, Computing
studies -2, Visual arts 0.67, Music -0.8
Exercise 11B Comparison of scores
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
6 a $24 000
b
443
answers
Answers
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2
-2
-1.03
2.95
One standard deviation above the mean
Two standard deviations below the mean
50
8
English 1.25, Maths 1.4
Maths
Exercise 11C Distribution of scores

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
a 68%
b 95%
c 99.7%
a 68%
b 95%
c 99.7%
95%
16%
a 68%
b 16%
c 0.15%
21.1 and 33.9
a 68% of the values have a z-score between -1
and 1.
b 95% of the values have a z-score between -2
and 2.
c 99.7% of the values have a z-score between -3
and 3.
B
A
0.15%
a 16%
b 16%
a 95%
b 16%
c 34%
d 15.85%
e 83.85%
a 95 g to 105 g
b 92.5 g to 107.5 g
163 cm - 181 cm
Faulty, as the one chosen has a z-score greater than 3
2.6 kg - 5 kg
10D
11C
Answers
Chapter review
80
0
0 20 40
Temperature (C)
b The greater the temperature, the fewer pies are

sold. The points on the scatterplot approximate a
straight line and so the relationship can be said to
be linear.
6 a
Hours taken
-2
a 0
b 1
c -2
d 3
e -1
1.87
a 0.17 b 1.83 c -3
d -1.75 e -2
a x = 20.1, sn = 2.1
b Highest = 1.91, Lowest = -1.98
6 a x = 1130, sn = 334.2
b i -0.39 ii 2.05 iii -2.62 iv -1.13 v 3.07
7 a 1.5
b 1
c Physics, higher z-score
8 a Geography: -0.8, Business studies: -0.53
b Business studies: higher z-score
9 Numeracy: lower z-score
10 a 68%
b 95%
c 99.7%
11 a 68%
b 95%
c 99.7%
12 a 34%
b 47.5%
c 2.5%
d 0.15%
e 97.35%
13 Faulty, as it is more than three standard deviations
from the mean.
1 B
2 B
3 B
4 D
5 B
6 C
7 a Physics x = 65.1, sn = 5.9
Chemistry x = 62.4, sn = 11.8
b Physics -0.02, Chemistry 0.39
c Chemistry has a higher z-score.
d 53.3 and 76.9
e 27 and 97.8
8 a -2
b Faulty, more than two standard deviations from the
mean
Number of
pies sold
5 a
1
2
3
4
5
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30
Number in work team
b The more workers on the team reduces the amount

of time taken to unload the ship, and, as the points
on the scatterplot form a straight line, the
relationship is linear.
7 D
8 A
9 a The scatterplot shows a relationship between 2
quantities. As one increases, the other generally
increases.
b The scatterplot shows a relationship between 2
quantities. As one increases, the other generally
decreases.
Exercise 12B Fitting a straight line

by eye
(Note: Best fit lines are indicated as a guide only.)
1 a y
b y
CHAPTER 12 Correlation
Are you ready?
1 a 4
2 a y = 198
3 a 3
b 15
b x = 52
b 1--4-
4 a 6, positive
b 1 1--2- , negative
Number at
cinema
400
200
0
0 20 40
Temperature (C)
200
100
0
20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
80
40
0
0 40 80
History
Amount spent on
entertainment ($)
Geography
Exercise 12A Scatterplots
Wages ($)
4 a
History
answers
444
x
80
40
0
0 40 80
English
b The greater the English mark, the greater the

History mark generally is. However, as the points
on the scatterplot do not form a straight line, the
relationship is not linear.
5 a
B
A
C
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Lift (kg)
10 20 30 40
Circum. (cm)
Exercise 12C Fitting a straight line

the 3-median method
Cost ( $1000)
20 40 60 80
English
5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance ( 1000 km)
160
80
0
0.
6 8 10 x
Price ($)
Distance (km)
5 10 15 20 25 x
1 $115
5 6h
9 2h
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Mass (g)
4 8 12 16
Age (years)
Volume (L)
2
1
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temp. (C)
b V = 0.05T + 3.3
4 3 h 30 min
8 35
Exercise 12D Correlation
4 a
6
5
4
3
2 $235
3 $85
6 2 h 45 min 7 80
10 4 h 30 min
1 a Negative
2 a
b L = 0.05M + 220
100
200
100
0
c 92 mm
d 246 mm
e 3 years
f 106 mm
Note: Some answers may vary slightly depending on the
location of the line of best fit.
Speeding
offences
Length (mm)
300
c i $582 ii $1236 iii $740 iv $1762

12 a
b L = 14A + 22
3 a
A
f $1.75
b A = 0.45d + 280
0
10
00
20
00
30
00
ii 43 000
1400
800
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 x
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
200
d i 73 000
e $2.75
11 a
Price ($)
y
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
c y = 80x + 750
00
Length of
carapace (mm)
b y = 70 - 0.4x
c C = 0.4d + 2100
d i $8100 ii $2500 iii 14 750 km iv 34 750 km
10 a, b
c N = 135 - 20p
2 4
20 km
d 8.5 km
178 cm
25.74 cm
20C
d 38C
y
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
c
b
d
c
4.
2 a y = 5x + 12
15
10
5
00
A C
Weekly sales
( 1000)
Maths
B
80
60
40
20
2.
b S = 1.1C + 24
6 a $17.40 b $8.40
7 a 159.7 cm
c 31.15 cm
8 a 755
b 295
9 a, b
00
445
answers
Answers
3 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
8
4
0
b Positive
c Positive
b Negative
0 20 40 60
Age (years)

No correlation
12A
12D
Answers
0 10 20 30
Temperature (C)
16
8
0
0 20 40 60
Hours
12
8
4
0
4
2
0
0 2
Number of cars
b There is no apparent relationship.

4 a, b y
c y = 99 - 5x
80
40
0
0
20 0
0
30 0
00
0
Area ( 1000 km2)
0.12
0.08
0.04
0
0
Amount of drug (mg)
Crowd
0.
4
0.
8
1.
2
c 73
7 a Negative
b Positive
c Negative
8 a, b
b
d
f
h
j
Weak positive
Moderate negative
No correlation
Moderate negative
Perfect negative
11 There is a moderate positive correlation.

12 There is a weak negative correlation.
13 a No correlation
b There is no evidence to connect money and
happiness which confirms the statement.
14 a There is a weak negative correlation between
obesity and exercise.
b There is little evidence that connects the amount
of exercise and obesity.
d 13.4 mg
c Positive
20 000
10 000
0
0 8 16
Number of wins
by home team
9 B
15 B
b $73 000
b F = 107 - 8I
120
80
40
0
8 C
Perfect positive
Strong positive
Weak positive
Strong negative
Weak negative
0 4 8 12
Amount of insecticide (g)
b There is a strong positive correlation indicating

that increasing the amount of the drug given
increases the reaction time.
10 a
c
e
g
i
0 8 16
5 a $242 400
6 a
b There is no correlation evident.

7 a
0 2 4 6
Number of children
b There appears to be a positive relationship which

is linear.
3 a
6000
4000
2000
10
6 a
Population ( 1000)
b There is a moderate positive correlation between

the time spent in airconditioned buildings and the
number of sick days with colds and flu. As hours
spent increases, there is often some increase in
the number of days sick.
c More aspects would need to be examined.
2 a
Number of blowflies
5 a
Number of
sick days
b There is a strong negative correlation between

temperature and the number of pies sold. As
temperature increases the number of pies sold
decreases.
20
10
0
0 20 40
Maximum
temperature (C)
Number of sick days
600
400
200
0
Minimum
temperature (C)
Chapter review
Number of
televisions
Number of pies sold
4 a
Reaction time (s)
answers
446
9 a
c
e
10 a
b
11 a
b
No correlation
b Perfect positive
Moderate negative
d Strong negative
Weak positive
Strong positive
Thicker beams cause greater strengths.
Moderate negative
There is some evidence that older people own
older cars.

1 D
2 D
3 C
4 D
5 A
6 a Yes, the median regression line is straight.
b i 713
ii 2.5 m
c i Positive
ii Moderate
19
Year
d 7 billion
e 2050
CHAPTER 13 Spherical geometry

Are you ready?
1 a 69.1 cm
b 88.0 m
c 40 212.4 km
2 a 9.42 m
b 25.6 cm c 41.5 m
3 a 2 hours 40 min
b 210 minutes
c 28 days
d 1 1--4- years
4 a 11.112 km
c 7778.4 m
b 43.20 M
d 4.07 M
Exercise 13A Arc lengths

1 a 25.1 cm
b 56.5 m
d 25.8 km
e 87.3 km
2 630 km
3 a 44.0 cm
b 123 m
d 368 mm
e 11.6 km
4 9400 km
5 31.83 cm
6 a 25.5 m
b 6.73 cm
7 8.73 cm
8 a 33.8 mm
b 20.4 m
d 27.6 cm
e 5.0 km
9 a 40 200 km
b 4470 km
10 a 52 km
b 136 km
c Check with your teacher.
11 a 251 cm
b 62.8 cm
12 a 5.2 cm
b 4.3 m
13 112 km
c 389.6 mm
f 52.2 m
c 188 km
f 688 km
6
7
8
11
12
1 a Cairo
b Shanghai c Darwin
d Montreal
e London
f Auckland
g Tokyo
h Beijing
i Rio de Janeiro
j Oslo
2 These answers are approximate.
a (38S, 145E)
b (40N, 75W)
c (18N, 76W)
d (26S, 28E)
e (42N, 12E)
f (35S, 57W)
g (33N, 44E)
h (55N, 40E)
i (2N, 104E)
j (18S, 178E)
Exercise 13D Distances on the

Earths surface
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
50
a 40
b 40
c 71
d 21
e 80
60
a 1800 M
b 3334 km
a 2100 M
b 8100 M
c 2340 M
d 5760 M
a 3600 M
b 6667 km
a 2700 M
b 5000 km
6600 km
a 4356 km
b 4021 km
c 3798 km
D
B
7 hours 30 minutes
a 110
b 6600 M
c 12 200 km
d 13 hours 45 minutes
10 800 M
a 28
b 1680 M
c 3111 km
d 3128 km
e 1 M 1.852 km and radius Earth 6400 km.
We are therefore working with approximations.
c 5696.8 km
Exercise 13B Great circles and

small circles
1
2
3
4
5
Exercise 13C Latitude and longitude
c 796 km
c 150.8 cm
f 20.7 km
447
answers
c P = 80Y + 2200
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
5
19 0
7
19 0
90
20
10
7 a, b
World population
(millions)
Answers
43.98 cm
a 56.5 m
b 465 mm
c 188 m
40 210 km
314 cm
a 15 320 km
b 38 010 km
c 21 350 km
d 449 200 km e 378 690 km f 160 590 km
g 154 250 km
12.6 m
a 55.3 m
b 40.2 m
c 6911.5 km
B
9 79 cm
10 20 100 km
a 377 cm
b 94.25 cm
a 1750 km
b 52.4 m
1 29.5 m
2 180 cm
3 9.4 cm
4 A great circle is the circle of greatest possible
diameter on the surface of the sphere.
5 A small circle is any circle drawn on the surface that
is smaller than a great circle.
6 94.25 cm
7 7100 km
8 3140 km
9 14 450 km
10 33 900 km
1
4
7
10
151 cm
2 (52N, 5E)
(50N, 125W) 5 Rome
36
8 2160 M
4020 km
3 (28S, 153E)
6 Colombo
9 4000 km
Exercise 13E Time zones

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
10 h
a 14 h
b 7h
c 11 h
d 22 h
11:00 pm Monday
a 8:00 pm
b 1:00 pm Friday
c 5:00 pm Wednesday d 11:00 pm Tuesday
e 3:45 pm Monday
5:00 am Saturday
11:00 pm Tuesday
10:00 am Monday
a 10:00 pm
b GMT +11
c i 3:00 pm Monday
ii 8:00 am Friday
a 18 h
b 19 h
c 17 h
7h
a 10 h 20 min b 24 min
c 2 h 48 min
C
D
2:00 pm Tuesday
a 4:00 pm Wednesday b 8:00 am Sunday
a 1:00 am Wednesday b 3:00 am Wednesday
12D
13E
answers
448
Answers
Chapter review
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
a 120.6 cm
a 6.3 m
a 47.1 cm
a 207.3 cm
56.5 km
71 cm
a 41.5 cm
a Manila
a (41N, 3W)
c (43S, 147E)
58
a 16
6 days 6 hours
a i 3060 M
b
b
b
b
54.0 cm
28.1 cm
7.85 cm
44.0 cm
c 289.0 mm
c 21.9 m
c 57.8 m
b 17.6 m
c 9424.8 km
b Lima
c Santiago
b (1N, 104E)
b 960 M
c 1778 km
ii 5667 km
b 6.375 h
14
15
16
17
18
6000 km
a 8h
b 11 h
3:00 am Thursday
3:30 am Tuesday
a 11:00 am the same day
b 11:00 am the same day
19 7:00 pm the same day
c 17 h

1 A
2 C
3 C
4 C
5 a 85
b 9500 km c 9 h
6 a Small circle. They lie on the same small circle
because they lie on the same parallel of latitude.
b 12:40 pm Saturday
c 9:20 am Wednesday
Index
449
Index
addition rule for probability 206
algebraic manipulation 1723
algebraic models 28992
angular distance 3979
annuities 23940
future value 2402
future value table 2501
present value 2468
present value table 2513
annuity calculator 2445
annulus, area 44
arc lengths 3856
area
annulus 44
circle 43
composite shapes 489
ellipse 44
irregular figures, using Simpsons rule
parts of the circle 435
sector 43
triangle 1023
see also surface area
area charts 149
assets 301
Australian time zones 402
bearings 869
bivariate data 357
box-and-whisker plots
credit cards 226

calculating interest on a daily basis
interest-free period 22
cube roots 170
cubic expressions 170
cubic functions 281
cylinder
surface area 578
volume 63
535
145
causality 3723
Central Standard Time (CST) 402
circle
area 43
circumference 385, 389
parts of, area 435
comparing data sets 1525
compass bearings 867
compass radial surveys 1201
complementary events 2078
composite shapes, area 489
composite solids, volume 625
compound interest formula 239, 285
cone, volume 63
constant of variation 285
correlation 3703
correlation coefficient 3712
cosine ratio 81
cosine rule
derivation 106
finding angles 11114
finding side lengths 1069
using equation solver to find angles 112
using equation solver to find side lengths 107
cost of a loan 1619
counting techniques 196200
and probability 2013
ordered arrangements 1969
unordered selection 199200
245
data sets
comparison 1525
measures of location and spread 1316
multiple displays 1459
skewness 1401
daylight saving time 403
declining balance depreciation 301, 303, 31012
depreciation 301
declining balance method 301, 31012
modelling 3013
straight line method 301, 3079
tax deductibility 317
depreciation tables 31418
distances on the Earths surface 3979
Earth
latitude and longitude 3936
time zones 4014
Earths surface, distances on 3979
Eastern Standard Time (EST) 401, 402
effective rate of interest formula 16
ellipse, area 44
equation of a median regression line 3604
equation of a straight line, gradientintercept
form 2678, 361
equations
and formulas 1758
solution by substitution 1802
equator 393
error in measurement 6970
expected outcomes 21921
exponential decay 283, 303
exponential functions 2823
factorial function 197
financial expectation 2234
First Index Law 173
flat rate interest 36
comparison with reducible rates of interest 1619
flat rate interest loan calculator 89
flat rate loan, effective rate of interest 1619
future value of an annuity 2402
future value of an annuity formula 240
future value table 2501
gradient formula 268
gradientintercept form, equation of a straight
line 2678, 361
450
Index
graphing
physical phenomena 28992
variations 2878
graphs
cubic functions 281
exponential functions 2823
hyperbolic functions 281
linear functions 26871
quadratic functions 2748
great circles 389, 393
distance between two points 3979
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 401, 402
Greenwich Meridian 393, 401
home loan calculator 10
home loans 912
loan repayment function 21
hyperbolas 281
hyperbolic functions 281, 2867
index laws 173
International Date Line 393
interquartile range (IQR) 132
intersection of two graphs 2712
inverse variation 2867
irregular figures, area 535
knot
398
latitude 3936
linear equations, gradientintercept form 2678, 361
linear expressions 169
linear functions 26772
finding the intersection of two graphs 2712
graphing 26870
graphing practical functions 2701
straight line depreciation 301
linear relationships (scatterplots) 353
loan repayments
calculated using present value formula 2557
reducing balance loan 2931, 33
longitude 3936
and time difference 403
map coordinates 393, 395
mean 131, 140, 329
measurement error 6970
measures of location 131, 1336
measures of spread 132, 1336
median 131, 140, 329
median regression lines 35964
meridians of longitude 393
mode 135, 140, 329
modelling depreciation 3013
multiple data sets
displaying 1459
storing 147
multiplication rule of probability 205
nautical mile 398
negative correlation 372
negatively skewed 141
non-linear relationships (scatterplots)

normal distribution 140, 329
and standard deviation 33941
and z-scores 33941
353
offset surveys 118

ordered arrangements 1969
and tree diagrams 198
ordered selection 1989
outliers 134
parabola 2748
parallels of latitude 393, 397
physical phenomena, graphing 28992
plane table radial surveys 11820
population standard deviation 330
positive correlation 371
positively skewed 141
present value of an annuity 2468
present value of an annuity formula 246, 255
present value table 2513
prism, volume 62
probability
addition rule 206
and counting techniques 2013
complementary events 2078
expected outcomes 21921
financial expectation 2234
multiplication rule 205
two-way tables 2279
probability formula 194
probability trees 2058
pyramid, volume 63
quadrant 43
quadratic expressions 170
quadratic functions 2748
general form 275
graphing 276
maximum value 276
minimum value 275, 276
radar charts 148
radial surveys 11821
range 132
reducible rates of interest
comparison with flat rate interest 1619
home loans 912
reducing balance loan 912
loan repayments 2931, 33
monthly repayment per $1000 borrowed 30
regression lines 35764
finding equation of 3604
fitting a straight line by equal-number-of-points
method 358
fitting a straight line by eye 3579
fitting a straight line by the 3-median method
35963
right-angled triangles, review 814
salvage value 307, 311
and tax deductions 317
Index
sample standard deviation 330

scatterplots 3514
and correlation 3712
drawing 3523
linear relationships 353
no relationship 354
non-linear relationships 353
scientific notation 1845
Second Index Law 173
sector, area 43
simple interest formula 3
Simpsons rule 535
simulations 2223
sine ratio 81
sine rule
derivation 92
finding angle sizes 979
finding side lengths 915
using equation solver to find angles 98
using equation solver to find side lengths
skewness 1401
small circles 38990, 393
sphere
great circles 389, 393
small circles 38990, 393
surface area 58
volume 63
square roots 170
standard deviation 132, 140
and normal distribution 33941
and z-scores 32930
standardised scores see z-scores
statistical data, displaying 152
stem-and-leaf plots 145
straight line, equation of 2678, 361
straight line depreciation 301, 3079
substitution 16971
solution by 1802
solving equations arising from 1757
summary statistics 132
comparing 154
451
surface area
cylinder 578
minimising 61
sphere 58
surveying 11821
93
table function (graphics calculator) 181

tangent ratio 81
term of the loan 3
Third Index Law 173
time difference 403
time zones 4014
tree diagrams 1935, 205
and ordered arrangements 198
see also probability trees
triangle, area 1023
trigonometric ratios 814
using equation solver to find side lengths 82
using equation solver to find the size of an
angle 834
true bearings 879
two-way tables 153, 2279
unordered selection
199200
variations 2858
graphing 2878
volume
composite solids 625
cone 63
cylinder 63
prism 62
pyramid 63
sphere 63
Western Standard Time (WST)
z-scores 32932
comparison 3345
distribution 33941
402

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MATHS

Second edition published 2007 by

John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2001, 2007

The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Are you ready?

Measures of location and spread 131

Tree diagrams 193

Expected outcomes 219

Future value of an annuity 239

Linear functions 267

Modelling depreciation 301

Arc lengths 385

Teacher edition with accompanying

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About the author

Flat rate interest

Are you ready?

Converting a percentage to a decimal

1 Convert each of the following percentages to decimals.

Finding a percentage of a quantity (money)

c 7.4% of $125 000

Calculating simple interest

3 Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of:

Finding values of n and r in financial formulas

4 Find the value of n and r for each of the following investments

Calculating compound interest

Substitution into a formula

6 Evaluate each of the following by substituting into the given formula.

c If s = ut + 1--- at2, find s when u = 0.8, t = 5 and a = 2.3.

Chapter 1 Credit and borrowing

Flat rate interest

Convert the interest rate to a decimal.

Write the formula.

Substitute the values of P, r (as a

Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course

Convert the interest rate to a decimal.

Write the interest formula.

Graphics Calculator tip! Calculate simple interest

2. Press F1 to select Simple Interest.

3. The calculator has two modes of calculating interest:

Chapter 1 Credit and borrowing

5. The calculator gives you two options.

a Find 10% of $3000.

a Deposit = 10% of $3000

b Subtract the deposit from the cash price

Write the interest formula.

Substitute for P, r and n.

Calculate the interest.

d Add the interest to the amount

d Total repayments = $2700 + $648

e Divide the total repayments by 36

e Monthly repayments = $3348 36

Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course

Calculate the total amount that is

Total repayments = $320 60

Flat rate interest

Chapter 1 Credit and borrowing