ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

ALGEBRA IS A METHOD OF WRITTEN CALCULATIONS that help us reason about

numbers. At the very outset, the student should realize that algebra is a skill. And like any
skill - driving a car, baking cookies, playing the guitar -- it requires practice. A lot of practice.
Written practice. That said, let us begin.

The first thing to note is that, in algebra, we use letters as well as numbers. But the letters
represent numbers. And the rules of algebra correspond to the rules of arithmetic, but we
write those rules using letters.

For example, we know in arithmetic that the order in which we add two numbers does not
matter.
7+3=3+7

In algebra, we express that as the rule:

a+b=b+a

Letter a simply means the first number -- whatever it might be. Letter b means the second
number. We use letters because we mean that the rule will be true for any numbers. In
algebra, we imitate with letters what we could write with numbers. The numbers are the
numerical symbols, while the letters are called literal symbols.

THE FOUR OPERATIONS AND THEIR SIGNS

What are the four operations of arithmetic, and what are their operation signs?

1) Addition: a + b; The operation sign is +

For example, if a represents 3, and b represents 4, then a + b represents 7.

2) Subtraction: a – b; The operation sign is −

If a represents 8, for example, and b represents 2, then a − b represents 6.

3) Multiplication: a · b or ab
2 · 5 = 10

"2 times 5 equals 10."

The operation sign is a centered dot. When there is no operation sign, as an ab or 2x, it always
means multiplication.

We do not use the multiplication cross ×, because we do not want to confuse it with the letter x

Do not confuse the centered dot - 2·5, which in the United States means multiplication - with the
decimal point: 2.5

a
4) Division:
b
In algebra, we rarely use the division sign ÷. We use the division bar.

10
=5
2

"10 divided by 2 is 5"

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 Note: In algebra we call a + b a "sum" even though we do not name an answer. As the student
will see, we name something in algebra simply by how it looks. In fact, the student will see that
we do algebra with our eyes, and then our fingers on the paper follow.

a
Similarly, we call a − b a difference, ab a product, and a quotient.
b

THE FUNCTION OF PARENTHESES

What is the function of parentheses () in algebra?

3 + (4 + 5) ; 3(4 + 5)

Parentheses signify that we should treat what they enclose as one number.

3 + (4 + 5) = 3 + 9 = 12 ; 3(4 + 5) = 3 · 9 = 27

Note: When there is no operation sign between 3 and (4 + 5), it means multiplication.

Problem 1. Distinguish the following: a) 8 − (3 + 2) b) 8 − 3 + 2

Answer. In a), we treat 3 + 2 as one number.

a) 8 − (3 + 2) = 8 − 5 = 3

In b), we do not. We first subtract 3 and then add 2.

b) 8 − 3 + 2 = 5 + 2 = 7
(But see the order of operations below)

There is a common misconception that parentheses always signify multiplication. In Lesson 3, in fact,
we will see that we use parentheses to separate the operation sign from the algebraic sign. 8 + (−2)

"TERMS" versus "FACTORS"

When numbers are added or subtracted, they are called terms. When numbers are
multiplied, they are called factors.

Here is a sum of four terms: a − b + c − d

In algebra we speak of a "sum" of several terms, even though there are subtractions. In
other words, anything that looks like what you see above, we call a sum.

Here is a product of four factors: abcd

The word factor always signifies multiplication. And again, we speak of the "product"
abcd, even though we do not name an answer.

Problem 2. In the following expression, how many terms are there? And each term has
how many factors?
2a + 4ab + 5a (b + c)

Answer. There are three terms. 2a is the first term. It has two factors: 2 and a.
4ab is the second term. It has three factors: 4, a, and b.
And 5a (b + c) is all one term. It also has three factors: 5, a, and (b + c). The
parentheses mean that we should treat whatever is enclosed as one number.

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 POWERS and EXPONENTS

When a number is repeatedly multiplied by itself, we get the powers of that number. Thus,
a·a is called the second power of a, or "a squared". a·a·a is the third power of a, or "a
cubed". a·a·a·a is a to the fourth power, and so on. The first power of a is a itself.

Now, rather than write aaaa, we write a just once and place a small number 4: a4 ("a to the
4th"). That small 4 is called an exponent. It indicates the number of times to repeat a as a
factor. 83 ("8 to the third") means 8·8·8.

Problem 3. Read, then calculate each of the following.

a) 5² "5 to the second power" or "5 squared" = 25

b) 23 "2 to the third power" or "2 cubed" = 8
c) 104 "10 to the fourth" = 10,000
d) 121 "12 to the first" = 12

THE ORDER OF OPERATIONS

When there are several operations, what is the order of operations?

8 + 4(2 + 3)² − 7

Before answering, let us note that since skill in science is the reason for requiring students to
learn algebra; and since orders of operations appear only in certain forms, then in these
pages we present only those that the student is even remotely likely to encounter in the
actual practice of algebra. The division sign ÷ is never used in scientific formulas, and the
multiplication cross × is used only in scientific notation - therefore the student will never see
the following:
3 + 6 × (5 + 3) ÷ 3 − 8.

Such a problem would be purely academic, which is to say, of no practical value. It never
even comes up in arithmetic

The order of operations is as follows:

(1) Evaluate the parentheses, if there are any, and if they require evaluation.
(2) Evaluate the powers, that is, the exponents.
(3) Multiply or divide -- it does not matter.
(4) Add or subtract.

In the first example below, we will see in what sense we may add or subtract. And in the
second example we will encounter multiply or divide.

Example 1. 8 + 4(2 + 3)² − 7

First, we will evaluate the parentheses, that is, we will replace 2 + 3 with 5:
= 8 + 4· 5² − 7
Since there is now just one number, 5, it is not necessary to write parentheses.
Notice that we transformed one element, the parentheses, and rewrote all the rest.
Next, evaluate the exponents:
= 8 + 4· 25 − 7
Now multiply:
= 8 + 100 − 7
Finally, add or subtract, it will not matter. If we add first:
= 108 − 7 = 101.

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While if we subtract first:
8 + 100 − 7 = 8 + 93 = 101.
Example 2. 100 − 60 + 3.
The order in which we add or subtract does not matter -- as long as we preserve the
operation that precedes each number. In other words, we must add 100, subtract 60, and
add 3.
100 − 60 + 3 does not mean 100 − (60 + 3).
Therefore no matter whether you add first or subtract first,
100 − 60 + 3 = 43.
When we come to signed numbers, we will see that
100 − 60 + 3 = 100 + (−60) + 3.
The order in which we "add" those will not matter.

11 · 35
Example 3.
5
There are no parentheses to evaluate and no exponents. Next in the order is multiply or
divide. We may do either -- we will get the same answer. But it is usually more skillful to
divide first, because we will then have smaller numbers to multiply. Therefore, we will first
divide 35 by 5:
11 · 35 =
11· 7
5

=
77.
See: Skill in Arithmetic, Property 3 of Division.

Example 4. ½(3 + 4)12 = ½· 7· 12.

Now the order of factors does not matter: abc = bac = cab, etc. Therefore we may first do
½· 12. That is, we may first divide 12 by 2:
½· 7· 12 = 7· 6 = 42.
(See Lesson 26 of Arithmetic, Question 1.)
8 + 20
Example 5. The division bar.
10 − 3
In any problem with the division bar, before we can divide we must evaluate the top and
bottom according to the order of operations. In other words, we must interpret the top and
bottom as being in parentheses.
8 + 20 (8 + 20)
means .
10 − 3 (10 − 3)
Now we proceed as usual and evaluate the parentheses first.
The answer is 4.

Problem 4. Evaluate each of the following according to the order of

operations.
b)
a) 3 + 4· 5 = 2 + 3· 4 + 5 =

3 + 20 = 23 2 + 12 + 5 = 19

d)
c) 4 + 5(2 + 6) = (4 + 5)(2 + 6) =

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 4 + 5· 8 = 4 + 40 = 44 9· 8 = 72

e) 11· 10 f) ½(3 + 4)8 =

5

½· 7· 8 = 7· 4 = 28.
11· 2 = 22 (½· 8 = 4) Skill in Arithmetic:
We may divide first. Lesson 26, Question 1

2 + 2· 3² 2 + 2· 9 = 2 + 18 = 20 =
g) = 14 − 3· 4 14 − 12 2 10.
14 − 3· 2²

Values and evaluations

Variables
Writing algebraic expressions

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