Chapter 3: Wave propagation fundamentals: From energy point of view, energy

partitioning at interfaces
Before pursuing further on discussing specific topics in seismic exploration to a
variety of applications, it is critical to understand the basic wave propagation phenomena.
In this chapter, we introduce the fundamental solutions for the wave equation we derived
in Chapter 2, and discuss the fundamental propagation phenomena.
First, we discuss the energy conservation in terms of plane wave, cylindrical wave,
and spherical wave, corresponding to 1D, 2D, and 3D propagations. This phenomenon is
known as geometric spreading.
Then, we discuss absorption, another main reason for having seismic energy
dissipation.
Finally, by discussing the Snells law, the reflection, refraction and seismic phase
conversion at a material contrast interface, as well as the energy distribution, we discuss
the approximation by using the ray theory, or geometric wave propagation.
3.1 Wave front and the Huygens Principle
It is clear that the wave field at a particular moment is an extension and continuity of the
field in the last moment. By using the concept of wavefront, which is defined as the
surface on which the wave motion is in the same phase, this concept is used to describe
the Huygens Principle. Huygens principle states that every point on a wavefront can be
regarded as a new source of waves. In Figure 3.1, the points P1, P2, P3, P4, and Pi, on the
wavefront AB can be regarded as the news sources. After an infinitesimal time of dt, the
waves from each of the new source propagated to a distance of vdt, and forms a new
wavefront AB. Be aware of that between A and B there are infinite number of points so
the newly formed wave front is a continuous phenomenon.

P1
P2

P3

Pi

P4
B
vdt

..................

Figure 3.1 Illustration of the Huygens principle.

From Figure 3.1, it is easy to see that the shape of the wave front depends on mediums
velocity. For example, the wave generated by a point source propagates in a medium with
constant velocity, the wavefront is in a shape of a spherical shell.
3.2 Wave energy
A simplified case for the wave equation discussed in Chapter 2 is the plane wave
propagating in one direction, say the x-direction. In this case, the wave equation can be
written as
2 u 1 2u
=
x 2 v 2 t 2

(3.1)

One solution for a plane wave propagating in an unbounded, uniform medium can be
expressed as
u = u0 exp[i (t + kx)] = u0 cos(t + kx) + iu0 sin(t + kx)

(3.2)

This plane wave can be viewed as the wave generated by a plane source occupying the
entire yz-plane (x=0) to generate waves propagating in x-direction. For simplicity, lets
only consider the real part of Eqn (3.2). In this equation, u0 is the amplitude, is the
angular frequency; k is called the wave number. We will show the relationship of k with
respect to angular frequency , by demonstrating Eqn (3.2) does satisfy the 1-D wave
equation (3.1). Taking the secondary derivative of u with respect to space, here the xcoordinate, is
2u
= k 2u0 cos(t + kx)
2
x
and putting the second derivative of u with respect to time on the right hand side of Eqn
(3.1) gives
1 2u
2
=

u0 cos(t + kx)
v 2 t 2
v2
comparing the last 2 equations leads to
k=

It is clear that the wave number k in space domain defines how many revolutions in a unit
length scale, just like the angular frequencys () function in time domain, to define how
many revolutions in a unit time. They are linked through the propagation velocity v,
which is determined by the physical properties of the media the wave travels through. In

the case discussed in this section, the wave does not experience any lose of energy.
Clearly, it is not realistic in the real world. We will discuss the energy equilibrium in the
next section.

3.2.1 Kinetic energy

At one particular position with r=r, the simplest wave displacement is not depending on
the position anymore and can be written as
u = u0 cos t
the particle velocity at this point then is
u = u0 sin t
(and what is the expression for acceleration?) the kinetic energy density is then
Ek =

1m 2 1 2 2 2
u = u0 sin t
2V
2

Please make sure you understand the difference of wave propagation velocity as it
passing through the media, and the particle motion velocity that only vibrating about an
equilibrium point of the particle itself. Since the function of sin(t) has a range of [-1, 1],
then sin2t varies in the range of [0 1]. This gives the maximum kinetic energy is
Ek max =

1 2 2
u 0
2

3.2.2 Potential energy: Strain Energy

In elasticity, the elastic deformation (strain) is caused by applying stress, the product of
stress and strain, in analogue to work which is the product of force and displacement, in a
macroscopic sense, is in a dimension of energy. Since we are taking the case in a
microscopic sense, the energy actually is energy density, i.e., the energy in a unit volume
of the medium. The work done by stress is converted to elastic strain energy in the same
amount and stored in the medium. Elastic strain energy is a kind of potential energy due
to some kind of recovery force (gravity is a recovery force, and there is a gravity
potential).

1
1
E = ij ij = ( xx xx + yy yy + zz zz + xy xy + yz yz + zx zx )
2
2
1
= [( ij + 2 ij ) ij ]
2
1
= [( ii ii + 2 ij ij ]
2

since ij ij = ii , then

E 1
( ij ij ) = ij
=
ij 2 ij
This expression means that for a given strain, if the stress applied is larger, the energy
stored is also large (This is due to the elastic modulus is larger).
The strain energy is a kind of the potential energy that stored in the elastic medium when
it is deformed. From physical principle, the summation of the potential energy and the
kinetic energy get to be a constant at any given moment. Let us examine the situation at
two particular moments: t=0, and t =/2. At t=0, we have
u = u0 cos t = u0
and
v = u = u0 sin 0 = 0
At t =/2 we have
u = u0 cos t = 0
and
v = u = u0 sin

= u0

This is to say that at the moment the displacement is in its maximum u0, the particle
velocity is zero, and the kinetic energy is zero, all energy has been stored as the elastic
strain energy. In contrast, when the displacement is zero, the velocity reaches its
maximum u0, and the kinetic energy is in its maximum, and all the elastic strain energy
has been released. The total energy at this point is
Ek + E p = Ek max =

1 2 2
u 0
2

Ek=0
Ep=Ekmax

u0
Ek=Ekmax
Ep=0

Figure 3.2, the balance of the kinetic energy and elastic potential energy at any moment.

3.2.3 Energy Intensity I

Energy intensity is the total energy flow through a unit area in a unit time, so that it is the
energy density we have learned above (times the volume, then divided by the area and
time). Imagine a cylinder, it happened have the wave energy propagation direction
coincides with the axis of the cylinder as shown in Figure 3.3 below
k
dA

vdt

Figure 3.3
so that

I=

Etotal E vdtdA
1
=
= Ev = 2u 02 v
dAdt
dAdt
2

where v is the propagation velocity of the waves. It is clear that energy intensity can also
be called as energy flow density. For the sake of energy conservation, we should expect
the total energy in the entire domain of the media at any moment should be a constant;
the total amount of energy depends on the source has radiated. Now we can discuss the
waves with different type of sources and their relationship with energy and energy flow
density.
3.3 Geometric spreading: Spherical wave, cylindrical wave and planar wave
3.3.1 Point source a 3D case

For the simplest case, i.e., a point source in an infinite homogeneous medium, we should
expect the following. Lets imagine two wave fronts, which make 2 spherical shells with
the same origin (location of the source). The radius to the outer shell is r2, which is
greater than that of the radius of the inner shell r1. Thus, the surface areas of the outer and
inner shells are 4r22 and 4r12, respectively. By energy conservation, the total energy
flowing through the outer shell and the inner shell at a given time should keep the same
so that we have
E2 = E1
I 2 S 2 = I1S1
I 2 4r22 = I1 4r12
and
I2 = (

r1
r2

) 2 I1

1
r 1
2u 22 = ( 1 ) 2 2u 12
2
r2 2
r
u 2 = ( 1 ) u1
r2
to generalize this relation with the inner shell becoming a constant reference shell closer
to the source and the outer shell a generic one we have
r
u = ( 0 ) u0
r
This state that the amplitude is decaying against 1/r for the waves generated by a pint
source, since the shape of the wavefront is spherical, this is generally referred as the
geometric spreading for spherical waves.
3.3.2 Line source a 2D case

For an infinitely long line source, the shape of the wavefront is a cylinder; this is called
the cylindrical wave
E2 = E1
I 2 S 2 = I1S1
I 2 2 rL = I1 2 rL
and
I2 = (

r1
r2

) I1

r 1
1
2u 22 = ( 1 ) 2u12
r2 2
2
r1
u
r2 1
to generalize this relation with the inner shell becoming a constant reference shell closer
to the source and the outer shell a generic one we have
u2 =

u=

r0
u
r 0

This state that the amplitude is decaying against 1/r for waves generated by a line
source, since the shape of the wavefront is cylindrical, this is generally referred as the
geometric spreading for cylindrical waves.
3.3.3 Plane source a 1D case

If the source occupies the entire x=0 plane (as shown in the beginning of Section 3.2), the
shape of the wave front is planar, this wave is called the plane wave; there is no
amplitude decay for plane wave. In summary we can view the energy density flow of
different waves as:
Point source:
Line source:
Plane source:

spherical wave
cylindrical wave
plane wave

1/r decay;
1/r decay;
no decay;

In reality, the energy decays by the wave field occupying larger and larger volume and
energy in the unit volume become less and less when the wave propagating farther and
farther, this phenomenon is called geometric spreading.
The geometric spreading alone can not lead to the complete dead-off of the seismic wave
energy. The ultimate dead-off of the kinetic energy of seismic waves is due to the energy
absorption caused by the imperfection of the earth materials, i.e., the elastic energy has
been completely transferred to earth mantle.

3.4 Energy dissipation caused by absorption (intrinsic attenuation)

Absorption is the energy loss caused by the imperfection or defect of the material, in the
form of energy conversion from mechanic to thermal. This loss can be accounted for by
using the absorption coefficient in the form as

A = A0e r
Now we introduce the concept of the quality factor Q, which is defined as the ratio of the
total elastic energy and the energy lost in one cycle, i.e.,
Q=

2E
E

Q can be thought as: after how many cycles of vibration the elastic energy can be
dissipated, apparently larger Q means many cycles to dissipate the energy so that the
material tends to be more close to perfect or more purely elastic. In contrast, if only after
very few cycles the energy is gone, the material is far more from elastic.
We have learned that the kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude,
i.e., we have
1
2 A 2
2
taking the reference point at point 1, so we have
2 E A12 A22 ( A1 + A2 )( A1 A2 ) 2 A1 ( A1 A2 )
E =

A12

A12

A12

2( A1 A2 )
A
A
= 2(1 2 ) 2 ln( 1 ) = 2
A1
A1
A2

Taylor expansion has been applied in the last step, since

ln x = 1

1
+ .....( x > 0)
x

On the other hand, from the original definition of the absorption coefficient we have the
amplitudes at 2 points with only one cycle apart (one wavelength in space) can be
expressed as

A1 = A0e r0
A2 = A0 e ( r0 + )
then
A1
A0 e r0
=
= e r0 e ( r0 + ) = e r0 +r0 + = e
A2 A0 e ( r0 + )

and

ln(

A1
) = ln(e ) =
A2

so we got that

=
and
Q=

2E 2
=
=
E 2

This is the relation between the quality factor Q and the absorption coefficient .
Finally, after consider the geometrical spreading and the absorption, a general form of the
solution of wave equation can be written as:

u=
u=

u0
r
u0

e r cos(t kr )

for point source (3D propagation)

e r cos(t kr )

for line source (2D propagation)

r
u = u 0 e r cos(t kr )

for plane source (1D propagation)

Again, be make sure that the absorption is the mechanism responsible for complete deadoff of seismic vibrations.
After we discuss geometric spreading and absorption, which occurs even for a uniform
medium, we need discuss energy partitioning at interfaces caused by heterogeneous
medium. This is the basis for diffraction, and scattering.

3.5 Diffraction, and its kinetic approximation: The ray theory, or geometric wave
propagation (Snells law)
3.5.1 Geometric wave theory, Snells law

The process of wave reflection may be defined as the return of all or part of a wave beam
when it encounters the boundary between two media. The most important rule of
reflection is that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection., which is
known as the Snells law (actually the simplest expression of it). Where both these angles
are measured relative to an imaginary line which is normal to the boundary. Figure 3.4
shows the situation of the incidence of a p-wave to a planar interface separating medium1
and medium 2.

Figure 3.4. A plane p-wave impinging at the interface with 2v2 > 1v1.
The ray direction of the reflected P- and S-wave, the transmitted (refracted) P- and Swave are obeys the Snells law:
sin 1 sin 2
=
v1
v2

In the expression above the wave incidence and reflection/transmission are expressed by
the direction of rays. Only consider geometry, and kinetics not consider the causes of
the deformation or motion. This is the essence of the geometric wave theory. It is an
approximation of the physical wave theory. The premise of this approximation is that the
frequency of the waveforms is assumed to be infinitely high, or the wavelength is very,
very short compared with the features it studies. No diffraction phenomenon is
considered in the treatment here, only reflections and refractions.
3.5.2 the Reflection Coefficient and transmission coefficient

Reflection is often quantified in term of the reflection coefficient R. R is defined simply

as the ratio of the reflected and incident wave amplitudes.
R = Ar / Ai
Where Ai and Ar are the incident and reflected wave amplitudes respectively. The
value of the reflection coefficient relates to the magnitude of reflection from the interface
between two media with different physical properties.
The acoustic impedance Z of the two media involved dictates the magnitude of reflection
from a boundary. You will remember from our discussion of 'acoustic parameters' that
the acoustic impedance is simply the product of the density () and the sound speed (v) of
the media.

Z = v
In acoustics, the acoustic impedance Z is measured in Rayles (1 Rayle = 1 m/s.kg/m3 = 1
kg/m2/s); but it is not that popular in seismology.
The full expression for sound reflection coefficient versus the incident angle is:
R=

( Z 2 / Z1 ) 1 (n 1) tan 2 i
( Z 2 / Z1 ) + 1 (n 1) tan 2 i

where n = (v2/v1)2 and i is the angle of incidence of the wave ray.

Matlab Exercise:
Plot the Reflection coefficient against the incident angle for
a) air-water interface;
b) water-rock (v=3000 m/s) interface.
Notice that since energy is always conserved the remaining energy that is not absorbed
must be transmitted into the second medium whereby it will undergo refraction if the
velocities in the two layers differ. If absorption is negligible (a lossless medium) the total
energy of the reflected and the transmitted waves should be equal to the original energy
of the incident wave.
3.5.2 Normal incidence

If the waves are normally incident to the boundary the reflection equation can be
simplified to:
R=

Z 2 Z1
Z 2 + Z1

for i = 0

and the transmission coefficient is

T=

2 Z1Z 2
Z 2 + Z1

for i = 0

Thus, reflection is a simple function of the impedance of the two media. If the two media
have the same impedance there will be no reflection. Since the impedance is the product
of velocity and density it is possible for example to have two media with different
densities or sound speed but the same acoustic impedance.
In-class exercise: Reflection and transmission coefficient for power (energy in a unit
time) is the amplitude R and T squared. What do you expect for RR+TT=? Explain why
you get the result.

Reflection coefficients have values that range between -1 and +1. From this range we can
identify 4 different types of reflection:
1) z2 >> z1, R => 1 (Rigid boundary), i.e. most of the acoustic energy will be reflected
without a change in phase.
2) z2 << z1, R => -1 (Soft or pressure release boundary), i.e. most of the wave energy is
reflected with a 180 degree phase change.
3) z1 = z2, R = 0, (No Reflection)
4) Similar acoustic impedance, -1 << R << 1, some phase change.
Probably the most important thing to remember is that reflection will be strong anywhere
there are strong spatial gradients or contrast in acoustic impedance. Some typical
examples of impedance for different materials and their reflection coefficient in salt water
are given below:
Table 3.1 Acoustic impedance and reflection coefficient pf some materials
Material
Z (Rayles)
R over salt water
Air
41
-1
Fresh water
1,480,000
0.04
Salt water
1,540,000
0
Wet fish flesh
1,600,000
0.02
Wet fish bone
2,500,000
0.24
Rubber
1,810,000
0.08
Granite
16,000,000
0.82
Quartz
15,300,000
0.81
Clay
7,700,000
0.67
Sandstone
7,700,000
0.66
Concrete
8,000,000
0.68
Steel
47,000,000
0.94
Brass
40,000,000
0.92
Aluminum
17,000,000
0.83
In class exercise: Try and classify the above into rigid soft and weakly reflective
boundaries.
An examination of the figures above you should tell you why military submarines often
have rubber coatings in order to minimize reflection and avoid detection (compare the
reflection coefficients of steel and rubber).
Bearing in mind that fish flesh and bone have relatively low reflection coefficients why is
do you think that we are able to detect fish so effectively with fish finding echo sounders?
(Hint consider how fish control their buoyancy)

The fact that different materials have different acoustic impedance and reflection
coefficients allows us to acoustically distinguish between different targets. Side-scan
sonar for example uses this characteristic to distinguish between sand (predominantly
quartz), mud and rock. This is done by examining the difference in intensity of the
acoustic returns, often in conjunction with some sort of textural analysis.
Exercise
Compute the magnitude of the reflection and transmission coefficients at the boundary
between a fresh upper layer and a saline lower layer of water in a salt wedge estuary.
Assume that the angle of incidence of the acoustic ray is 5 degrees. The characteristics of
the fresh and saline water are as follows:
Fresh water: c=1426m/s, density = 1000kg/m3
Saline water: c=1519m/s, density = 1025kg/m