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y = f(x)
f: D R
f: D R
f: x y= f(x)
domain range
O
For each x in D there exists a single element y in
R such that f(x) = y. x is called the variable of f
and y = f(x) is called the image of x. The set of
images of all the elements of D is called the image set of f.
a
f(a) = b
b is the image of a
Consider the function f: A B, f(x) = x2. We can write this function in different ways:
f(x) = x2, y = x2 or f: x x2. All of these mean the same function. A is the domain and B is
the range of f.
Form
polynomial
f(x) = anxn+an1xn1+...+a0
function
n + {0}
Domain
Examples
f(x) = 2x+5
D( f ):
f(x) = 2x23x+1
D( f ):
As stated in the table, the domain of any polynomial function f is \. The range of the
polynomial function depends on the function itself. For example, let us draw the graph of the
function y = f(x) = xn and find its domain and range when n is odd or even.
y
when
n is
even
y = f(x) = x
when
n is
odd
O
f: + {0}
domain range
10
y = f(x) = xn
f:
domain range
Algebra 10
Type of function
Form
rational
function
f(x) =
Domain
g(x)
Examples
f(x) =
2x 3
x+1
f(x) =
x2 + 5
D( f ): {5, 2}
(x 5)(x + 2)
{x | h(x)=0}
h(x)
D( f ): {1}
The value of the denominator in a rational expression cannot be zero, so any numbers which
make the denominator zero must be excluded from the domain of a rational function.
1
As an example, let us look at the graph of the function y = x n = n .
x
y
y = f(x) =
when
n is
even
1
xn
when
n is
odd
x
f: {0} +
y = f(x) =
1
xn
x
f: {0} {0}
We can see that the domain of a rational function changes according to the function.
Type of function
Form
Domain
radical
function
f(x) = n g(x)
n is an odd integer
Example
f(x) = 3 x2 + 5x
D( f ):
y
y = f(x) = n x
O
f:
n is odd, n > 1
11
Type of function
Form
Domain
Examples
f(x) = n g(x)
f(x) =
n is an even {x | g(x) < 0}
f(x) =
integer
radical
function
x2 2
4
EXAMPLE
nx
y = f(x) =
f : [0, +) [0, +)
x
n is even
Domain
Range
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1
[0, +)
f(x) = x2 2x 3
f(x) = x3 x2 + x + 1
f(x) =
1
x+1
f(x) =
x3 1
x 5x + 6
2
f(x) = 1 x2
12
The following table shows some more examples of the domain and range of different
functions. Write the missing values in the table.
Function
Solution
x 3x + 2 D( f ): (1, 2)
D( f ): (2, 2)
(, 0) (0, +)
{2, 3}
[0, 1]
EXAMPLE
Solution
x + 5x + 6
3
+
Note
If a function f is a sum or difference of different functions then the domain of f is the
intersection of the domains of each function.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the image set of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 3x + 6, x [0, +)
b. f(x) = x2 2x + 8, x [1, 2]
c. f(x) = x2 4x 5, x [1, 1]
We can find each range by drawing the graph of the function over the given interval.
a. As we can see in the graph, f(x) is an
increasing function. The solid line shows the
graph on the interval x [0, +). On this
interval the minimum value of f is f(0) = 6,
and the maximum value goes to infinity.
y
y = f(x) = 3x + 6
6
Functions
min value
13
y = x2 2x + 8
11
max value
8
7
min value
1 O
1 2 3 4
14
2 1 O
min value
On this interval,
min f(x) = f(3) = 3 and
max f(x) = f(1) = 1.
y = x2 4x 5
max value
x [0, 3].
1 2
8
9
y
max value
1
3
O
1
2
3
min value
y = 2x x2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
y
9
x2 + 4x +5 9
x2 + 4x +5 3
g(x) 0
1 O
y = g(x) = x2 + 4x + 5
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
2
Find the domain of f ( x) = 3 12 x .
and
3 12 x2 0
9 12 x2
x2 3 0.
Functions
15
23
+
12 x2
23
x2 3
23
23
Check Yourself 1
1. Find the domain of each function.
a. f ( x) =
x
x +2
b. f ( x) = 3 2 x +1+ x2 1
c. f ( x) = 2 x 4 x +1
x 1
d. f ( x) = 2 x 1 3x +1
2. Find the image of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x [1, 5)
b. f(x) = x2 4x 5, x [1, 3)
c. f ( x) = x2 + 2, x ( 2, 7]
3. Find the range of each function for its largest domain.
2
a. f ( x) = x +7 x 12
Answers
1. a. \
b. \ (1, 1)
2. a. [3, 11)
3. a. [0,
16
b. [9, 8]
c. \ (1, 1]
7
d. [ , )
4
f. (2, 3]
1
]
2
Algebra 10
B. COMPOSITE FUNCTION
composite function
Definition
A function that is formed by the composition of two or more elementary functions is called a
composite function.
x
f(x)
g( f(x))
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
b. g(f(x)).
c. f(h(g(x))).
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
Check Yourself 2
Write each function as a composite function.
3
7 x +5
2x 1
1. f ( x) =
2. f ( x) = sin 2
x +1
7
Functions
17
C. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION
Recall the definition of inverse function: if the function f: D R is both a one-to-one function
and an onto function then the function f 1: R D is called the inverse of f.
f(x) = y f 1(y) = x
A function f: A B is a
one-to-one function if
for each x1 x2 in A,
f(x1) f(x2).
y
y = f(x) = 2x 1
y=x
y = f 1(x) =
Write y = f(x): y = 2x 1.
A function f: A B is an
onto function if for any
y B there exists an x A
such that f(x) = y.
Express x in terms of y: x =
y +1
= f 1( y).
2
1
x+1
2
x
Recall that the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse are symmetric
with respect to the line y = x.
Form
linear function
f(x) = ax + b
rational function
f (x) =
ax + b
cx + d
Inverse
1
f (x) =
xb
a
f 1(x) =
dx + b
cx a
f: ,
f(x) =
f: ,
f(x) = 2 3x
Inverse
2x + 1
x1
f 1: , f 1(x) =
2x 1
3
1
1
f : , f (x) =
x + 2
3
x+1
x2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
12
Solution
=
=
=
=
y
y = f(x) = x2 4x + 4
y
y
y
y + 2 = f 1(y).
So the inverse is
13
Solution
The function f: \ \, f(x) = x3 3x2 + 4x 1 is given. Find the real number a which
satisfies the equation f(a) = f 1(a).
To solve the problem we have to find the
intersection of the graphs of f and f 1. However,
we know that the graph of a function and the
graph of its inverse are symmetric with respect
to the line y = x. In other words, the intersection
of the two graphs will be on this line. At the
intersection point, therefore, y = f(x) = x, and
so f(a) = a = f 1(a), as shown at the right.
If f(a) = a then a3 3a2 + 4a 1
a3 3a2 + 3a 1
(a 1)3
a
=
=
=
=
y
y = f(x) y = x
a
y = f (x)
O
a
0
0
1.
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the inverse of each function.
x
a. f : \ \, f ( x) = 3
2
5x 2
5
b. f : \ {1} \ , f ( x) =
2x 2
2
c. f : \ \, f(x) = x3 3x2 + 3x
2. For each function, find the real number a which satisfies the equation f(a) = f 1(a).
b. (x) = 8x3 12x2 + 7x 1
a. f(x) = 3x + 1
Answers
1. a. 6 2x
Functions
b.
2x 2
2x 5
c.
x 1 +1
2. a.
1
2
b.
1
2
19
y
c
x1
y=c
x2
If f is an increasing function,
f(x2)
f(x1)
O
y = f(x)
x1
x2 B
Note
The increasing function f: \ \, f(x) = x is called the identity function.
y= f(x) y
If f is a decreasing function,
x1 < x2 f(x1) > f(x2).
If x1 < x2 and
f(x1) f(x2) then f is
called a non-iincreasing
function.
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
f(x1)
f(x2)
A
x1
x2 B
20
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
Show that
a. f: [0, ) \, f(x) = x + x3 is an increasing function.
1
b. f: \ {0} \, f ( x) = is a decreasing function.
x
a. Let x1, x2 [0, ) such that x1 < x2.
For all x1 < x2, x1 < x2 and x13 < x23. So x1 + x13 < x2 + x2 3 and f(x1) < f(x2).
So f is an increasing function on [0, ).
b. First let x1, x2 (0, ) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 ,
Now let x1, x2 (, 0) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 ,
1
1
>
and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
1
1
>
and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
16
Solution
y
y = f(x) = 1 2x
1
2
3
].
2
y = f(x) = x2 3x
3
f increases on the interval [ ,+).
2
3
2
O
9
4
Functions
21
y
y = f(x) =
EXAMPLE
17
Solution
1
x2
( a 2)x2 + bx + 4
is a constant function.
3x + 2
( a 2)x2 + bx + 4
= k ( k \).
3x + 2
This gives (a 2)x2 + bx + 4 = 3kx + 2k.
EXAMPLE
18
The function f ( x) =
( a 1)x2 +( b +5)x
is an identity function. Find a and b.
2 x +1
Check Yourself 4
1. f ( x) =
3mx +1
is a constant function. Find m.
6 x +5
Algebra 10
2. 2
y
y = f(x) = cos x
2p
3p
2
p
p
p O
p
2
2p
3p
2
1
f(x) = f(x)
cos (x) = cos (x)
Functions
y = f(x) = x2
f(x) = f(x)
Even functions
(x)2 = (x)2
23
y
The following rules help
us to calculate the parity
(even or odd) of the sum
and product of even
functions (E) and odd
functions (O):
EE=E
OO=O
E O = neither E nor O
EE=E
EO=O
O O = E.
EXAMPLE
19
1
2p
y = f(x) = sin x
2p
3p
2
p
2
p
2
3p
2
f(x) = f(x)
f(x) = f(x)
y
y = f(x) = x3
f(x) = f(x)
(x)3 = x3
Odd functions
Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2
b. f(x) = 7 tanx + x3
e. f ( x) = x2 6 x +9 + x2 +6 x +9
Solution
y = f(x) = tan x
2
c. f ( x) = x6 28
x +x
d. f(x) = 3x + 3x
EXAMPLE
20
k + 5 = (2k + 3)
k + 5 = 2k 3
3k = 8
8
k= .
3
24
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
21
b. odd.
x
Solution
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
f(x) is an even function
Check Yourself 5
1. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = |x| + cos x
b. f(x) = x3 + sin x
e. f ( x) =
x
cos( x3 )
c. f(x) = x4 + x2 + 1
sin x + tan x
f. f ( x) = 2
x3
2. f is an odd function and g is an even function. f(2) + g(1) = 8 and g(1) + f(2) = 6 are given.
Find f(2) and g(1).
Answers
1. a. even b. odd c. even d. even e. odd f. even
Functions
2. f(2) = 1, g(1) = 7
25
EXERCISES
1 .1
a.
y = f(x)
b.
y = g(x)
a. f ( x) = x2 + 4
b. f ( x) = x2 10 x 9
B. Composite Function
y
c.
domain.
d.
3
2
y = h(x)
4 3
2 1
11
O
1
2
a. g(h(f(x)))
b. f(h(g(x)))
1
x +1
C. Inverse of a Function
x 3x 4
x2 1
2x
c. f ( x) = 3x +1+
x5
2
a. f: \ \, f ( x) =
2x
5
2 x 3
x+ 3
c. f: [1, +) [1, +), f(x) = 4x2 8x + 5
b. f: \ {3} \ {2}, f ( x) =
a. f(x) = 1 3x,
x [2, 4)
b. f(x) = x2 2x 3,
x (2, 4]
a. f(x) = 5x 2
c. f(x) = x + 4x + 5, x [0, 1)
26
ax2 + 2 x + b
is a constant function. Find
3x2 + bx + 2b
a and b.
x (3, )
b. f(x) = x2 + 4x 3,
x (, 2)
c. f(x) = x3 + 3,
x\
cos x + x2
3+ x4
c. f ( x) = (
x tan x 5
)
x3 + sin x
27
A. PIECEWISE FUNCTION
piecewise function
A function that is defined by different formulas on different intervals of its domain is called a
piecewise function.
Definition
EXAMPLE
22
2 x + 1 if x > 2
, f ( x) = x2
if 0 x 2 is given.
x2 1 if x < 0
y = f(x)
4
3
2
1
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
y = x2
y = 2x + 1
y
y = f(x)
2
1
0.5
O
f ( x) =
1 if 1 x 2
2 if 2 < x 3.
28
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 6
1. The piecewise function f :
Calculate f(f(f(1))).
x2 if x > 3
, f ( x) = 3 x + 4 if 0 x 3 is given.
x3 + 2 if x < 0
x if x 1
, f ( x) =
x if x < 1
b. f :
x2 if x > 1
, f ( x) =
2
x if x 1
c. f :
2 x 1 if x < 0
, f ( x) = 1
if 0 x < 1
1 x if x 1
Answers
1. 49
x if x 0
|x| =
x if x < 0
y = |x|
Definition
24
Solution
Functions
3
O
3
O
y=x3
y = |x 3|
29
Note
When solving absolute value equations or inequalities or when drawing the graph
of an absolute value function, begin by finding the intervals in which the value of
the function is negative, positive or zero.
EXAMPLE
25
Solution 1
Solution
y = x2 1
y = x2 + 1
y
y = x2 1
y = |x2 1|
26
x2 1 if x 1 or x 1
So|x 1| = 2
x +1 if 1 < x < 1.
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.
EXAMPLE
y = x2 1
x2 1
Solution 2
+
+
f ( x) = 3
if 2 x < 1
2 x +1 if
x 1.
y = f(x)
y = 2x 1
O 1
y=3
y = 2x + 1
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 7
Draw the graphs.
1. y = |2x 3|
2. y = |x3|
3. y = |x2 + 2x 3 |
4. y = |x 5| + |x + 3|
5. y = |x 5| x + 2x 1
6. y = |2x + 1| + x 3
C. SIGN FUNCTION
sign function
Definition
Let f:
be a function.
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
28
Solution
3x
sgn(3 x)
1 if x < 3
Hence, sgn(3 x) = 0 if x= 3
1 if x > 3.
c. sgn(
2x
) =1
x +1
1
.
2
b. If sgn (x2 + 5x) = 0 then x2 + 5x = 0, so x = 5 or x = 0.
c. If sgn(
Functions
EXAMPLE
y = sgn x
1 if f ( x) > 0
sgn f ( x) = 0 if f ( x) = 0
1 if f ( x) < 0.
2x
2x
) =1 then
> 0, so x
x +1
x +1
[ 1, 0].
31
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
f:
x2 x 6
sgn(x2 x 6)
y = sgn f(x)
1 if x < 2 or x > 3
So sgn f ( x) = 0 if x = 2 or x= 3
1 if 2 < x < 3.
O
1
Check Yourself 8
1. Solve the equations.
a. sgn (x2 1) = 0
b. sgn (2 x) = 1
d. sgn(
a. f(x) = sgn (2 x)
x
) =1
x 1
Answers
1. a. {1, 1}
b. x < 2
c.
[0, 1]
D. FLOOR FUNCTION
For any real number x, the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x is called the floor of
x, denoted by x .
Definition
floor function
Let f:
f ( x) =
the greatest integer which is less than f ( x) if
32
f ( x)
f ( x) .
Algebra 10
2.5
2.5 = 2
5.75 6
5.75 = 5
0 0.123
0.123 = 0
4 3.7
3.7 = 4
0.4 = 1
0.4
Similarly, 6 = 6, 5 = 5, 0.85 = 0,
2.5 = 3, = 3, e = 2, 0.6 = 1 and
5.003 = 6.
3 x < 2,
2 x < 1,
1 x < 0,
0 x < 1,
1 x < 2,
2 x < 3,
x = 3,
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
3;
2;
1;
0;
1;
2;
3.
3
2
1
3
1
O
1
2
3
y = x
Remark
and x
For example, if
if
if
if
Functions
x
x
x
x
, x + a = x + a.
= 3 then 3 x < 4;
= 2 then 2 x < 1;
= a then a x < a + 1;
+ 5 = 4 then x + 5 = 4, x = 1 and so 1 x < 0.
33
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
, f ( x) = x
x
.
2
x
takes an integer value.
2
x
x
= t then we can write t < t +1, i.e. 2t x < 2t + 2.
For any real number x, if
2
2
So the points 2t (t ) are the crucial points and we need to evaluate the function on the
corresponding intervals:
x
if 4 x < 2 then 2 < 1
2
x
if 2 x < 0 then 1 < 0
2
x
if 0 x < 2
then 0 <1
2
x
if 2 x < 4
then 1 < 2
2
x
then
=2
if x = 4
2
We can now draw the graph on
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
and so f( x)= x
x
2
x
2
x
2
x
2
x
2
= x (2)= 2 x;
= x (1)= x;
= x 0= 0;
= x 1= x;
= 4 2 = 8 .
each interval.
y
y = f(x)
8
6
4
2
Check Yourself 9
1. Find each value.
a. 2.1
b. e
c. 0.9
d. 2
b.
c.
2x + 1 = 5
34
b. x [2,
5
)
2
e.
3x 1
4
f.
= 1
b. f(x) = x for 2 x 2
c. x [1,
1
)
3
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
2 .1
A. Piecewise Function
1. Given
x 1 if
f ( x) = x
if
4x if
x> 2
f (0)+ f (2)
0 < x 2, find
.
f (3) f (1)
x0
a. f ( x) =
C. Sign Function
if x >1
2 if x 1
2 x + 4 if
b. f ( x) =
if
x
x >1
x 1
a. sgn x = 1
b. sgn (x 1) = 1
c. sgn (x2 1) = 1
d. sgn (x3 x) = 0
x2 +1 if x > 0
c. f ( x) =
2
x 1 if x 0
D. Floor Function
B. Absolute Value Function
3. Write each absolute value function as a piecewise
function.
a. f(x) = |x + 3|
b. f(x) = |x| + x
x = 2
b.
x+1 =3
c.
x 1 = 4
d.
2 x +1
=1
3
e.
1 3x
=1
4
c. f(x) = |x2 x 2|
d. f(x) = |x 2| + |x 3|
e. f(x) = |x + 1| + |x 1|
f. f(x) = |x + 4| x + x2 2x
b. y = |2 4x|
c. f(x) = 2x 1 , x [1, 1]
c. y = |x2 1|
d. y = |x2 4x 5|
d. f(x) = x x , x [2, 2]
e. y = x|x + 1| + 3 f. y = |5x + 4| + 2x 1
Functions
e. f(x) = x + x , x [2, 2]
35
x2
f ( x) =
x2
1
16
if x > 0
1
if x 0
x2
x>2
x2
and
if x > 0
if x 0.
4 x 1 if x >1
, f (x) =
2 x +1 if x 1.
Algebra 10
B) (2, 0)
C) [0, )
D) (, 2]
B)
E)
2
2
A) [4, 2)
D) (2, 2]
C) (2, 2)
C)
D)
2
D) [5, 10]
E) (2, 0]
B) [0, 5]
2
2
A) [5, 5]
2x
?
x+ 2
B) [0, 2] {1}
E)
C) [5, 10]
y
2
E) [0, 10]
2
O
x4
D)
B)
C)
x 4 +1
x 2 +1
E)
x2 2 +1
x 4 1
7. Given that f ( x) =
find a.
A) 2
B) 3
2 x + 1
is a constant function,
ax + 3
C) 4
D) 6
E) 10
x2
| x|
C) f ( x) =
x5
x x
3
B) f ( x) = 5 x + 5+ x
to f ( x) = x
D) f(x) = x3 + x
E) f ( x) =
Chapter Review Test 1
x2
x 1
x 1
for x < 1?
| x 1|
A) g(x) = x + 1
B) g(x) = x 1
C) g(x) = 2x + 1
D) g(x) = x 2
E) g(x) = x + 2
37
C) g(x) = |x 5|
x 1
B)
x +1
D)
E)
C)
x +1 1
x 1+1
D) g(x) = |x + 5|
E) g(x) = |2x 5|
B) (2, 6)
D)
C)
A) f(x) = x7 x3
B) f(x) = 2x
C) f(x) = xsin x
D) f(x) = xcos x
E) f(x) =
(2, 6)
cos x
x3
E)
2 x +1
4 x2
B) [0, 2]
(2, 2)
3x2 ( a 2)x + 3
1 x2
is an even function, find the value of a2 f(a).
f:
C) (2, 2)
A) 5
{1, 1} , f ( x) =
B) 10
C) 15
D) 20
E) 25
E)
9
]
2
D) (0,
38
B) [0,
15
)
2
11
]
2
C) [0,
E) [0,
17
)
2
13
]
2
be an odd function?
A) f(x) f(x)
C)
f ( x)+ f ( x)
2
1
D) f ( x)+ f ( )
x
B)
f ( x) f ( x )
2
1
E) f ( x) f ( )
x
Algebra 10
1.5
1.75
1.8
1.9
1.95
2x
3.5
3.6
3.8
3.9
2.05
2.1
2.2
2.25
2.5
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
Using this table, we can guess that as x gets closer to (i.e. approaches) 2, the
value of f(x) approaches 4. We say that 4 is the limit of f(x) = 2x as x
approaches 2, and write lim( 2 x) = 4. In this notation, the arrow symbol ()
x2
x 2
calculate lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 6 = f (3) and lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 24 = f (12), etc. In other
x 3
x 3
x 12
x 12
words, in each case lim f ( x) = f ( c). In fact, this result is true for any polynomial function.
x c
Definition
The limit of a polynomial function f(x) as x approaches a point c is f(c): lim f ( x) = f ( c).
x c
In other words, for f(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + ... + a0, lim f ( x) = f(c) = ancn + an1cn1 + ... + a0.
x c
EXAMPLE
x5
Solution
b. lim( x2 + 3x + 2)
x 1
c. lim(3t t2 )
t 4
a. lim(4 x 1) = 4 2 1= 7
x 2
c. lim(3t t 2 ) = 3 4 4 2 =12 16 = 4.
t 4
40
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 1
1. Given f(x) = 4x 1, complete the table to find the limit of f(x) as x approaches 3.
x
f(x)
2.5
9
2.75
2.8
2.9
2.95
3.05
x 3
d. lim 2 x( x +1)
e.
x a
t 3
3.1
3.2
3.25
12
c.
lim( x2 3x 15)
f.
lim7
3.5
x6
x 3
Answers
2. a. 0
b. 3
c. 3
d. 2a2 + 2a
e. 189
f. 7
B. LIMITS ON A GRAPH
We can also use the graph of a function to study its limit as x approaches a certain point. For
example, let us draw the graph of the function f: , f(x) = x + 1 and use it to find lim f ( x).
x 3
The notation f:
4.1
y = f(x) = x + 1
4.05
4.03
5
4.01
4
3.99
3.97
3.95
3.9
2.9
2.95
2.97
2.99
3.01
3.03
3.05
3.1
We can approach the point x = 3 from two directions: the right (as the values of x get
gradually smaller) and the left (as the values of x get gradually bigger).
In both cases, the limit of f(x) = x + 1 as x approaches 3 is 4: lim( x + 1) = 3+1= 4.
x 3
Limit of a Function
41
EXAMPLE
Solution
4
if
2 x 1 if
5
2
5
2
5
x = , find lim f ( x).
5
2
x
2
5
x>
2
x<
y = f(x)
6
5
4
2
1
O
2 5 3
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
x 1 if x 2
, find lim f ( x).
, f ( x) =
x 2
if x = 2
3
42
2
1
1
1
O
1
2
3
Algebra 10
Note
If we get different results for a limit when we approach it from the right and from the left, we
say that the limit does not exist at this point.
Check Yourself 2
Graph each function and evaluate the given limit.
1. f:
, f(x) = 3,lim f ( x)
x 2
2. f:
, f(x) = x 2, lim f ( x)
x 1 if x >1
, f ( x) = 1 if x =1, lim f ( x)
x 1
x2 +1 if x < 1
x 3
3. f:
x2 if x 2
, f ( x)=
, lim f ( x)
x 2
1if x = 2
4. f:
Answers
1. 3
2. 5
3. 4
C. DEFINITION OF LIMIT
We have seen how to calculate the limit of a polynomial function, and we have used graphs
to calculate the limits of some other functions. However, we still do not have a general
formula for the limit of a function.
For example, consider the limit of the function f:
{2}
, f ( x) =
x2 4
when x
x2
x2 4
. f(x) is not a polynomial function and the graph of f(x) will be
x 2 x 2
x2 4
difficult to draw. Also, f ( x) =
is undefined at x = 2.
x2
However, remember that when we calculate a limit we are examining the value of a function
as it approaches a point, not the value at the point itself. So by applying simple factorization
methods we can get
lim
x 2
x2 4
( x 2)( x + 2)
= lim
x
2
x2
( x 2)
= lim( x + 2) = 2+ 2 = 4.
2
f(x) = x 4
x2
x 2
x2
=1 because x is very close
x2
x2
to 2 but not equal to 2, so
is not zero
x2
divided by zero and so it can be simplified. As we
{2} , f ( x) =
x2 4
, the limit of f(x) as
x2
3
2
1
O
x approaches 2 is 4.
Limit of a Function
43
1. Neighborhood of a Number
Let x0 be a real number and let a be a positive real number less than 1. Now consider the
real number x between x0 a and x0 + a such that x0 a < x < x0 + a.
In other words x is an element of the interval (x0 a, x0 + a). This interval is called the
a-n
neighborhood of x0.
x0 a
x0
x0 + a
a-neighborhood of x0
x is a real number between x0 a and x0 + a
For example, let us take x0= 5 and a = 0.1. The 0.1-neighborhood of 5 is the interval
(5 0.1, 5 + 0.1) = (4.9, 5.1).
4
4.9
5.1
0.1-neighborhood of 5
Check Yourself 3
1. Write the 0.01-neighborhood of 7 as an interval and show it on a number line.
2. Write the 0.2-neighborhood of
5
as an interval and show it on a number line.
2
2. -neighborhood of a Number
Now let x be an element of the -neighborhood of x0:
is a Greek letter,
pronounced epsilon.
-neighborhood is read
as epsilon-neighborhood.
x (x0 , x0 + ).
x0 e
x0
x0 + e
e-neighborhood of x0
Algebra 10
x (3.8, 4.2)
x (4 0.2, 4 + 0.2)
(4 0.2) < x < (4 + 0.2)
0.2 < x 4 < 0.2
|x 4| < 0.2.
This means that x is a real number in the 0.2-neighborhood of 4.
3.8
4.2
x is here
3. Limit of a Function
Definition
limit of a function
Let f: be a function and let x0 and L be real numbers.
Given any about L if there exists a about x0 such that for all x,
|x x0| < |f(x) L| <
then the limit of f as x approaches the point x0 is L, i.e. lim f ( x) = L.
x x0
< x x0 <
x0 < x< x0 +
x (x0 , x0 + ), i.e. x is in the -neighborhood of x0.
x0 d
x0
x0 + d
L+e
L
Le
45
In other words, lim f ( x) = L means that for any small number there is another small
x x0
number such that any point in the -neighborhood of x corresponds to a point in the
-neighborhood of L.
y
y = f(x)
L+e
Any point in
this neighborhood...
L
Le
... maps to a point
in this neighborhood.
EXAMPLE
Solution
x0 d
x0 x0 + d
.
3
All these inequalities are equivalent. Now we
|(3x 5)
|3x
3 |x
|x
4|
9|
3|
3|
<
<
<
<
4+e
4
4e
3
2
1
O
2
3
4
3 e 3+e
3
3
. Of course = is
3
3
not the only value of that will satisfy the
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
2 x 1 if x 2
, f ( x) =
is given. Show that lim f ( x) = 3 by using the definition of
x 2
1 if x = 2
f:
limit.
Solution
To prove that lim f ( x) = 3 we need to show that for all > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
x 2
which is similar to
2
the first part of the expression (|x 2| < ).
Indeed, since
is a real number we can
2
choose =
and so |x 2| < .
2
2
Now we have found that there is a real number
y = f(x)
4
3+e
3
3e
2
1
1
2
3
2 e 2+e
2
2
For x (2 , 2 + ) = (2 , 2 + ), f(x) (3 , 3 + ).
2
2
So as approaches zero, the point x approaches 2 and the value of f(x) approaches 3.
Thus, lim f ( x) = lim(2 x 1) = 3.
x 2
x 2
Check Yourself 4
Use the definition of limit to prove each
statement and find the value of .
1. lim(7 x 2) = 5
x 1
2. lim(4 x + 3) = 5
x 2
Answers
1.
2.
7
4
Limit of a Function
47
D. ONE-SIDED LIMITS
Notice that in limit notation,
x x0 and x x0+ mean
different things. x x0
and x x0 also have
different meanings.
As we have already seen, sometimes the limit of a function can have two different values: one
value when x approaches x0 from the right, and another when x approaches x0 from the left.
hand
When this happens, we call the limit of f as x approaches x0 from the right the right-h
limit of f at x0 and write it as lim+ f ( x) .
x x 0
5
4
x2
x2
x5
x5
x6
x6
y = f(x)
one-ssided limits
1. The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches
x0 from the right equals L if for any > 0
there exists a > 0 such that for all x,
y
L+e
Le
f(x) (L , L + ).
O
48
x0 x0 + d
y
L+e
L
Le
O
x0 d
x0
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
5 5
Find the one-sided limits at all the integer values of the graph of f : [ , ]
2 2
the figure.
shown in
lim f ( x) = 0
x 2
x2
b. lim+ f ( x) =1,
x1
c. lim+ f ( x) = 1,
x0
e.
lim+ f ( x) = 0,
lim f ( x) = 1
x0
lim f ( x) =1
x 1
x 1
lim+ f ( x) = 0,
x 2
lim f ( x) = 0
x1
d.
y = f(x)
lim f ( x) = 0.
x 2
existence of a limit
The limit of a function f(x) at a point x0 exists if and only if the right-hand and left-hand
y
limits at x0 exist and are equal.
Definition
In other words,
a
b
x x0
x x0
y = f(x)
lim f ( x) = L.
x2
x x0
EXAMPLE
Solution
{2}
x1
if x > 2
x 1
is given. Find lim f ( x).
, f ( x) =
x 2
x + 3 if x < 2
y
x2
y = f(x)
3
2
lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 3) = 2+ 3 =1
x2
x2
x 2
x2
Limit of a Function
49
Check Yourself 5
1. The graph of f: [1, 7] , f(x) is shown in the figure.
Find the one-sided limits at all integer values of the domain and find
at which point f has a limit.
x2 +1 if x >1
2. Given the function f: {1} , f ( x) =
, find
x
1
if
x
<
1
y
y = f(x)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x if 1 x < 0 or 0 < x 1
3. The function f: , f ( x) = 1 if x = 0
is given.
0 if x < 1 or x > 1
a. Find the one-sided limits at the points 1, 0, and 1.
Solution
f:
{2}
, f ( x) =
| x 2|
+ x + 3 is given. Find lim+ f ( x) and lim f ( x).
x2
x 2
x2
Since the function f involves the absolute value expression |x 2|, x0 = 2 is a crucial point
for f.
Let us begin by writing the function as a piecewise function.
If x > 2, x 2 > 0 and so |x 2| = x 2. Therefore
f ( x) =
50
| x 2|
x 2
+ x+ 3 =
+ x + 3 =1+ x + 3 = x + 4.
x2
x2
Algebra 10
Similarly, if x < 2,
x 2 < 0 and |x 2| = (x 2) and so
f ( x) =
| x 2|
( x 2)
+ x+ 3 =
+ x+ 3
x2
x2
y=x+4
6
5
4
3
2
1
= 1+ x + 3 = x + 2.
x + 4 if x > 2
In conclusion, f( x) =
x + 2 if x < 2.
3 2 1 O
1 2 3
y=x+2
x2+
x2
lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 2) = 2+ 2 = 4.
x2
x2
Remark
When we evaluate the right-hand and left-hand limits of special functions it is sometimes
useful to define a positive real number h and look at what happens as h approaches zero.
For h
x a+
h0
x a
h0
EXAMPLE
Solution 1
(x 3 )
(h 0)
3h
h0
x3
(x 3+)
3 + h (h 0)
and h 0,
x3
h0
Given f(x) = sgn(4 x), find lim+ f ( x) and lim f ( x) and decide whether lim f ( x) exists or
x 4
x4
x 4
not.
x0 = 4 is a crucial point.
x4
O
1
x4
y = sgn(4 x)
1 2 3 4
x4
x4
Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 4
Limit of a Function
51
Solution 2
Let h > 0 be a very small real number. Instead of writing x 4+, we can write x = 4 + h
and consider h 0:
lim sgn(4 x) = lim sgn(4 (4+ h)) = lim sgn( h).
x4+
h0
h0
x4
h0
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
The function f:
x4
x4
To find the limit as x approaches 2, we have to check the right-hand and left-hand limits:
lim f ( x) = lim+ 5 x + 4 = lim 5(2+ h)+ 4 = lim 14+5 h =14
x2+
h0
x2
h0
x2
h0
x2
h0
Notice that since h is a very small positive number, 14 5h<14 and so 14 5h = 13.
We can see that lim+ f ( x) lim f ( x).
x2
x2
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
Find lim
x1
| x 1|
.
|1 x|
52
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
12
Solution
x2 1
).
x+ 2
x2 1
.
x+ 2
x2 1
x+ 2
1
+
x2 1
is
x+ 2
negative.
2
So lim sgn( x 1) = 1.
x1
x+ 2
EXAMPLE
13
Solution
x2
h 0
Check Yourself 6
Evaluate the limits.
1. lim( x2 | x +1|)
2.
x 3
lim
x +| x |
x
2
3. lim | x 4|
x2
x2
lim
|2 x|
sgn( x 2)
6. lim+ sgn(3 x) x
lim+
1 x
sgn( x2 1)
9. lim+ 2 x +1
x 1
| x2 3x + 2|
x 1
5.
7. lim+
| x |+2
sgn( x2 2)
8.
10. lim
5x +1
16
11. lim( x + x + 2)
12. lim 8 x +1
x4+
3
14. lim 2 x
15. lim
x 4
4. lim
x1
x0
x3
x2+
x1
x3
x2
x 2
2007 x 1)
13. lim(
x0
x3
3x + 4 x
Answers
1. 18
12. 11
Limit of a Function
2. 0
3. 4
13. 2
4. 1
14. 4
5. 0
6. 4
7. 2
8. 0
9. 5
10. 0
f(x) tends to
positive infinity
x0
c
x 0
x 0+
y = f(x)
x
f(x) tends to
negative infinity
lim f ( x) =+.
x0
Similarly, when we approach zero from the right-hand side the value of f(x) gets smaller and
smaller. In other words, for any chosen number M, we can always find an x closer to zero
on the right such that f(x) < M. We say that f(x) tends to negative infinity:
lim f ( x) = .
x0+
x +
f(x) tends to c
c
x
x +
x
O
y = f(x)
lim f ( x) = c.
x+
Similarly, as x gets smaller and smaller, the value of f(x) also approaches the number c as
shown in the figure. For chosen any > 0, we can find a number N such that for all x < N,
the value of f(x) will be in the -neighborhood of c, i.e. f(x) approaches the number c while
x approaches negative infinity. So we can write
lim f ( x) = c.
In both cases, as x approaches negative or positive infinity, f(x) approaches a real number.
54
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
14
f:
{0}
a. lim+ f ( x)
x0
Solution
1
is given. Find the limits.
x
b. lim f ( x)
c. lim f ( x)
, f ( x) =
x +
x0
d. lim f ( x)
x
1
First, let us graph f ( x) = to study the limits of the
x
function.
y
y = f(x) = 1
x
x0+
1
=+.
x
x 0 x 0+
x
1
= 100000.
x
x+
1
= 0.
x
Limit of a Function
y
y = f(x) = 1
x
x
O
x
x +
55
For example, when we choose a large negative value of x such as x = 10000000, we get a
small negative number close to zero:
1
= 0.0000001.
x
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
{0}
1
does not exist.
x
, f ( x) =
2 x2 x
as x approaches +.
x2 + 4
1
1
x2 (2 )
(2 )
2 x2 x
x
x
= lim
lim f ( x) = lim 2
= lim
x+
x+ x + 4
x+ 2
x+
4
4
x (1+ 2 )
(1+ 2 )
x
x
1
(2 )
1
4
x = 2.
0 and 2 0, so lim
As x + we have
x+
4
x
x
(1+ 2 )
x
0
EXAMPLE
16
Solution
1
as x 1.
x 1
y
x1+
x1
y= 1
x1
1
1
1
= lim
= lim =+ ,
x 1 h0 (1+ h) 1 h0 h
1
O
lim f ( x) = lim
x1
x1
1
1
1
= lim
= lim
= .
h
0
h
0
x1
(1 h) 1
h
x1
x 1+
56
Algebra 10
Remark
a. lim f ( x) =+
b. lim f ( x) =
c. lim f ( x) =+
d. lim f ( x) = .
x +
x +
y = x2
x
O
x +
x +
y = x3
x +
x
y = x2
Check Yourself 7
lim f ( x)
x +
c. lim f ( x)
x 1
x2 2 x + 3
x + 2 x2 + 3x 1
lim
b. lim f ( x)
d. lim f ( x)
x 3
b.
Limit of a Function
lim( x5 + x4 + x3 )
x3 +1
x +
x4
| x|
x | x |+1
c. lim+
x 2
1
x 4
2
e.
d. lim
x e
lim
d. lim
y = f(x)
b. lim(1 x x2 )
x
c.
1 x2
x 1+ 3x2
f.
lim
1
1 ln x
e. lim
x 2
lim
x2 2
4x 2
5x 1
2x
3
lim(2 x )
x
57
Answers
1
2
1
b. 0 c.
d. 1 e. 1 f.
3. a. + b.
4
5
2
3
c. + d. does not exist e. + 4. a. b. c.
Theorem
x x0
b. lim[ f ( x) g( x)]= a b
x x0
c. lim[ f ( x) g( x)]= a b
x x0
d. lim[
x x0
f ( x)
a
]= ( b 0)
g( x)
b
e. lim k f ( x) = k a (k ).
x x0
EXAMPLE
17
1
(x 0), evaluate the limits.
x
a. lim[ f ( x) + g( x)]
b. lim[ f ( x) g( x)]
x 2
Solution
x 2
x +
x 2
x 2
{0}
x0
x+
x+
x+
f ( x)
]
g( x)
1
1
9
= 5+( ) =
x
2
2
1
=5 0=0
x
f ( x)
5
]= lim = lim 5 x = 5 lim x = 5(3) = 15
x
3
x3
1 x3
g( x)
x
a. lim+ f ( x)
58
x 2
x 3
f:
x 2
x +
c. lim[
18
x 3
EXAMPLE
c. lim[
x+
, f ( x) =
1
is given. Calculate the limits.
1+ 22 / x
b. lim f ( x)
x0
c. lim f ( x)
x0
Algebra 10
Solution
a. lim+ f ( x) = lim+
x0
x0
lim 1
1
x0+
=
2/ x
1+ 2
lim+ 1 + lim+ 2 2 / x
x0
+
As x 0 ,
x0
lim 1
2
1
x0+
=
= 0.
+ and so 2 2 / x + . So
lim+ 1 + lim+ 2 2 / x 1 +
x
x0
f ( x) = lim
b. xlim
0
x0
lim 1
1
x0
=
2/ x
1+ 2
lim 1+ lim 2 2 / x
x0
As x 0 ,
x0
x0
lim 1
2
1
1
1
x0
and so
=
=
=
=1.
x
lim 1+ lim 2 2 / x 1+ 2 1+ 1 1+0
x0
x0
2
x0
x0
Check Yourself 8
1. Given lim f ( x) = 2, find lim
x a
x a
f 2 ( x) f ( x)
.
f ( x)+ 3
f ( x) g( x)+ f ( x)
.
g
( x)
f
d. lim(6 x3 + 4 x2 3)
x 1
Answers
1.
Limit of a Function
2
5
2. 0
3. a.
1
5
b.
1
5
c. 16
d. 5
59
EXERCISES
2 .1
1. lim(3 x + 2)
2. lim( x2 2 x)
4. lim17
5. lim(2 k +1)
x +1) x2
6. lim(2
x a
x5
x 4
t2
5=5
c. lim
x 3
16.
y
2
x2 2 b +1)
7. lim(
x b
B. Limits on a Graph
, f(x) = 4x 7, lim f ( x)
x if x > 0
, f(x) = 3 if x = 0
2
x if x < 0
y = f(x)
3
2
8. f:
D. One-Sided Limits
x 4
x 2
x + 3) = 2
b. lim(2
1
2 x = 10
a. lim
x5
1
2
x3
3
2
9. f:
a. lim f ( x)
x0
10. f:
a. lim+ f ( x)
b. lim+ f ( x)
c. lim f ( x)
d. lim+ f ( x)
e. lim f ( x)
f.
x1
c. lim f ( x)
x 2
if
2
, f(x) = 1 if
x + 3 if
a. lim f ( x)
x 5
b. lim f ( x)
x 2
x2
x0
x > 3
x 2
x 2
17.
x = 3
y
y = f(x)
x < 3
b. lim f ( x)
x 3
c. lim f ( x)
x 1
C. Definition of Limit
11. Write the 0.3-neighborhood of 12 as an interval.
12. Write the 0.1-neighborhood of 5 as an interval
and show it on a number line.
lim f ( x)
x 1
1
3
,
if x >1
2
if x =1 or x = 1
f(x) =
2
x +1 if 1 < x <1
if x < 1
x
is given.
21. f:
x> 3
x= 3
1 x<3
x <1
x 2 if
if
3
, f(x) =
x + 4 if
if
1
a. lim f ( x)
if x >1
3
2
if x =1 or x 2
f(x) =
2
x 4 if 2 < x <1
x 3
b. lim f ( x)
x 1
is given.
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
O
y = g(x)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
20.
y
4
y = f(x)
3
2
a. lim | x 2|
x2+ |2 x|
b. lim|9 x2 |
c. lim |2 x |
x0+ x + x
d. xlim
5
e. lim+
x
2
|cos x|
cos x
x 3
| x 5|
x5
f. lim | x|
x0 x
1
3
x2
x))
b. lim(sgn(cos
+
x
c. lim+
|4 x2 |
sgn|2 x| x
d. lim
e. lim
3x + 2
sgn( x2 +6 x 9)
f. lim
x2
x 3
x5
x 1
x2 2 x
x 3sgn( x 5)
1 x
sgn( x2 3 x + 2)
61
x2
c. lim+
x
sin x
sin x +1
e. lim x2 3
x 3
a. lim+
1
x2 4
b. lim
1
| x|
c. lim
x
x 9
d. lim
x3 + 2
x | x 1| 6
x 3
x2
f. lim+
x3
3 x
x3
x 0
x3
x 3
e. lim(
x tan x)
g. lim x5
x2
29. f:
, f ( x) =
x+ 2
is given.
x( x +1)( x 2)
b. lim f ( x)
c. lim+ f ( x)
d. lim f ( x)
e. lim+ f ( x)
f. lim f ( x)
g. lim+ f ( x)
h. lim f ( x)
x 1
x +
x +
c. lim f ( x)
x 2
x2
a. lim f ( x)
x
x0
x0
b. lim f ( x)
x 1
1 O
1
x
y = f(x)
x 1
d. lim f ( x)
2 x3 x2 +1
x x2 + 2 x +1
c. lim
x 1
e. lim f ( x)
x3
x x +5
b. lim
d. lim
x +
1
1
1 5x
x 2
f ( x)+ f ( x)
given lim f ( x) = 4.
x 2
f ( x) 5
c. lim(
x
e. lim
62
x 1
)
x2
4 x2 + x 5
3
x3 + 1
1
b. lim ( +1)
x + x
d. lim(
x
2| x |
)
x
each limit.
2x 1
a. lim 2
x 3 x + 1
c. lim 5
x
e. lim
x 7
x
x+
b. lim(4 x2 3 x+6)
x 2
d. lim 2 x2 + 4
x 2
x2 1
x 1
Algebra 10
So far we have studied the concept and formal definition of the limit of a function. We have
seen that even if a given function f is not defined at x0, in some cases the limit of the function
may exist as the point x approaches the point x0 or infinity.
For example, the function f ( x) =
value
x2 9
is not defined at x0 = 3: when x0 = 3, we get the
x3
0
. But we know that lim f ( x) is not the same as f(3). It doesn't matter what happens
x 3
0
at x0 = 3; the important thing is what happens as x approaches this point. So the limit of a
function may exist even at undefined points.
Similarly, the function f ( x) =
x2 + x +1
0
and
are two examples of indeterminate forms. In the following section we will look at
0
0
how to evaluate limits which have the indeterminate forms , , 0 , , and 1.
0
A.
0
AS A LIMIT
0
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \ such that f(x0) = 0 and g(x0) = 0.
Then lim
x x0
f ( x)
0
has the indeterminate form .
g( x)
0
In this case there exists a function h(x) which is a common factor of the functions f and g
such that f(x) = f1(x) h(x), g(x) = g1(x) h(x) and h(x0) = 0.
So we can write
lim
x x0
f ( x) h( x)
f ( x)
= lim 1
.
g( x) x x0 g1( x) h( x)
Since x x0 (it is very close to, but not equal to, x0) we can cancel the factors h(x) and so
lim
x x0
f1( x) h( x)
f ( x) f1( x0 )
= lim 1
=
g1( x) h( x) x x0 g1( x) g1( x0 )
63
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Find lim
x 3
x2 9
.
x3
0
As x approaches 3, the quotient approaches the indeterminate form . However, by
0
factoring the expression in the numerator we get
lim
x 3
x2 9
( x 3)( x + 3)
= lim
= lim( x+ 3) = 6.
x 3
x 3
x3
( x 3)
( x 3)
because x 3 at the limit (it is only
( x 3)
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
Find lim
x 2
x2 5x +6
.
x2 x 2
0
as x approaches 2, so we need to factor the numerator
0
and denominator and find the common factor:
lim
x 2
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
Find lim
x 1
x2 5x +6
( x 2)( x 3)
( x 3)
1
= lim
= lim
= .
x 2 ( x 2)( x +1)
x 2 ( x +1)
3
x2 x 2
x 1
.
x3 1
0
as x approaches 1.
0
We can begin by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of x 1:
lim
x 1
x 1
( x 1)( x +1)
( x 1)
= lim 3
= lim 3
.
3
x
1
1
x 1
( x 1)( x +1)
( x 1)( x +1)
( x 1)
3
( x 1)( x +1)
= lim
x 1
= lim
x 1
64
( x 1)
2
1
= .
( x + x +1)( x +1) 6
2
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 9
Calculate the limits.
1. lim
x2 2 x 8
x2 3 x 4
4. lim
x+ 2 2
x2
x 4
x 2
Answers
6
2
1.
2.
5
9
3.
2. lim
x 3
x2 9
x3 27
5. xlim
16 4
2
3
4.
1
4
5. 4
3. lim
x 1
4 2x
x 2 4 x 16
x4
6. lim
x2
6.
x3 x2 x +1
3 x2 6 x + 3
1
8
0
in Trigonometric Functions
0
As x approaches a point x0, the limit of a trigonometric function is the image of x0.
For example, lim cos x = cos0 =1, lim sin x = sin0 = 0, and limtan x = tan =1.
x0
x0
4
x
4
sin x
?
x
When we are calculating the limit of a trigonometric function which involves the
indeterminate form
sin x
0
=1.
, we can use the rule lim
x
0
x
0
Conclusion
1. lim
tan x
=1
x
2. lim
sin ax a
tan ax a
= and lim
=
x
0
bx
b
bx
b
3. lim
sin ax a
tan ax a
= and lim
=
x
0
sin bx b
tan bx b
4. lim
sin ax a
tan ax a
= and lim
= .
x 0 sin bx
b
tan bx b
1. lim
tan x
sin x 1
sin x
1
lim
= lim
= lim
=1 1=1.
x0
x
x cos x x0 x x0 cos x
x0
x0
Proof
x0
2. As x 0, let ax = u so x =
lim
x0
Limit of a Function
x0
x0
u
and consider u 0.
a
sin ax 1
sin ax 1
sin u a
sin u a
a
= lim
= lim
= lim
= 1=
bx
b x0 x
b u 0 u
b u 0 u
b
b
a
65
tan ax
tan ax
ax
tan ax
a 1 a a
= lim ax
= lim ax = =
3. lim
x 0 tan bx
x 0 tan bx
x 0 tan bx b
1 b b
bx
bx
bx
sin ax
sin ax
sin ax
ax .
lim
sin ax
a
a x0 ax
a 1 a
ax
ax
= lim
= lim
=
= =
4. lim
x0 tan bx
x0
tan bx b x0 tan bx b
tan bx b 1 b
bx
lim
x0
bx
bx
bx
EXAMPLE
22
Solution
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
Find lim
x 2
4 x2
(2 x)(2+ x)
(2 x)
lim(2+ x) =1 4 = 4
= lim
= lim
2
x 2 sin(2 x)
x 2
x
sin(2 x)
sin(2 x) x 2
lim
Find lim
x
24
tan x
.
3( x )
EXAMPLE
4 x2
.
sin(2 x)
tan x
tan( x) 1
tan( x) 1
1
= lim
= lim
= 1= .
3( x ) x 3( x)
3 x ( x)
3
3
Find lim
x0
sin 2
3x2
x
2.
2
Solution
EXAMPLE
25
Solution
x
x
x
x
sin 2
sin 2
sin
1
1
1
1
2 = lim
2 = lim
2=
2 = 1 12 = 1
lim
lim
2
2
x 0 3 x2
x
0
x
0
x
0
x
3
4x
3 4
12
12
12
x
4
2
sin 2
Evaluate lim
x0
1 cos 2 x
.
8 x2
0
0
0
0
8x
8x
8x
4x
4
x
lim
=
66
1 2
1 = 4.
4
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
26
x 2 x
2
Solution
x) we can write
2
1
sin( x)
sin ( 2 x)
cos x
1
2
2
lim
= lim
= lim
= .
( 2 x)
( 2 x)
2
x ( 2 x)
x
x
2
Check Yourself 10
Calculate the limits.
tan 2 x
1. lim
x 0 tan5 x
sin 2 2 x
x0
x2
sin(2 x 2)
x 1
4x 4
sin5 x
5x cos5 x
4. lim
5. lim
6. lim
x0
tan x
7. lim
x 1 1 x
3x2
8. lim
x 0 1 cos 2 x
3
)
2
9. lim
x 0 sin( 2 x)
Answers
1
2
1.
2.
3
5
B.
x
2
3. lim
x 0 3x
sin
sin x
2. lim
x 0 tan 3 x
3.
1
6
4.
1
2
5. 4
6. 1
7.
cos(3 x +
8.
3
2
9.
3
2
AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \ such that as x approaches x0, both f(x) and g(x)
approach positive or negative infinity, i.e. lim f ( x) = and lim g( x) = .
x x0
Then lim
x x0
x x0
f ( x)
has the indeterminate form . We can find the limit of such functions as
g( x)
follows:
Limit of a Function
67
a
a
xn ( an + n 1 +...+ on )
n
x
x = lim an x .
= lim
x m
x b x m
b
b
m
x ( bm + m 1 +...+ mo )
x
x
0
a
x
P( x)
lim
= lim n m =
x Q( x )
x b x
if n < m
m
0
if n > m.
The degree of a polynomial
is the highest power of
the variable in the
polynomial. The leading
coefficient
is
the
coefficient of the term
with the highest degree.
For example, x 3x2 has
degree 2 and its leading
coefficient is 3.
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
2 x3 1
x x5 + x3 +1
a. lim
b. lim
x2 + 2
x x + 4
c. lim
5 x 3 2 x2 + x 1 5
= because the polynomials have the same degree. Alternatively, we
x
4x3 x2 +12
4
a. lim
can calculate
5 x 3 2 x2 + x 1
lim
= lim
x
x
4x3 x2 +12
68
2 1
1
+
)
3
x x2 x3 = lim 5 x = 5 .
3
x 4 x
1 12
4
x3 (4 + 3 )
x x
x3 (5
Algebra 10
b. lim
x
2 x3 1
= 0 because the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is bigger. We
x5 + x3 +1
c. lim
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
x2 1+ 2
x2
x
= lim
= lim x = .
x x
x
4
x 1+
x
2x + 4
b. lim
9 x2 + 2
x 4x2 1
x2 + 2 x + 2
x 2+
x
lim
= lim
2
x
x
2
9x + 2
9x2 1+ 2
9
x
2x + 4
4
4
x 2+
x 2+
2
x
x
= lim
= lim
=
x
x
3
2
2
3 x 1+ 2
3 x 1+ 2
9
9
x
x
1
1
x x 4 2
x ( x) 4 2
x
x
x 4x 1
lim
= lim
= lim
2
x
x
x
2 2
2 2
x + 2x + 2
x 1+ + 2
x 1+ + 2
x x
x x
2
1
1
x 1+ 4 2
x 1+ 4
x2 = lim
= lim
=
= 3
x
x
1
2 2
2 2
x 1+ + 2
x 1+ + 2
x x
x x
x+ x 4
Limit of a Function
69
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
2 x +5 x+1
.
x 3x +5 x
Find lim
2
5x ( )x +5
2 x +5 x+1
5x ( )x +1
5
Check Yourself 11
Calculate the limits.
1 x2 +7 x3
1. lim
x 5+ x x3
4. lim
x5 + 2 x +7
x x2 +12 x 1
3x2 +1
5. lim
4x + 4
x
tan
2
7. lim
x cot( x )
2.
3. lim
x 9 x2 1
6. lim
x0
x +1+ 3x
x2 + cos x
x
3 x2
3. 0
4.
5.
1
2
6.
6
5
cot 5 x
cot 6 x
7 x+2 + 3x
x 5 x + 7 x
8. lim
Answers
1. 7
x2 + 2 x 12
x
1 x3
2. lim
9. lim
7. 2
8.
1
3
9. 49
C. 0 AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, f(x)
approaches zero but g(x) approaches positive or negative infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g( x) = .
x x0
x x0
We can find the limit of such functions by transforming the indeterminate form 0 into the
0
indeterminate form or
as follows:
0
f ( x)
0
lim [ f ( x) g( x)]= lim
has the indeterminate form .
x x0
x x0
1
0
g( x)
lim [ f ( x) g( x)]= lim
x x0
70
x x0
g( x)
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
1
Find lim( x sin ).
x
x
The function has the indeterminate form 0. We can transform it into the form
0
by writing
0
1
sin
1
x ).
lim( x sin ) = lim(
x
x
1
x
x
1
1
= t. As x , 0 so t 0,
x
x
1
sin
x ) = lim( sin t ) =1.
and so lim(
x
t0
1
t
x
Let us take
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
Find lim
1
(3x 2).
x +5
1
3x 2
(3x 2) = lim
= 3.
x x +5
x +5
Check Yourself 12
Calculate the limits.
x
9
1. lim( sin )
x 3
x
2. lim( x tan
x
1
2
x + 2) 2
) 3. lim(
x
1)
x
(
x
4. lim x2 +5 x +1
x
1
x+ 4
Answers
1. 3
2. 2
3. 0
4. 1
D. AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions. Let x0 \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, both f(x)
and g(x) approach infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = and lim g( x) = .
x x0
x x0
Then lim [ f ( x) g( x)] has the indeterminate form . We can find the limit of such
x x0
or ,
0
71
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
1
2
Find lim 2
.
x1 x 1
x 1
1
2
1
2 x1
1 x
2
lim 2
= lim
.
= lim
= lim
x 1 x 1
x
1
1
1
x 1
( x 1)( x+1)
( x 1)( x+1)
( x 1)( x +1) x 1
Now we have the indeterminate form
lim
x 1
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
0
and we can calculate the limit:
0
1 x
1
1
= lim
= .
x
1
( x 1)( x +1)
( x +1)
2
2
2
Find lim( 4 x 6 x + 3 4 x + 3 x+1).
x
The indeterminate form is . Let us multiply and divide the expression by its conjugate.
Then we get
lim
( 4 x2 6 x + 3 4 x2 + 3 x +1)( 4 x2 6 x+ 3 + 4 x2 + 3 x+1)
( 4 x2 6 x + 3 + 4 x2 + 3 x +1)
= lim
x
4 x2 6 x + 3 (4 x2 + 3 x +1)
6
3
2
+ 2
4x 1
x
x
4
4
3
1
2
+ 4 x 1+ + 2
4 x 4x
= lim
x
9 x+ 2
2x + 2x
9 x 1
9 x
9
9x
= lim
= lim
= .
x
x 4 x
2x+ 2x
4
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
2
Find lim( x 2 x 3 + x 4).
x
lim( x2 2 x 3 + x 4) = lim 1 x+
+ x 4 = lim | x 1|+ x 4
x
2
= lim( x +1+ x 4) = 3.
x
72
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 13
Calculate the limits.
2
1
+
1. lim
x1 x 1
1 x2
x2
x
2. lim
x 2 x 5
2
3. lim 1 1
cot x
x cos x
2
4. lim( x2 + 3x +1 x) 5. lim( x2 + 4 x +1 x2 + 3 x + 3)
x
Answers
1
5
1.
2.
4
2
3. 0
4.
3
2
5.
1
2
6. 0
7. 8
E. 1 AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, f(x)
approaches 0 and g(x) approaches infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g( x) = .
x x0
x x0
Since lim(1+ f ( x)) approaches 1 but is not equal to 1, the limit lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) has the
x x0
x x0
indeterminate form 1 . We can remove the indeterminate form 1 by using the following rule:
Let lim f ( x) = 0, lim g( x) = and lim f ( x) g( x) = k ( k \). Then
x x0
x x0
x x0
x x0
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
For f ( x) =
1
and g(x) = x, find lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ).
x
x
1
= 0,
x
1
lim f ( x) g( x) = lim x =1.
x
x x
Limit of a Function
73
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
For f ( x) =
3
and g(x) = 5x, find lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ).
x
x
3
= 0,
x
For m, n \,
lim(1+
x
m nx
) = emn.
x
5x
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
Find lim 1+
x
2 x +1
3 x+1
f ( x) =
2
2 x +1
and
2
2
and lim f ( x) = lim
= 0,
x
x 2 x +1
2 x +1
2
6x+ 2 6
(3 x+1) = lim
= = 3. So k = 3 and
x
2x + 1
2 x +1 2
x
2 x +1
EXAMPLE
38
Solution
3x +1
Find lim
x 3x 1
We can write
3 x+1
= e3.
4x2
3x +1 3x 1+ 2
2
=
=1+
.
3x 1
3x 1
3x 1
3x +1
Then lim
x 3x 1
4 x 2
4 x2
= lim 1+
x
x
3
1
2
and g(x) = 4x 2.
3x 1
8x 4 8
8
2
Since lim f ( x) g( x) = lim
= , k= .
(4 x 2) = lim
x
x 3x 1
x 3 x 1
3
3
3x +1
So lim
x 3x 1
74
4 x 2
4 x 2
= lim 1+
x
3x 1
= e 3.
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 14
Calculate the limits.
5
1. lim 1+
x
x
3x 2
4. lim
x
3x
x+ 2
7. lim
x x +5
x2
2. lim
x
x
4x
5. lim 1
x
2 x +7
2 x +1
3. lim
x
2x
2 x+5
2x 5
6. lim
x 2 x + 3
x+ 4
3 x +1
Answers
1
1. e5
2. e2
3. e 2
4. e
8
3
5. e3
6. e4
7. e9
B
A
The perimeter of the polygon is therefore n 2 r sin .
a
n
As the number of sides of the regular polygon increases to infinity, the polygon gets closer and closer to a circle.
sin
n
Therefore the circumference of the circle is lim n 2 r sin = lim 2 r
= 2 r.
n
n n
n
It can also be proved that the area of a circle is equal to r2 by using a limit. (This is left as an exercise for you.)
Limit of a Function
75
EXERCISES
A.
2 .2
0
as a Limit
0
| x |+2 x 1
x 3x + 4| x |+5
g. lim
x2 x 6
b. lim 2
x 2 x + x 2
x2 5 x 6
c. lim
x 1
x +1
5 x3 5
d. lim
x 1
x 1
x2 9
x 5x +6
e. lim
x 3
2 | x|
x 2 2+ x
g. lim
f. lim
x 2
2 x 3x + 4
x3 m 3
x m 2 x2 mx m 2
h. lim
sin5 x
7x
x0
sin(3 x 6)
x 2 tan( x 2)
c. lim
sin x
e. lim
1 cos 2 x
x0
2
g. lim cos 2x 1
x0
x
i. lim
x0
sin2 x
cos x cos 2 x
b. lim
x3
tan(2 x 6)
d. lim
1 cos 2 x
sin 2 x
x 3
x0
cos x +1
f. lim
x ( x)2
2x
h. lim
sin 2 x
x
2
2
3
j. lim (1 x 2 )( x 1)
x 1
tan ( x 1)
x2 +1
x 5x 4
d. lim
2005 x + 2010
x
x2 +1
f. lim
c. lim
e. lim
76
x2 + x +1
3 x3 + 4
x+ 2 4
2)
x
x
x4 + ax + 2
x ( x2 1)2 a
x0
b. lim(
x
d. lim(
x1
2 x 3 x2
x)
1+ 2 x2
x
2
+
)
x 1 x2 4 x + 3
b. lim( x2 + x +1 x2 + 2 x 3)
x
c. lim( x2 + 2 x + 2 x+1)
x
d. lim( x x2 +1 x2 )
x
E. 1 as a Limit
7. Calculate the limits.
x+ 3 x
)
x
3
b. lim(1 )3 x
x
x
d. lim(
6 x +1 2 x
)
6x
e. lim(1
2 2 x+1
)
3x +1
f. lim(
5x +1 3 x+1
)
5x 1
g. lim(1+
7
)2 x
5x + 3
h. lim(
x + 2 9 x 1
)
x+ 4
x2 + x + 2
3+ 5 x5 +1
d. lim(sin 2 x cot 5 x)
a. lim( x2 +5 x +1 x)
b. lim
5
x+ 2
c. lim(
3x3 + 2 x2 +1
x
x3 1
2
a. lim(1+ )x
x
x
b. lim x2 x + 3
D. as a Limit
x0
B. as a Limit
a. lim
c. lim( 3x tan 3 )
x
x
c. lim(
6
)
7x
2
x
a. lim( x
)
x 3x + 4
3
2 2 x+4 16
i. lim x+1
x 0 2
2
x5 1
C. 0 as a Limit
a. lim( x sin
x2
x2 + x 2 + 3 x
h. lim
i. lim(
x
3x +1 3 x+1
)
3x + 2
j. lim(
x
2 x +7 x 1
)
2x 1
Algebra 10
A. CONTINUITY AT A POINT
In this section we will look at the concept of continuity of a function. During our study of the
limit of f(x) as x approaches x0, we have continuously emphasized that the limit is not
necessarily equal to f(x0). Indeed, what actually happens at the point x0 is not important for
the limit of the function at that point. However, the nature of f(x0) becomes important when
we are considering the continuity of a function.
Definition
x xo
If even one of these three conditions is not satisfied, the function f is said to be
discontinuous at point x0.
Let us begin by looking at the continuity of some functions at given points.
y
y = f( x )
f(a)
x a
So f is discontinuous at x = a.
O
Limit of a Function
77
y = f(x)
L
O
lim f ( x) f ( c).
x c
So f is discontinuous at point c.
f(c)
y = f(x)
L
x
At x = d, lim f ( x) = f ( d) .
y = f(x)
x d
So f is continuous at point d.
f(d) = L
d
Note
The graph of a function which is continuous at a point has no gaps or breaks in its line at
that point. In other words, we can draw the graph of the function without lifting our pen from
the paper when we pass through the point.
EXAMPLE
39
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
4 3 2 1 O
78
y = f(x)
1 2 3 4
Algebra 10
Solution
x3
EXAMPLE
40
Solution
x + 3 if x > 1
lim f ( x) = lim(
x2 +1) =12 +1= 2 and
x 1
y = x2 + 1
x 1
lim f ( x) = lim(
x + 3) = 1+ 3 = 2, so
+
x 1+
x 1
x 1
x 1
x 1
x1
EXAMPLE
41
Solution
x
y = x + 3
if x = 2
3
a. At x = 2, f(2) = 3.
lim f ( x) = lim
x 2
x 2
= lim
x 2
x3 8
( x 2)( x2 + 2 x + 4)
=
lim
x2 4 x 2
( x 2)( x + 2)
x2 + 2 x + 4 12
=
=3
x+ 2
4
79
Check Yourself 15
y
4
3
2
y = f(x)
1
4
2 1 O
1 2 3 4
f(x) =
8x 3
if x < 3
3
3x
x6
if x = 3 at the point x = 3.
if x > 3
x2 + 5x if x < 1
3. Examine the continuity of f: \ \, f ( x) =
at x = 1.
3
x 4x if x 1
2
mx + nx if
8
if
5. f: \ \, f(x) =
mx n if
5+ x2
x9
x3
3
if x < 0
if x = 0 at x = 0.
3
1+ x2
if x > 0
x < 2
x = 2
x > 2
80
3. discontinuous
4. continuous
5. m = 5, n = 14
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
2 .3
A. Continuity at a Point
1. The figure shows the graph
of a function f. Examine
the continuity of f at the
integer points in the
domain.
4
y = f(x)
3
2
2 x2 +1 if x < 1
f ( x) = x + 2 if x =1 at the point x= 1.
x + 4 if x > 1
1
7 3 2 1
2
37
2
x2 + 2 x + 2 if x < 1
m
if x = 1
6. The function f ( x) =
mx + n if x > 1
is continuous at x = 1. Find m + n.
x + 4 if x = 4
at the point x = 4.
f ( x) =
2 x if x 4
f ( x) =
Limit of a Function
7. The function f( x) =
mx + 3 if x > 2
x+1
if x= 2
n2 1
if x < 2
2
2
ax a x + 3 if x < 1
8. f ( x) =
2 if 1 x 2 is discontinuous.
is given.
3 2
a x + ax +5 if x 1
Find the possible values of a if f is continuous at
1 if x > 2
the point x = 1.
1 if x < 1
81
B. Continuity on an Interval
9. Find the largest interval on which each function
is continuous.
a. f(x) = x3 x2 + x 1
c. f ( x) =
1
x 1
e. f ( x) = x3 +
g.
1
x
b. f ( x) =
x
x +2
d. f ( x) =
x+ 2
x 5x 6
f.
f ( x) = 3 2 x 5
f ( x) = 3 3 x + 4 + x2 4
h. f ( x) =
x2 2 x +1
x2 3 x 4
b. f ( x) =
c. f ( x) = sin x
d. f ( x) = sin(
e. f(x) = arccos(x 4)
f. f ( x) = sin(log
g.
f ( x) = arcsin(
sin x
1 cos x
x+ 2
)
x2
x+2
)
x2
3x + 4
)
x 1
x3 27
if x > 3
3x
if x = 3
a
11. f ( x) =
x2 bx + 27 if x < 3
12. f ( x) =
ax
x2 +1
if x > 1
ax 2
if x 1
is continuous in \. Find a.
82
Algebra 10
5. Find xlim
0
y = f(x)
3
2
1
O
A) 0
1 2
3 4 5
3x +| x|
.
3x + 2| x|
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3
E) 4
C) e5
D) e15
E) e15
C) 6
D) 8
E) 16
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
E) 6
5
x
6. Find lim(1+ ) 3 x.
x
A) e3
B) e3
2. Find lim( x7 + x6 x5 ).
x
B)
A)
C) 0
D) 2
E) 1
7. Find lim(
x0
1
x
.
3. Find xlim
0
A) 0
B) 1
A) 2
C) 1
D)
B)
B) 4
E)
x2 3 x+ 4 x).
8. Find lim(
x
2 x 3 x2 1
4. Find lim 2
.
x x + 2 x +1
A)
sin 4 x x+2
) .
x
C) 2
D) 2
E) 0
A) 1
2
B) 3
2
C) 3
2
D) 1
2
E) 0
83
9. Find lim(
x a
A)
3a
2
a 3 x3
).
a 2 x2
B) a
2
D) 3a
A) 1
B) 1
C) 2
1
2a
A)
6
5
B) 2
5
4
3
2
1
O
1
2
y = f(x)
x3
B) 3
1 2
3 4
D) 3
D) 9
12 x3 + 2 x2 1
.
x
x3 +1
84
B) 6
C) 12
E)
3
5
A) e5
B) e10
sin3 2 x
.
x3
A) 0
B) 1
C) e2
D) e
E) 1
C) 2
D) 4
E) 8
E)
3
16. Find lim( x 4 8 x +8 ).
D) 1
5
E) 4
C) 6
1
4
x0
x9
C)
E)
( x + 2)(3x 1)
.
5 x2 4
x 2
D) 12
E) 14
A) 0
x 4x
B) 2
C) 4
D) 8
E) 16
Algebra 10
Definition
Definition
l
itia
in
ter
na
mi
ter
min
de
l si
sid
a
init
ial
s
al s
ide
ide
negative angle: a = 60
positive angle: a = 60
We can measure angles using different units of measurement. The most common units are
degrees and radians. We write to show a degree measurement: one full circle measures
360. We write R to to show a radian measurement: one full circle measures 2R. We can also
3
omit the radian notation if it is clear that an angle is in radians: =
means that the angle
2
3
measures
radians.
2
We can use a simple formula to convert between degree (D) and radian (R) measures:
D
R
=
180
, 45 = , ... .
2
4
In trigonometry we often work with angles drawn in the coordinate plane.
86
Algebra 10
Definition
The circle whose center lies at the origin of the coordinate plane and whose radius is 1 unit
is called the unit circle.
The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into four parts, called quadrants. The quadrants
are numbered in a counterclockwise direction.
in degrees:
180
in radians:
90
2nd
quadrant
1st
quadrant
3rd
quadrant
4th
quadrant
0
p
360
p
2
2nd
quadrant
1st
quadrant
3rd
quadrant
4th
quadrant
0
2p
3p
2
270
quadrantal angles
Definition
The intersection points of the unit circle and the coordinate axes correspond to angles
measured on the circle. These angles are called quadrantal angles. In other words, 0, 90,
3
180, 270, 360, ... and 0, , ,
, 2, ... are quadrantal angles.
2
2
second quadrant, if ,
then it is in the third quadrant and if , 2 then it
2
is in the fourth quadrant. The same applies to the equivalent intervals in degrees.
EXAMPLE
Solution
b. 228
c. 305
d. 740
e. 442
f.
7
3
17
5
7
is in the first quadrant.
= + 2 and 0, , so
3
3
3
3 2
3
g.
3
17
17 3
3
and
is in the second quadrant.
, , so
=
(2 2 )
5
5
5
5 2
5
87
EXAMPLE
Solution
p
2
x2
x1
B(a, b)
A(1, 0)
a
G
x3
p
2
Find the real number which corresponds to the central angle 60 on the unit circle, using
3.14.
From the formula
R
60
D
R
R
60
we have
=
= , so R =
= . Using 3.14 gives us
180
3
180
180
3.14
1.047. This is the required real number.
3
Check Yourself 1
1. Convert the measures to radians.
a. 30
b. 135
c. 210
a.
b.
c. 5
6
3
4
Answers
3
7
1. a.
b.
c.
6
4
6
2. a. 60
b. 150
c. 225
88
d. 900
d. 10
d. 5
d. 1800
Algebra 10
Definition
coterminal angles
Two or more angles whose terminal sides coincide with each other when they are in standard
position are called coterminal angles.
Let us look at an example of coterminal angles. The figure shows a unit circle.
The positive angle AOP corresponds to the arc
AEP and the negative angle AOP corresponds to
the arc AFP. These angles are coterminal. The
measure of the positive angle AOP is m(AOP) =
and the measure of the negative angle AOP is
m(AOP) = (360 ).
y
P
F
E
q
a
O
Now assume that point P in the figure is moving around the circumference of the unit circle
from point A in the counterclockwise direction. Study the following table.
Radians
90
180
270
3
2
360
360 +
2 +
720 +
4 +
k 360 +
2k +
89
EXAMPLE
Solution
For each angle, write the set of coterminal angles with the same unit of measurement.
5
a. 175
b.
4
Coterminal angles differ by an integral multiple of complete angles.
a. {175 + k 360, k ]} = {...,545, 185, 175, 535, 895,...}
b. {
5
11
3 5 13 21
+ k 2, k ]} = {...,
, ,
,
,
,...}
4
4
4
4
4
4
Note
a.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Solution
5p
175
185
3p
4
Find the arc length which corresponds to the central angle 40 on the unit circle ( 3).
40 R
2
D
R
we have
=
= , so R =
. We know that on the unit circle, the radian
180
180
9
measure of a directed angle is equal to the length of the directed arc corresponding to the
Since
EXAMPLE
b.
2
2 2 3 2
, and using 3 gives us
= 0.6.
9
9
9
3
Find the coordinates of the terminal point of the arc with length
which is in standard
2
position on the unit circle.
So
represents a quarter of the circle.
2
B(0, 1)
A(1, 0)
A(1, 0)
3
2
B(0, 1)
Algebra 10
Definition
Let be an angle which is greater than 360. Then the positive angle [0, 360) which is
coterminal with is called the primary directed angle of .
In other words, the primary directed angle of is the smallest positive angle that is
coterminal with . If we divide by 360, the remainder will be the primary directed angle.
m( ) = k (360) + m(), k ].
For example, 30 is the primary directed angle of 390 because 390 = 1 360 + 30.
We know that the radian measure of any angle is equal to the length of the arc which
corresponds to its central angle in the unit circle. The circumference of a unit circle is 2.
Therefore any two real numbers that differ by integral multiples of 2 will coincide at the
same point on the circle.
primary directed arc
Definition
The positive real number t [0, 2) which differs from a real number by integral multiples
of 2 is called a primary directed arc.
Since t is the smallest positive real number that is coterminal with a given angle , we can
find t by subtracting integral multiples of complete rotations from , or alternatively by
dividing by 2 and considering the remainder:
= k (2) + t, k ].
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the primary directed angle of each angle, using the same unit.
75
75
a. 7320
b. 7320
c.
d.
8
8
a.
7320
7200
120
360
20
number of
rotations
91
x
120
x
21st rotation
20 complete rotations in the positive direction
+240
x
x
120
92
21st rotation
Algebra 10
c. Solution 1
75 64 11
=
+
8
8
8
75
11
= 4 (2 )+
8
8
number of rotations
11
8
Solution 2
1. Divide the numerator by twice the
denominator:
2 8 = 16 and 75 16 = (4 16) + 11.
75p
8
11
: 11 =
.
denominator
8
8
So the primary directed angle of
5th rotation
75 16
11
75
is
.
8
8
64 4
11
number of rotations
remainder
d. If the angle was positive, the remainder
11
would be
as we found in part c. But the
8
11
angle is negative, so the remainder is
.
8
75p
8
11
11 5
= .
2
8
8
8
5
So the primary directed angle is
.
8
we calculate
EXAMPLE
Solution
1 = 60 and 1 = 60 so
360 = 359 59 60.
359 59 60
30 42 15
329 17 45.
So = 329 17 45.
93
Check Yourself 2
1. Find the primary directed angle of each angle, using the same unit of measurement.
3
33
a. 100
b. 7200
c.
d.
2
5
11
5
e. 400
f. 50
g.
h.
3
4
2. For each angle, write the set of coterminal angles with the same unit of measurement.
3
a. 30
b. 120
c.
d.
3
2
Answers
3
3
3
1. a. 100 b. 0 c.
d.
e. 320 f. 310 g.
h.
2
3
5
4
2. a. {..., 690, 330, 30, 390, ...}
b. {..., 600, 240, 120, 480, 840, ...}
11
5 7 13
5
3 7 11
,
, ,
,
, ...}
,
,
, ...}
c. {...,
d. {..., , ,
3
3 3 3
3
2
2 2
2
2
C. TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
1. Definition
C
hypotenuse
(hyp)
opposite
side
(opp)
q
adjacent side
(adj)
Consider the right triangle in the figure. The table shows the trigonometric ratios for the
acute angle .
94
Ratio
name
Ratio
abbreviation
Ratio
definition
Abbreviated
definition
sine
sin
opp
hyp
cosine
cos
adj
hyp
tangent
tan
opp
adj
cotangent
cot
adj
opp
secant
sec
length of hypotenuse
length of side adjacent to
hyp
adj
cosecant
csc
length of hypotenuse
length of side opposite
hyp
opp
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
10
q
A
Solution
sin =
opp 4
=
hyp 5
cos =
adj 3
=
hyp 5
tan =
opp 4
=
adj 3
cot =
adj 3
=
opp 4
sec =
hyp 5
=
adj 3
csc =
hyp 5
=
opp 4
We know that any ratio can be expanded or simplified by multiplying its numerator and
denominator by the same non-zero number. For example:
2 2k 4 40 200
=
= =
=
=... etc. where k is any non-zero number.
3 3k 6 60 300
This property is also used in trigonometry. Look at the two right triangles below.
C
q
B
sin =
a
b
sin =
a
b
Although the lengths of the sides of the triangles are different, the two trigonometric ratios
a a
for the common angle are the same: = . In other words, the sides are in proportion. We
b b
say that these triangles are similar.
95
EXAMPLE
Two right triangles are shown below. Find the trigonometric ratios for the angle in each
triangle and show that they are equal.
C
C
13
a
12
26
10
a
24
opp 5
=
hyp 13
adj 12
cos =
=
hyp 13
opp 5
tan =
=
adj 12
adj 12
cot =
=
opp 5
Solution sin =
opp 10 5
=
=
hyp 26 13
adj 24 12
cos =
=
=
hyp 26 13
opp 10 5
tan =
=
=
adj 24 12
adj 24 12
cot =
=
=
opp 10 5
sin =
The ratios are the same because the sides are in proportion: these are similar triangles.
EXAMPLE
10
2
In a right triangle, is an acute angle such that cos = . Find the sine, tangent and
3
cotangent ratios of the same angle.
opp + 4 = 9
hyp = 3
opp
q
2
cos q =
3
adj = 2
opp2 = 5 so opp = 5.
opp
5
opp
5
adj
2
=
; tan =
=
; cot =
=
.
hyp
3
adj
2
opp
5
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 3
1. In a right triangle, is an acute angle such that tan = 4. Find the sine, cosine and
cotangent ratios of the same angle.
2. One leg of an isosceles right triangle is 1 unit long. Find all the trigonometric ratios of one
of the two equal acute angles in the triangle.
Answers
4
1
1
1. sin =
, cos =
, cot =
4
17
17
2. sin 45 = cos 45 =
1
2
1
45
1
45
1
60
30 30
30
3
60
60
60
60
60
In each example we can find the unknown length using the Pythagorean Theorem:
12 + 12 = 2 and
in radians
sin
cos
tan
cot
30
1
2
3
2
1
3
45
1
2
1
2
60
3
2
1
2
1
3
97
EXAMPLE
11
B
angle of elevation
A
h
30
angle of depression
Solution
36 m
1
3
EXAMPLE
12
opp
h
= .
adj 36
1
36
h
20.78 m.
=
, and so h =
36
3
3
In the figure,
m(BAD) = m(DAC) = 30
and BD = 12 units.
Find the value of x.
30
30
12
C
x
Solution
1
3
12
so AB = 123.
AB
12+ x
12 3
so 12 + x = 123 3 = 36.
So x = 36 12 = 24 units.
98
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
13
In the figure,
m(ABC) = 30,
m(ACB) = 45
and AB = 6 units.
Find the value of x.
A
6
45
30
B
Solution
1 AH
=
so AH = 3.
2
6
3 BH
=
so BH = 33. Since angle H is a right angle
2
6
and angle C measures 45 then in the triangle AHC, m(A) is also 45. Therefore AHC is an
Check Yourself 4
1. Find the length x in each triangle.
a.
b.
c.
15
30
30
22
60
45
B
H
C
1444442444443
x
2. Solve for x:
30
14243 D
x
tan 30 csc60
= x cot 30 sin 45.
cos 45 sin60
Answers
1. a. 4( 2 + 6 )
3
b. 23 2
c. 16
2.
8
9
99
D. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The trigonometric ratios are related to each other by equations called trigonometric identities.
1. Basic Identities
a. Pythagorean identities
Property
Pythagorean identities
For all \,
1. sin2 + cos2 = 1
2. tan2 + 1 = sec2
3. cot2 + 1 = csc2 .
C
hypotenuse
(hyp)
q
A
Proof
Therefore,
Be careful!
sin2 = sin sin and
cos2 = cos cos ,
etc. We do not write
sin 2 because it is not
clear what we mean:
sin ( 2) or (sin )2?
opp + adj
hyp
=
2
hyp
hyp 2
adjacent side
(adj)
(1)
hyp 2
opp2
adj 2
=
+
hyp2 hyp 2
hyp 2
opp 2
adj 2
) +(
) =1.
hyp
hyp
adj
opp
, we have sin2 + cos2 = 1.
Since sin =
and cos =
hyp
hyp
opp2 + adj 2 hyp 2
2. Dividing both sides of (1) by adj2 gives
=
, i.e.
adj2
adj 2
2
2
2
opp
adj
hyp
+
=
,
adj2 adj 2
adj 2
(
2
hyp 2
opp 2 adj
=(
).
) +
2
adj
adj
adj
Since tan =
opp
hyp
and sec =
we have tan2 + 1 = sec2.
adj
adj
opp2 adj 2
hyp 2
+
=
,
opp2 opp 2
opp 2
opp2
opp
+(
adj 2
hyp 2
) =(
).
opp
opp
Since cot =
100
opposite
side
(opp)
hyp
adj
and csc =
we have 1 + cot2 = csc2 , i.e. cot2 + 1 = csc2.
opp
opp
Algebra 10
1. tan =
Proof
opp
hyp
opp
opp
sin
adj
1. We know that sin =
and cos =
, so
=
.
=
adj
hyp
hyp
adj
cos
hyp
sin
= tan .
So
cos
adj
hyp
cos
adj
cos
=
=
, i.e.
2. Similarly,
= cot .
opp
sin
opp
sin
hyp
3. Consequently,
sin cos
= 1. So tan cot = 1.
cos sin
c. Reciprocal identities
Property
Proof
Remember!
csc =
1
sin
1
cos
(the first letters of
reciprocal ratios are
opposite:
1
1
c= ,s= )
c
s
sec =
reciprocal identities
1. csc =
1
sin
2. sec =
1
cos
Since csc =
1
hyp
, csc =
.
opp
sin
2. Similarly, cos =
Since sec =
opp
1
1
hyp
, so
=
=
.
opp opp
hyp
sin
hyp
adj
1
1
hyp
so
=
=
.
adj
hyp
cos
adj
hyp
hyp
1
, sec =
.
adj
cos
101
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
Verify the eight trigonometric identities using the right triangle in the figure.
First we need to calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
hyp2
hyp2
hyp2
hyp
=
=
=
=
22 + 32
4+9
13
13.
opp = 3
hyp
q
adj = 2
Before verifying the identities, let us write the six trigonometric ratios for the given right triangle:
sin =
3
13
3
2
13
13
, tan = , cot = , csc =
.
, sec =
3
2
3
13
2
2
, cos =
3 2
=1
2 3
1
1
13
=
=
= csc
3
sin
3
13
1
1
13
=
=
= sec
2
cos
2
13
3
13
and sec =
, so by substitution,
2
2
3
13 2
( )2 +1=(
)
2
2
9
13
+1=
4
4
13 13
= . Therefore, tan 2 + 1 = sec 2 .
4
4
13
2
, so by substitution,
and csc =
3
3
2
13 2
( )2 +1=(
)
3
3
4
13
+1=
9
9
13 13
= . Therefore, cot2 + 1 = csc2 ,
9
9
102
Algebra 10
sin
=
cos
13
3
cos
= = tan ,
=
2
2
sin
13
2
= = cot ,
3
3
13
13
sin 2 + cos 2 = (
) 2 +(
13
2
13
)2 =
9
4 13
+ =
=1.
13 13 13
Check Yourself 5
2
1. Verify the eight trigonometric identities for the acute angle in a right triangle if sin = .
5
2. Verify the eight trigonometric identities for a right triangle with sides of length 7, 24 and
25 units.
4
3. Let be an acute angle in a right triangle such that sin = .
5
Evaluate cos (tan + cot ).
21
cos 2 + sin 2
+1
5
5
4. Evaluate
.
2 tan cot
7
7
Answers
5
3.
4. 2
4
15
Solution
sin x
cos x
= cos x
sin x
cos x
sin x
:
cos x
(substitute)
(cancel)
= sin x.
So cos x tan x = sin x.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
103
EXAMPLE
16
1
sin x
. Hence,
and csc x =
sin x
cos x
sin x
1
cos x
cos x
sin x
(substitute)
sin x
1
cos x
=1.
sin x
cos x
(cancel)
17
Solution
Simplify
sec x cos x
.
tan x
We know tan x =
sin x
1
and sec x =
. Hence,
cos x
cos x
1
cos x
sec x cos x cos x
=
sin x
tan x
cos x
104
(by substitution)
1
cos 2 x
= cos x cos x
sin x
cos x
1 cos 2 x
= cos x
sin x
cos x
1 cos 2 x
cos x
=
sin x
cos x
Algebra 10
sin 2 x
sin x
= sin x.
As a result,
EXAMPLE
18
Solution
(by cancellation)
sec x cos x
= sin x.
tan x
2
x
Simplify 2+ tan
1
2
sec x
We know tan x =
2+ tan 2 x
1=
sec 2 x
sin x
1
and sec x =
. Hence,
cos x
cos x
sin x 2
)
cos x 1
1 2
(
)
cos x
2+(
(by substitution)
sin 2 x
cos 2 x 1
1
cos 2 x
2+
2 cos 2 x sin 2 x
+
2
cos 2 x 1
= cos x
1
cos 2 x
2 cos 2 x + sin 2 x
cos 2 x
=
1
1
cos 2 x
2 cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x
1
cos 2 x
= cos2 x + 1 1
= cos2 x + 1 1
(by cancellation)
= cos2 x.
2
x
As a result, 2+ tan
1 = cos 2 x.
2
sec x
105
Check Yourself 6
Simplify the expressions.
1. cos x tan x
2.
1+ csc x
cos x + cot x
3.
1
1
+
1 sin x 1+ sin x
Answers
1. sin x
2. sec x
3. 2 sec2 x
19
Solution
= sin x
cos x
sin x
cos x
= cos x.
sin x
(by substitution)
(simplify)
sin x
cot x = sin x cot x.
cos x
(by substitution)
(tan x cot x = 1)
(by substitution)
(simplify)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
sin x
cos x
and cot x =
, so
cos x
sin x
sin x cos x
+
)
cos x sin x
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
)
cos x sin x
= cos x
sin
cos
x
x
1
= csc x.
sin x
We have obtained the other side of the identity and the verification is complete.
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
2
Verify the identity (sin x + cos x) = 2+ sec x csc x.
sin x cos x
(cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
2 sin x cos x
1
+
sin x cos x
sin x cos x
= 2+ csc x sec x
(simplify)
We have obtained the right-hand side of the identity and the verification is complete.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
107
EXAMPLE
22
Solution
tan x
= sec x cos x.
csc x
(by substitution)
sin x sin x
cos x 1
sin 2 x
cos x
1 cos 2 x
cos x
(cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
1
cos 2 x
cos x cos x
= sec x cos x
We have obtained the right-hand side of the identity and so the verification is complete.
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
cos x
1 + sin x
=
.
1 sin x
cos x
=
1 sin x 1 sin x 1+ sin x
(multiply by 1)
1+ sin x
(cancel the common factor)
cos x
This is the right-hand side of the identity, so the verification is complete.
=
Check Yourself 7
Verify the identities.
1. sec x cos x = sin x tan x
3.
108
1+ sin x
cos x
+
= 2 sec x
cos x
1+ sin x
2.
cos x
= csc x sin x
sec x sin x
Algebra 10
4. Cofunctions
We have studied the trigonometric functions of certain angles and the trigonmetric ratios
between the sides and angles of a right triangle. In this section we will look at the relation
between the trigonometric ratios of complementary angles.
R
. Consider the right
2
triangle ABC with acute angles and shown in the figure. and are complementary angles.
b
C
We can also write sin = cos = . In other
a
words, the sine of and the cosine of its
a
Recall that complementary angles are angles whose sum is 90, i.e.
3
sin = cos( ) = cos
and
5
2 5
10
cos
EXAMPLE
24
3
3
= sin(
) = sin , etc.
8
2 8
8
5
+[tan
tan ]+ sin 2
7
18
9
14
109
Solution
a. The angles in each pair (89, 1), (88, 2), ..., (46, 44) are complementary.
Because tangent and cotangent are cofunctions,
tan 89 = cot 1, tan 88 = cot 2, ... , tan 46 = cot 44.
So tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 ... tan 88 tan 89
= tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 ... tan 44 tan 45 cot 44 ... cot 2 cot 1
= 1 1 1 ... tan 45 ... 1 1 = 1.
5
5
since +
= .
b. The complement of is
7
14
7 14 2
Similarly, the complement of
7
7
is
since
+ = .
18
9
18 9 2
So sin
So sin 2
+ tan
tan + sin 2
= sin 2 +[cot tan ]+cos 2
7
18
9
14
7
9
9
7
1
=1+1
= 2.
Check Yourself 8
1. Write the cofunction of each function.
a. tan 15
d. sin
b. cos 36
12
e. cot
c. sec 77
2
5
f. tan
2
7
5
b. tan tan
cos 2 27 cos 2 63
7
14
Answers
1. a. cot 75
2. a. 1 b. 0
110
b. sin 54
c. csc 13
d. cos
5
12
e. tan
10
f. cot
3
14
Algebra 10
Eratosthenes was a famous mathematician and the head of the famous library in
Alexandria, Egypt. In 240 BC he calculated the Earth's circumference using
trigonometry and his knowledge of the angle of elevation of the Sun at the summer
solstice in the Egyptian cities of Alexandria and Syene (now called Aswan).
Eratosthenes calculation was based on the assumptions that the Earth is a sphere
and that the sun is so far away that we can consider its rays to be parallel.
Eratosthenes
compared
observations
made
in
Alexandria,
where
the
noontime Sun at the summer solstice was 7 away from straight overhead (the
zenith), to observations in Syene in southern Egypt, where the Sun was exactly at
its zenith. The distance between the cities was known to be about 5000 stadia,
roughly equal to 800 km (the stadion, plural stadia, was an old unit of measurement
such that 1 stadia 160 m). Therefore, Eratosthenes calculated the entire 360
circle of the Earth to be (360/7) 5000 stadia, which is about 260,000 stadia, or
41,000 km.
a2
a1
local horizon
A
a 1 a2
EXERCISES
3 .1
b. 228
28
e.
3
c. 185
125
f.
6
6. Solve for x if x \, k ].
a. 2x 120 = 90 + (k 360)
b. 105
26
e.
5
c. 70
b. x + = + x +( k 2 )
3 4 3 4
c. 4x = k 360
d. 3x 150 = +( k 2 )
6
C. Trigonometric Ratios
B. Primary Directed Angles
3. Find the primary directed angle of each angle,
using the same unit.
a. 1234
c. 190
9
b. 4321
90
d.
19
1
is given. Evaluate each ratio, given
17
that x is in the first quadrant.
7. tan x =
a. cot x
b. sin x
c. cos x
112
b. 5 .
4
AD = 3,
DB = 5 and
m(ADC) = 60.
Calculate BC = x.
60
B
Algebra 10
9. In the figure,
m(DAC) = 45,
m(BAC) = 30 and
BC = 32.
45
30
right triangles,
increasing in size from
right to left. The length of
the hypotenuse of the eighth
triangle in the series is 72 units.
Calculate AO.
32
Calculate DC = x.
10.
series of 30-60-90
IV D
III
C
II
B
30
30
120
3
A
D. Trigonometric Identities
14. Simplify the expressions.
a. csc x tan x
m(C) = 120,
m(A) = 30
and AB = 26.
Calculate the
height h.
c. tan x + cot x
30
26
e. tan x
sec x
b. sec2 x tan2 x
1 + sin x
d.
1 + csc x
f.
cot x 1
1 tan x
120
B
a.
A
M
60
4
b.
x
B
b.
A
3
15
H
x
cos x
sec x + tan x
d.
sin x
csc x
1 cos x
e.
1
1
+
2
sec x csc2 x
I
A
(sin x + cos x) 2
sin 2 x cos 2 x
=
2
2
sin x cos x (sin x cos x) 2
d.
1 sin x
= (sec x tan x) 2
1+ sin x
tan
a.
b.
2
3
tan
sin 2
7
14
10
2
1 cos 2
5
tan 25 tan65
+2
sin2 25 + sin 2 65
19. Evaluate
sin 2
5
+ sin 2
+ cos 2
+ cos 2 .
8
8
12
12
cos x
sin x cos x
=
1 sin x cos x cot x
c.
1
1
= 2 sec x tan x
1 sin x 1 + sin x
d.
tan x cot x
= sin x cos x
tan 2 x cot 2 x
114
1+ cos x
2
= (cot x + csc x )
1 cos x
Algebra 10
In the previous section we defined the trigonometric ratios in terms of the side lengths of a
right triangle. In this section we will study the same ratios as ratios on the unit circle and as
functions. To define a trigonometric function we must find its domain, range, graph and
inverse.
Recall that the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real x-values for which f(x) is
defined. For example, the domain of a polynomial function is . The range of function is a
set which includes at least all images of the elements in its domain. The largest possible
range of a real function is .
Recall also the definition of increasing and decreasing function: we say that f(x) is an increasing function if f(x1) < f(x2) when x1 < x2, and f(x) is a decreasing function if
f(x1) > f(x2) when x1 < x2. If f(x1) = f(x2) for every x1 < x2 then f(x) is a constant function.
With these basic definitions we are ready to look at the properties of trigonometric functions.
D
1
a
O
A
C
We know sin =
sine axis
y-axis is the sine axis. By the definition of the unit circle, we can also say 1 sin 1 and
the angle can be any real number.
We can define a function from the real numbers to the interval [1, 1] with the rule
f(x) = sin x. This function is called the sine function. This function has the following
properties:
The
sine
function
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points
on the unit circle.
1. Domain =
2. Range = [1, 1]
3. sin x > 0 in the interval (0, ).
115
EXAMPLE
25
Solution
degrees
radians
sin
90
2
1
180
270
3
2
1
360
2
0
EXAMPLE
26
Solution
The sine function is a continuous function, so we can find the range by calculating the
maximum and minimum values of f(x).
The maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 3 1 + 2 = 5.
The minimum value of sin x is 1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 3 (1) + 2 = 1.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [1, 5].
We know cos =
B
1
116
a
O
A
C
cosine axis
1. Domain =
2. Range = [1, 1]
3. cos x > 0 in the interval ( , ).
2 2
3
4. cos x < 0 in the interval ( ,
).
2 2
5. cos x is increasing in the third and fourth quadrants.
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
degrees
radians
cos x
90
2
0
180
270
3
2
0
360
2
1
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
117
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
13
11
+ sin17 2 cos13 + sin
.
2
2
We can find the answer by using coterminal angles and quadrantal angles for each term.
sin = 0
cos
13
= cos( + 3 2 ) = cos = 0
2
2
2
11
3
3
= sin( + 2 2 ) = sin
= 1
2
2
2
13
11
+ sin17 2 cos13 + sin
= 0+0+0 2(1)+(1 ) =1.
2
2
3
5
for all values of x except ,
,
... .
2
2
2
We can call this new line the tangent axis.
a
O
tangent axis
D
tan =
We can see in the figure that the tangent axis has infinite length. So we can define a
1. Domain = { + k}, k
2
2. Range =
3
), ( , )
2
2
3
4. tan x < 0 on ( , ), ( , 2 )
2
2
118
sin x
, cos x 0.
cos x
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
degrees
radians
tan x
90
2
undefined
180
270
3
2
undefined
360
2
0
k
+ k gives us x + , k .
2
6 3
k
So the domain is {x | x , x +
, k }.
6 3
Domain: 3x
Range: tan 3x
, so the range is (, ).
cotangent axis
C
a
O
F A
We can see in the figure that this axis has infinite length. So we can define a function from
{k}, k to such that f(x) = cot x. This function is called the cotangent function. It
has the following properties:
1. Domain =
{k}, k
2. Range =
3
), ( ,
).
2
2
3
4. cot x < 0 on ( , ), ( , 2 )
2
2
cos x
, sin x 0
sin x
119
radians
cot x
undefined
90
2
0
180
undefined
270
3
2
0
360
2
undefined
a
O
C
A
3
5
,
,
, ... because at these points
2
2
2
the tangent line will be parallel to the x-axis.
We can see in the figure that as approaches 90, sec approaches .
1. Domain =
The secant function
corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points
on the x-axis with
x (1, 1).
2. Range =
{ + k}, k
2
(1, 1)
3. sec x > 0 on ( , )
2 2
3
4. sec x < 0 on ( ,
)
2 2
1
, cos x 0.
cos x
By using the unit circle we can form the following table:
5. sec x =
120
degrees
radians
sec x
90
2
undefined
180
270
3
2
undefined
360
2
1
Algebra 10
x
P
a
O
{k}, k
to
1. Domain =
The cosecant function
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points
on the y-axis with
y (1, 1).
2. Range =
(1, 1)
1
, sin x 0.
sin x
radians
csc x
undefined
90
2
1
180
undefined
270
3
2
1
360
2
undefined
7. Mixed Examples
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
1 1 3
f ( ) = 2 sin + cos(2 ) = 2 + = .
6
6
6
2 2 2
121
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
Calculate (sin
3
3
cos ) (tan cot )+ sec 2 csc .
2
2
2
3
We know that sin
= 1, cos = 1, tan = 0, cot
= 0, sec 2 = 1 and
2
2
3
csc
= 1. So
2
(sin
3
3
cos ) (tan cot )+ sec 2 csc
=1 (1) 0 0+1 ( 1) =1.
2
2
2
Note
p
2
cos x
tan x
O
p
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
sin x
cot x
2p
3p
2
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
122
65
124
55
sin 65
cos 124
cos x
tan 55
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
Write a = sin 50, b = cos 50, c = tan 50 and d = sec 50 in ascending order.
Look at the figure. At 45, sin 45 = cos 45
and cos 45 < tan 45 = 1.
Also, if 90 > x > 45 then sin x > cos x and
tan x > 1.
So we can write cos 50 < sin 50 < tan 50.
What about sec 50?
sin50
1
tan50 =
and sec50 =
.
cos50
cos50
C
tan 50
B
sin 50
O cos 50
37
Solution
EXAMPLE
38
Solution
[2, 2] =
k
{ + }, k
4 2
k
{ + }, k
4 2
To find the range, we can use the fact that cos2 x and cos x are continuous functions. The
range is therefore the interval between the minimum and maximum points of y.
y = ax2 + bx + c is the
equation of a parabola.
The vertex of the
parabola is V(r, k) where
b
and
r=
2a
k =y(k).
123
Check Yourself 9
1. Evaluate each expression.
a. sin 90 + cos 180 2 tan 180 cot 90
b. 3 cos 0 + 3 tan 0 2 cot 270 + sin 270
3
3
+ 2 cos cot
2
2
2
7
21
e. sin 3 + cos + tan17 + cot
2
2
c. sin
13
cot
2
2
3
5
sec17 + csc
tan6 + cot
2
2
d. sec 3 + 2 csc
f.
b. y = 4 cos 5x
c. y = 4 tan 3x 2
d. f(x) = cot(3x 5) + 2
e. f(x) = 3 csc 2x 2
f.
g. y = 2 sin 3x + cos 2x
h. y = 2 tan 3x 3 cot 5x
y = sec(2 x + )
3
b. y = 5 sin (4x + 1) 3
c. f(x) = 3 sin 7x + 4
d. y = 2 cos 5x 4
e. y = 13 cos (2x 3)
f. f(x) = 5 cos x + 3
g. y = tan 3x 1
i. f(x) = 2 sec 3x
j. y = 4 csc 7x 3
k. y = 2 sec (x + 2)
l. y = 2 tan x + cot 2x
b. cos 129
c. tan 448
d. cot 322
e. tan 198
f. sec 121
g. csc 167
h. sin
7
5
l.
3
4
i.
cos
17
7
j.
tan
6
5
k. cot
13
19
sec
b.
c.
k
{ + }, k
6 3
k
{ + }, k
12 2
g.
h.
d.
5 k
{ + }, k
3 3
e.
k
}, k
2
k n
{ +
}, k, n
6 3
5
Algebra 10
h.
Definition
y
B(0, 1)
p 90
2
A(1, 0) 180
p
0 A(1, 0)
360 2p
3p
2 270
B(0, 1)
the angles 0+ kp and p + kp (k )
2
are quadrantal angles
We can calculate the trigonometric values of quadrantal angles by observing at the points at
which the terminal sides of the angles intersect the unit circle.
Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles
EXAMPLE
39
Solution
q in degrees
q in radians
sin q (y)
cos q (x)
tan q (y/x)
cot q (x/y)
sec q (1/x)
csc q (1/y)
undefined
undefined
90
p
2
undefined
undefined
180
undefined
undefined
270
3p
2
undefined
undefined
360
2p
undefined
undefined
b. 1 0 + 0 (1) = 2
125
EXAMPLE
40
Solution
3
a. sin + cos + tan 0 cot
2
2
a. 0 + 0 + 0 0 = 0
b. sin
b. 1 0 0 1 = 2
EXAMPLE
41
Solution The angles are all greater than 360 so we begin by finding the primary directed angle of each
term.
sin 1710 = sin (4 360 + 270) = sin 270
cos 2520 = cos (7 360 + 0) = cos 0
cot 450 = cot (360 + 90) = cot 90
tan 900 = tan (2 360 + 180) = tan 180
Hence,
sin 1710 cos 2520 + cot 450 tan 900 = sin 270 cos 0 + cot 90 tan 180
= 1 1 + 0 0 = 2.
Check Yourself 10
Evaluate each expression by using the table of trigonometric values for quadrantal angles.
1. 2 sin 180 + tan + 5 cot 270 + 3 cos 180.
4 cos 0 10 sin
2
2.
2 sin 270 cos
Answers
1. 3
2. 6
2. Reference Angle
In this section we will learn how to find the trigonometric ratios of any angle in terms of the
trigonometric ratios of a corresponding acute angle. We will use the special trigonometric ratios
for 30, 45 and 60 angles which we studied in section 1.2.
Definition
reference angle
The positive acute angle which is formed by the terminal side of a nonquadrantal angle and
the x-axis is called the reference angle for .
126
Algebra 10
Look at the figures. They show how to find the reference angle for an angle in each
quadrant.
y
a=q
O
y
q
q
a
third
quadrant
0,
2
,
2
3
fourth
quadrant
, 2
2
first
quadrant
second
quadrant
sin x
cos x
tan x
cot x
127
3
or
in the reduction formula, the formula changes sine to cosine and
2
2
tangent to cotangent. If we have or 2 in the formula, the function does not change.
2. If we have
3. Now we can combine these two pieces of information to get the reduction formulas:
EXAMPLE
42
Solution
.
2
3
c. tan( + x) d. sin(2 x) e. sin( + x) f. cos(2 + x)
2
a. sin( + x)
2
b. cos( + x)
2
EXAMPLE
43
Solution
Simplify
128
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
44
Solution
b. 150
c. 215
d. 317
Now that we can calculate reference angles we are ready to calculate the trigonometric value
of a nonquadrantal angle. To do this, follow the steps:
1. Find the primary directed angle of the nonquadrantal angle and determine its quadrant.
2. Determine the sign of the function in this quadrant.
3. Calculate the reference angle for the given angle.
4. Find the trigonometric value of the reference angle and use it with the sign from step 2.
EXAMPLE
45
Solution
b. sin 330
c. sec 240
d. csc 120
e. sin 510
f. cos 945
g. tan (930)
h. cot (675)
y
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
(+)
()
()
()
()
(+)
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
O
()
()
(+)
(+)
()
()
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
x
sin a
cos a
tana
cot a
sec a
csc a
()
(+)
()
()
(+)
()
129
2
3
e. 1. 510 = 360 + 150. So the primary directed angle of 510 is 150 and it is in the
second quadrant.
2. In the second quadrant, the sine function is positive.
3. = 180 150 = 30
4. sin 510 = sin 1 50 = sin 30 =
1
2
f. 1. 945 = (2 360) + 225. So the primary directed angle is 225 and it is in the third quadrant.
2. In the third quadrant, the cosine function is negative.
3. = 225 180 = 45
4. cos 945 = cos 225 = cos 45 =
1
2
g. 1. 930 = (3 360) + 150. So the primary directed angle is 150 and it is in the
second quadrant.
2. In the second quadrant, the tangent function is negative.
3. = 180 150 = 30
4. tan ( 930 ) = tan 1 50
= tan 30
=
1
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
46
Solution
a. 1.
7
6
b. tan
31
4
25
c. sin
47
d. cos
7
7
7
< 2 so
= + so the
< 2 . So this is a primary directed angle. Moreover,
6
6
6
6
angle is in the third quadrant.
cot
= cot = 3
6
6
31
> 2, we need to write the angle as a primary directed angle:
4
7
31
7
and it is in the fourth quadrant.
= (3 2 )+ . So the primary directed angle is
4
4
4
2. In the fourth quadrant, the tangent function is negative.
b. 1. Since
3.
4.
7
=
4
4
31
7
tan
= tan
= tan = 1
4
4
4
= 2
25
< 2, we need to write the angle as a primary directed angle.
3
25
5
c. 1. Since
3.
= 2
4.
5
3
25
sin
= sin =
= sin
3
3
2
3
d. 1.
47
47
= 6 (2 )+ .
< 2 so we need to find the primary directed angle:
4
4
4
The angle is in the first quadrant.
3. = 0 =
4
4
4.
1
47
cos
= cos =
4
2
4
131
Check Yourself 11
1. Find the reference angle for each angle.
a. 890
b. 5000
c. 850
d. 2500
50
32
103
11
e.
f.
g.
h.
11
7
6
5
2. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.
a. sin 570
b. tan 405
19
27
f. cos
3
4
Answers
1. a. 10
b. 40
c. 50
e. cot
2. a.
1
2
b. 1
c.
3
2
c. cos (2550)
d. cot (7950)
g. sin 45
4
25
h. tan
d. 20
d. 3
3
7
3
e.
3
e.
f.
f.
2
2
g.
5
11
h.
g.
2
2
h.
3
3
47
Solution
For each trigonometric ratio in the given quadrant, find the five other trigonometric ratios
for same angle.
1
2
a. sin = , (0 , 90 )
b. cos = , (90 , 180 )
3
5
3
c. tan = 7 , , 3
d. cot = 6, , 2
4
2
2
We will use the abbreviations opp, adj and hyp to mean the opposite side, adjacent side and
hypotenuse of a triangle with respect to the angle .
a. The angle is in the first quadrant. In this quadrant, both axes are positive and so the sine
and cosine values will be positive. By the Pythagorean Theorem,
(+)
hyp2 = adj2 + 22
2
2
2
5 = adj + 2
5
adj2 = 25 4
+2
q
q
adj = 21.
(+)
+x
21
2
21
5
5
, tan =
, cot =
, sec =
, csc = .
5
2
2
21
21
Algebra 10
(+)
+y
qq
1
(+)
1
adj
1
can be taken as cos =
= .
3
hyp +3
3
3
2 2
2 2
1
= 3, csc =
.
, tan =
= 2 2, cot =
, sec =
1
2 2
3
1
2 2
opp 7 7
using the signs of
= =
adj 4 4
the axes in the third quadrant. By the Pythagorean
c. Similarly, tan =
7
65
, cos =
4
65
, cot =
4
()
(+)
4 4
= ,
7 7
()
65
65
, csc =
.
4
7
adj
6
= 6 =
using the signs of the
opp
1
axes in the fourth quadrant.
d. Finally, cot =
1
6
, cos =
,
37
37
(+)
q
+6
1
r
()
37 csc = 37 = 37.
1
,
, sec =
1
6
6
133
Check Yourself 12
1. Find the sine, cosine and tangent ratios of each angle without using a trigonometric table
or calculator.
2
3
2. a. tan = 5, (180, 270) are given.
a. = 315
c. = 900
b. =
d. =
63
2
2
3
=
,
3
2
c. sin 900 = 0,
d. sin
63
= 1,
2
2. a. sin =
b. sin =
5
26
3 11
10
cos 315 =
cos
1
2
2
1
= ,
3
2
cos 900 = 1,
cos
63
= 0,
2
cos =
tan 315 = 1
tan
2
= 3
3
tan 900 = 0
tan
63
is undefined
2
1
26
tan = 311
134
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
48
Solution
f : is a function such that f(x) = {the remainder when x is divided by 4}. Draw the
graph of f and find its period.
Let us find some values of f(x) to draw the graph.
x
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
f(x)
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
y = f(x)
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
As we can see in the table, the values 0, 1, 2 and 3 repeat. So we can write
f(x) = f(x + 4) = f(x + 8) = .
We can say that T = 4, 8, 12, ... are all periods of f(x).
The smallest positive period of f(x) is 4, so the fundamental period of f(x) is 4.
EXAMPLE
49
5
3 2
1 2 3 4
10
6 7 8 9
12
11
15
13 14
135
Solution
So the periods are 5, 10, 15, ... and the fundamental period is T = 5.
b. If T = 5 then we can write f(x) = f(x + kT) = f(x + 5k), k . So
f(133) = f(3 + 26 5) = f(3) = 2
f(85) = f(0 + 17 5) = f(0) = 2
f(202) = f(2 + 40 5) = f(2) = 2.
EXAMPLE
50
Solution
Recall the definition of coterminal angles on the unit circle: for any angle x we can write
x = x + 2k, k . If we apply this fact to trigonometric functions, we get
sin x = sin(x + 2k)
cos x = cos(x + 2k)
tan x = tan(x + k)
cot x = cot(x + k).
This means that trigonometric functions are also periodic functions. Moreover, 2k is a
period for sin x and cos x and k is a period for tan x and cot x, where k is an integer.
136
2k = 3T and therefore T =
Algebra 10
Rule
Let n be an integer, let a and b be real numbers and let T stand for the fundamental period
of a trigonometric function.
1. For y = sin n( ax + b), y = cos n( ax+ b), y = sec n( ax+ b)and y = csc n( ax+ b).
i. if n is even then T =
ii. if n is odd then T =
.
| a|
2
.
| a|
.
| a|
Note
If f(x) is a periodic function then af(x) and f(x) + b are also periodic functions and the
periods of all these functions are the same. Can you see why?
EXAMPLE
51
2 2
=
= .
| a| 8
4
b. n = 5 is odd, so T =
2 2
=
= .
| a| 4
2
c. n = 2 is even, so T =
= .
| a| 3
d. n = 3 is odd and a = 2, so T =
e. n = 4 is even, so T =
EXAMPLE
52
2
2
2
=
=
=.
| a | | 2| 2
= .
| a| 4
c. y = 2 cot3 (2 6x) + 1.
137
Solution
y = cot3(2x 1). So T =
= .
| a| 2
b. T =
=
| a| 5
c. a = 6, so T =
EXAMPLE
53
Solution
=
= .
| a | | 6| 6
n = 1 is odd and a =
T=
, so
3
2 2
3
=
= 2 = 6 .
| a|
Rule
least
LCM
means
common multiple: the
smallest quantity that is
divisible by two or more
given quantities without
a remainder.
GCD is the greatest
common divisor: the
greatest quantity that
can divide two or more
given quantities.
To find the period of the sum or difference of two or more periodic functions, first we find
the fundamental period of each separate function, and then we take the least common
multiple of these periods. This is the fundamental period of given function. For example, if
f(x) = g(x) + h(x) and the fundamental periods of g(x) and h(x) are T1 and T2 respectively
then the fundamental period of f(x) is T = LCM(T1, T2).
For example:
LCM (4,6) = 12,
GCD (4,6) = 2.
Rule
a
c
and ,
b
d
a c
LCM( a, c)
LCM( , ) =
b d
GCD( b, d)
a c
p
LCM( a, c, ..., p, ...)
By extension, LCM( , , ..., , ...) =
.
b d
q
GCD( b, d, ..., q, ...)
EXAMPLE
138
42
Solution
2
.
3
54
Solution
EXAMPLE
55
Solution
2
2 2
LCM(2 , 2 ) 2
) = LCM( ,
)=
=
= 2 .
3
1
3
GCD(1, 3)
1
2
LCM(2 , ) 2
, )=
=
= 2 .
3 5
GCD(3, 5)
1
2
.
5
2
LCM( , , 2 ) 2
So T = LCM( , ,
)=
=
= 2 .
3 2 5
GCD(3, 2, 5)
1
Note
If f(x) is a product or quotient of two periodic functions then LCM(T1, T2) gives us a period
of f(x) but this may not be the fundamental period. To find the fundamental period we must
change the product or quotient to a sum or difference of functions.
EXAMPLE
56
Solution
1
1
1
[cos(5x + 3x)+ cos(5x 3x)] = cos 8 x + cos 2 x.
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
cos 8 x we get T1 =
= , and for h( x) = cos 2 x we get T2 =
= , so
2
8
4
2
2
LCM( , )
= = .
T = LCM( , ) = LCM( , ) =
4
4 1
GCD( 4, 1) 1
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
139
Check Yourself 13
1. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin3 4x
b. y = 2 sin2(4 3x)
c. y = 3 cos3(5x 2)
d. y = 2 sec2(2 4x) + 1
e. y = csc7(2x + 3) 4
f. y = 2 cos 5x
b. y = tan 3x
c. y = 2 cot 3(3
2x
)
5
d. y = tan
x
4
b. y = cos2 4x 2 cot5 3x
f. y = sin x sin 3x
Answers
1. a.
b.
c.
2
5
d.
4. a. 2 b. c. d. e.
e. f.
2
5
2. a.
b.
c.
5
2
d. 4
3. 10
f.
Algebra 10
x
sin x
3
, ,
and 2 and make a table:
2
2
p
2
3p
2
2p
1
p
p
2
3p
2
3p
2p
1
2p
Remember that the period of y = sin x is 2, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = sin x.
[1, 1].
3
0, , ,
and 2 and make a table:
2
2
x
cos x
p
2
3p
2
2p
3p
2
p
2
y = cos x
p
2
3p
2
2p
2p
141
The period of y = cos x is 2, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2] we can copy the curve
any number of times to get the general graph of y = cos x.
{ + k}
2
p
2
tan x
p
4
p
4
p
2
3p
2
p
p
2
p
2
p
3p
2
The period of y = tan x is , so after drawing the graph on the interval ( , ) we can
2 2
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = tan x.
{k}
142
p
4
p
2
3p
4
Algebra 10
p
2
3p
2
p
2
p
2p
The period of y = cot x is , so after drawing the graph in (0, ) we can copy the curve any
number of times to get the general graph of y = cot x.
p
2
3p
2
2p
y
y = sec x
1
-3p/2
-2p
p/2
-p/2
-p
-1
3p/2
p
2p
x
y = cos x
Remember that the period of y = sec x is 2, so we can copy the curve any number of times
to get the general graph of y = sec x.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
143
1
, so we can say that csc x is undefined when
sin x
{k}
(1, 1).
csc x +
p
2
3p
2
2p
1
-p
-p/2
-3p/2
O
-1
p/2
3p/2
2p
5p/2
y = sin x
Remember that the period of y = csc x is 2, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = csc x.
7. Graph Translations
Recall the basic effects that different changes in a function can have on a graph:
1. The graph of y = f(x r) is the graph of f(x) shifted r units right along the x-axis.
2. The graph of y = f(x) + k is the graph of f(x) shifted k units up along the y-axis.
3. The graph of y = f(x) is the reflection of the graph of f(x) with respect to the x-axis.
144
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
57
Solution
y
y = sin x
1
p
3
y = sin (x
2p
p
)
3
x
EXAMPLE
58
Solution
p
4
p
2
3p
4
cos 2x
3cos 2x
y = 3cos 2x
p
4
p
2
3p
4
3p
2
2p
145
EXAMPLE
59
Solution
2
.
3
2
].
3
2
3. Use the angles 0, , , , and
to draw the table:
6 3 2
3
p
6
p
3
p
2
2p
3
sin 3x
2sin 3x
2sin 3x + 4
y
6
4
2
p p p 2p
6 3 2 3
2p
3
EXAMPLE
60
Solution
x
3 in the interval [6, 6].
3
x
2
1. The period of y = cos
is T =
= 6 .
1
3
3
3
9
2. Let us divide the interval [0, 6] into four equal parts, then the angles will be 0,
, 3,
,
2
2
6.
p
cos
1
3
p
2cos 3 1
3
146
3p
2
3p
9p
2
6p
Algebra 10
9p
2
3p
3p
2
3p
2
3p
9p
2
6p
x
1
3
5
EXAMPLE
61
Solution
x
in [3 , 3 ].
3
6p
x
is T = = 3 .
1
3
3
3p
2
3p
2
x
3
3
3
and draw the table:
, 0,
2
2
4. Now we can draw the graph and repeat the curve on the interval [3, 3]:
y
3p
2
3p
2
3p
3p
3p
147
Check Yourself 14
1. Draw the graph of each function in the interval [0, ].
a. y = 3 sin 4x 1
b. y = 5 cos 2x
c. y = tan 2x
b.
c.
Answers
1. a.
2
p
8
p 3p p
4 8 2
3p
4
5p
8
6
5
4
7p
8
p
4
p
4
p
2
3p
4
p
2
3p
4
Note
Be careful!
sin 1 x
1
sin x
cos 1 x
1
cos x
Some books use sin1 x, cos1 x, tan1 x, cot1 x or Asin x, Acos x, Atan x, Acot x to show the
inverses of trigonometric functions. Some book also use Arcsin x to mean the inverse
function of sin x, and arcsin x to mean the inverse relation of sin x. We know that a relation
does not need to be one-to-one to have inverse, but a function must be one-to-one and onto
to have its inverse.
In this book we will use arcsin x, arccos x, arctan x and arccot x to mean the inverses of the
trigonometric functions.
148
Algebra 10
x = arcsin y y = sin x, x [ , ]
2 2
Graph of y = arcsin x
For arcsin : [ 1, 1] , we can find the following values:
2 2
Remember!
The graph of an inverse
function f 1(x) is the
reflection of the graph of
the function f(x) with
respect to the line y = x.
arcsin x p
2
2
2
p
4
2
2
p
4
p
2
p
2
1
0
y=x
EXAMPLE
62
Solution
p
2
1
p
1
Find the value of arcsin .
2
interval , , so we will take x = 30 = .
6
2 2
149
EXAMPLE
63
Solution
EXAMPLE
64
Find arcsin(
3
).
2
The arcsine function is defined on the interval , ,
2 2
so x = arcsin(
3
3
)
= sin x, i.e. x= 60 = .
2
2
3
Find sin(arcsin
2
).
2
Let arcsin
2
2
= x . Then we can write sin(arcsin
) = sin x .
2
2
Remember!
By the property of
inverse functions,
x = arcsin
2
2
= sin x, so x = 45 .
2
2
So sin(arcsin
Solution 1
f (f (x)) = x.
Solution 2
EXAMPLE
65
Solution
sin(arcsin
2
2
) = sin x = sin 45 =
.
2
2
2
2
by the property of inverse functions (since f(f 1(x))=x).
)=
2
2
EXAMPLE
66
Solution
150
Graph of y = arccos x
For arccos : [1, 1] [0, ] we can find the following values:
x
arccos x
1
p
2
2
2
2
3p
4
p
2
p
4
1
0
y=x
p
2
1
1
1
EXAMPLE
67
Solution
1 p
2
p
x
y = cos x
1
Find arccos .
2
1
x = arccos = cos x and x [0, ] = cos x means x = 60 = = arccos .
2
2
2
3
2
151
EXAMPLE
68
Solution
Find arccos
3
2
+ arccos
.
2
2
3
3
means cos a =
, so a= 30 = .
2
2
6
b = arccos
2
2
means cos b =
, so b= 45 = .
2
2
4
5
Combining these results gives us a+ b= + = .
6 4 12
EXAMPLE
69
Solution
3
.
2
EXAMPLE
70
Solution
Find sin(arcsin
Let a = arcsin
2
3
+ arccos
).
2
2
2
3
and b = arccos
.
2
2
a = arcsin
2
2
means sin a =
and so a= 45 = .
2
2
4
b = arccos
3
3
means cos b =
and so b= 30 = .
2
2
6
So sin(arcsin
2
3
+ arccos
) = sin(45 + 30) = (sin45 cos30) + (cos45 sin30)
2
2
=(
152
3
= 30 = . This is the answer.
2
6
2 3
2 1
6+ 2
)=
)+(
.
2 2
2 2
4
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
71
Solution
3
Find cos(arcsin ).
5
3
3
Let a = arcsin , then sin a =
and we
5
5
3
need to find cos a. However, sin a =
is not
5
a ratio we know, so we can draw a right
a
4
BC2 = 52 32 = 25 9 = 16, so BC = 4.
BC 4
3
So cos a =
= = cos(arcsin ).
AC 5
5
EXAMPLE
72
Solution
1
Find cos( arcsin ).
2
2
1
Let arcsin = a, then we need to find
2
cos(
Reduction formula:
cos( x) = sin x
2
EXAMPLE
73
Solution
1
1
a) = sin a = sin(arcsin ) = .
2
2
2
2
Find sin(2 arccos ).
3
2
2
= a, then cos a = .
3
3
Then we have
2
sin(2 arccos ) = sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a.
3
2
Given that cos a =
we can draw a right
3
triangle to find sin a.
Let arccos
a
B
5
. So
3
2
sin(2 arccos ) = sin 2 a = 2 sin a cos a
3
5 2 4 5
=
=2
.
3 3
9
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
153
EXAMPLE
74
Solution
, .
2 2
x = arctan y y = tan x, x ,
2 2
Graph of y = arctan x
For arctan : ,
2 2
x
1
p
arctan x p
2
p
4
p
2
0
p
2
EXAMPLE
75
Solution
154
p
2
Find arctan 3.
If x = arctan 3 then tan x = 3 and so x = 60 =
= arctan 3.
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
76
Solution
3
arctan( 3).
3
.
4
3
3
= b then tan b =
and so b= 30 = .
3
3
6
So arctan 1 + 2 arctan
EXAMPLE
77
Solution
11
3
.
arctan (3 ) = + 2 ( ) =
4
6
3
12
3
1
Find sin(arctan ).
2
1
1
1
If arctan = x then tan x =
and we need to find sin x. However, tan x = is not a
2
2
2
ratio we know, so we can draw a right triangle to find other trigonometric ratios of x.
A
5
AB2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5 and so AB = 5.
So sin x =
EXAMPLE
78
Solution
1
5
AC
=
=
.
5
AB
5
Find arctan(tan
x
B
1
C
5
).
4
5
, but remember that
4
5
cannot be the answer.
arctan a , and so
4
2 2
5
However, tan
=1 and so arctan 1= 45 = is the correct answer.
4
4
155
Graph of y = arccot x
For arccot: (0, )
x
p
arccot x
3p
4
p
2
p
4
y=x
y = arccot x
p
2
p
2
y = cot x
EXAMPLE
79
Solution
EXAMPLE
80
Solution
Find arccot
x = arccot
3
.
3
3
3
means cot x =
, so x= 60 = .
3
3
3
156
3
2
2 3+3 2 6
+
1 =
.
3
2
6
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 15
1. Find each value in radians.
1
b. arcsin( )
2
a. arcsin 1
2
)
2
d. arccos(
1
c. arccos( )
2
f. arctan( 3 )
3
e. arctan 0
g. arccot 3
h. arccot (1)
a. cos(arcsin
3
)
2
b. sin (arccos 1)
c. tan(arcsin
2
a. sin(arcsin )
5
3
b. cos(arcsin )
4
2
c. tan(arcsin )
3
d. cot(arctan 3)
e. sin (arctan 2)
d. sin(arctan(
3
))
3
3
a. sin( arcsin )
5
b. tan(
2
d. cos(2 arcsin )
7
1
e. tan(arccot )
4
3
c. cot( arcsin
)
2
2
f.
1
tan(2 arcsin )
2
b. f(x) = arccos(4x + 2)
Answers
1. a.
2. a.
2
2
2
b.
c. 2
3
b. 0 c. 3 d.
7
4
3. a.
2
5
b.
4. a.
3
5
b.
2
5. a. 0,
3
4
3
c.
2 5
5
c. 3 d.
d. 3
4
e. 0
f. 0
1
2
d.
41
49
e.
1
3
e.
2 5
5
f.
f.
g.
6
h.
3
4
3
2
e. 4 f. 3
1
3
b. ,
4
4
157
Sound Waves
Each sound that you hear, such as a musical note, can
be represented as a sound wave with a particular
frequency and amplitude. Higher sounds have higher
frequencies, and louder sounds have bigger amplitude.
You may remember that a famous ratio in mathematics
is the golden ratio, which is equal to 1+ 5 1.618 .
2
Musicians have found that if the frequencies of two
notes are in this ratio then they produce a pleasing harmony when they are played together.
Sound waves are connected to trigonometry by the sine function: every sound can be
represented as a wave which has the equation y = a sin(b c). In this equation, a is the
amplitude, b is the product of the frequency and 2, and c is a real number called the phase
difference. As an example, consider a sound with frequency 55 Hz and amplitude 3. The graph
of this sound wave is given by y = a sin(b c) with a = 3, b = 2 55 = 110 and c = 0, i.e.
y = 3sin (110).
Activity
Try looking for pictures of sound waves in an encyclopedia or on the
Internet. Can you see the similarity between sound waves and the graph
of the sine function?
EXERCISES
3 .2
b. cos 224
c. tan 245
d. cot 22
e. tan (298)
f. sec 552
c. sin + 3 cos
2 cot
2
2
2
3
3
7
d. sec5 3 csc + 2 cot
sin
2
2
2
17
11
e. sin7 + 2 cos
+ 3 tan7 cot
2
2
g. csc (467)
h. sin
8
7
4
k. cot( )
7
i.
cos
21
5
j.
tan(
l.
sec
26
)
15
23
5
c. y = 4tan(4x 2)
d. y = 2cot(x + 1) + 3
a. sin x = 0.2
b. cos x = 0.9
e. y = csc(3x 2)
c. tan x = 3
d. cot x = 0.5
f. y = sec(3x 60)
e. sec x = 0.3
f. cos x = 3
g. csc x = 2
h. tan x = 3
h. y = tan 2x 3 cot 5x
i. sec x = 34
j. csc x = 0
b. y = 5 sin 4x
c. y = 3 sin 2x 4
d. y = 4cos (x 4) + 2
k. cos x = 2
e. y = 3 sin (x 2) + 3
f. y = 2 cos 3x 2
g. y = 2tan (2x + 1)
h. y = tan (4x 2)
function.
i. f(x) = sec 2x + 1
a. y = 3sin x + 4
b. y = 2cos(2x 1)
j. f(x) = 2 csc 3x 1
c. y = 5sin 3x 1
d. y = 2sec x + 1
e. y = 3csc x
f. y = tan 4x
160
Algebra 10
cos q
(x)
tan q
(y/x)
cot q
(x/y)
sec q
(1/x)
csc q
(1/y)
1
p
2
1
0
180
270
2p
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
a. 12
b. 112
c. 212
d. 312
e. 50
f. 150
g. 250
h. 350
a. 25
b. 140
c. 245
d. 305
e. 5
f. 95
g. 260
h. 320
b. 3456
c. 3000
d. 7890
e. 2000
f. 6789
g. 1000
h. 2345
161
11
b.
2
13
f.
7
12
c.
9
15
g.
18
13
d.
22
17
h.
angle.
a.
c.
e.
g.
sin (225)
tan (300)
sin (1590)
tan (9045)
b. cos (150)
d. cot (30)
f. cos (675)
h. cot (600)
e.
6
b.
7
10
c.
8
f.
9
13
12
17
g.
12
d.
23
14
28
h.
15
a.
73
6
b.
e.
57
7
f. 1007
73
c.
101
13
g. 602
98
d.
1001
15
h. 1009
99
y
x
y
r
x
r
cos = tan = cot = sec = csc =
y
y
r
r
x
x
x>0
y>0
II
x<0
y>0
III
x<0
y<0
IV
x>0
y<0
+
+
+
angle.
a. sin
5
6
b. cos
c. tan
5
4
d. cot
11
6
e. sin
4
2
f. cos
3
g. tan 5
4
7
h. cot
6
angle.
67
6
55
c. tan
4
100
3
607
d. cot
6
a. sin
b. cos
83
e. sin
202
f. cos
g. tan 151
4
89
h. cot
sin 120
tan 315
sin 855
tan 2025
2
, (90 , 180 )
2
5
c. tan = , (180 , 270 )
4
2
d. cot = , (270 , 360 )
3
a. sin =
, , 2
2
2
b. cos =
24
3
, ,
25
2
a. If
3 sin +1 2
= , what is sin ?
4 5 sin 5
b. If
cos 2
1
= , what is cos ?
7 cos +11
6
tan +5
tan 4
c. If
=
, what is tan ?
6
2
d. (tan 45 cot ) + (sec 60 cot ) = 12 is
22+ csc
= 4
3+ 4csc
m(ABC) = 150,
AB = 6 and
BC = 3.
Calculate
150
B
a. AC = x.
120
trapezoid ABCD in
the figure.
c. tan = 4, ,
2
d. cot = 7, 0,
2
sin 10
2
10
b. 136.2
c. 213.75
d. 313.79
b. 346 50
c. 198 19
d. 23 56 12
163
a. sin 23.4
b. cos 54.25
b. y = cos3 5x 3 cot 2x
c. tan 71.1
d. cot 63.55
f. y = sin x sin 3x
g. y = cos 3x cos 4x
a. sin 121 15
b. cos 346 50
c. tan 131 27
j.
d. cot 89 49
x
3
y = tan x +5 sin 4( )
3
a. y = sin2 3x
b. y = 3 sin3 (2 5x)
c. y = cos4 (x + 3)
d. y = 3 sec5 (7 3x) 5
e. y = csc12 (5x + 1) 2
f. y = cos 3x
a. y = 2 sin 3x + 1
b. y = 3 2 cos x
c. y = 2 tan 3x
d. y = 2cos 2x 2
e. y = 5sin 4x + 1
a. y = tan3 (2x 1)
[0, ].
b. y = 4 tan 5x
x
c. y = cot 2 (3 )
5
d. y = 3 cot (5x + 1)
a. y = sin 3x
b. y = tan 2x 1
c. y = cot x + 2
d. y = 2 sin
x
2
e. y = 3cos
x
3
Algebra 10
V.
2
)
2
a. arcsin 0
b. arcsin(
c. arcsin (1)
d. arcsin
e. arccos 1
f.
g. arccos 0
h. arccos (1)
IV.
2
2
arccos(
3
)
2
a. arctan 1
b. arctan (1)
c. arccot 1
d. arccot 0
e. arccot (3)
f.
arctan(
3
)
3
g. arctan (3)
h. arccot(
3
)
3
3p/2
p p/2
O p/2
2p
b.
c. sin(arctan
e. tan (arccos 1)
3
)
3
y = sin x
2p
1
b. sin(arccos )
2
d. cos(arcsin
f.
5
)
13
4
cot(arcsin )
5
c.
a. tan(arctan
3
2
1
p
p
2p
y = sin x
2p x
3
)
2
b. sin (arctan 1)
c. cos (arccot 3)
165
15
).
4
a. cos(arcsin
5
b = arcsin( )?
6
1
c. cot( arcsin )
3
5
6
29
).
3
2
3
4
a. sin( arccos )
2
7
5
b. tan( + arc cot )
2
2
c. cot(
3
1
arcsin )
2
2
4
d. tan(2 arcsin )
5
sin x.
3
5
sin(2 arcsin
12
)
13
1
2
3
e. cot(arccos )
4
f.
3
4
) and x = arctan , find
2
3
a. y = 3 arcsin (2x + 4)
b. y = 2 arccos (3x + 2)
c. y = 5 2 arccos (x 3)
2
).
3
d. y = arcsin (3 5x)
e. y = arctan 3x
f. y = arccot (5x + 1)
166
64. Evaluate
3
3
3
[arccos
+ arcsin
+ arctan 3].
2
2
Algebra 10
A. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS
We now know how to calculate one or more angles
or side lengths in a right triangle from given
information about the triangle. However, there are
also relations between the angles and sides of any
triangle (not just right triangles). In this section
we will study these general relations and use them
to solve triangle problems.
Theorem
a = b + c 2bc cos A
2
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C.
Proof
In a triangle ABC, a is
the side opposite A, b is
the side opposite B and
c is the side opposite c.
A
q
c
x
b
cx
(1)
h2 + x2 = b2. (2)
C
h2 + (c x)2 = a2
h2 + x2 = b2
h2 + (c x)2 h2 x2 = a2 b2
c2 2cx + x2 x2 = a2 b2.
So a2 = b2 + c2 2cx.
(3)
167
x
cos A = , i.e. x = b cos A.
b
Notice that by rewriting the three parts of the law of cosines we obtain the relations
cos A =
b2 + c2 a2
2bc
cos B =
a2 + c2 b 2
2ac
cos C =
a2 + b 2 c2
.
2ab
Note
By the law of cosines:
1. If two sides of a triangle and the angle between them are known, it is possible to calculate
the length of the third side of the triangle.
2. If the three sides of a triangle are known, it is possible to calculate the trigonometric
values of the angles in the triangle.
EXAMPLE
81
Find AB.
Solution
60
6
B
c = 28 = 27.
168
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
82
Solution
A
b
2
150
3
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
3
b2 = (3)2 + 22 2 3 2
2
2
b =3+4+6
3
cos 150 =
b2 = 13
b = 13.
EXAMPLE
83
Solution
1
(cos 120 = )
2
49 = a2 +9+ 3 a;
( a 5)( a+8) = 0;
a2 + 3a 40 = 0;
a = 5 , a = 8.
(5)
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
120
(8)
EXAMPLE
84
Solution
52 + 42 2 2
2 5 4
25+16 4
40
37
.
40
169
EXAMPLE
85
Solution
a +c b
2ac
3 +6 (3 3)
2 36
9+ 36 27
36
18 1
= .
36 2
So cos B =
A
2
33
1
1
. We know that m(B) < 90 and cos 60 = . Therefore m(B) = 60.
2
2
Check Yourself 16
1. The side lengths of a triangle are 4, 5 and 6 units respectively. Find the cosine of the
smallest angle in the triangle.
Inscribed and
circumscribed:
Theorem
1. 0.75
120
Answers
The black line shows an
inscribed triangle.
The red line shows a
circumscribed circle.
61
2. 5
a
b
c
=
=
= 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C
a
R
B
OB = R
170
Algebra 10
Proof
hC
, i.e. hC = b sin A.
b
(1)
hC
, i.e. hC = a sin B.
a
ha
(2)
A
hb
hc
D
B
c
(I)
hb
, i.e. hb = c sin A.
c
hb
which gives hb = a sin C.
a
(3)
a
b
c
=
=
.
sin A sin B sin C
(4)
a
c
=
.
sin A sin C
(II)
(Result 1)
A
M
So
a
a
a
=
, i.e. sin A =
.
2R
MC 2 R
a
= 2 R.
sin A
(Result 2)
a
b
c
=
=
= 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C
171
Note
Let ABC be an inscribed triangle. By the law of sines:
1. If the measures of the three angles and the radius
of circumscribed circle are known, it is possible to
find the side lengths of the triangle.
2. If the radius of the circumscribed circle and the
side lengths of the triangle are known, it is possible
to calculate the trigonometric values of the
angles of the triangle.
EXAMPLE
86
Solution
In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 30 and the length of side a is 8 cm. Find the area of the
circumscribed circle of ABC.
By the law of sines,
A
30
a
8
= 2 R so
= 2 R.
sin A
sin 30
8
= 2 R, i.e. R = 8 cm.
1
2
We can calculate the area A of a circle with
So
a=
EXAMPLE
87
Solution
In a triangle ABC, m(B) = 45, m(C) = 30 and the length of side c is 4 cm. Find the
length of side b.
By the law of sines,
4
b
c
b
=
.
=
, i.e.
sin 30 sin 45
sin C sin B
So
172
b
4
=
1
2
2
2
A
4
and b = 42 cm.
45
B
b
30
C
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
88
Solution
In a triangle ABC, the measures of the interior angles are 30, 60 and 90 respectively. The
radius of the triangles circumscribed circle is 6 cm. Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC.
By the law of sines,
a
b
c
=
=
= 2 6 =12. This gives
sin 30 sin 60 sin 90
a = sin 30 12 =
1
12 = 6 cm,
2
3
12 = 6 3 cm and
2
c = sin 90 12 = 12 cm.
60
b = sin 60 12 =
30
Check Yourself 17
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 5 cm and the radius of the circumscribed circle is 5 cm. Find m(A).
2. In a triangle ABC, m(A) = 30, m(B) = 135 and b = 42 cm. Find the length of side a.
Answers
1. 30 or 150
2. 4 cm
1
a b sin C
2
A( ABC ) =
1
a c sin B
2
A( ABC ) =
1
b c sin A.
2
173
Proof
hb
c
c
hb
(2)
The other proofs are similar and are left as an exercise for you.
EXAMPLE
89
Solution
In a triangle ABC, A(ABC) = 33 cm2, b = 3 cm and c = 4 cm. Find all the possible measures
of angle A.
A( ABC ) =
3 3=
1
b c sin A
2
1
3
3 4 sin A, i.e. sin A =
2
2
EXAMPLE
90
3
. So m(A) = 60 or m(A) = 120.
2
3
D
Solution
1
A( ABC ) = AB AC sin A
2
1
2
5 7 sin A, i.e. sin A =
2
7
Since angle A is common to both triangles we
5=
174
A( ADE) =
1
AD AE sin A
2
A( ADE) =
1
2
4 7 = 4 cm 2.
2
7
Algebra 10
Theorem
Herons Formula
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c and perimeter a + b + c = 2u. Then
A( ABC ) = u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
Proof
(1)
b2 + c2 a2
. Substituting this in (1) gives
2bc
b2 + c2 a2
(2bc )2 ( b2 + c2 a2 )2
sin A =1
=
2bc
4b2 c2
(2 bc b 2 c2 + a2 )(2bc + b 2 + c 2 a 2 )
4b2 c2
a2 ( b2 2 bc + c2 ) ( b2 + 2 bc + c 2 ) a 2
=
4b2 c2
a2 ( b c)2 ( b + c)2 a2
=
4b 2 c2
=
b + c a = 2(u a)
a + b + c = 2u
+
2c = 2c
a + b c = 2(u a)
a + b + c = 2u
+
2b = 2b
a + c b = 2(u b).
2( u a) 2( u c) 2( u b) 2 u
, i.e.
4b2 c2
4u( u a)( u b )( u c)
b2 c2
2
u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
bc
1
b c sin A we get
2
1
2
b c
u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
2
bc
So A( ABC ) = u( u a )( u b )( u c ).
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
175
91
EXAMPLE
Solution
9+10+11
=15.
2
92
EXAMPLE
Solution
12+10+6
2u = a + b + c so u =
=14.
2
10
D
1555555555552555555555553
12
But A( ABC ) =
Theorem
4 14
1
1
cm.
AD BC, which gives us 8 14 = x 12, i.e. AD = x =
3
2
2
abc
.
4R
C
Proof
1
A( ABC ) = b c sin A. By the law of sines,
2
a
a
.
= 2 R which gives us sin A =
2R
sin A
If we substitute
R
for sin A in the equation for
2R
a
R
B
OB = R
1
a
abc
b c
=
.
2
2R
4R
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
93
Solution
The side lengths of a triangle are 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm. Find the radius of the triangles
circumscribed circle.
C
5+6+7
= 9 and
2
A( ABC ) = u( u a)( u b )( u c)
O
A
= 9 4 3 2 = 6 6 cm 2.
abc
5 6 7 210
we have 6 6 =
=
.
4R
4R
4R
35
cm.
4 6
Check Yourself 18
1. In a triangle ABC, AB = 8 cm, BC = 12 cm and m(ABC) = 30. Find the area of the
triangle.
2. A triangle has side lengths of 14 units, 16 units and 20 units respectively. Find its area.
3. In a triangle ABC, A(ABC) = 18 cm2 and a b c = 72. Find the radius of circumscribed
circle.
Answers
1. 24 cm2
3. 1 cm
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c such that A(ABC) = S. Then
a=
2S sin A
,
sin B sin C
b=
2 S sin B
,
sin A sin C
c=
2 S sin C
.
sin A sin B
177
EXAMPLE
94
Solution
The interior angles of a triangle ABC measure 30, 60 and 90 respectively. Given that
A(ABC) = S = 23 cm2, find the length of each side.
Let us use the theorem.
22 3
2S sin A
2 2 3 sin 30
=
=
a=
sin B sin C
sin 60 sin 90
3
1
2
22 3
2S sin B
2 2 3 sin 60
=
=
b=
sin A sin C
sin 30 sin 90
c=
1
1
2
1
2 = 2 cm
3
2 = 2 3 cm
2S sin C
2 2 3 sin 90
2 2 3 1
=
=
= 4 cm
sin A sin B
sin 30 sin 60
1 3
2 2
law of tangents
Theorem
EXAMPLE
95
Solution
A+ B
tan
2 ,
A B
tan
a+c
=
ac
A+C
tan
2 ,
AC
tan
b+c
=
bc
15
A
105
b+ c
=
bc
B+ C
tan
2
B C
tan
2
B+ C
105 +15
tan
tan
3+
3
2
2
. So
=
bc
B C
105 15
tan
tan
2
2
tan (60 )
3
=
tan (45 )
1
= 3
b c=
3+ 3
3
3 3
3
3 3+3
3
= 3 +1.
b + c = 3+ 3
If we solve the system
, we find b = 23 and c = 1.
b c = 3 +1
178
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 19
1
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 8 cm, A(ABC) = 16 cm2 and sin B sin C = . Find m(A).
4
2. In a triangle ABC, b = 11 cm, c = 5 cm, m(B) = 78 and m(C) = 42. Find the value
of tan 18.
Answers
1. 30 or 150
2.
3 3
8
B. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
1. Sum and Difference Formulas
In this section we will learn the relations between the sum or difference of two angles and
their trigonometric ratios. We will prove these relations using the trigonometric identities we
have studied.
a. sin(xy)
In the figure,
A(ABC) = A(ABH) + A(ACH). By the
formula for the area of a triangle,
1
1
1
b c sin A = c h sin x + b h sin y,
2
2
2
which we can rewrite as
(b c sin A) = (c h sin x) + (b h sin y).
If we divide both sides by b c we get
h
h
sin A = sin x + sin y.
b
c
y
b
c
h
(1)
h
h
and cos x = .
c
b
96
Solution
179
EXAMPLE
97
Solution
2 3
2 1
+
2 2
2 2
6+ 2
6+ 2
. So sin75 =
.
4
4
3 2
1 2
)(
)
2 2
2 2
6 2
4
b. cos(xy)
y
b
C
H
155555555525555555553
= sin ((90 x) y)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
98
Solution
EXAMPLE
99
Solution 1
1 2
3 2
2 2
2 2
2 6
4
Solution 2
1 3
3 1
= 0.
2 2
2 2
1
3
+
0. So cos (60 + 30) cos 60 + cos 30.
2 2
c. tan(xy)
We know that tan =
sin
sin ( x + y) (sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)
. So tan ( x+ y) =
=
by
cos
cos ( x+ y) (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
181
1
cos x cos y
tan ( x+ y) =
tan x+ tan y
1 (tan x tan y)
EXAMPLE
Solution
tan x tan y
1+ (tan x tan y )
tan x + tan ( y)
.
1 (tan x tan ( y))
3
.
3
210 = 180 + 30
tan 210 = tan (180 + 30 )=
3
3 = 3
=
3
3
1 0
3
0+
EXAMPLE
Solution
5 1
tan x tan y
tan ( x y) =
= 2 4 =
1+(tan x tan y) 1+ 5 1
2 4
=
182
1
and tan y = .
4
9
4
13
8
18
13
Algebra 10
d. cot(xy)
cot ( x + y) =
1
cos ( x + y) (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
=
=
tan( x + y) sin ( x + y) (sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)
Let us divide the numerator and denominator by sin x sin y and simplify:
(cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
sin x sin y
cot ( x + y) =
(sin x cos y)+(cos x sin y)
sin x sin y
cos x cos y sin x sin y
1
sin x sin y
. So
=
cos y cos x
+
sin y sin x
cot ( x+ y) =
(cot x cot y) 1
cot y+ cot x
cot ( x y) =
Note
.
cot x cot ( y) 1
.
cot ( y)+ cot x
(cot x cot y) 1
, i.e.
cot y + cot x
(cot x cot y) +1
cot y cot x
We can also calculate these results by using the corresponding results for the tangent and the
1
1
).
fact that cot =
(so cot ( x y) =
tan ( x y)
tan
EXAMPLE
Solution
3 2 3+1 4 2 3
=
=2 3
2
2
183
Check Yourself 20
1. Calculate cos 15 and sin 105.
2. Calculate tan 195 and cot 285.
3. Verify the results.
1
2
b. cos 300 =
2
2
4. Calculate tan 15 + cot 15.
4
5. cot x = 1 and cot y = are given. Find cot (x y).
3
Answers
2+ 6
1. cos 15 = sin 105 =
2. tan 195 = 2 3, cot 285 = 3 2
4
a. sin 135 =
4. 4
5. 7
a. sin 2x
We know that sin (x + y) = (sin x cos y) + (cos x sin y).
If x = y this formula becomes
sin (x + x) = (sin x cos x) + (cos x sin x), i.e.
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x
We can also rewrite this as sin x cos x =
EXAMPLE
sin 2 x
.
2
103 Calculate sin 120 using the double-angle formula for sine.
Solution
184
(double-angle formula)
3 1
2 2
3
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
b. 6 sin
cos
8
8
sin 2 x
gives us
2
1
sin (2 22.5) cos 45
2
1
= sin 45 cos 45
2
b. 6sin
1 1
sin (2 45)
2 2
1
1
sin 90 = .
4
4
EXAMPLE
3 2
2
6 x sin 6 x
.
105 Simplify cos
cos 2 x sin 2 x
Solution
cos 6 x sin 6 x (cos 6 x sin 2 x) (cos 2 x sin 6 x) (sin 2 x cos6x) (sin6 x cos 2 x)
=
=
.
cos 2 x sin 2 x
cos 2 x sin 2 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
EXAMPLE
106 Simplify
Solution
sin(2 x 6 x)
sin (4 x)
=
, and using the
sin 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x
sin 4 x
= 2.
1
sin 4 x
2
This gives us
185
EXAMPLE
Solution
1
(sin 40 cos 40 ) cos 80
=2
cos 20
1
sin 80 cos 80
=4
=
cos 20
160
20
1
sin 160
8
=
cos 20
1
sin 20
1
8
= tan 20
cos 20 8
b. cos 2x
We know that cos (x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y.
If x = y this formula becomes
cos (x + x) = (cos x cos x) (sin x sin x), i.e.
cos 2 x = cos2 x sin2 x
We can also use the identities sin2 x = 1 cos2 x and cos2 x = 1 sin2 x to obtain two
additional formulas:
cos 2 x = 2cos2 x 1
cos 2 x = 1 2sin2 x
EXAMPLE
Solution
cos 2 x = 2 cos 2 x 1= 2 (
=
EXAMPLE
7 2
7
1
) 1= 2
4
16
1
8
1 cos 2 x
Solution
186
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
sin 68 = cos 22
(cofunctions)
(double-angle formula)
= sin 68 = 2t 1
c. tan 2x
We know that tan ( x + y) =
tan x + tan y
.
1 tan x tan y
tan x + tan x
, i.e.
1 tan x tan x
tan 2 x =
EXAMPLE
111
Solution
2tan x
1 tan 2 x
4
tan x = . Find tan 2x.
3
tan 2 x =
2 tan x
1 tan 2 x
4
8
8
3 = 3 = 3
=
2
16
7
4
1
1
9
9
3
2
24
7
d. cot 2x
We know that cot ( x + y) =
cot x cot y 1
.
cot x + cot y
cot x cot x 1
, i.e.
cot x + cot x
cot 2 x =
cot 2 x 1
2cot x
.
187
EXAMPLE
112 Given that x is an acute angle, calculate cot 2x using tan x cot x = 2.
Solution
Since tan x =
1
1
we have
cot x = 2, i.e.
cot x
cot x
1 cot 2 x 2
= .
cot x
1
2+ 6
2 6
.
or cot x =
2
2
Since x is an acute angle, the cotangent value must be positive. Since 6 > 2, 2 + 6 is
positive and so cot x =
2+ 6
.
2
e. Half-angle formulas
We have just seen that sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x, and cot 2x can be expressed in terms of sin x,
cos x, tan x and cot x respectively. In addition, we can apply the procedure in reverse order to
express sin x, cos x, tan x, and cot x in terms of sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x and cot 2x
respectively. For this reason, the double-angle formulas are also called half-angle formulas.
By using the double-angle formula for the cosine function, we can obtain the half-angle
formulas for the sine, tangent and cotangent functions as follows.
x
We know that cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1. If we replace x with , then
2
x
x
cos 2 = 2 cos 2 1,
2
2
cos x = 2 cos 2
1+ cos x
x
x
1 i.e. cos =
.
2
2
2
(1)
1 cos x
x
x
i.e. sin =
.
2
2
2
x
x
x
then cos 2 =1 sin 2 ,
2
2
2
(2)
sin
x
2
2=
tan =
, i.e. tan x = 1 cos x .
2 cos x
1+ cos x
2
1+ cos x
2
2
188
Algebra 10
Similarly,
1+ cos x
x
cos
x
2
2=
cot =
, i.e.
2 sin x
1 cos x
2
2
cot
EXAMPLE
113 cos 2 x = 51
1+ cos x
x
=
2
1 cos x
quadrant.
Solution
1 + cos 2 x
.
2
EXAMPLE
2
.
5
Solution
So sin (22.5 ) =
=
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
2
2
1
2
1 cos 2 x
. Since x is an acute angle, the sine is positive.
2
(cos 45 =
2
)
2
2 2
.
2
189
EXAMPLE
115
Solution
cos x =
So 135 <
EXAMPLE
1 cos x
x
=
and we take the negative value.
2
1+ cos x
3
1
x
5
Hence, tan =
=
3
2
1+
5
2
5 , i.e. tan x = 1 = 1 .
8
2
4
2
5
116 Find the values of sin 105 and cos 15 using half-angle formulas.
Solution
210
1 cos 210
=
2
2
(cos 210 =
3
)
2
Notice that we take the positive value in the half-angle formula because the sine function is
positive in the second quadrant. So we have
sin 105 =
3
)
2 = 2+ 3 = 2+ 3 .
2
4
2
1 (
Similarly,
cos 15 = cos
30
1+ cos 30
=
.
2
2
(cos 30 =
3
)
2
We take the positive value because the cosine function is positive in the first quadrant. So
cos 15 =
=
190
3
2 = 2+ 3
2
4
1+
2+ 3
.
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
x t
= in a right triangle, as
2 1
t2 + 1
So sin x = 2
2
2
t +1 t +1
2t
= 2
.
t +1
EXAMPLE
118 Given
sin x =
angle.
Solution
x
2
3
x
, find cos
if x is an acute
5
2
C
x
2
5
x
2
D
x
A
9
x DB
=
=
2 DC 3 10
=
3 10
.
10
191
Check Yourself 21
1. is an acute angle such that sin
3
= . Find sin .
2 5
2
. Find cos 2.
5
x
x
1
is given. Find cos 8x.
sin =
2
2 24
24
25
2.
17
25
3. 7
9
4.
2t
t2 1
5. 23
a. sin a sin b
To obtain a formula for sin a + sin b we add the formulas for the sine of a sum and the sine
of a difference:
sin ( x+ y) =
(1)
a = x + y
If we write a = x + y and b = x y we obtain the system
.
b = x y
a+ b
ab
and y =
, which we can substitute in (1):
2
2
a+b
a b
.
cos
2
2
(2)
Algebra 10
(3)
2
2
b = x y
sin a sin b= 2 cos
EXAMPLE
a+b
a b
sin
2
2 .
(4)
Solution
We could evaluate each term separately and then combine them. Howewer, the sum to
product formulas give us an easier way.
105 +15
105 15
a.
sin 105 + sin 15 = 2 sin
cos
2
2
= 2 sin 60 cos 45
3 2
2 2
=2
=
b.
6
2
70 10
70 +10
sin 70 sin 10 = 2 cos
sin
2
2
= 2 cos 30 sin 40
=2
3
sin 40
2
= 3 sin 40
193
b. cos a cos b
Now let us add the formulas for the cosine of a sum and the cosine of a difference:
cos (x + y) =
+ cos (x y)
(5)
2
2
b = x y
a+b
a b
.
cos
2
2
If we subtract the formulas instead of adding them, we get
cos ( x+ y) = ( cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
cos a +cos b= 2 cos
(6)
(7)
2
2
b = x y
cos a cos b= 2 sin
EXAMPLE
120 Simplify
Solution
a+b
a b
sin
.
2
2
(8)
105 +15
105 15
cos
2
2
105 +15
105 15
cos
2 sin
2
2
2 cos
cos 60 cos 45
sin 60 cos 45
1
1
2
=
=
.
3
3
2
194
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
121 Evaluate
Solution
sin a sin b
given that a + b = .
3
cos a cos b
a+b
ab
2 cos
sin
sin a sin b
2
2
=
cos a cos b 2 sin a + b sin a b
2
2
a+ b
2 = cot a + b
=
a+b
2
sin
2
cos
a+ b
= cot
= cot 3
2
2
= cot
EXAMPLE
= 3
6
Solution
We can use the first and last terms of both the numerator and the denominator in the sum
to product formulas.
7 x + 3x
7 x 3x
2 sin
cos
+ sin 5 x
sin 3 x + sin 5 x+ sin 7 x
2
2
=
cos 3 x + cos 5 x+ cos 7 x 2 cos 7 x + 3x cos 7 x 3x + cos 5 x
2
2
sin 5 x
= tan 5 x
cos 5 x
195
c. tan a tan b
For two real numbers a and b not equal to
k +
(k ] ), we know that
2
tan a + tan b =
sin a sin b
+
. Multiplying gives us
cos a cos b
tan a + tan b =
sin ( a + b)
.
cos a cos b
tan a +tan b=
(9)
sin ( a + ( b))
, i.e.
cos a cos ( b)
tan a tan b=
EXAMPLE
(10)
Solution
sin (90 )
sin 15 cos 15
196
sin ( a b)
.
cos a cos b
1
sin 30
2
1
=4
1 1
2 2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
tan 70 + tan 10 =
sin (70 + 10 )
cos 70 cos 10
sin (80 )
cos 70 cos 10
cos 10
1
=
sin 20 cos 10 sin 20
1
1
=
2 sin 10 cos 10 2 t 1 t 2
d. cot a cot b
For two real numbers a and b not equal to k +
cot a + cot b =
cos a cos b
+
.
sin a sin b
cot a +cot b=
sin ( a + b)
sin a sin b
(11)
sin ( a b)
.
sin a sin b
(12)
sin ( a +( b))
, i.e.
sin a sin ( b)
cot a cot b=
EXAMPLE
Solution
cot 9 x + cot x
.
cot 9 x cot x
sin (9 x + x)
cot 9 x + cot x
sin
9 x sin x = sin 10 x
=
sin (9 x x)
cot 9 x cot x
sin 8 x
sin 9 x sin x
=
sin(18 x 8 x)
sin8 x
sin ( 8 x)
sin 8 x
sin 8 x
= 1
sin 8 x
197
Check Yourself 22
Simplify each expression.
1. sin 75 sin 15
2. cos 105 cos 75
3. tan 165 + tan 15
4. cot 75 cot 195
Answers
2
1.
2. 2sin 15 =
2
2 6
2
3. 0
4. 23
a. sin x sin y
For any real numbers x and y,
cos ( x + y) = (cos x cos y) (sin x sin y)
cos ( x y) = (cos x cos y)+(sin x sin y)
cos ( x + y) cos ( x y) = 2 sin x sin y
sin x sin y =
EXAMPLE
1
. y) cos (x y)] .
[cos (x +
2
(13)
Solution
198
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
1
[cos (75 + 15) cos (75 15)]
2
1
= [cos 90 cos 60 ]
2
=
1
1 1
0 = .
2
2 4
b. cos x cos y
For any real numbers x and y,
cos ( x+ y) =
cos x cos y =
EXAMPLE
1
[cos (x + y) + cos (x y)] .
2
(14)
Solution
1
[cos (7 + 4) + cos (7 4)]
2
1
= [cos (11 )+ cos (3 )].
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
1
[cos (105 + 15) + cos (105 15)]
2
1
= [cos 120 + cos 90 ]
2
=
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
1 1
1
+0 =
2 2
4
199
c. sin x cos y
For any real numbers x and y,
sin ( x+ y) =
sin x cos y =
EXAMPLE
1
[sin (x + y) + sin (x y)] .
2
(15)
Solution
3
1
3
3
cos = sin + + sin
8
8 2
8 8
8 8
=
sin + sin
2
2
4
1
2 2+ 2
.
1+
=
2
2
4
d. cos x sin y
For any real numbers x and y,
sin ( x+ y) =
cos x sin y =
200
1
[sin (x + y) sin (x y)]
2
(16)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
cos
3 1
3
sin
= sin +
sin
8
8
2
8 8
8 8
1
sin sin = sin + sin
2
2
2
4
4 2
1
2 2+ 2
1+
=
2
2
4
Note
Example 101 and Example 102 are actually the same question. The cosine and sine
functions were simply in a different order, so the result does not change due to the
commutative property of multiplication. Although we applied a different formula in each
question, the results are the same. Therefore we can say that formulas (15) and (16) are
different forms of the same identity.
EXAMPLE
Solution
cos 15 sin 75 =
1
[sin(15 + 75) sin(15 75)]
2
1
1
= [sin 90 sin (60 )]= [sin 90 + sin 60]
2
2
=
1
3 2+ 3
1+
=
2
2
4
Check Yourself 23
Evaluate each expression.
1. sin 105 sin 15
2. cos 75 cos 15
3. sin 75 cos 15
Answers
1
1
1.
2.
4
4
3.
2+ 3
4
201
APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry has many applications in the modern world, in fields as diverse as engineering, architectural
design, acoustics, astronomy, physics, biology, map-making, computer graphics, optics and statistics. People
working in these fields often use trigonometry without knowing it, because the math is hidden in modern
instruments and computer programs. However, the trigonometric formulas are still there, and without these
formulas, science and technology would be very different. Here are just three examples of how trigonometry
applies to the real world.
Trigonometry and Optics
Light travels at different speeds through different objects, and we can use trigonometry to calculate how fast
light will travel through a transparent object such as air, water or glass. The relative speed of light is controlled
by a number called the refraction index: the refraction index of air is very close to 1, the index for water is 1.33,
and the index for glass is 1.5.
The figure at the right shows a pyramid with light passing through it at an angle . The
sin( + )
2
2 .
refraction index n for this pyramid is given by n =
sin
2
3
1
sin( + ) sin cos 30 +cos sin30 sin +cos
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 = 3 + 1 cot .
n=
=
=
2
2
2
sin
sin
sin
2
2
2
30 C 10 C
= , and so the equation for the temperature is
=10. The period is a =
A=
24 12
2
North Pole
Plane of a
parallel
How can we measure the shortest distance between any two points on
Earth? This question is important for airline companies and ships all over
the world, and we can use trigonometry to find the answer.
Navigators divide the Earth using lines of latitude and longitude. To
Equator
Prime Meridian
Plane of
equator
Plane of a
parallel
understand what this means, imagine the intersection of the earth with a
South Pole
plane passing through the North and South Poles. The intersection is a
complete circle, and half of this circle (from pole to pole) is called a
meridian of longitude, or simply a meridian. The meridian which passes
through the city of Greenwich in England is called the prime meridian.
meridian. This plane also creates a circle. The biggest such circle around the
Earth is called the equator.
To find the shortest distance between two points on Earth, a navigator needs
to know two things:
1. The latitude of each point, which is its angular distance north or south of
the equator.
P1
B
Meridian
Now imagine a plane intersecting with the Earth perpendicular to the prime
North Pole
O
b1
K
P1 and 1 represents its latitude. If 1 = 60.5 and 1 = 48.2, we can say that
point P1 has coordinates 60.5 N 48.2 W (i.e. 60.5 north of the equator and
48.2 west of the prime meridian).
The distance (or arc measure) in radians between any two points north of
the equator is given by the trigonometric formula
= arccos(sin 1sin 2 + cos 1cos 2cos )
where
P2 C
a1 O
b1
Equator
A
Prime
meridian
South Pole
2. The longitude of each point, which is its angular distance east or west of the prime meridian.
As an example, look at the figure above right. 1 represents the longitude of
Parallel
3 .3
EXERCISES
A. Trigonometric Theorems
a2 b2 c2 (b c) = 0. Find m(A) = .
b.
30
2
3
B
c2 b2 = a2 + 2 b a. Find m(C) = .
120
x
C
c.
d.
30
A
8
c.
e.
204
1 D
10
120
30
d.
E
A
4
x
30
A
6
D
1
C
b.
c.
a.
6
f.
A
2
A
x
d.
A
3
x
C
D
A(DABC) = A(DDBC)
30
x
60
75
c.
a.
A
3
60
B
45
150
b.
30
B
D
2BD = DC
ABCD is a square
CE = BE
Algebra 10
B. Trigonometric Formulas
13. Calculate the values without using a trigonometric
table or a calculator.
a. sin 105
b. cos 15
c. tan 75
d. cos 105
e. tan 165
f. cot 255
g. sin 195
h. cot 345
AB = c = 10 cm.
a. Find the length of the side b.
9. In a triangle ABC,
2
1
and cos y =
3
4
value of each expression.
14. sin x =
m(ACB) = 120,
m(ABC) = 30
and AB = 63 cm.
Find AC.
63 cm
30
B
a. sin (x + y)
b. sin (x y)
c. cos (x + y)
d. cos (x y)
e. tan (x + y)
f. cot (x y)
x
120
C
3
. Evaluate the expressions.
5
b. cos (2x + y)
a. tan (x + y)
1
and
4
tan y =
c. sin (x + y)
d. cos (x 2y)
f. sin (x + 2y)
b. cos (x + y) + cos (x y)
d. sin (x + y) sin (x y)
terms of tan .
205
trigonometric functions.
and x 0,
5
2
5
b. cos x =
and csc x < 0
13
7
and x ,
c. tan x =
24
2
a. sin x =
a. sin 5x + sin 3x
b. sin x sin 4x
c. cos 4x cos 6x
d. cos 9x + cos 2x
e. sin 2x sin 7x
f. sin 3x + sin 4x
h. cos
5x
x
cos
2
2
2
and sin x > 0
3
x
x
x
and tan
from the
2
2
2
a. sin x =
and x 0,
5
2
b. cos x =
c. csc x = 3 and x ,
3
3
and x , 2
2
2
2 sin x
4
f. 1 tan x =
cos x
g.
20. Simplify each expression.
a. sin 105 sin 15
b. cos 75 + cos 15
g. cos cos 5
h. sin 3 sin
206
12
2 sin + x
4
e. 1+ tan x =
cos x
12
d. 1 sin x = 2 cos 2 +
4 2
d. tan x = 1 and x 0,
2
e. sec x =
a. 1 + cos x = 2cos2
3
3
and x ,
5
2
1 tan x
= tan + x
1+ tan x
4
2 sin + x
4
h. 1+ cot x =
sin x
2 sin x
4
i. 1+ cot x =
sin x
Algebra 10
cot .
3
a
E
1
cos 3 x cos 7 x
c.
is a rectangle. Find
sin 10 x
cos 5 x
=
sin 9 x + sin x cos 4 x
f.
sin ( x + y) sin ( x y)
= tan y
cos ( x + y)+ cos ( x y)
g.
sin ( x + y) sin ( x y)
= cot x
cos ( x y)+ cos ( x+ y)
Find sin(AHE).
A
a square with
3DE = 2EC and
m(AEB) = .
Find tan .
A
a
figure.
1
B
and BC = 12.
Find cos(OAC).
ABC is an isosceles
triangle. AB = AC,
m(ABC) = ,
m(BAC) = and
12
B(0, 4)
tan = 3.
0
x
A(3, 0)
Find tan .
q
B
207
A
5
D
13
36. Evaluate
E
a
1
1
+
.
sin 15 cos 15
12
3
32. tan x cot x =
is given with 0 < x < .
2
4
39. x =
33. cos 2 = 0.125 is given with < <
sin .
3
. Find
2
4
is given and < < .
2
3
Evaluate (sin cos ) cos2 .
35. tan 2 =
208
is given. Evaluate
6
41. a b =
Algebra 10
However, sin x =
y
a
p arc sin a
arc sin a
x
x
O
for 1 a 1.
209
Special Results:
When x = 0, x = 1 or x = 1 we can write the answer in a shorter way without using the
formula.
sin x = 0 x = k, k .
sin x = 1 x = + 2k, k .
2
sin x = 1 x = + 2 k, k .
2
EXAMPLE
Solution 1
3
.
2
3
3
3
+ 2n, n }.
{x1=arcsin
+2 k , k } and { x2 = arcsin
2
2
2
We know arcsin
3
= 60 = . So x1 = + 2 k , k .
2
3
3
2
Also x2 = ( ) + 2 n =
+ 2 n, n .
3
3
(1)
(2)
+ 2 n}, k, n .
Combining (1) and (2) gives us x = { + 2 k,
3
3
Solution 2
So x = (1) k + k, k .
3
Note
Notice that both solutions give the same answer. However, the second, shorter form is more
practical, since we can get the solutions by substituting only values of k.
EXAMPLE
Solution
210
2 1
= .
4 2
1
k
arcsin = 30 = , so the solution is 5 x= (1) k + k , i.e. x = (1) k
+ , k .
2
6
6
30 5
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
1. xn xm = xn + m
2. x = (1) x
arcsin(
2
.
2
2
)= 45 = , so we have
2
2
x =(1)k(
b. cos x = a
If cos x = a, what is x?
Remember!
The x-axis is the cosine
axis.
x1 = arc cos a
x
O
x2 = arc cos a
cos x = 0 x = + k, k .
2
cos x = 1 x = 2k, k .
cos x = 1 x = + 2k, k .
Note
The points on the graph below show the solutions to the equation cos x = a.
y
arc cos a 2p
arc cos a + 2p
arc cos a 2p
arc cos a
arc cos a
arc cos a + 4p
arc cos a + 2p
211
EXAMPLE
Solution
= 60 = .
2
3
So x = arccos + 2 k = + 2 k , k .
2
3
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
3
3
arccos(
2
3
3
) =135 =
, so by the formula, x= + 2 k , k .
2
4
4
Solution
212
2
.
2
1
1
2
, and arccos( ) =120 =
.
2
2
3
2
2 2k
+ 2 k, i.e. x = +
, k .
3
15
5
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
We know cos x = 0 x =
So 3 x
EXAMPLE
+ k, i.e. arccos 0 = .
2
2
3
k
= + k, which gives us 3 x= + + k = + k , i.e. x= + , k .
4 2
2 4
4
4 3
Solution
c. tan x = a
Remember!
The red line in the
figure is the tangent
axis.
y
If tan x = a, what is x?
y
a
arc tan a
x
O
(arc tan a) + p
213
EXAMPLE
Solution
k
arctan 3 = 60 = , so 3 x = + k , i.e. x= + , k .
3
3
9 3
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
7
7 k
+ k = + k and x =
+ , k .
4 3
12
60 5
Solution
Remember!
3
and write the answer in degrees.
3
3
= 30 . Also, writing the solution formula in degree form gives us
3
2x 13 = 30 + 180 k, i.e. 2x = 13 + 30 + 180 k = 43 + 180 k, so
We know arctan
43 +180 k
= 21.5 +90 k, k .
2
We know that 1 = 60
minutes (60').
x=
So 0.5 = 30 minutes.
x = 2130' + 90 k, k .
d. cot x = a
If cot x = a, what is x?
Remember!
The red line in the figure
is the cotangent axis.
a
arc cot a
x
O
(arc cot a) + p
cot x = a x = arccot a + k, k
for a
214
.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
3
.
3
Solution
x 3
3
3
+ k and x =
2 k , k .
, so by the formula, =
2
4
2
4
Note that since k is any integer it can be negative or positive, so we can also write
arccot(1) =135 =
x=
3
3
2 k =
+ 2 k , k .
2
2
Check Yourself 24
1. Solve the equations.
a. (2 sin x) 1 = 0
b. 7 sin x = 0
2
x
d. sin( )
=0
2 4
2
e. cos8 x =
x
c. (2 sin )+ 3 = 0
2
3
2
f.
1
cos( x + ) =
6
2
x
b. tan( + ) = 3
4 2
x
c. cot( ) =1
2
3
b. sin( + 3 x) =
2
2
c. tan ( + 4x) = 0
d. cot 4x = 3
3. Solve the equations.
3 x
1
)=
2 2
2
3
d. cot( 2 x) =1
2
a. cos(
215
1
in the interval 500 < x < 1000 .
2
sin5 x
=1 .
3
Answers
2
b. k, k
c. (1)k+1
+ k, k
+ 2 k, k
6
3
5 k
2
d. (1)k + + 2 k, k
e.
f. + 2 k, k
+
, k
48
4
3
6
2 2
1. a. (1)k
2. a.
+ n, n
16 4
b.
3. a. (1)n+1 + 2 n, n
3
+ 2 k, k
6
b.
c. + 2k, k
2
2k
+
, k
18
3
c.
k
, k
4
d.
k
+ , k
24 4
d.
k
+ , k
8 2
2. Factorizing Equations
We have seen how to solve simple trigonometric equations such as 7sin x = 0 and
tan(4x + ) = 1. But how can we solve more complicated equations which contain a power of a
ratio, or mixed ratios?
One approach is to use factorization. If we can rewrite an equation in the factorized form
a b = 0 where a and b are trigonometric ratios, then we can solve a = 0 and b = 0 and find the
union of the solution set. This union is the solution of the original equation. We can factorize an
equation by using substitution and trigonometric identities and formulas.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Let us factorize the expression. Let cos x = a, then the equation becomes 2a2 3a + 1 = 0,
which we can factorize.
2a2 3a + 1 = (2a 1) (a 1) = 0, which has solutions a =
If a =
1
1
(1)
(2)
1
and a = 1.
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 n, n .
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
1
We can factorize this as (3 tan x 1) (tan x + 1) = 0, which has solution tan x =
or
3
tan x = 1.
1
1
1
then x = arctan + k, k . ( arctan is not a special angle, so we will leave
3
3
3
it in this form.)
If tan x =
EXAMPLE
Solution
If cos x =
217
EXAMPLE
Solution
2
.
2
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 k, k .
2
2
If sin x =
then x = (1)n + n, n .
4
2
n
So the solution is x { + 2 k, (1) + n }, k, n .
2
4
EXAMPLE
Solution
We can factorize the left-hand side using the sum to product formulas:
cos 4 x + cos 2 x = 2 cos(
4x + 2 x
4x 2 x
) cos(
) = 2 cos 3 x cos x= 0.
2
2
k
If cos 3x = 0 then 3x = + k and so x = + , k .
2
6
3
If cos x = 0 then x = + n, n .
2
k
So the solution is x { + , + n }, k, n .
6 3 2
EXAMPLE
154 Solve
Solution
tan 3 x + tan 4 x
3
=
.
1 tan 3 x tan 4 x
3
tan x + tan y
tan 3 x + tan 4 x
, so
is equivalent to
1 tan x tan y
1 tan 3 x tan 4 x
3
tan (3x + 4x). So we can rewrite the equation as tan7 x =
.
3
Since arctan(
218
k
3
) = 30 = , we have 7 x = + k. i.e. x = + , k .
3
6
6
42 7
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
One side of the equation contains the sine function and the other side contains the cosine
function. We can change these to the same trigonometric ratio. Since cos2x = 1 sin2x, we
can rewrite the equation as 2 cos2x = 3 sin x, i.e.
2 (1 sin2 x) = 3 sin x 2 2 sin2x = 3 sin x 2sin2x + 3 sin x 2 = 0.
Factorizing this gives us (2 sin x 1 ) (sin x + 2) = 0. So either
1
x = (1) k + k , k , or sin x = 2 which has no solution since 1 sin x 1.
2
6
EXAMPLE
Solution
x=
7
in the interval [, ].
8
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and (2 sin x cos x)2 = sin2 2x we can write
12
7 1 sin 2 2 x
sin 2 2 x 7
, i.e.
= , which we can rearrange as 1 = =
2
8
8 8
2
1
1
1
. So either sin 2 x= or sin 2 x= .
4
2
2
k
1
If sin 2 x = then 2 x = (1) k + k and so x= (1) k + , k .
2
6
12 2
n
1
If sin 2 x = then 2 x = (1) n+1 + n and so x= (1) n+1 +
, n .
2
6
12
2
n
k
+ , (1) n +1 + }, k, n .
In summary, the solution is x {( 1) k
12
2
12 2
sin 2 2 x =
219
Practical Notation
So far we have written the solution to a trigonometric equation as the union of other
solution sets. However, this union might not be the shortest form of the answer. For
example, one solution set may contain the other set. In this case, we only need to give the
larger set as the answer.
Alternatively, in a multiple-choice question we may find two or more answers but these may
not be in the given choices. In this case it is helpful to draw all the answers on the unit
circle. If the angles between the answers are the same then we will take the first
non-negative answer and add the common angle multiplied by k . This will give us the
answer.
y
a
2p
3
p
x
2p
one answer:
two answers:
x = a + 2k
x = a + k
2p
3
a
x
2p
3
three answers:
x = a+
2
k
3
a
a
four answers:
x = a+ k
2
220
...
n answers:
x = a+
2
k
n
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
Rearranging and then factorizing the equation gives cos x(sin x 1) = 0, i.e.
cos x = 0 or sin x = 1.
If cos x = 0 then x = + k, k Z.
2
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 n, n Z.
2
Inspect the answers:
3
5
+ k = { , , , ...}.
2
2
2
2
3 5
7 9
+ 2 n = { ,
,
,
,
, ...}.
2
2
2
2
2
2
We can see that the first set includes the second one, so we can write the final answer as
x = + k, k Z.
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
1
Rearranging the expression gives us cos 2 x = .
2
So either cos x =
If cos x =
2
1
2
or cos x =
=
.
2
2
2
2
= 45 = then x = + 2 k, k .
and arccos
4
2
4
2
If cos x =
then x =
2
3
2
) =135 =
and arccos(
2
4
2
p
4
p
4
3
+ 2 n, n .
4
3
+ 2 n } where k, n .
So x { + 2 k ,
4
4
x
5p
4
p
4
221
x = (1)ka + k, k .
EXAMPLE
Solution 1
Solution 2
EXAMPLE
Solution 1
Solution 2
222
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
cos x
cos 2 x
Solution
cos 7x + cos (5x) = cos 7x + cos 3x. Rearranging the terms gives us
cos( x) = cos x
5 x + 3x
5x 3x
)sin(
)= 0
2
2
2 sin 4x sin x = 0. So
sin 4x = 0 or sin x = 0.
If sin 4x = 0 then 4x = k and so x =
k
, kZ .
4
If sin x = 0 then x = n, n .
We know that {n , n } {
x{
EXAMPLE
Solution
cot x = tan (
k
}, k Z.
4
k
, k } . So the final solution is
4
One side contains a tangent but the other side is a cotangent. We need to rewrite one ratio
in terms of the other to get a simpler equation.
7
On the right-hand side we can write cot(2 x ) = tan( 2 x+ ) = tan( 2 x).
5
2
5
10
x)
7
So the equation becomes tan(4 x + ) = tan( 2 x). By the solution formula for tan x,
3
10
4x +
7
2 x + k . Rearranging the terms gives us
=
3 10
6x =
7
11
11 k
+ k =
+ k , i.e. x {
+ }, k Z.
10 3
30
180 6
223
EXAMPLE
Solution
We cannot factorize the equation directly, but we can rewrite it as sin2 5x sin2 2x = sin2 3x
sin2 4x. Now we can factorize:
(sin 5x sin 2x)(sin 5x + sin 2x) = (sin 3x sin 4x)(sin 3x + sin 4x).
By the sum to product formulas on both sides we get
2 cos(
5x + 2 x
5x 2 x
5x + 2 x
5x 2 x
) sin(
) 2 sin(
) cos(
)=
2
2
2
2
3x + 4 x
3x 4 x
3x + 4 x
3x 4 x
2 cos(
) sin(
) 2 sin(
) cos(
).
2
2
2
2
This simplifies to
2 cos
7x
3x
7x
3x
7x
7x
x
x
sin
2 sin
cos
sin( ) 2 sin
cos( ).
= 2 cos
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
By using the identity 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x we can simplify this further to
sin 7x sin 3x = sin 7x sin (x) = sin 7x sin x.
So sin 7x sin 3x + sin 7x sin x = 0, i.e.
sin 7x (sin 3x + sin x) = 0 sin 7x = 0 or sin 3x + sin x = 0.
If sin 7x = 0 then 7x = k x =
k
, k Z.
7
(1)
If sin 3x + sin x = 0 then sin 3x = sin x = sin (x). By the solution formula for sine we
have
n
a. 3x = x + 2n, i.e. 4x = 2n x =
, n Z.
2
(2)
+ m , m Z. (3)
2
As we can easily see, (3) is a subset of (2), so (2) is a sufficient answer. Finally, combining
k n
}, k, n Z.
(1) and (2) gives us x { ,
7
2
Check Yourself 25
1. Solve the equations.
224
a. cos2x + cos x = 2
b. 4 cos2x 3 cos x = 0
d. sin 2x = sin x
e.
2 tan 3 x
3
=
3
1 tan 2 3 x
c. 3 cos 2x 2 cosx + 3 = 0
f. cot2x 3 cot x + 2 = 0
Algebra 10
b. 2cos2x + cos x 1 = 0
x
5x
5x
3. Find the sum of the roots of 2 sin sin
sin
= 0 in the interval [0, 2].
2
2
2
b. cos 3x cos x = 0
d. cos 3x = sin x
2
e. sin(2 x + ) = sin( x
)
3
3
c. tan 2x + tan 3x = 0
Answers
3
b. { + k, arccos + 2 n}, k, n Z
2
4
1. a. 2k, k
2
c. { + k, arccos + 2 n }, k, n Z
2
3
e.
2. a.
+
, kZ
36
6
k
+ , kZ
4 2
d. {k, + 2 n}, k, n Z
3
f. { + k, arccot2+ n}, k, n Z
4
b.
2 k
+
, kZ
3
3
3. 8
4. a. {k,
n
+ }, k, n Z
8
4
k
d. { + , + n}, k, n Z
8 2
4
b. {k,
n
}, k, n Z
2
e. { + 2 k,
c.
k
, kZ
5
4 2 n
+
}, k, n Z
9
3
To solve a linear equation like this, we can use the substitution tan =
225
b
from the given equation. For this we will divide both sides of the equaa
tion by a:
a cos x + b sin x = c
a cos x + b sin x c
= , i.e.
a
a
b
c
cos x + sin x =
a
a
cos x +
sin
c
sin x =
cos
a
(use tan =
sin b
b
and we know that tan =
= )
a
cos a
cos( x ) c
c
= , i.e. cos( x ) = cos .
a
cos
a
a
b
. So
tan = , so cos =
2
a
a + b2
cos( x ) =
c
c
a
cos =
=
2
a
a a + b2
c
2
a + b2
+b
a
B
c
2
a + b2
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
226
b
3
=
= tan , i.e. = so the solution is x = + 2k, k .
a
1
3
3
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution 1
We have a = 3, b = 1 and c = 1.
a2 + b2 = 32 + 12= 3 + 1 = 4 > 1 = c2, so we will use the equations with a common ratio.
tan =
b
1
3
=
=
= tan
= . So by the above result we have
a
3
6
6
3
cos( x ) =
1
3 1
c
cos =
= .
cos and cos( x ) =
6
6
2
2
a
3
3
1
So the equation becomes cos( x ) = .
6
2
1
Since arccos = 60 = , we have x = + 2 k and so x = + 2 k, k Z.
6
3
6 3
2
3
Solution 2
a
b
we can use cot = .
a
b
The equation is 3cosx + sinx = 1, and dividing both sides by a = 3 gives us
3
3
3
cos
3
, i.e.
=
.
sin x =
. Now let us use the substitution cot =
3
3
3
sin
3
cos x +
EXAMPLE
3
sin .
3
3 3 1
, i.e. = . So sin( x + ) =
= .
3
3
3
3 2
2
= , so the answer is x + = ( 1)k + k or x = ( 1) k + k, k .
2 6
3
6
6 3
Solution
3
b
=
= 3 = tan so = .
3
3
a
3
3
3 1
3
=
cos( x ) =
cos =
.
3
3
2
3
3 2
Since arccos
3
= , we have x = +2 k x = +2 k , k .
2
6
3
6
3 6
227
EXAMPLE
Solution
We have a= 1 , b= 1 and c = 1.
We get a2 + b2 = 12 + 12= 2 > 1 = c2, so a2 + b2 > c2 and we will use equations with a
common ratio.
b 1
= .
tan= = = 1 = tan
4
4
a 1
1
2
c
cos( x ) = cos , i.e. cos( x ) = cos =
.
4
1
4
2
a
2
= , we have x = + 2 k, i.e. x = +2 k , k .
Since arccos
2
4
4
4
4 4
We can also write these answers separately:
x1 = 2k, k and x2 = + 2 n , n .
2
homogeneous equation
If the degrees of all the terms in an equation are the same, the equation is called a
homogeneous equation. For example,
ax + by = 0 is a first-order homogeneous equation,
ax2 + bxy + cy2 = 0 is a second-order homogeneous equation, and so on.
If we substitute sin x and cos x for x and y in a homogeneous equation, the equation
becomes a homogeneous equation in sin x and cos x.
In this section we will look at the solutions of homogeneous equations in sin x and cos x.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
sin x
+1= 0 .
cos x
EXAMPLE
, we have x = + k, k .
4
4
Solution
sin x
3
= 0, i.e 3 3tan x = 0 tan x=
.
cos x
3
Since arctan
= 30 = , the solution is x= + k, k Z.
3
6
6
This is a quadratic equation in tan x. We can now find the solution using factorization.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
229
EXAMPLE
Solution
4
= 0. We can rewrite this as
cos x
cos 2 x
cos 2 x
cos 2 x
1 3 tan x 4 tan2 x = 0.
Combining (1) and (2) gives us the final answer: x = {arctan + k, + n}, k, n Z.
4
4
a2 + b 2
= a2 + b2 cos( x ).
a2 + b2 gives us
a2 + b2 a2 + b 2 cos( x ) a 2 + b 2 . In summary,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 .
minimum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 .
230
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
173 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = 3 cos x 4 sin x.
Solution
EXAMPLE
174 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = sin x + cos x.
Solution
We have a = 1 and b = 1.
By the previous formula:
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 12 +12 = 1+1 = 2
minimum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 12 +12 = 1+1 = 2.
EXAMPLE
Solution
We know that sin x and cos x are continuous functions, so the range will be an interval
between the maximum and minimum values of f(x).
By using the previous formula with a = 3 and b = 1 we have
2
2
maximum value of f ( x) = a + b =
2
2
minimum value of f ( x) = a + b =
3 +12 = 3+1 = 4 = 2
2
3 +12 = 3+1 = 4 = 2.
231
EXAMPLE
176 Find the value of x that gives A = (sin x + 3) (1 sin x) its maximum value.
Solution 1
First we will find the maximum value of A, then we will find the value of x at this point.
A = (sin x + 3) (1 sin x)
= 3 2 sin x sin2 x
= 4 (1 + 2 sin x + sin2 x)
= 4 (1 + sin x)2.
We know (1 + sin x)2 0, so A = 4 (1 + sin x)2 4.
So the maximum value of A is 4. Now we need to solve the equation
(sin x + 3) (1 sin x) = 4 for x:
3 2 sin x sin2 x = 4 sin2 x + 2 sin x + 1 = 0.
This factorizes to (sin x + 1)2 = 0, i.e. sin x = 1. So the answer is
x = + 2 k , k Z.
2
Solution 2
x = + 2 k , k Z.
2
Check Yourself 26
1. Solve the equations.
a. 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 6
b. 3 sin x + cos x = 1
c. 2sin x + 5 cos x = 3
b. sin x 3 cos x = 1
c. sin x cos x = 1
b. sin x + 2 cos x = 0
c. 3 sin x cos x =0
b. 5 sin x 12 cos x
c. 3 cos x 4 sin x
Algebra 10
Answers
1. a. no solution
b. {
2
+ 2 k,2 n}, k, n Z
3
c. arctan
2 5
+ 2 k, k Z
5
2. a. { + 2 k, 2 n}, k, n Z
3
b. { + 2 k, + 2 n}, k, n Z
2
6
c. { + 2 k, + 2 n}, k, n Z
2
3. a. + k, k Z
3
1
c. (arctan )+ k, k Z
3
b. ( arctan 2)+ k, k Z
4. { + k, + n}, k, n Z
4
3
5. a. 13, 13
b . 13, 13
c . 5, 5
6. [3, 7]
Solution
1
1 2 k
arccos +
, k Z.
5
3
5
1
1
and 5x = arccos + 2 k .
3
3
5
2. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 then 3 cos 5x = 5, i.e. cos 5x = < 1 . This equation has no
3
solution.
In conclusion, x = {
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
1
1 2 k
arccos +
}, k Z is theonly solution.
5
3
5
233
EXAMPLE
Solution
x = + 2k, k Z.
2
2. If sin x + cos x = (sin x cos x) = sin x + cos x then 2 sin x = 0, i.e. sin x = 0. So
x = n, n .
2. Parametric Equations
If an equation includes one or more variables which may affect the result of the equation, the
equation is called a parametric equation.
EXAMPLE
179 How many solutions does the equation sin x + sin x = m have in [0, 2], depending on m?
Solution
Let us begin by finding the maximum and minimum values of sin2 x + sin x.
If we substitute t = sin x then the expression is equivalent to the function y = t2 + t.
1
b
The vertex of y is V(r, k) where r =
= and
2a
2
y = ax2 + bx + c is the
form of a parabola. The
vertex of a parabola is
V(r, k), where
b
and
r=
2a
k =y(k).
234
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
k = y( ) = ( )2 + ( ) = = . So is the minimum value of y.
2
2
2
4 2
4
4
To find the maximum value of y we will substitute the maximum value of sin x into y. The
maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
1
1
This means y 2, and when y < and y > 2 there is no solution.
4
4
We can rewrite the equation t2 + t = m as t2 + t m = 0. Let us find the discriminant of
this quadratic equation: = b2 4ac = 12 4 1 (m) = 1 + 4m.
1
1. If < 0, i.e. m < , there is no real solution.
4
1
2. If = 0, i.e. m = , there is one root for the quadratic equation:
4
1
1
1
1
t2 + t + = 0 = ( t + )2 = 0 and t = . So sin x= and x [0, 2 ].
4
2
2
2
1
So for sin x = we have two answers: x = 210 and x = 330.
2
1
3. If >0, i.e. 2 m > there are two roots, and for every root there are two values of sin x.
4
1
In summary, the equation has no solution when m < and m > 2. It has two solutions if
4
1
1
m = , and it has a pair of solutions for each value of m in ( ; 2] .
4
4
Algebra 10
Solution
In this type of problem, first we try to convert inverse trigonometric functions to regular
trigonometric functions so that the equation is easier to solve. We can work on each term
separately:
If arctan x = then tan = x.
If arctan (1 x) = then tan = 1 x.
4
4
If arctan = y then tan y = .
3
3
4
Now we can write arctan x + arctan (1 x) = arctan as + = y.
3
Let us take the tangent of both sides, then tan ( + ) = tan y. We can rewrite this as
tan + tan
x +1 x
1
4
= tan y, i.e.
=
= , i.e.
2
1 tan tan
1 x (1 x) 1 x + x
3
3 = 4 4 x + 4 x2 or 4 x2 4 x+1= 0. This is the square of (2x 1). So
1
(2 x 1)2 = 0 2 x 1= 0, i.e. x = . This is the solution of the equation.
2
Solution
We want to eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios. For this the coefficients must be the
same. So let us multiply the first equation by cos b and the second equation by sin b,
respectively. Then
x sin a cos b + 3sin b cos b = cos a cos b
x cos a sin b 3 sin b cos b = sin a sin b
x(sin a cos b cos a sin b) = cos acos b+ sin asin b
x sin( a b) = cos( a b)
x=
cos( a b)
= cot( a b ).
sin( a b)
235
EXAMPLE
Solution
.
cos x sin y = 1
2 us
Adding and subtracting the two expressions gives
1 1
sin x cos y + cos x sin y = = 0 , i.e. sin (x + y) = 0 x + y = k, and
2 2
1 1
(1)
x + y = k
Now we have another system of equations:
(2)
x y = 2 + 2n.
k
k
k
= n + , k, n Z.
n
4
2
4
2
k
k
In summary, the solution is ( x, y) = ( + n + , n + ), k, n Z.
4
4
2
2
From (1) we can write y = k x = k
EXAMPLE
Solution
.
x + y =
2
From the second equation we get y = x . Let us use this in the first equation:
2
Substitute 1= tan =
4
(1)
cos
4
sin
4
4
2
cos
cos
4
4
We know arccos( 1) = , s o
5
+ 2 k, k Z.
x = x = + 2k and x = + + 2 k =
4
4
4
4
3
5
2 k =
2 k, k Z.
y= x=
2
2 4
4
3
5
2 k ), k Z.
In summary, ( x, y) = ( + 2 k ,
4
4
sin
236
Algebra 10
5. Mixed Examples
We have now seen several different techniques which we can use to solve trigonometric
equations:
1. We can factorize the terms.
sin
.
cos
3. We can use trigonometric identities and formulas.
Solution
The equation contains both sin x and cos x, so it is not clear what we should write instead
of cos 2x. Let us try using the identity cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x. Then the equation becomes
cos2 x sin2 x = cos x sin x. Factorizing the left side gives
(cos x sin x) (cos x + sin x) (cos x sin x) = 0, i.e.
(cos x sin x) (cos x + sin x 1) = 0.
There are two cases:
cos x
1. If cos x sin x = 0 then cos x = sin x and so 1=
= tan x.
sin x
So x = + k , k Z.
4
sin
4
2. If cos x + sin x = 1 then we can use the substitution 1= tan =
4
cos
4
sin
4 sin x =1, i.e. cos x cos + sin x sin = cos = 2.
to get cos x +
4
4
4
2
cos
4
2
This simplifies to cos( x ) =
.
4
2
From the solution formula for cosine, x = + 2 n and so x = + 2 n , n Z.
4
4
4 4
In summary, x { + k , + 2 n }, k, n Z.
4
4 4
EXAMPLE
185 Find the sum of all the roots of sin1 3x + cos1 3x = 163 in [0, 2 ].
237
Solution
1
1
cos 2 3 x +sin 2 3 x
+
=
sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x
1
4
4
=
=
. So the equation becomes
2
2
2
sin 3x cos 3 x 4sin 3 x cos 3 x sin 2 6 x
4
16
3
3
3
=
, i.e. sin 2 6 x = and so sin6 x =
or sin6 x =
.
2
4
2
2
sin 6 x 3
k
3
1. If sin6 x =
+ , k .
then 6 x = (1) k + k and so x =(1) k
2
3
18 6
7
4
k = 0 gives x =
, k = 1 gives x = , k = 2 gives x =
, k = 3 gives x =
.
18
9
18
9
3
k
nk
then 6 x = (1) k+1 + n and so x= ( 1) k+1 +
, n Z.
2
3
18
6
5
2
k = 1 gives x =
, k = 2 gives x =
.
18
9
7 4 2 5 3
+ +
+
+
+
=
.
In conclusion, the sum of the roots is
18 9 18 9
9 18
2
2. If sin6 x =
EXAMPLE
Solution
Let us use the sum and difference formulas to expand the right side:
x
x
x 2
x 2
sin 2 ( ) = (sin cos cos sin ) 2 = (sin
cos ) 2
2 4
2
4
2
4
2 2
2 2
=(
2 2
1
x
x
x
x
) (sin cos ) 2 = (sin cos ) 2.
2
2
2
2
2
2
Now consider the left side. We can see that on the right side we have half angles, so let us
use half angles on the left side too.
x
x
x
x
We can use the identities sin x = 2 sin cos and 1= sin 2 + cos 2 to get
2
2
2
2
x
x
x
x 2
2 x
2 x
1 sin x = sin + cos
2 sin cos = (sin cos ) .
2
2
2
2
2
2
So the original equation becomes
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(sin cos ) 2 = (sin cos ) 2,, i.e. 2(sin cos ) 2 (sin cos ) 2 = 0.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
x 2
x
x
x
x
If (sin cos ) = 0 then sin cos = 0, i.e. sin = cos .
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
sin
x
2 = tan x =1.
Dividing both sides by cos gives
x
2
2
cos
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
Let us change the sine functions to cosine functions by using the reduction formula
2x +
x+ x
x + x
2x
2x + 2x
2
2
2
2
) cos(
) = 2cos(
) cos(
), i.e.
2
2
2
2
= x + 2 k then x = 2k, k .
4
4
2n
= ( x )+ 2 n then 3 x = + 2 n and so x= +
, n Z.
4
4
2
6
3
2 n
}, k, n Z.
In summary, the answer is x {2 k, +
6
3
2. If 2 x
Check Yourself 27
1. Solve |cos(45 x)| =
2
.
2
3
sin x =
a.
2
cos x > 0
m
= 2 cot x have a solution?
sin x
1
2
2
sin x + sin y = 2
b.
x y = 4
Answers
1.
k
, k Z
2
2. m [22, 22]
4. a. + 2k, k Z
3
1
2
7
b. { + k,
+ k}, k Z
6
6
k n
5. a. { + , + }, k, n Z
8 4 4 2
d. { + 2k,
3.
b. + k, k Z
4
+ 2 n}, k, n Z
2
1
c. {arccot + k}, k Z
4
e.
+ k, k Z
6
C. TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES
1. Basic Trigonometric Inequalities
We can solve trigonometric inequalities by looking at the graphs of the basic trigonometric
functions on the unit circle. By using the following steps we can find the solution of any
simple trigonometric inequality:
1. Find the region which satisfies the given inequality on the unit circle.
2. Write the boundaries of the selected region. We calculate the boundaries by
moving in an anticlockwise direction. Remember that the smaller bound (for
example, a negative bound) must always be the first bound.
3. For sin x and cos x add 2k, and for tan x and cot x add k.
To understand why step 3 is necessary, look at the figure. We know that trigonometric
functions are periodic, and so a trigonometric equation or inequality has infinitely many
solutions. To include all these answers we add k or 2k to the solution of any trigonometric
inequality.
y
sin x >
1
1
2
1
2
x
240
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
Let us draw the unit circle and shade the required region.
y
5p
6
1
2
y
1
2
p
6
1
2
5p
6
p
6
x
5
< x < . To get the full answer we must
6
6
5
add 2k to both sides, so the answer will be + 2 k < x <
+ 2 k, k Z.
6
6
a. Inequalities in sin x
p arc sin a
arc sin a
If 1 a 1 the answer is
(arcsin a + 2k) < x < ( arcsin a + 2k), k Z.
Remember!
[a, b] is an interval which
includes a and b:
x [a, b] means
a x b.
(a, b) is an interval
which does not include a
or b: x (a, b) means
a< x < b.
p arc sin a
arc sin a
If 1 a 1 the answer is
( arcsin a + 2k) < x < (arcsin a + 2k),
k Z.
241
EXAMPLE
Solution
2
.
2
We know arcsin
y
3p
4
2
2
p
4
( + 2 k) x ( + 2 k), k .
4
4
x + 2k ,
+ 2k , k .
4
4
EXAMPLE
Solution
) = , so the
We know arcsin(
2
3
4
second boundary is ( ) = .
3
3
x ( + 2 k,
+ 2 k ), k .
3
3
EXAMPLE
2
2
p
3
Solution
242
4p
3
EXAMPLE
Solution
Remember!
The first bound is always
5
the smallest:
is
4
smaller than .
4
boundary,
so
2
=
2
4
the
is the second
first
boundary
y
5p
4
p
4
2
2
is
5
= .
4
4
+ 2 k) 5 x ( + 2 k),
4
4
k .
EXAMPLE
2
.
2
2k
2k
+
) x ( +
), k .
4
5
20
5
Solution
1
Rearranging the terms give us sin 3x < .
4
1
arcsin is not a special angle so, we will leave it
4
1
4
p arcsin 1
4
in this form.
arcsin 1
4
1
1
+ 2 k)<3 x< (arcsin + 2 k ) , k .
4
4
+ arcsin
3
1
1
arcsin
4 + 2k ) < x < (
4 + 2k ), k Z.
3
3
3
b. Inequalities in cos x
Consider the inequality cos x > a.
y
arccos a
a
x
If 1 a 1 the solution is
(arccos a + 2k) < x < (arccos a + 2k), k .
arccos a
243
y
arccos a
If 1 a 1 the answer is
EXAMPLE
2p arccos a
Solution
3
= . So
2
2
and
2
p
2
( + 2 k) x ( + 2 k), k .
2
2
3p
2
EXAMPLE
Solution
1
Rearranging the terms gives us cos 2 x > .
2
1
The boundaries are arccos =
and
2 3
1
arccos = . So we have
2
3
p
3
1
2
( + k) < x < ( + k ), k Z.
6
6
244
p
3
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
3
.
2
Now let us draw the figure. The boundaries
are arccos(
2 arccos(
5p
6
3
5
and
)=
2
6
2
2
3
5 7
)= 2
= .
2
6
6
So the answer is [
EXAMPLE
5 7
,
].
6
6
7p
6
Solution
We can rewrite the inequality as cos 3 x > . However, 3.14 and so < 1. So the
2
2
inequality is true for all real numbers: x (, ).
Check Yourself 28
1. Solve the inequalities.
a. sin x <
2
2
b. 2sin x 3
d. sin(5 x + ) 0
3
c. 2sin 3x < 1
b. 2cos(3x
2
2
)1
6
c. cos 3 x <
3
2
e. 5cos 3x 2 > 0
2
a. cos(2 x )
4
2
b. sin(3 x + ) < 0
3
Answers
5
1. a. + 2k < x < + 2k , k
4
4
7 2 k
2k
+
< x< +
, k
18
3
18
3
5
e. + k < x < + k , k
12
12
c.
c. 3sin x + 1 0
b.
+ 2k x + 2k, k
3
3
d.
2 2 k
2 k
+
+
,k
x
15
5
15
5
245
2. a.
c.
+ 2k x
+ 2k, k
4
4
b.
2k
2k
+
, k
x +
18
3
6
3
5 2 k
7 2k
+
< x<
+
, k
18
3
18
3
d. + k < x < + k, k
8
8
2
2
arccos + 2 k
arccos + 2 k
5
5
e.
<x<
, k
3
3
2 5
8 11
14 17
5
3. a. 0, ,
b. ( , ) ( ,
) (
,
)
9 9
9 9
9
9
4
4
1
1
c. [0, + arcsin ] [2 arcsin , 2 ]
3
3
c. Inequalities in tan x
y
p
2
arc tan a
x
+ k , k .
2
p + arc tan a
p
2
p
2
a
arc tan a
x
p + arc tan a
p
2
Note
If the inequality is given with or , the answer will include arctan a but exclude ,
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
p
2
1
p
4
EXAMPLE
p
2
tan x
Solution
p
2
, so the answer is
3
p
3
( + k) < x ( + k ), k .
2
3
x + k, + k , k .
3
EXAMPLE
Solution
3
tan(4 x )
. We know
5
3
3
arctan(
) = , so we have
3
6
to
( + k) 4x < ( + k) . Adding
5
6
5
2
7
each part gives ( + k) 4x < ( + k ).
30
10
tan x
3 0.
p
2
p
2
p
6
3
3
tan x
7 k
k
+ ) x < ( + ), k .
120 4
40 4
247
EXAMPLE
Solution
3
.
3
3
Since arctan
= , the boundaries are
3
6
6
p
2
3
3
7
and + = . So we have
6
6
7 3
x , , .
6 2 6 2
p
6
x
7p
6
3p
2
d. Inequalities in cot x
tan x
cot x
arccot a
p + arccot a
cot x
arccot a
p + arccot a
Note
If the inequality is given with or , the answer will include arccot a but exclude 0 and ,
because cot 0 and cot are undefined.
248
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
3
.
3
3
2
)=
, so we have
3
3
2
( + k) (2 x < + k) . Dividing all parts by
3
2 gives us the answer:
3
3
y
cot x
2p
3
x
k
k
( + ) x < ( + ), k .
3 2
2 2
EXAMPLE
Solution
5
+ k
6
5 k
k
and so
< x ( + ), k .
2
12
2
5p
6
x
5 11 17 3 23
x 0,
,
, 12 2 , 12 .
12 2 12
If k is greater than 3 or smaller than 0 then the answer is not in [0, 2], so this is the
complete solution.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
249
Check Yourself 29
1. Solve the inequalities.
a. tan 3 x <
3
3
b. tan( x ) 3 0
3
c. 2tan 3x < 6
b. 3cot(2x +
)1
6
c. 2cot 4x 1 < 0
a. tan(3 x + ) 3
3
b. cot(2 x ) <1
3
Answers
k
k
1. a. +
< x< + , k
6
3
18 3
c.
b.
2
5
+ k x <
+ k, k
3
6
k
1
k
+
< x < arctan3 + , k Z
6 3
3
3
k
k
+
x< + , k
4 3
3 3
1
arccot
k
2 + k , k
c.
+
< x<
4 4
4
4
2. a.
b.
k
k
+
<x
+ , k
12 2
12 2
7 4 13 7
3. a. 0,
,
,
,
18 9
18 9 18 9
7 2 19
b. 0, ,
,
6 24 3 24
Algebra 10
3. If the problem involves more than one type of trigonometric ratio, we can try to simplify
or factorize it by using the methods that we have learned in the previous sections. We can
use summation formulas, sum to product or product to sum formulas, trigonometric
identities or other types of substitution to simplify the expression.
4. If we have a system of trigonometric inequalities, we can try to solve each inequality
separately and then find their common solution.
For some questions we may have to use a combination of methods to obtain the solution. Let
us look at some examples.
EXAMPLE
Solution
2
.
2
2
find the other boundaries as and .
4
3
2p
3
arccos
1
2
p
4
2
2
2p
3
p
4
4 + 2k, 3 + 2k 3 + 2 n, 4 + 2 n , k, n .
EXAMPLE
Solution
3
1
> sin x > .
2
2
3
1
= and arcsin = , we
2 6
2
3
5p
6
2p
3
p
3
p
6
2
5
( + 2 k, + 2 k) ( + 2 n ,
+ 2 n ), k, n .
6
3
3
6
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
251
EXAMPLE
Solution
p
4
3p
4
1 tan x 1.
answer is [ + k, + k], k .
4
4
EXAMPLE
3p
4
p
4
Solution
First notice that the inequality contains a quadratic expression in sin x. Let us use the
substitution t = sin x and try to factorize the new expression. The inequality becomes
2t2 + t 1 0, which we can factorize as (2t 1)(t + 1) 0. The roots of this expression are
1
t = and t = 1. Let us draw a table for the inequality:
2
1
2
1
2t2 + t 1
1
.
2
If sin x then + 2 n x
+ 2 n , n . (2)
2
6
6
5
(1) and (2) give us the solution: x = + 2 k, k Z and + 2 n x
+ 2 n , n Z.
2
6
6
EXAMPLE
Solution
Let us use the substitution t = cos x and try to factorize the expression:
1
1
1 4t2 = (1 2t)(1 + 2t) < 0. The roots are t = and t = and the inequality is true for
2
2
1
1
t < and t > .
2
2
252
Algebra 10
1
2
4
So the solutions are cos x < , i.e.
+ 2 k < x <
+ 2 k , k , and
2
3
3
1
EXAMPLE
Solution
3
.
2
We can use the sum and difference formulas on the left-hand side:
sin 5x cos 3x cos 5x sin 3x = sin (5x 3x) = sin 2x.
3
. From the
2
3
figure, the second boundary is arcsin
=
2
3
4
and the first boundary is =
.
3
3
4p
3
3
2
p
3
So we have
4
+ 2k < 2 x < + 2 k , i.e.
3
3
2
( + k) < x < ( + k ), k .
3
6
EXAMPLE
Solution
It is difficult to work with the different ratios cos 2x and cos x, so let us use the formula
cos 2x = 2cos2x 1 to get an inequality in cos x only. Then take 1 to the left side of the
inequality to get 2cos2x 3cos x 2 0.
Using the substitution t = cos x gives us 2t2 3t 2 0.
By factorizing we have (2t + 1)(t 2) 0. The roots are t =
2t 3t 2
1
2
1
and t = 2. Write a table:
2
1
or cos x 2. The second inequality has no solution, so we only
2
1
2
4
need to consider cos x
( + 2 k) x ( + 2 k), k .
3
3
2
253
EXAMPLE
Solution
Expanding the power gives us sin2x 2sin x cos x + cos2x sin 2x.
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and 2sin x cos x = sin 2x, we can rewrite this
1
inequality as 1 sin 2x sin 2x, i.e. 1 2sin 2x and sin 2 x .
2
1
1
7
are arcsin = and = .
2
2 6
6
6
7
7
EXAMPLE
sin x > 0
Solution
sin x > 0
cos x 0
tan x 3
.
cot x <1
Solution
Let us draw the unit circle and find the answers on it.
y
p
2
p
6
p
4
tan x 3
cot x < 1
(1)
Algebra 10
In the second unit circle the answer is ( + n, + n), n . (2)
4
Check Yourself 30
1. Solve the inequalities.
a.
3
1
< sin x
2
2
d. cos 2 x <
1
4
b. |tan x| > 3
c. 8sin2x 6sin x + 1 0
f.
6
< 3+ 2 cos x
cos x +1
2
2
sin x <
3. Solve the system of inequalities
cos x
2
2 .
1
2
Answers
4
5
1. a. + 2k, + 2k + 2 n,
+ 2 n , n, k
3
6
6
3
b. ( + k, + k) ( + n , + n ), n, k
2
3
3
2
1
1
5
c. [ arcsin + 2k, arcsin + 2k] [ + 2 n,
+ 2 n], n, k
4
4
6
6
2
d. ( + k,
+ k), k
3
3
f. ( + 2k, + 2 k), k
3
3
g.
2. [0,
3
7
) ( , 2 ]
4
4
7 k
k
+
< x<
+ , k
16 2
16
2
3. + 2k, + 2k , k
3
4
255
in
the
12th
century.
He
is
well-known
Spherical triangles
EXERCISES
3 .4
2
2
b. sin x =
3
2
b. 3tan 2x 3 = 0
2
) 2=0
3
c. 6sin 2x + 3 = 0
d. 2sin 3x 3 = 0
c. 2 tan(5 x
e. 2 sin( x )+ 3 = 0
5
f. 4sin 5x = 0
d. 3tan(3x + 24) 3 = 0
x
g. sin( ) = 1
3 4
3
h. 2 sin( + 2 x) 1= 0 i. 3sin 4x + 2 = 0
2
x
j. sin( ) 1= 0
2
x
2 sin 2 x
k. 2 sin( 2 )+ 2 = 0 l.
=1
3
2
x
e. tan( + ) = 2
3 2
3
f. tan( x ) = 0
2
2
2
2
c. cos(5 x ) =
4
2
b. 2cos x + 3 = 0
d. 3cos 4x 4 = 0
e. 2cos 3x 3 = 0
f.
2
cos(2 x + ) = 1
3
g. cos(5x 30) = 1
2
h. cos( 2 x) =
in [0, 2 ]
2
2
3 x
i. cos( + ) = 0 in [0, 2 ]
2 3
258
c. 1 cot 2x = 2
d. 3cot(3 x )+ 3 = 0
3
x
e. cot( ) = 1
2 3
x
f. 2 cot( ) 4 = 0
2
1
2
b. sin 2 x =
2
2
c. tan( x + ) = 3
3
Algebra 10
a. cos 3x + cos 5x = 0
a. sin 3x = sin 30
b. 4cos22x + 2cos 2x = 0
b. cos 4x = cos 20
c. 2cos x + cos x = 1
3cos x
d. cos 2 x +1=
2
e. cos 2x = sin x + 1
c. tan x = tan
d. cot
10. Solve
x
= cot15
2
sin 3x cos 3 x
.
=
sin x
cos x
1
2
c. sin 6x = sin 2x
d. 2sin 3x = 1
e. cos 2x = 3cos x + 1 in [0, 2]
f.
2 sin x 2
= 0 in [0, 2 ]
2 sin x + 3
f. sin x 2cos x = 1
2 tan 3 x
= 3
1 tan 2 3x
b. tan2x + tan x 2 = 0
c. cot2x 1 = 0
cot 3x cot x
= 3
d.
1+ cot 3 x cot x
e. tan x + cot x = 2
f.
x
cot cos x =1
2
function.
a
= 3tan x have a solution?
cos x
x + y = 4
Solve
the
system
of
equations.
22.
tan x + tan y =1
5
2
sin x sin y = 4
a.
x + y = 3
tan x + cot y =1
c.
x + y =
4
C. Trigonometric Inequalities
25. Solve each inequality.
1
2
b. 2 sin( x )+1< 0
3
a. sin 3x >
c. 2sin 2x + 2 0
3
d. sin(3 x )
5
2
e. 3sin 5x + 3 > 0
Algebra 10
1
2
x
c. 2 cos + 2 0
3
x
e. 2 cos( ) 3 > 0
2 3
b. 2 cos(2 x ) < 1
3
d. 3cos x 3 > 0
a. tan2x < 3
b. tan2x + tan x 2 > 0
c. (cot2x 1)(cot2x 3) 0
b. 3tan 4x + 3 < 0
x 5
c. 3tan( )+3 0
2 36
d. tan 5x + 3 > 0
x
x
4sin 3 x cos 2
3
3
1
2
sin x <
2
2
3
c. |sin x|
2
1
4
x
b. 2 cot + 2 0
2
2
2
b.
1
3
< cos x
2
2
d. 3 < tan x
a.
3
3
6 tan 3 x
> 3
tan 2 3x 1
e. |cot x| > 1
sin x cos x 2
a.
sin x + cos x 2
tan x >1
b.
cot x 1
tan x 3
261
3A
B) (1, 2)
D) (3, 4)
C) (3, 2)
E
a
D
seven identical
squares. What is
tan (EDB)?
E) (4, 0)
A
A)
3
4
B)
4
3
C)
5
4
D)
3
5
E)
5
3
2. P
6. In the figure,
A)
1
2
B)
3
2
C) 1
D)
1
2
E)
3
2
BC = 10 and
1
tan = .
3
Find AC = x.
A) 33
C) 3
B) 3
10
D)
E) 1
A)
15
16
B)
15
32
C)
3
4
D)
3
8
E)
7
8
7. In the figure,
m(ABC) = 30,
m(BCA) = 90 and
DB = DC.
What is tan (DAC)?
30
B
3
B)
2
C
H
K
3
2
B)
5
2
C)
5
3
D) 3
E) 23
3
C)
4
A)
2
D)
3
1
E)
2
sin 40?
A) sin 220
D) sin (40)
B) cos 140
C) sin 50
E) cos (50)
Algebra 10
sin ?
2
A) sin 2 +
B) cos (2 )
D) cos
C) cos ()
E) sin ()
ABC is a triangle
with AB = 10 cm,
DE = BE = 5 cm,
EC = 3 cm and
DC = 4 cm.
Find AD = x.
x
D
5
A) 2
10.
3
4
=
is given. Find the positive value of
cos x sin x
cos x.
2
3
A)
B)
2
5
C)
3
5
D)
4
5
3
5
E)
B) 4
C) 6
D) 8
135
B) 135
10
C) 120
A) 1
B) 2
C) 2
D) 22
E) 4
A)
D) 90
A
2
C
x
A) 5
B) 6
C) 8
B) 12 cm2
72
cm 2
5
C) 18 cm2
E) 15 cm2
A) 73 units
D) 10
4
12
E) 60
54
cm 2
5
D)
CD = 5 cm.
Find A(CDE).
E) 10
AB AE,
AB = 8 cm,
AC = 6 cm,
CE = 9 cm and
2
a = 5 cm and c = 6 cm. Which one of the
following is a possible value of m(B)?
A) 150
11.
E) 12
D)
B)
7
units
3
7 3
units
7
E)
C)
14 3
units
3
3 3
units
7
263
3B
5. In the figure,
in the figure.
234157
G
F
ABCDEFGH is a cube.
Find tan (GBH).
521523
a
B
A) 28 34 26
B) 27 33 26
C) 27 34 26
D) 28 33 26
A)
1
3
B)
C)
D)
E) 3
E) 29 33 26
B) 267
C) 263
D) 257
E) 253
5
A)
12
4
B)
15
A)
and are
b
C) 12
5
15
D)
4
20
E)
3
3
2
C)
1
5
D)
2
5
3
5
E)
2
tan sec ?
15
B)
3
15
15
15
15
C)
D)
E)
3
5
5
15
264
B)
3
and cos B = .
5
Find cot C.
1
2
4. In the figure, AB = BC
B)
A)
A) 2
1
2
a
B
is a trapezoid and
complementary
angles, BD = 5
4
and tan = .
3
Find DC = x.
five identical
squares. What is
sin (ALM)?
C)
3
4
D)
4
3
E)
5
4
4
2
tan + cot ?
A)
1
13
B)
1
13
13
C)
24
13
D)
6
13
E)
13
6
Algebra 10
17
cos + x + sin
x + tan (2 x)?
2
A
2
D
A)
B)
5 5
11
C)
5 5
2
11
D)
11
2
E)
2
5
is given.
3
Evaluate (sin a sin b)2 + (cos a + cos b)2.
14. a + b =
B)
A) 0
sin 15 cos 15
+
.
sin 45 cos 45
3
2
C) 0
D)
3
2
E) 3
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3
E) 4
F
a
B
A)
12. x [0, ], y ,
1
5 2
16. cos x =
3 2 2
6
D)
Chapter Review Test 3B
B)
1
6
5 2
7
C) 52
D)
E) 7
5 2
3
1
1
, cos x = and sin y=
2
3
2
B)
3+2 2
6
E)
C)
2 2 3
6
32 2
6
sin 2x.
A)
1
is given. If x is an acute angle, find
3
2 2
2
B)
2 2
3
C)
2
9
D)
4 2
9
E)
8 2
9
265
3C
2
5
B)
3
5
4
5
C)
D)
72
.
5
7
5
E)
8
5
3
A) ,
B) 2 , 2 C) 2 , 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
D) 1 , 3
2
2
E) 2 , 2
2
2
3
4
B)
A)
10
B)
3
10
1
3
C)
D)
1
6
E)
10
3
is a right triangle
with altitude AH.
CH = 4 and
AC = 6 are given.
Find sin B.
A)
rectangle with
AB = 3 AD.
What is a possible
value of tan ?
45
D
26
15
B
B
2
3
1
2
C)
D)
1
3
E)
A) 4
C) 6
B) 23
E) 5
1
4
D) 2
3
are given. What is
5
A)
19
12
B)
17
12
C)
7
12
D)
13
6
E)
7
6
a
C
A)
2+ 5
10
D)
266
B)
1+ 2
10
1+ 5
10
E)
C)
2+ 3
10
3+ 5
10
B)
1
a
C)
1 a2
E) a
Algebra 10
B) 0.8074
D) 0.8044
C) 0.8064
E) 0.8038
B) 0.0274
D) 0.0274
11 . cos =
C) 0.0174
E) 0.0374
4
is given. If is an acute angle, what is
5
B)
10
4
5
C)
3
5
D)
4
10
A) tan 3a
B) cot 3a
E)
C) cot 4a
E) tan 8a
tan 5 x + tan x
?
tan 5 x tan x
B) 1
C) 0
D) 3x
E) 2x
10
A) 3
sin ?
2
A)
D) tan 6a
15. a =
B) 2
C) 1
D) 2
E) 3
B) 2a 1
D)
1 2 a2
a2 +1
1
1
+
?
cos 195 sin 195
16. What is
2
C) 1 2a
E) 2a2 + 1
A) 22
D) 46
B) 42
C) 26
E) 62
267
3D
5
B)
3
7
C)
6
4
D)
3
sin x tan x
.
cot 2 x
1
3
64
3
D)
3. If
A)
6 2
5
B)
17
3
11
E)
6
C)
81 2
2
8 2
3
E)
B)
7
4
C)
7
4
D)
9
5
268
C)
21
2
E) 17
D) 4
C) 62
D) 23
E)
8
5
A) 30
B) 45
C) 60
D) 90
E) 120
C) 1
cos x
sin x
E) 4
3
cos y = , find sin(x y).
5
D) tan x
B) 19
sin x cos x
tan
x cot x .
4. Simplify
1 sin 2 x
A) 1 tan x
A) 6
A) 42
3cos x + 2 sin x 2
= , what is cot x?
2 cos x sin x
3
8
5
A)
33
65
B)
63
65
C)
33
65
D)
13
48
5
and
13
E)
14
65
Algebra 10
6+ 2
4
A)
3 2
2
B)
6 2
4
D)
C)
A) sin 165
D) sin 105
3
are given.
5
14. Simplify
17
B)
25
A)
2
2
2
and sin x cos x = , find
2
3
2 14
9
B)
12. Calculate
2
3
2
E)
5
15. Simplify
D)
A)
27
D)
25
7
C)
5
5
9
3 14
14
C)
E)
13
13
3
4
C)
C) cos 75
E) cos 105
3+ 2
4
A)
3
3
B) 0
C)
1
2
D)
1
2
E) 1
D)
3
3
E) 1
sin105 + sin15
.
cos105 + cos15
B) 3
C) 3
4
9
sin15 cos15
.
tan15 cot15
B)
B) cos 255
6 2
4
E)
2 6
2
1
4
E)
1
2
A)
1
16
B)
1
8
C)
3
8
D)
2
32
E)
269
1
2
1
2
3E
5. Write the signs of the trigonometric ratios
B)
1
2
C) 1
D) 1
sin 233, cos 125, tan 500 and sec 200 in order.
E) 0
A) , , ,
B) , , +, +
C) , +, , +
D) +, , , +
E) , +, ,
B) [1, 1]
D) [2, 8]
C) [7, 17]
E) [3, 5]
B) cos 300
D) cot 250
C) sec 80
E) tan 80
A) x
E) x
B) x
+ k, k
6
D) x
+ k, k
12
+ k, k
2
B)
C)
2
3
D)
2
15
E)
2
5
7
3
B) tan x = 28
C) sec x = 12
D) sin x =
E) cot x = 0.001
270
3
2
B)
C)
5
6
D)
E)
Algebra 10
B) 2
C) 2
D) 4
2x
.
E) 2
B) [1, 1]
C) [5, 1]
E) (, )
D) [1, 5]
1
2
B)
C)
5
3
2
3
D)
E)
2
3
B) I, V, VI
C) IV, II, VI
E) II, V, VI
p
2
A)
3p
2
2
3
B)
1
3
C)
5
2
3
4
3
5
C)
D)
2
3
5
3
E)
A)
4
5
B)
4
5
D)
4
3
E)
3
5
3
5
A) y = 2cos 2x 3
B) y = 2 sin 2x 3
C) y = 3 cos 2x 2
D) y = 3 sin 2x + 2
E) y = 3 cos 2x + 2
33
65
B)
37
39
5
4
+ arccot ).
13
3
C)
63
65
D)
13
65
E)
271
20
39
3F
1. Solve 2cos 3x 1 = 0.
A) + 2k, k
9
C) + 2k, k
3
2k
D) +
, k
3
3
2 k
+
, k
18
3
E)
5
A) arctan + k, k
3
4
B) arc cot + k, k
3
3
C) arcsin + 2 k, k
5
3
D) arctan + 2 k, k
5
2sin x 1 = 0?
A) 45
B) 135
C) 225
D) 425
E) 585
B)
5
E) arc cot + 2 k, k
3
11
3
C) 4
D)
17
3
E) 6
A) 3, 3
B) 5, 5
D) 9, 9
C) 41, 41
E) 7, 7
A)
E)
B)
k
+ , k
12 3
D)
7 k
+ , k
36 3
3 k
+ , k
4
3
5
A) , , ,
2
6
6 2
C) ,
+ 2 k, k
2
C) 2k, k
,
6
D) , , ,
2
3
6 2
E) , , ,
4
6 4 2
B) { + k, 2 n}, k, n
2
D) { + 2 k, 2 n}, k, n
2
E) { + 2k, + 2 n}, k, n
2
272
B) , , ,
2
6 6 2
2
9. Find the sum of the roots of cot x 3 = 0 in
[0, 540].
tan x +1
sin x + cos y =1
.
x+ y =
A) ( + 2 k, 2 k), k
6
3
5
B) ( + 2 k, 2 k) ( +2 n, 2 n), k, n
6
3
6
3
C) (
5
+ 2k, 2k), k
6
3
D) ( + 2 k, 2 k), k
2
E) ( + 2 k, 2 k) ( + 2 n , + 2 n ), k, n
2
6
3
2
.
2
A) + 2k, + 2k , k
4
4
+ 2 k , k
B) + 2k,
4
4
C) + 2k, + 2k , k
4
4
3
5
D) + 2k,
+ 2k , k
4
4
E) + 2k,
+ 2 k , k
4
4
3
.
2
A) + 2k, + 2k , k
6
18
B) + 2 k, + 2 k , k
2
6
2
2
k
k
, +
, k
C) +
3 6
3
9
2k 2k
D) +
, +
, k
3
6
3
18
2k 2k
E) +
, +
, k
3
6
3
18
Chapter Review Test 3F
A) k,
+ k , k
6
k 5 k
+
B) ,
, k
2
2 12
5
C) + k,
+ k , k
6
6
D) + k, + k , k
6
k 5 k
E) + ,
+
, k
2
12 2 12
A) + k,
+ k , k
4
3
B) + k, + k , k
6
C) + k, + k , k
3
D) + k, + k , k
4
3
E) + 2k, + 2k , k
3
A) + 2k, + 2 k , k
3
3
B) + 2k, + 2 k , k
6
6
C) + 2 k,
+ 2 k , k
3
3
D) ( arccos 2+ 2 k,arccos 2+ 2 k ), k
E) + k, + 2 k , k
3
2
273
APPLICATON SAYFASI
GELECEK
274
Algebra 10
A. TANGENTS
The word tangent comes from the Latin word tangens, which means touching. Thus, a
tangent line to a curve is a line that just touches the curve. In other words, a tangent
line should be parallel to the curve at the point of contact. How can we explain this idea
clearly? Look at the figures below.
zoomed in once
zoomed in twice
B
original curve
As we zoom in to the curve near the point A, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from
the tangent line. So, the tangent line is parallel to the curve at the point A.
x
a secant line to a curve
How can we find the equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point? The graphs below
show one approach.
y
y
B(x, f(x))
B
B
f(x) f(a)
A(a, f(a))
The slope of the line is
the tangent of the angle
between the line and the
positive x-axis.
a
positive
slope
zero
slope
276
a
negative
slope
no
slope
xa
The first graph shows the curve y = f(x). The points A(a, f(a)) and B(x, f(x)) are two points on
this curve. The secant line AB has slope mAB, where
mAB =
f (x) f (a)
.
xa
Now suppose that we want to find the slope of the tangent to the curve at point A. The
second graph above shows what happens when we move point B closer and closer to
point A on the curve. We can see that the slope of the secant line AB gets closer and
closer to the slope of the tangent at A (line t). In other words, if m is the slope of the
tangent line, then as B approches A, mAB approaches m.
Algebra 10
Definition
tangent line
The tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point A(a, f(a)) is the line through A with the
slope
m = lim
x a
f (x) f (a )
,
xa
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 at the point A(1, 1).
We can begin by calculating the slope of the tangent.
Here we have a = 1 and f(x) = x2, so the slope is
m = lim
f (x) f (1)
x2 1
= lim
x 1 x 1
x 1
m = lim
(x 1)(x +1)
= lim( x+1) =1+1= 2.
x 1
(x 1)
x 1
x 1
Now we can write the equation of the tangent at point (1, 1):
y y1 = m(x x1)
y 1 = 2(x 1)
y = 2x 1.
Example
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 1 at the point (1, 2).
Here we have a = 1 and f(x) = x3 1, so the slope is
m = lim
x 1
f ( x) f ( 1)
( x3 1) (( 1)3 1)
x3 +1
= lim
= lim
x 1
x 1 x +1
x (1)
x +1
( x +1)( x2 x + 1)
x 1
( x +1)
m = lim
m = 3.
277
We can also write the expression for the slope of a tangent line in a different way. Look at the
graphs below.
y
y
B
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
A
a+h
h
h
h
h
From the first graph, writing x = a + h gives us the slope of the secant line
mAB =
f (a+ h) f (a)
.
h
We can see in the second graph that as x approaches a, h approaches zero. So the
expression for the slope of the tangent line becomes:
f (a + h) f (a )
m = lim
.
h0
h
THE SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE TO A CURVE
The slope of a tangent line to a curve y = f(x) at x = a is
m = lim
h0
Example
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 at the point (1, 1).
Let f(x) = x3. Then the slope of the tangent at (1, 1) is
m = lim
h0
(x+y)3=x3+3x2y+3xy2+y3
f (a + h) f (a )
.
h
f ( 1+ h) f (1)
( 1+ h) 3 ( 1) 3
= lim
h0
h
h
m = lim
m = lim
h0
h(3 3h + h2 )
= lim(3 3 h+ h2 ) = 3.
h0
h
Algebra 10
Example
Solution
2
at the point (2, 1).
x
Recall that a normal line is a line which is perpendicular to a tangent. The product of the
slopes mt of a tangent and mn of a normal is 1.
Let us begin by finding the slope of the tangent.
2
2
2
1
f (2+ h) f (2)
mt = lim
= lim 2+ h 2 = lim 2+ h
h 0
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
mt = lim
h 0
2 (2+ h)
1
h
= lim
= lim
h
0
h
0
h( h + 2)
h( h + 2)
2+ h
1
mt = .
2
We have mt mn = 1.
mn mt = 1
The product of slopes of
the tangent line and the
normal line at a point
equals 1.
So, mn =
1
1
=
= 2.
1
mt
Check Yourself 1
1. Find the equation of the tangent line to each curve at the given point P.
a. f(x) = x2 1
P(1, 0)
b. f(x) = x3 + 1
P(0, 1)
1
1
P( , 2)
c. f(x) =
2
x
2. Find the equation of the normal line at point P for each curve in the previous question.
Answers
1. a. y = 2x 2 b. y = 1 c. y = 4x + 4
2. a. y =
Differentiation
1
1
x+
2
2
b. x = 0 c. y = 1 x + 15
4
8
279
B. VELOCITIES
position at
time t = 2
position at
time t = 2+h
S(2 + h) S(2)
S(2)
S(2+h)
To answer this question, let us look at a simpler example: the motion of an object falling
through the air. Let g = 9.8 m/s2 be the acceleration of the object due to gravity. We know
from physics that after t seconds, the distance that the object will have fallen is
1 2
gt meters or s(t) = 4.9 t2 meters.
2
Suppose we wish to calculate the velocity of the object after two seconds. We can begin by
s(t) =
calculating the average velocity over the time interval [2, 2 + h]:
average velocity =
distance travelled
elapsed time
s(2 + h) s(2) 4.9(4 + 4h+ h2 4)
=
= 19.6 + 4 .9 h
h
h
If we shorten the time period, the average velocity is becoming closer to 19.6 m/s, the value
of instantaneous velocity.
More generally, we can calculate the instantaneous velocity V(a)
of an object at time t = a by the limit of the average velocities:
V(a ) = lim
h 0
s(a + h) s( a)
h
This is not the first time we see the above formula. It is the
same formula that we use for the slope of the tangent line to a
curve. Remember that
f (a + h) f (a )
.
h
This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the slope
m = lim
h 0
Algebra 10
Example
Solution
A stone is dropped from the top of the Eiffel Tower. What is the velocity of the stone after five
seconds?
We use the equation of motion s(t) = 4.9t2 to find the
velocity V after five seconds:
V(5) = lim
s(5+ h) s(5)
4.9(5+ h) 2 4.9(5) 2
= lim
h0
h
h
V(5) = lim
V(5) = lim
4.9h(10+ h)
= lim(49+ 4.9 h) = 49 m/s.
h0
h
h 0
h 0
h 0
Example
A particle moves along a straight line with the equation of motion s(t) = t2 + 3t + 1, where
s(t) is measured in meters and t is in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity over the interval [1, 2].
b. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.
Solution
a. Average velocity is the ratio of distance travelled to elapsed time. So, we have
average velocity =
s(2+ h) s(2)
( h+ 2 )2 + 3 ( h + 2) +1 [2 2 + 3 2 +1]
= lim
h 0
h
h
V(2) = lim
h2 + 4h + 4+ 3h +6+1 11
h2 +7 h
= lim
= lim( h+7) = 7 m/s.
h 0
h 0
h
h
h 0
h 0
Check Yourself 2
1. A basketball player throws a ball upward at a speed of 20 m/s. This means that after t
seconds, the balls height will be s(t) = 20t 4.9t2.
a. Find the average velocity of the ball over the interval [1, 2].
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the ball after two seconds.
2. The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line is given by the equation of motion
s(t) = 2t3 + 3t 2, where t is measured in seconds and s(t) is in meters.
a. Find the average velocity of the particle over the following intervals.
i. [1, 3] ii. [1, 4] iii. [2, 4]
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at each time.
i. t = 2 ii. t = 3 iii. t = 4
Answers
1. a. 5.3 m/s b. 0.4 m/s 2. a. i. 29 m/s ii. 45 m/s iii. 59 m/s b. i. 27 m/s ii. 57 m/s iii. 99 m/s
Differentiation
281
C. RATES OF CHANGE
In section A we learned how to find the slope of a tangent line and in section B we learned
how to calculate the instantaneous velocity of an object from a given acceleration. We can
say that acceleration is a rate of change: it shows how fast or slowly a quantity (the velocity)
changes from one moment to the next. Other examples of rates of change are how fast a
population grows, or how fast the temperature of a room changes over time.
The problem of finding a rate of change is mathematically equivalent to finding the slope of
a tangent line to a curve. To understand why, suppose y is a quantity that depends on
another quantity x. Thus, y is the function of x and we write y = f(x).
Look at the graph of f(x). If x increases by an amount h, then y increases by f(x + h) f(x).
y
f(x+h)
y=f(x)
B(x+h, f(x+h))
f(x+h) f(x)
f(x)
A(x, f(x))
h
x
x+h
f (x+ h) f (x)
is called the average rate of change of y with
h
respect to x over the interval [x, x + h] and can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line
AB. If we take the limit of the average rate of change, then we obtain the instantaneous rate
of change of y with respect to x, which is interpreted as the slope of the tangent line to the
curve y = f(x) at A(x, f(x)).
The following summarizes this part:
RATES OF CHANGE
1. The average rate of change of f over an interval [x, x + h] is
f (x+ h) f (x)
.
h
2. The instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at a point x is
f (x + h) f (x)
lim
.
h0
h
282
Algebra 10
Example
Solution
A student begins measuring the air temperature in a room at eight oclock in the morning.
2
She finds that the temperature is given by the function f (t ) =16+ t 2 C, where t is in
3
hours. How fast was the temperature rising at 11:00?
We are being asked to find the instantenous rate of change of the temperature at
t = 3, so we need to find the following limit:
f (3+ h) f (3)
h
2
2
16 + (3 + h)2 (16 + (3) 2 )
3
3
= lim
h 0
h
2
2
16+ (9+6 h + h2 ) 16 9
3
3
= lim
h 0
h
2
(9 + 6 h + h2 9)
3
= lim
h 0
h
2h(6+ h)
= lim
h 0
3h
2
= lim(6+ h)
3 h 0
2
= 6 = 4 C per hour
3
h 0
Example
Solution
h 0
9+6 h + h2 9 3 h
3 h + h2
= lim
= lim(3+ h) = 3.
h 0
h 0
h 0
h
h
It follows that revenue is changing at the rate of $3000 per unit when 3 units are produced.
= lim
283
D. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
f (x+ h) f (x)
as a difference quotient of the
h
function f(x). We have calculated the limit of a difference quotient as h approaches zero.
Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special name and notation.
derivative of a function
Definition
The derivative of the function f(x) with respect to x is the function f (x) (read as f prime of x)
defined by
f (x) = lim
h 0
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h
The process of calculating the derivative is called differentiation. We say that f(x) is
differentiable at c if f (c) exists.
Thus, the derivative of a function f(x) is the function f (x), which gives
1. the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at any point (x, f(x)),
2. the rate of change of f (x) at x.
FOUR-STEP PROCESS FOR FINDING f(x)
1. Compute f(x + h).
2. Form the difference f(x + h) f(x).
3. Form the quotient
f (x+ h) f (x)
.
h
Example
Solution
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h
4. lim(2 x + h) = 2 x
h 0
Algebra 10
Example
10
Solution
4. lim
h0
f (x + h) f (x)
= lim( h + 2 x 8) = 2 x 8
h0
h
Example
11
Let f(x) =
1
.
x
a. Find f (x).
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point (1, 1).
Solution
h
1
1
f (x + h) f (x)
1
1
x
x
(
+ h)
a. f (x) = lim
= lim x + h x = lim
= lim(
)= 2 .
0
0
0
h0
h
h
h
h
x(x + h)
x
y = x+2
2
y=
y=
1
x
1
x
x
285
Example
12
Solution
The function f(x) = x is given. Find the derivative of f(x) and the equation of the normal
line to f(x) at the point x = 1.
x + h x x+ h + x
f (x + h) f (x)
x+ h x
= lim
= lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
x+ h + x
f (x) = lim
h 0
f (x)=lim
h 0
f (x)=
x+ h x
h( x + h + x )
= lim
h 0
h
h( x + h + x )
= lim
h 0
1
x+ h + x
1
2 x
Remember that if mt is the slope of a tangent and mn is the slope of a normal at the same
point, then mt mn = 1. So, we can find the slope of the normal from the slope of the
tangent. Then we can write the equation of normal line to f(x) at the point x = 1.
The slope of the tangent is
1
1
= .
2 1 2
The slope of the normal is
mt = f (1) =
mn =
1
1
= = 2.
1
mt
2
y = 2x + 3.
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = 2x + 7.
2. Let f(x) = 2x2 3x.
a. Find f (x).
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point x = 2.
3. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x3 x.
1
4. If f ( x) =
, find the derivative of f(x).
x+ 2
Answers
1. 2 2. a. 4x 3 b. y = 5x 8
286
3. 3x2 1
4.
1
2 ( x + 2)3
Algebra 10
Example
13
Solution
Show that the function f(x)= x does not have a derivative at the point x = 0.
Here we should find the left-hand derivative and the right-hand derivative. If they exist, then
we will check whether they are equal or not.
Let us find the left-hand derivative:
f (0 ) = lim
h 0
f (0 + h) f (0)
0 +h 0
h
= lim
= lim
.
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
Since h < 0, h is undefined and this limit does not exist. So the left-hand derivative does
not exist either.
Thus, the function f(x)= x has no derivative at the point x = 0.
Example
14
Solution
x2 1,
x 1
.
f(x) is given as f ( x) =
2 x 2, x < 1
Does this function have a derivative at the point x = 1?
f (1 + h) f (1)
2(1 + h) 2 0
2h
= lim
= lim
=2
h 0
h 0
h
h
h
f (1+ ) = lim+
f (1 + h) f (1)
(1 + h) 2 1 0
h2 + 2 h
= lim+
= lim+
= lim(
h + 2 ) = 2.
h 0
h 0
h 0 +
h
h
h
h 0
h 0
The left-hand and the right-hand derivatives are equal to each other. Thus, the derivative of
the function at the point x = 1 exists and
f (1) = f (1) = f (1+) = 2.
Differentiation
287
15
Solution
| x + h | | x|
x+ h x
h
= lim
= lim = lim1=1.
h
0
h
0
h
h
h h 0
| x + h | | x|
( x + h) ( x)
h
= lim
= lim
= lim(1) = 1
x
0
h
0
h 0
h
h
h
|0+ h| |0|
| h|
h
= lim+
= lim+ = lim+ 1=1
h 0
h 0 h
h 0
h
h
lim
|0+ h| |0|
| h|
h
= lim
= lim
= lim(1)
= 1
h 0
h 0 h
h 0
h
h
h 0
h 0
Since these limits are different, f (x) does not exist. So, f(x) is not differentiable for
x = 0.
In conclusion, f(x) is differentiable for all the values of x except 0.
Alternatively, from the graph of f(x), we can see that f(x) does not
have a tangent line at the point x = 0. So, the derivative does not
y = f(x)
exist.
Note that the function does not have a derivative at the point where
the graph has a corner.
288
Algebra 10
A function f is
continuous at x = a
if and only if
lim f ( x) = f ( a).
If a function f(x) is differentiable at a point, then its graph has a non-vertical tangent line at
this point. It means that the graph of the function cannot have a hole or gap at this point.
Thus, the function must be continuous at this point where it is differentiable.
x a
Note
If f(x) is differentiable at a, then f(x) is continuous at a.
The converse, however, is not true: a continuous function may not be differentiable at every
point.
For example, the function f(x) = |x| is continuous at 0, because lim f (x) = 0 = f (0).
x 0
Example
16
2 x2 x,
x>2
x = 2.
x<2
b. Is f(x) differentiable at x = 2?
Solution
b. Let us find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives of the function f(x) at the point x = 2.
f (2 ) = lim
h 0
= lim
h 0
f (2+ h) f (2)
(2 + h)3 2 6
= lim
h 0
h
h
2 3 + 3 2 2 h + 3 2 h2 + h3 8
h(12+6 h+ h2 )
= lim
h 0
h
h
h+ h2 ) =12
= lim(12+6
h 0
f (2 + ) = lim+
h 0
f (2+ h) f (2)
2 (2+ h)2 (2 + h) 6
= lim+
h 0
h
h
= lim+
8+8 h + 2 h2 2 h 6
2 (4+ 4h + h2 ) 2 h 6
= li m+
h 0
h
h
= lim+
h(7+ 2 h)
= lim(7+
2 h) = 7.
h 0 +
h
h 0
h 0
Since f (2+) f (2), the derivative of the function f(x) does not exist at the point x = 2.
So, the function is continuous at x = 2, but it is not differentiable at the same point.
Differentiation
289
We have seen that a function f(x) is not differentiable at a point if its graph is not
continuous at x = a. The figures below show two more cases in which f(x) is not
differentiable at x = a:
y
a discontinuity
a corner
a vertical tangent
Example
17
Solution
290
y = f(x)
Check Yourself 4
1. Given that
x 1,
f ( x) = 2
x 1,
x <1
, show that the derivative of f(x) does not exist at the
x 1
point x = 1.
2. f(x) = |x2 4x + 3| is given. Find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 3.
3. The graph of a function f is given below. State, with reasons, the values at which f is not
differentiable.
y
y = f(x)
-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
Answers
1. compare f (1) and f (1+).
2. does not exist.
3. x = 1, corner; x = 4, discontinuity; x = 8, corner; x = 11, vertical tangent.
Differentiation
291
At the beginning of our study of derivatives we have learned that a curve lies very close to its
tangent line near the point of contact. This means that for the same value of x near the point
of tangency, the values of y on the curve and tangent line are approximately equal to each other.
This fact gives us a useful method for finding approximate values of functions.
We can use the tangent line at (a, f(a)) as an approximation to the function f(x) when x is near
a. The equation of this tangent line is
y = f(a) + f (a)(x a).
So, our approximation becomes
f(x) f(a) + f (a)(x a).
This type of approximation is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation of
f(x) at a. The linear function whose graph is the tangent line
L(x) = f(a) + f (a)(x a)
is called the linearization of f(x) at a. The geometric interpretation of linear approximation is
show in the figure.
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
f(a)
L(a)
The linear approximation f(x) L(x) is a good approximation when x is near a. It is very
useful in physics for simplifying a calculation or a theory. You might think that a calculator can
give us better approximation than the linear approximation. But a linear approximation gives an
approximation over an entire interval, which can be more useful. For this reason, scientists
frequently use linear approximation in their work. The following example illustrate the use of
linear approximation method to simplify calculation.
For example, let us find the linearization of the function f ( x)= x + 2 at a = 2, and use it to
approximate the numbers
4,01 .
3,99 and
First, we have to find f (2), the slope of the tangent line to the curve f ( x)= x + 2 when x = 2.
1
The derivative of f(x) is f ( x)=( x + 2 ) =
.
2 x+ 2
1
1
So, f (2)=
= .
2 2+2 4
The linearization is given by
L(x) = f(a) + f (a) (x a)
1
x 3
(x 2) = + .
4
4 2
x 3
The linear approximation is therefore x + 2 L( x)= + .
4 2
In particular we have
1.99 3
+ =1.9975
4
2
2.01 3
+ = 2.0025.
4
2
x 3
The graphs of f ( x)= x + 2 and its linear approximation L( x)= + are shown below. We
4 2
see that our approximations are overestimates because the tangent line lies above the curve.
y
x 3
L(x) = +
4 2
2
f(x) = x + 2
The following table shows estimates from the linear approximation with the actual values.
approximation
actual value
3.99
1.9975
1.99749...
4.01
2.0025
1.00249...
EXERCISES
4 .1
A. Tangents
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
each function at the given point.
a. f(x) = 5x 1 ; x = 3
b. f(x) = 4 7x ; x = 2
c. f(x) = x2 1 ; x = 1
d. f(x) = 3x2 2x 5 ; x = 0
e. f(x) = x3 3x + 5 ; x = 1
f.
f(x) = x + x ; x = 4
g.
f ( x) =
h. f ( x) =
1
; x= 2
x2
4x
; x= 2
x +1
C. Rates of Change
5. The volume of a spherical cancer tumor is given
4 3
by the function V( r ) = r , where r is the
3
radius of the tumor in centimeters. Find the rate
B. Velocities
3. A particle moves along a straight line with
the equation of motion s(t) = t2 6t 5, where s
is measured in meters and t is in seconds. Find
the velocity of the particle when t = 2.
Algebra 10
D. Derivative of a Function
8. Each limit below represents the derivative of a
function f(x) at x = a. Find the function f and the
number a in each case.
(1+ h)10 1
h 0
h
3
b. lim 8+ h 2
h 0
h
cos( + h)+1
d. lim
h0
h
a. lim
3x 81
x 4 x 4
c. lim
x +6,
14. Given that f ( x) = x2 ,
3
x 6 x,
c. f ( x) =
2 x +1
x 1
d. f ( x) = 3x +1
0x8
6x,
x> 3
y
A
D
C
x
x = 3 find f (3).
Mixed Problems
x> 3
.
9x 24, 8 < x
Does the function have derivative at x = 8? Why
or why not?
12.
y = f(x)
2 1
x2 + 7x, x 1
.
9x 24, x > 1
x2 +10 x +8, x 2
295
All of these different types of notation have essentially the same meaning: the derivative of a
function with respect to x. Finding this derivative is called differentiating the function with
respect to x.
In stating the following rules, we assume that the functions f and g are differentiable.
Our first rule states that the derivative of a constant function is equal to zero.
THE DERIVATIVE OF A CONSTANT FUNCTION
If c is any real number, then c = 0.
We can see this by considering the graph of the constant
function f(x) = c, which is a horizontal line. The tangent line to
a straight line at any point on the line coincides with the straight
line itself. So, the slope of the tangent line is zero, and therefore
the derivative is zero.
We can also use the definition of the derivative to prove this
result:
f (x + h) f (x)
c c
f (x) = lim
= lim
= lim 0 = 0.
h 0
h
0
h 0
h
h
Example
18
y
y=c
slope = 0
x
The slope of the tangent to
the graph of f(x) = c, where c is
constant, is zero.
296
Algebra 10
Next we consider how to find the derivative of any power function f(x) = xn.
Note that the rule applies not only to functions like f(x) = x3, but also to those such as
g(x) = 4 x3 and h( x) =
1
= x 5 .
x5
19
Note
To differentiate a function containing a radical expression, we first convert the radical
expression into exponential form, and then differentiate the exponential form using the Power
Rule.
Example
20
3 3 / 2 1 3 1 / 2
x
= x .
2
2
1
b. If f (x) = , then f ( x) = x 1 in exponential form
x
f (x) = (x1 ) = 1 x 11 = x 2 =
Differentiation
1
.
x2
297
The proof of the Power Rule for the general case (n ) is not easy to prove and will no be
given here. However, we can prove the Power Rule for the case where n is a positive integer.
Proof
f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h)n x n
= lim
.
h 0
h 0
h
h
Here we need to expand (x + h)n and we use the Binomial Theorem to do so:
f (x) = lim
n (n 1) n 2 2
n
n 1
x h + + nxh n 1 + h n x n
x + nx h +
2
f (x) = lim
h 0
h
f (x) = lim
n xn 1h +
h 0
n (n 1) n 2 2
x h + + nxh n 1 + h n
2
h
n (n 1) n 2
Check Yourself 5
Differentiate each function by using either the Constant Rule or the Power Rule.
1. f(x) = 2
2. f(x) = 0.5
5. f(x) = x3
3
6. f (x) = x7
3. f (x) = 1
3
4. f (x) = 3
2
7. f (x) = 1
x2
8. f (x) =
1
x3
Answers
1. 0
2. 0
3. 0
4. 0
5. 3x2
6.
73 4
x
3
7.
2
x3
8.
3
2 x5
The next rule states that the derivative of a constant multiplied by a differentiable function
is equal to the constant times the derivative of the function.
[c
Example
21
f (x)]= c f (x)
298
Algebra 10
Proof
g(x + h) g(x)
c f (x + h) c f (x)
= lim
h 0
h
h
g(x) = c lim
h 0
f (x + h) f (x)
h
g(x) = c f (x).
Example
22
a. If f (x) =
b.
2
6
, then f ( x) = (2 x 3 ) = 2( x 3) = 2(3 x 4) = 6 x 4 = 4 .
3
x
x
5
1
5
.
If f (x) = 5 x, then f ( x) = (5 x1 / 2 ) = 5( x1 / 2 ) = 5 x 1 / 2 = x 1 / 2 =
2 x
2
2
Next we consider the derivative of the sum or the difference of two differentiable functions.
The derivative of the sum or the difference of two functions is equal to the sum or the
difference of their derivatives. Note that the difference is also the sum since it deals with
addition of a negative expression.
THE SUM RULE
Differentiation
299
S(x) = lim
S(x) = lim
h 0
S(x) = lim
h 0
f (x + h) f (x)
g(x + h) g(x)
+ lim
h
0
h
h
23
1 2
2
2
+(5 t ) = ( t ) +5( t ) .
5
1
g(t ) = (2t 21 )+5(2 t21 )
5
2
2t 10
g(t ) = t 10t 3 = 3 .
5
5 t
Notice that in this example, the independent variable is t instead of x. So, we differentiate
the function g(t) with respect to t.
By combining the Power Rule, the Constant Multiple Rule and the Sum Rule we can
differentiate any polynomial. Let us look at some examples.
Example
24
Solution
300
Algebra 10
Example
25
It is estimated that x months from now, the population of a certain community will be
P(x) = x2 + 20x + 8000.
a. At what rate will the population be changing with respect to time fifteen months from
now?
b. How much will the population actually change during the sixteenth month?
Solution
a. The rate of change of the population with respect to time is the derivative of the
population function, i.e.
rate of change = P(x) = 2x + 20.
Fifteen months from now the rate of change of the population will be:
P(15) = 2 15 + 20 = 50 people per month.
b. The actual change in the population during
the sixteenth month is the difference between
the population at the end of sixteen months
and the population at the end of fifteen
months. Therefore,
the change in population = P(16) P(15)
= 8576 8525
= 51 people.
Check Yourself 6
1. Find the derivative of each function with respect to the variable.
3
2x
b.
4
f (r ) = r 3
3
d. f(x) = 3x2 + 5x 1
e.
f (t ) =
a. f (x) =
b. 4r2
x x+ x
0.1
x
4 t2
+t
t3 3
3
2
f. f (x) = x 4x + 3
x
x3 3x2 + 3x 1
.
x 1
x2 x x
c.
c. f(x) = 0.2x
d. 6x + 5
e.
12 2t
+1
3
t4
f. 2 x 4
3
x2
3. 1
301
[ f (x)g(x)] f (x)g(x)
f (x)g(x) = x x2 = x3
f (x) =1 and g( x) = 2 x
[ f (x)g(x)] = 3 x2
f (x)g(x) =1 2 x = 2 x
[ f (x)g( x)] f (x)g(x).
Example
26
Solution
27
Solution
302
Algebra 10
28
Solution
Example
P(x + h) P(x)
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
= lim
h 0
h
h
By adding f(x + h)g(x) + f(x + h)g(x) (which is zero) to the numerator and factoring, we have:
P(x) = lim
h 0
P(x) = lim
h 0
g(x + h) g(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
P(x) = lim f (x + h)
+ g( x)
h 0
h
h
f (x + h) f (x )
g(x + h) g(x)
+ lim g(x) lim
h
0
h
0
h
h
Example
29
Solution
h 0
Our aim is to introduce this method and because any further simplification is time
consuming, we will stop at this point.
Differentiation
303
The derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus
the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator. Or,
numerator derivative of the numerator denominator numerator derivative of the denominator
.
=
the square of the denominator
denominator
g( x) 0
The quotient rule is probably the most complicated formula you will have to learn in this text.
It may help if you remember that the quotient rule resembles the Product Rule.
f (x) f (x)
g(x) g(x)
Example
30
Solution
Also note that like in the Product Rule, the derivative of a quotient is not equal to the
quotient of derivatives.
(3x+ 1) (2 x 1) (3 x+1) (2 x 1)
(2 x 1)2
f (x) =
3 (2 x 1) (3 x+1) 2 6 x 3 6 x 2
=
(2 x 1)2
(2 x 1)2
f (x) =
Example
31
Solution
304
3x+ 1
.
2x 1
5
.
( 2 x 1)2
2
Differentiate the rational function f (x) = x + x 21 .
x 1
(2 x+ 1) (x 1) (x2 + x 21) 1
(x 1)2
f (x) =
2 x2 x 1 x2 x+ 21 x2 2 x+ 20
=
(x 1)2
(x 1)2
f (x) =
x2 2 x+ 20
.
x2 2 x+ 1
Algebra 10
32
Example
Solution
2 x2 + 3x+ 1
.
2x
Before trying to use the Quotient Rule let us simplify the formula of the function:
f (x) =
2 x2 + 3x+ 1 2 x2 3x
1
3 1
=
+
+
= x+ + x 1.
2x
2x 2x 2x
2 2
In this example, finding the derivative will be easier and quicker without using the Quotient Rule.
f (x) = 1+ 0
1 2
1
x2 1
x =1 2 =
2
x
x2
Note
We do not need to use the Quotient Rule every time we differentiate a quotient. Sometimes
performing division gives us an expression which is easier to differentiate than the
quotient.
Let us verify the Quotient Rule.
Proof
f (x)
and Q(x) be differentiable.
g(x)
Example
33
Solution
f (x)
g (x)
g(x)
g(x)
g(x)
2 x
So f (4) =
Differentiation
f (x)
+ x g (x)
g(4)
2 4
+ 4 g (4) =
2
13
+2 3 = .
22
2
305
Check Yourself 7
1. Find the derivative of each function using the Product or the Quotient Rule.
a. f(x) = 2x(x2 + x + 1)
1
1
c. f (x) = 2 + x + 1
x
x
d. f (x) = ( x + 1) x 2 +
e. f (x) =
2 x+ 4
3x 1
f. f (x) =
g. f (x) =
x2 x+ 10
x+ 1
h. f (x) =
x 1
x +1
x3 + 3x2 5x+ 6
2x
2. If f(x) is a differentiable function, find an expression for the derivative of each function.
a. y = x2f(x)
b. y =
f (x)
x2
2
c. y = x
f (x)
d. y =
1+ xf (x)
x
3. Suppose that f and g are two functions such that f(5) = 1, f (5) = 6, g(5) = 3 and
g(5) = 2. Find each value.
f
b. (5)
g
a. (fg)(5)
g
c. (5)
f
Answers
1. a. 6x2 + 4x + 2
e.
14
(3x 1)2
b. 5x4 6x2 2x
f.
1
2
x( x +1)
c. 1
2
3
4
3
x
x
2
g. x + 2 x 2 11
( x +1)
d.
5
1
x x + 2x
2
2x x
h. x
2
2
3. a. 16 b.
306
20
9
3 3
+
x2 2
2
d. x f ( x2 ) 1
x
c. 20
Algebra 10
argument
of the
outer
function
derivative of
the outer
function
derivative of
the argument
of the outer
function
307
Example
34
Solution
Example
35
Solution
Suppose m(x) = f(g(x)) and g(1) = 5, g (1) = 2, f(5) = 3 and f (5) = 4 are given.
Find m (1).
By the Chain Rule, m(x) = f(g(x)) g (x). So m (1) = f (g(1)) g(1) = f (5) 2 = 4 2 = 8.
Note
The Chain Rule can be generalized for the composition of more than two functions as follows:
[ f1( f2( f3(...fn(x)...)))] = [ f1( f2( f3(...fn(x)...)))] ( f2( f3(...fn(x)...))) ( f3(...fn(x)...)) ... fn(x)
Using the Chain Rule we can generalize the Power Rule as follows:
GENERAL POWER RULE
[(f(x))n] = n(f(x))n 1 f (x)
By using this rule we can more easily differentiate the functions that can be written as the
power of any other functions.
Example
36
Solution
We can rewrite the function as m(x) = (x2 + x 1)2 and apply the General Power Rule:
1
1
m( x) = ( x2 + x 1) 2 ( x2 + x 1)
2
1
1
m( x) = ( x2 + x 1) 2 (2 x +1)
2
m( x) =
Example
37
Solution
2 x +1
2 x2 + x 1
1
.
x + 3x
2
f ( x) =[( x2 + 3x)1] = 1( x2 + 3 x) 2 ( x2 + 3 x)
f ( x) = 1( x2 + 3 x) 2 (2 x + 3)
f ( x) =
308
2x + 3
( x2 + 3x)2
Algebra 10
Example
38
Solution
1
f ( x) = (2 x3 + x2 15) 3 (2 x3 + x2 15)
3
f ( x) =
f ( x) =
Example
39
Solution
1
1
(6 x2 + 2 x)
3
3 3 (2 x + x2 15)4
6 x2 + 2 x
3 3 (2 x3 + x2 15)4
3
Differentiate the function f ( x) = (( x +1) 3 +5 x) .
2
f ( x) = 3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) 4 ( ( x+1) 3 ( x+1) +5)
3
2
5
2
f ( x) = 3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) 4 (5 ( x+1) 3 )
3
Example
40
Solution
Differentiation
1
( x2 2 x) 2 (2 x 2)
2
(2 x 3)5 (2 x 2)
2 x2 2 x
309
Example
41
Solution
2t +1
Differentiate the function g(t ) =
.
t3
6
2t +1 2t +1
g(t ) = 7
t3 t 3
2t +1 2 ( t 3) 1 (2 t +1)
g(t ) = 7
(t 3)2
t3
2t +1 2t 6 2t 1
g(t ) = 7
(t 3)2
t3
g(t ) =
(simplify)
49(2t +1)6
.
(t 3)8
Notation
dy
.
dx
If y = f(g(x)) such that y = f(u) and u = g(x), then we can denote the derivative of f(g(x))
dy dy du
=
.
by y = f (g(x)) g(x) or y = f (u) u(x) or
dx du dx
The notation
Example
42
Solution
dy dy du
is called Leibniz notation for the Chain Rule.
=
dx du dx
dy
by using the Chain Rule.
dx
dx du dx
dy
d
d
=
( u 2 1) (3 x+1) (find the derivative of the first function with respect to u
dx du
dx
and the second function with respect to x)
dy
= (2 u 1) 3
dx
dy
= (2 (3 x+1) 1) 3
dx
dy
=18 x + 3.
dx
310
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 8
1. Find the derivative of f(x) = (2x + 1)3.
2. Differentiate y = (x3 1)100.
3. Find f (x) given f ( x) =
1
3
x + x +1
x3 1
.
x3 +1
1
dy
and u = 3x 1 are given. Find
.
u
dx
Answers
1. 6(2x + 1)2
4.
Differentiation
1 x3 +1 43 6 x2
(
)
4 x3 1 ( x3 +1)2
2. 300x2(x3 1)99
5.
3.
2 x +1
3 ( x2 + x +1)4
3
3
(3x 1)2
311
43
Solution
2x
.
x 1
2 ( x 1) 2 x 1 2 x 2 2 x
2
=
=
.
2
2
( x 1)
( x 1)
( x 1) 2
f ( x) =
2
( x 1)
2
3
= (2( x 1) ) = 4( x 1) 1=
( x 1)3
Note
Before computing the second derivative of a function, always try to simplify the first derivative
as much as possible. Otherwise the computation of the second derivative will be more tedious.
Notation
If we differentiate the second derivative f (x) of a function f(x) one more time, we get the
third derivative f (x). Differentiate again and we get the fourth derivative, which we write
as f (4)(x) since the prime notation f (x) begins to get difficult to read. In general, the
derivative obtained from f(x) after n successive differentiations is called the nth derivative or
dn y
the derivative of order n and written by f (n)(x) or
.
dxn
Example
44
Solution
312
(for n > 5)
Algebra 10
Example
45
Solution
1
Find a general expression for the nth derivative of the function f ( x) = .
x
dy
1
= ( x1 ) = x2 = 2
dx
x
d2 y
2
= ( x2 ) = 2 x3 = 3
2
dx
x
6
d3 y
= (2 x3 ) = 6 x4 = 4
3
dx
x
24
d4 y
= (6 x4 ) = 24 x5 = 5
dx4
x
120
d5 y
= (24 x5 ) = 120 x6 = 6
dx5
x
n!=n(n1)(n2)...321
for any natural number n
(1)n n!
dn y
n
( n+1)
=
(...)
=
(1)
!
=
n
x
dxn
xn+1
Check Yourself 9
1. Find the second derivative of each function.
a. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 4x + 5
b.
f ( x) =
x 1
x+ 2
2/3
b.
1
f (t ) = ( t 2 1)5
2
Answers
1. a. 6x 6
Differentiation
b.
6
( x + 2)3
2. a. 8 x 3
27
2
2
2
b. 15t( t 2) (3t 2)
2
313
displacement x2 x1 x
=
.
=
time interval
t2 t1
t
The definition of the average velocity includes a time interval. We learn more about the motion
when smaller time intervals are used. Because of this, we define the instantaneous velocity as
follows.
The instantaneous velocity at a time t is the velocity of an
object at that given instant of time. In other words, it is the
limit of the average velocity as t approaches zero:
x(t + t ) x(t )
t
From the definition given above, we may conclude that the instantaneous velocity is the
derivative of the displacement with respect to time t.
V(t )= lim
t 0
V (t )= lim
t 0
x dx
=
t
dt
ACCELERATION
The term acceleration refers to the rate of change in velocity of an object with respect to time.
We define the average acceleration, aav, in terms of velocity v1 at time t1 and v2 at time t2:
v2 v1 v
=
t2 t1
t
Now we will define the instantaneous acceleration as follows.
aav =
v
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the expression
as the time interval goes to
t
zero.
v dv
=
t dt
This means that the instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.
Also it is the second derivative of the displacement.
a(t ) lim =
t 0
For example, the position function x(t) of a car moving along a straight line is given as
x(t) = 4t2 + 6t 20 m where t is in seconds.
The derivative of the position function gives the velocity function.
V (t )=
The acceleration is
dx
=(4t 2 +6t 20) = 8t +6 m/s
dt
dv
=(8t +6) = 8 m/s 2.
dt
So, the car moves with constant acceleration.
a(t )=
EXERCISES
4 .2
c. f(x) = e
f ( x) =
1
f (x ) =
151
d.
a. f(x) = 2
b.
1 8
x
12
f ( x) =
3
2x + 4
h. f ( x) =
x 1
2 x +1
i.
f ( x) =
1 2x
1+ 3x
j.
f ( x) =
x
x2 +1
k.
f ( x) =
x2 + 2
x2 + x +1
l.
f ( x) =
x + 3x
3x 1
g.
e. f(x) = 2x0.8
f.
g.
f ( x) =
f ( x) =
5 4/5
x
4
2
6
411
h. f(x) = 0.3x0.7
i. f(x) = 7x12
j. f(x) = 5x2 3x + 7
x 3 + 2 x2 + x 1
x
k.
f ( x) =
l.
4 3 2
f ( x) = 4 3 +
t
t
t
o.
316
f ( x) =1
2
x
1
3
+
x
x
m. f ( x) = x + 3 x + 5 x
n. f ( x) = x +
1
x
xf ( x)
x + g( x)
d. h( x) =
f ( x) g( x)
f ( x) g( x )
Algebra 10
x 3x x
by
x
simplifying and by the Quotient Rule. Show that
dy
for each function.
dx
a. y = u2 1, u = 2x + 1
b. y = u2 + 2u + 2, u = x 1
b. (fg)(3)
f
c. (3)
g
f
d.
(3)
f g
c. y =
1
, u = x3
u 1
d. y = u +
1
u
, u = x2 x
a. f(x) = 3x2 7x + 2
d. f(x) = (x 2)3
2
e. f ( x) =
(5x2 + 3x 1)2
f. f ( x) =
c. f ( x) =
1
4x2 +1
x2
x 1
d. f ( x) = 2 x 1
g. f ( x) = ( x +1+ x ) 3
h. f(x) = (x 1)5 (3x + 1)1/3
i.
(1 3 x)7
f ( x) =
(2 x +1)4
j.
f ( x) = (
3x 9 3
)
2x + 4
2x 1
3x +1
l. f(x) = 3x + [2x2 + (x3 + 1)2]3/4
k. f ( x) =
Differentiation
2
x
c. f ( x) = 3x 2
d. f(x) = (2x 3)4
317
Mixed Problems
0.2t
.
t2 +1
a. Find the rate at which the concentration of
C(t ) =
x
12. The curve y = 2
is called a serpentine
x +1
curve. Find the equation of the tangent line to the
x3
f ( x)
x + xf ( x )
x
g( x)h( x)
f
if f, g, h, m and n are differentiable
m( n( x))
functions.
64
find a.
318
function f ( x) =
1
.
2x
Algebra 10
46
Example
Solution
f ( x) = 2(cos x sin x)
(simplify)
f ( x) = 2 cos 2 x
Now let us derive the formula for the derivative of the function f(x) = sin x.
Proof
f ( x + h) f ( x )
sin( x + h) sin x
= lim
h
0
h
h
f ( x) = lim
h 0
h
h
h
h 0
h 0
lim
h0
sin h
=1
h
cos h 1
lim
=0
h0
h
Example
47
Solution
cos h 1
sin h
cos h 1
sin h
sin x lim
+ l im cos x lim
f ( x) = lim sin x
+ cos x
= lim
h 0
h
0
h
0
h
0
h
0
h
h
h
f ( x) = sin x 0 + cos x 1 = c os x.
Differentiation
319
Example
48
Solution
Example
49
Solution
f ( x) = 5(sin( x2 ) )4 cos( x2 ) ( x2 )
f ( x) = 5(sin( x2 ) )4 cos( x2 ) 2 x
f ( x) =10 x si n( x2 )cos( x2 )
Check Yourself 10
Find the derivative of each function.
1. f(x) = x 3 sin x
2.
f(x) = xcos x
3. f ( x) =
sin x
1+ cos x
4. f(x) = cos2(x2 + x 1)
Answers
1. 1 3cos x
2. cos x xsin x
4. sin(2x2 + 2x 2) (2x + 1)
3.
1
1+ cos x
cos x
sin2 x
Example
50
Solution
Example
51
Solution
sec x
.
1+ tan x
(sec x) (1+ tan x) sec x (1+ tan x) (by the Quotient Rule)
(1+ tan x)2
f ( x) =
(differentiate)
f ( x) =
(factorize)
f ( x) =
sec x(tan x 1)
(1+ tan x)2
Check Yourself 11
Find the derivative of each function.
tan x
1. f ( x) =
2. f(x) = 4 sec x cot x
x
3. f(x) = cot(x2 x + 1)
Answers
1.
Differentiation
x sec 2 x tan x
x2
3. csc2(x2 x + 1) (1 2x)
321
g( x), g( x) > 0
If f(x) = |g(x)|, then f ( x) =
.
g( x), g( x) < 0
In general, a derivative does not exist when the function has 0 as
y = |x|
corner
When g(x) = 0, the derivative exists only when the right-hand side and the left-hand side
derivatives are equal to each other.
We can also formulate the derivative expression as follows:
f ( x) =
Example
52
Solution
| g( x)|
g ( x) = sgn[ g( x)] g ( x), g( x) 0.
g( x)
Find the derivative of the function f(x) = |1 x2| at the points x = 2, x = 1 and x = 0.
Let us begin by trying to rewrite the function as a piecewise function.
The roots of the function are x = 1 and x = 2.
A piecewise function is a
function that is defined
by different formulae in
different parts of its
domain.
2
x 1, x < 1 and x 1
Then the function f will be f ( x) =
.
2
1 x , 1 x < 1
Let us find f (2):
y = f(x)
Since f(1) = 0, we will check the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.
For x < 1, f (x) = (1 x2) = 2x.
So, f (1) = 2 (1) = 2.
For x > 1, f (x) = (1 x2) = 2x.
So, f (1+) = 2 1 = 2.
Since f (1) f (1+), f (1) does not exist.
Let us find f (0):
Note that f(0) 0.
For x = 0, f (x) = (1 x2) = 2x.
So, f (0) = 2 0 = 0.
322
Algebra 10
Example
53
Solution
Given that f(x) = |x3 4x2 + 4x|, find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 2.
3
2
x + 4x 4x,x < 0
The piecewise form of the function is f ( x) =
.
3
2
x 4x + 4x, x 0
Since f(2) = 0, we will check the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.
For 0 x < 2,
For x > 2,
Since the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives are equal to each other, the derivative of
the function exists at the point x = 2 and f (2) = 0.
Example
54
Solution
Example
55
Solution
| 2 22 |
(1 2 2) = 1 ( 3) = 3
2 22
f (3) =
| 3 32 |
(1 2 3) = 1 ( 5) = 5
3 32
| x x2 |
(1 2 x).
x x2
Given that f(x) = |cos x|, find the derivative of f(x) at the points x =
For x =
and x = .
3
3
f ( ) = sin( ) =
3
3
2
56
Solution
Differentiation
323
Check Yourself 12
1. Given that f(x) = |x2 3x|, find f (3) and f (5).
2. Given that f(x) = |x4 2x2 + 1|, find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 1.
2. Sign Functions
Note that a sign function has the range {1, 0, 1}. When
it takes 1 and 1 as its value, the graph is a horizontal line.
Since the slope of a horizontal line is 0, we have 0 as the
derivative. When the function takes 0 as its value, the
graph has a discontinuity. So, the derivative does not exist.
Look at the graph on the right:
In conclusion, if f(x) = sgn (g(x)), then
0,
f ( x) =
does not exist,
Example
57
Solution
g( x) 0
g( x) = 0
slope = 0
1
y = sgn x
x
1
no slope
slope = 0
324
Algebra 10
Example
58
Solution
Find the largest interval on which the function f(x) = sgn(x2 x 6) is differentiable.
We can rewrite the function as a piecewise function:
1, x < 2 and x > 3
f ( x) = 1, 2 < x < 3
.
0, x = 2 and x = 3
y
1
y = f(x)
3
x
3. Floor Functions
0,
If f(x) = ag(x)b, then f ( x) =
may not exist,
g( x) ]
g( x) ]
When g(x) ], f(x) is certainly continuous and differentiable. However, when g(x) ], we
cannot be certain. It may be differentiable or not. In order to determine whether a floor
function is differentiable or not at a given value, we check the left-hand and the right-hand
derivatives.
Example
59
Solution
For x = 2,
f (4+ ) = lim+
x 4
f ( x) f (4)
3 3
0
= +
=
=0
x4
4 4 0+
325
Example
60
Solution
sin( ) = ]. So, f ( ) = 0.
6
2
6
At x = , f(x) is not continuous (see the graph). So, it is
y
1
Example
61
Solution
p/2
p/2
1
2p
x
y = f(x)
f ( x) f (0)
a x2 b 0
0
= lim
= =0
x0
x0
x 0
0
f (0 + ) = lim+
f ( x) f (0)
ax2 b 0
0
= lim+
= + =0
x0
x0
x 4
0
x0
x0
Check Yourself 13
1. Given that f(x) = sgn (x2 + x), find f (1) and f (2).
3. 3
Algebra 10
C. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
Up to now we have worked with the functions expressed in the form y = f(x). In this form,
the variable y is expressed easily in terms of the variable x. A function in this form is said to
be in the explicit form. However, some functions cannot be written in explicit form. Consider
the following equation:
y5 + y + x = 0
If we are given a value of x, we can calculate y in this equation. However, we cannot write
the equation in the form y = f(x). We say that x determines y implicitly, and that y is an
implicit function of x. Look at the same more implicit functions:
x5 + 2xy2 3y4 = 7
y 2y2 = x
x2 y2 + 4y = 0
How can we differentiate an implicit function? Recall the Chain Rule for differentiation. In
an implicit function, y is still a function of x, even if we cannot write this explicitly. So, we
can use the Chain Rule to differentiate terms containing y as functions of x. For example, if
we are differentiating in terms of x,
dy
(y4) = [(f(x))4] = 4( f(x))3f (x) = 4y3y or (y4) = y3
,
dx
dy
(7y) = 7y or (7y) = 7
.
dx
The procedure we use for differentiating implicit functions is called implicit differentiation.
Let us summarize the important steps involved in implicit differentiation.
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Remember that y is really
a function of x and use the Chain Rule when differentiating terms containing y.
dy
2. Solve the resulting equation for y or
in terms of x and y.
dx
Example
62
Solution
( y5 ) +( y)+( x) = 0
5y4 y + y +1= 0
y(5y4 +1) = 1
(factorize)
y =
Differentiation
1
5y4 +1
(isolate y )
327
Example
63
Solution
Find
( y3 y2 x + x2 1) = (0)
( y3 ) ( y2 x) + ( x2 ) (1) = 0
3y2
Example
64
dy
given the equation y3 y2x + x2 1 = 0.
dx
dy
dy
(2 y x + y2 ) + 2 x 0 = 0
dx
dx
dy
(3y2 2 yx) = y2 2 x
dx
(factorize)
dy
y2 2x
= 2
dx 3y 2 yx
(isolate
dy
)
dx
Solution
dy
=0
dx
dy
x
=
dx
y
( y 0).
b. The slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (3, 1) is given by
dy
dx ( a, b)
m=
dy
dx (
=
3, 1)
x
y(
=
3 , 1)
3
= 3.
1
c. We can find the equation of the tangent line by using the point-slope form of the
equation of a line. The slope is m = 3 and the point is (3, 1). Thus,
y
y y1 = m(x x1)
y 1 = 3(x 3)
y + 3x 4 = 0
3x + y 4 = 0.
A sketch of this tangent line is given on the right.
The line x + 3y 4 = 0 is tangent to the graph
of the equation x2 + y2 = 4 at the point (3, 1).
328
2
2
2
2
x2 + y2 = 4
Algebra 10
Example
65
Solution
x2 + y2 + x2 = 2.
dy
= 4 x( x2 + y2 )1/ 2
dx
dy
= 4 x( x2 + y2 )1/ 2 2 x
dx
2
2
dy 2 x x + y x
=
.
dx
y
Check Yourself 14
dy
by implicit differentiation.
dx
1. Find
a. x3 + x2y + y2 = 5
b. x2y + xy2 = 3x
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to each curve at the given point.
a. x2y3 y2 + xy 1 = 0; (1, 1)
2
2
2
b. x y =1; (5, 9 )
16 9
4
c. x 3 + y 3 = 4; (1, 3 3)
Answers
3x2 2 xy
1. a.
x2 + 2 y
2. a. y =
Differentiation
3
5
x+
2
2
b.
3 2 xy y2
x2 + 2 xy
b. y =
5
x4
4
c. y = 3x + 43
329
y = g(t)
Functions like these are called parametric functions, and the variable t is called the parameter.
PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION
dy
dy
= dt
dx
dx
dt
dx
0
dt
66
Solution
Example
67
Solution
Example
dy
) without having to
dx
Find the derivative with respect to x of the parametric curve x = t + 2 and y = 2t2 1.
dy
dy
4t
= dt = = 4t
dx
dx
1
dt
dy
.
dx
dy
dy
a cos t
= dt =
= cot t
dx
dx
a sin t
dt
68
The parametric curve is given by the equations x = t +1 and y = t2 + 3t. Find the slope of
its tangent at x = 2.
dy
Solution Let us begin by finding
in terms of t.
dx
dy
d 2
(t + 3t )
2t + 3
dy
= dt = dt
=
= 2( t +1)1/ 2 (2 t + 3)
1
dx
d
dx
( t +1)
dt
dt
2 t +1
For x = 2, x = t +1 = 2. So, t = 3.
m=
330
dy
dx
t=3
dy
in terms of t.
dx
2. Differentiate y with respect to t.
dx
.
3. Divide the result by
dt
1. Express y =
Example
69
Solution
Find
d2 y
, if x = 2t t2 and y = 1 t3.
2
dx
dy
d
(1 t3 )
dy
3t 2
dy
dt
dt
First, find
in terms of t:
=
=
=
.
d
dx dx
dx
(2t t 2 ) 2 2t
dt
dt
Then, differentiate
d dy
d
3t 2
6t (2 2t) (3t 2 ) (2)
dy
with respect to t:
( ) = (
)=
.
dt dx
dt 2 2t
dx
(2 2t)2
6t 2 12t
3t
dx dx d 2 y 12t +12t 2 6t 2
:
: 2=
=
=
.
2
3
dt dt dx
(2 2t) (2 2 t) 8 (1 t)
4( t 1) 2
Check Yourself 15
dy
for each parametric curve.
dx
b. x = 5cos t, y = 5sin t
a. x = 2t + 3, y = t2 1
1. Find
d2 y
for each parametric curve.
dx2
dy
a. x = 3t2 + 2, y = 2t2 1 b.
= 4+ sin 2 t , x = cos 2 t
dx
Answers
c. x =
t 1
t +1
, y=
t +1
t 1
2. Find
Differentiation
1. a. t
b. cot t
2. a. 0
b.
t +1
c.
t 1
1
4 4+ sin 2 t
331
dy
dy
1
=1 or
=
.
dx
dx cos y
cos y 0, since
d
1
1
Therefore,
(Arcsin x) =
=
.
cos y
dx
1 x2
1 x2
We can use a similar method to find the derivative of the other inverse trigonometric
functions.
(Arcsin x) =
1 x
(Arccos x) =
(Arctan x) =
Example
70
Solution
332
1
1 x
1 ( f ( x))2
(Arccos f( x)) =
1
1+ x2
(Arccot x) =
f ( x)
(Arcsin f ( x)) =
(Arctan f ( x)) =
1
1+ x2
f ( x)
1 ( f ( x))2
f ( x)
( f ( x))2 +1
(Arccot f( x)) =
f ( x)
( f ( x))2 +1
( x2 )
2 2
1 (x )
2x
1 x4
Algebra 10
Example
71
Solution
Example
72
Solution
1
x
.
( x 1/ 2 ) = Arctan x +
2
2(1+ x)
1+ ( x )
2
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve f(x) = 2 Arccos
f ( x) = 2
x
2
x
1
2
= 2
1
2
x
1
2
x
at x = 3.
2
4 x2
2
2
) since f (3 ) =
.
3
3
Check Yourself 16
1. Differentiate the functions.
a. f(x) = (Arctan x)3
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = Arccos 2x at the point where it
crosses the y-axis.
Answers
1. a.
Differentiation
3(Arctan x)2
1+ x2
2. y = 2 x +
333
EXERCISES
4 .3
A. Derivatives of Trigonometric
Functions
1. Differentiate the functions.
a. f(x) = sin (3x 5)
a. f ( x) =| 2 x 3x2 |, f (0 )+ f 2
3
+ f (1) = ?
1
b. f ( x) = x2 + a xb + sgn( x 2), f = ?
3
d. f ( x) = sgn(4 x +5) a
3x +1
b, f (2) = ?
2
1 cos x 10
)
1+ cos x
4x
,
2 x2 1
find the number of different x-values for which the
cot x
1+ sec x
k. f(x) = tan x2 x 1
l. f ( x) =
cot( x3 1)
1 sec 2 ( x3 1)
C. Implicit Differentiation
dy
for each equation below.
dx
a. 5x 4y = 3
b. xy y 1 = 0
y
c. x3 + x2 xy = 1 d.
3x2 = 5
x
6. Find
e. 2x2 + 3y2 = 12
f. x2 + 5xy + y3 = 11
g. x2y3 xy = 8
h. xy 3x y2 = 0
x=
Mixed Problems
13. Find the given order derivative by finding the first few
derivatives and observing the pattern that occurs.
27
a. d 27 (cos x)
dx
b.
d99
(sin 2 x)
dx99
35
c. d 35 ( x sin x)
dx
d. x = t +1 and y = t2 + 3t
e. x = 3 t and y = 4 t 2
f. x = 4cos t and y = 5sin t
2
14. Find the second derivative d y2 of each implicit
a. x = t2 t
y = t3 + 3t + 1
b. x = t + 1
1
y= +1
t
b. x3 + y4 = 20
c. y2 + xy = 8
d.
2
f ( x) = sin x , f
=?
16
< x< ,
2
differentiate f ( x) =
Differentiation
x
when x = 1.
2
|1 tan x | sgn(tan x)
.
cos x
a
b
2
x + 3 y =1
d. f(x) = Arctan x 1 x2
e. f(x) = Arcsin (tan x)
c. x = 2sin2 t
y = 3cos2 t
E. Derivatives of Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
a. x2y 1 = 0
d2 y
10. Find
.
dx2
dx
function.
x2 +1
, solve f (x) > 0.
x2 1
335
4A
A) 2
f ( x) f (2)
.
x2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5x + 1
E) 3x2 4
A) 2x cos (x2 + 3)
B) 2x sin x
C) x + sin x
D) x sin (x2 + 3)
E) x cos (x2 + 3)
A) y = 1
B) y = 2
D) y = x 2
C) y = 4
x3 ,
6. f ( x) =
3x,
E) y=1
A) 0
B) 1
x 1
x >1
C) 2
D) 3
parabola
y = ax2 + bx + c is
shown on the right such
that t is its tangent at
the point (1/2, 1).
By using the information
given in the figure, find
the value of a + b + c.
1
A) 2
B)
C) 0
2
y = ax2 + bx + c
t
1/2
45
x
D) 10
B) 6
C) 4
D) 3
E) 1
E) 15
B) 4
C) 7
D) 11
E) 29
A)
4
sin2 2x
B)
D) tan2 x + cot2 x
3
sin 2x
C) 2tan2 x
E) sin 2x
Algebra 10
1
2
B)
1
3
C)
1
4
D)
x2
is tangent to the straight line
a
with the equation x y = 1, then find the value
E)
1
6
of a.
A) 5
B) 1
C) 1
dy
.
dx
D) sin 2
E) tan 2
B) 4
C) 3
dy
.
dt
B) 3t 2t2x
A) 3 2t
D) 3x + 2x2
C) 3x 2x2t
E) 3t + 2x2t
B) 1
C) 2
C) 15
y=
D) 18
y
1
1
y = f(x)
B)
1
2
C) 2
D) 1
E) 0
x 1
E) 4
A) 3
D) 3
A) 1
4
x 1
E) 1
D) 2
E) 20
4
and the origin (0, 0).
x
A) 8
B) 4
C) 2
D) 42
E) 22
337
4B
1
2
5. Find lim
x0
1
x= .
2
B) 0
1
2
16+ x 2
.
x
B) 1
4
C) 1
8
D)
1
16
E)
1
32
C) 1
D) 2
E) 18
x2 + 2, x 1
6. f ( x) =
2. f ( x) =
A) 9
3. Find
is given.
2 x +1, x > 1
Find the derivative of the function at x = 1.
3
x
B) 3
C) 1
3
D) 1
6
E) 1
9
d2
(sin x + cos x)2.
dx2
A) 2(cos x sin x)
2
C) sin x cos x
B) 1
7. f ( x) = (
B) 2(sin x cos x)
A) 0
D) 2 cos 2x
A) 300
C) 2
D) 3
x+ 2 2
df (3)
) is given. Find
.
x2
dx
B) 200
C) 150
D) 90
E) 40
E) 4 sin 2x
B) 12
C) 6
d2 y
dx2
.
t =1
D) 20
E) 30
B) 0
C) 1
D) 2
E) 3
Algebra 10
9.
y
M
l
y = f(x)
x = a and x = a?
x3
at the points
| x|
A)
2
9
f ( x)
, find h(3).
x
B)
5
9
C)
1
9
D)
1
3
E) 4
3
1
df ( )
4 .
14. f ( x) = (arcsin 2 x ) is given. Find
dx
2
.
10
1
5
2
5
A) 4
5
B)
C)
1
5
D)
E) 4
5
A)
2
4
B)
2
2
C) 2
D)
E) 2
A)
3
2
B)
5
2
C) 3
D) 4
E) 5
B) 2
C) 0
D) 2
E) 4
B) 4
1
C)
2
D) 1
4
dy
.
dx
A) 1
1
E)
16
B)
D) ycos (xy)
y
x
C) 2xy
E) xcos x ycos y
339
340
Algebra 10
0
A. THE INDETERMINATE FORM
0
Guillaume de
L'Hospital
(1661-1704)
Let us consider the following limit where both f(x) and g(x) approach to zero as x a:
f ( x)
lim
x a g( x)
0
If we substitute x = a in this limit, we obtain a fraction of the form , which is a
0
meaningless algebraic expression. This limit may or may not exist and is called an
0
indeterminate form .
0
From earlier studies you have learned to calculate such limits by using the limit theorems.
In this section, we will discuss a very powerful method known as LHospitals Rule. This rule
0
gives a connection between derivatives and limits of the indeterminate form .
0
LHOSPITALS RULE
Let the functions f and g be differentiable on an open interval that contains the point a.
Suppose that lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 and lim
xa
x a
xa
lim
x a
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 0
f ( x)
exists. Then,
g( x)
f ( x)
f ( x)
= lim
= L.
g( x) x a g( x)
sin x
.
x
x0
sin x
(sin x)
cos x
lim
= lim
= lim
= cos 0 =1
x0
x0
x0
x
( x)
1
Note
Using LHospitals Rule, differentiate both the numerator and the denominator seperately. Do
not apply the Quotient Rule.
342
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 4
x4
.
x2 4
x4
44
0
= 2
=
=0
2
x 4 4 4 12
Note
Before applying LHospitals Rule, verify that we have the indeterminate form
EXAMPLE
Solution
0
.
0
x3 + x + 2
.
x 1
x +1
Find lim
x3 + x + 2 (1)3 +(1)+ 2 0
=
=
x 1
x +1
1+1
0
lim
0
form; appl y the r ule)
0
x3 + x + 2
( x3 + x + 2)
3 x2 +1
= lim
= lim
= 3 (1) 2 +1= 4
x 1
x 1
x 1
x +1
( x +1)
1
lim
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 1
lim
x 1
ln x
.
x2 1
ln x
0
=
x2 1 0
0
form; apply the rule )
0
1
ln x
(ln x)
1
lim 2
= lim 2
= l im x =
x 1 x 1
x 1 ( x 1)
x 1 2 x
2
343
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x 1
2x + 3 1
x +5 2
0
. So, we can use LHospitals Rule:
0
2
2x + 3 1
( 2 x+ 3 1)
2 x+5 2 4
lim
= lim
= lim 2 2 x + 3 = lim
=
= 4.
x 1
x 1
x 1
1
x +5 2
( x +5 2) x1
2 x+ 3
1
2 x +5
Note
f ( x)
0
is still indeterminate form , we use LHospitals Rule again.
g( x)
0
f ( x)
f ( x )
= lim
.
That gives lim
x a g( x)
x a g ( x )
0
In fact, whenever LHospitals Rule gives , we can apply it again until we get a different result.
0
If lim
x a
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find lim
x0
x sin x
.
x2
lim
x sin x 0
=
x2
0
lim
x sin x
( x sin x)
1 cos x 1 cos 0 0
0
( form; apply the rule agai n)
= lim
= lim
=
=
2
2
0
0
x
x
( x )
2x
2 0
0 0
lim
1 cos x
(1 cos x)
sin x 0
= lim
= li m
= =0
x0
x0
2x
(2 x)
2
2
x0
x0
x0
0
form; apply the rule)
0
Check Yourself 1
Find the following limits:
x3 8
x 2 x2 4
Answers
1. 3
2. 6
1. lim
2. lim
x 4
x2 8 x
x4
3. lim
x /2
sin x 1
cos 2 x +1
3. 1/4
. It is expressed as follows:
f ( x)
Suppose that lim f(x) = , lim g(x) = and lim
exists.
x a g( x)
xa
xa
Then, lim
x a
344
f ( x)
f ( x)
= lim
.
x
a
g( x)
g( x)
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
Solution
x2 3x +5
.
x 7+ 2 x 3 x2
Find lim
lim
x2 3x +5
=
x 7+ 2 x 3 x2
x2 3x +5
( x2 3 x+5)
2x 3
=
lim
= lim
x 7+ 2 x 3 x2
x (7+ 2 x 3 x2 )
x 2 6 x
( still
lim
lim
x
2x 3
(2 x 3)
2
1
= lim
= lim
=
x
2 6x
(2 6 x)
6
3
Note
LHospitals Rule cannot be applied directly to the indeterminate forms 0 and .
0
But it may be possible to convert them into the form
or into the form .
EXAMPLE
Solution
f g=
f
g
or f g =
1
1
g
f
1
Find lim x sin .
x
x
1
x=0
1
0
x
sin
0
, we can apply LHospitals Rule.
0
1
1
1
1
sin
(sin )
( 2 ) cos
x = lim
x = lim x
x = lim cos 1 =1
lim
x
x
x
x
1
1
1
x
2
( )
x
x
x
Check Yourself 2
Find the following limits:
2 x2 5 x +7
x
3x + 4
1. lim
1
1
)
5. lim(
x0 x
sin x
Answers
1.
Applications of the Derivative
5. 0
345
EXERCISES
5 .1
0
A. The Indeterminate Form
0
1. Find the following limits:
2
x 4x + 4
x2 + x 6
a. lim
x 2
1+ 3x 1
c. lim
x 0
x
e. lim
x0
g.
i.
lim
1 cos x
x2
x 2
lim
sin(2 x + 4)
x2 x 6
3
33x
x 3
x 3
x
sin
3
b. lim
x 0 2 x
x 8x
x2
x 2
h. lim
x 2
j.
c.
4 x3 + 4
d. lim 2
x 1 5 x +6 x +1
f. lim
Mixed Problems
2 x+ 6
x2 4
tan x
1 + tan x
lim(tan x sec x)
x
d. lim sin x
x0
3x
f.
b. lim
e. lim
x 1
x 1
x
tan
2
2
1
x2 + 3 x x )
lim( csc x) g. lim(
x
x0 x
2 x2 + 3 x 2
x 1/ 2
6x 3
lim
2
k. lim sin x sin a
l. lim tan( x 4)
x a
x 2
xa
4 x2
5x
x
cos + sin
arctan 3 x
m. lim
6
3 n. lim
x 0 arctan 4 x
x
x
o. lim x
x8
2/3
4
x8
x
arctan( )
2
4
p. lim
x 2
x2
x2 + x +1
3 x3 + 4
b. lim
c. lim
x2 + 4
x
d. lim
9 x2
x x 2 x 3
x 0
cot 3 x
cot 5 x
2
e. lim x + cos x
x
3 x2
346
Algebra 10
y=x2
x
the graph of f(x) = x
a decreasing function
an increasing function
Note
We refer to a function as increasing or decreasing only on intervals, not at particular points.
Applications of the Derivative
347
We now learn how the first derivative can be used to determine where the function is
increasing or decreasing. Let us look at the following graphs.
y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
0 < < 90
positive slope
b x
f is increasing
positive slopes (f(x) > 0)
b x
f is decreasing
negative slopes (f(x) < 0)
Observe that the function f is increasing on the interval (a, b) and the tangent lines to the
graph of f have positive slope on that interval. We know that the slope of each tangent line is
given by the derivative f (x). Thus, f (x) must be positive on (a, b).
Similarly, we expect to see a decreasing function when f (x) is negative. These observations
lead to the following important theorem.
Theorem
Note
According to the theorem above, when we are asked to determine the intervals of increase
and decrease for a given function, we must examine the sign of the derivative of the
function. To do this, we shall construct the sign chart of the first derivative. We assume that
you are familiar with constructing the sign chart of a function from your earlier studies.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find the intervals where the function f(x) = x2 4x + 3 is increasing and where it is
decreasing.
Let us construct the sign chart of f (x).
3
2
f (x)
f (x)
decreasing
(
)
+
2
increasing
(
From the chart, f (x) > 0 when x > 2 and f (x) < 0 when x < 2.
So, f is increasing on (2, ) and decreasing on (, 2).
the graph of
f(x) = x2 4x + 3
It would also be true to say that f is increasing on [2, ) and decreasing on (, 2].
348
Algebra 10
Note
As in the previous example, we use an up arrow ( ) for the intervals where the function
is increasing and a down arrow ( ) for the intervals where the function is decreasing.
EXAMPLE
10
Solution
For what values of x is the function f(x) = (x 1)3 either increasing or decreasing?
f (x) = 3(x 1)2.
-1
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
Given ax + bx + c = 0,
= b2 4ac.
2
= ( 4)2 4 3a 2 = 16 24a < 0. So, a > .
3
(2)
2
By (1) and (2), we have a > .
3
12
mx 2
For what values of m is f ( x) =
always decreasing in its
x+ 3
domain?
Solution
Since f is always decreasing, f (x) < 0 for all the values of x except
x = 3.
EXAMPLE
f ( x) =
m( x + 3) ( mx 2) 3 m + 2
=
< 0.
( x + 3)2
( x + 3)2
349
EXAMPLE
13
The graph of the function f is given on the interval (a, b). State
whether each of the following functions is increasing or decreasing
on (a, b).
a. g(x) = x2 f(x)
b. h(x) = f 2(x)
c.
m( x) =
y
y = f (x)
f ( x)
x
a
Solution
From the graph, we conclude that x < 0 and f(x) > 0 on (a, b). Also, we have f (x) > 0
because f is increasing on (a, b). Now let us find the derivative of each function.
a. g(x) = 2x f (x) < 0. So g is decreasing on (a, b).
b. h(x) = 2 f (x) f (x) > 0. So h is increasing on (a, b).
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the intervals where each function is increasing or decreasing.
a. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 6
2. The function f ( x) =
b. f ( x) =
1
3x + 4
kx +1
is always increasing in its domain. Find k.
x +1
Answers
1. a. increasing on (, 0) and (2, ), decreasing on (0, 2)
4
b. decreasing on , 4 and ,
3
3
2. k > 1.
These problems can be reduced to finding the maximum or minimum value of a function.
Let us first explain what we mean by maximum and minimum values.
Definition
350
Algebra 10
Note
Here is some terminology: If a function f has a maximum (or minimum) at x = c, then we
say that f(c) is a maximum (or minimum) value of f and (c, f(c)) is a maximum (or
minimum) point of f.
An extremum of a function is either a maximum or minimum value of that function.
The figure on the right shows the graph of a
function f with absolute maximum at x = a
and absolute minimum at x = d. Note that
(a, f(a)) is the highest point on the graph
and (d, f(d)) is the lowest point.
y
f(a)
y = f(x)
f(d)
In the same graph, if we consider only
I1
I2
(
) (
)
the values of x sufficiently near b (for
x
a
b
c
d
example, in the interval I1), then f(b) is the
smallest of those values of f(x). In other words, no nearby points on the graph of f are lower
than the point (b, f(b)). To define such points, we use the word local. So, we say that the
function f has a local minimum at the point x = b.
Similarly, f has a local maximum at x = c because f(c) is the largest value of f(x) in the
interval I2. We see that no nearby points on the graph are higher than the point (c, f(c)). We
now state the formal definition:
Definition
absolute and
local max
y
local max
not absolute
local min
not absolute
b
a
y = f(x)
absolute and
local min
351
Note
1. A function has at most one absolute maximum and one absolute minimum. But it may
have more than one local maximum or minimum.
2. An absolute extremum of a function is either a local extremum or an endpoint.
Check Yourself 4
1. Explain the difference between an absolute maximum
and a local maximum.
y
y = g(x)
Answers
1. absolute max.: f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in the domain of f.
local max.: f(c) f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I containing c.
2. local max. at x = b, x = d
local min. at x = c, x = e
absolute max. at x = d
absolute min. at x = a.
f (a) = 0, f (b) = 0.
This analysis reveals an important characteristic of the local extrema of a differentiable
function.
Theorem
Algebra 10
Note
y = f(x)
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
In some books, an
extremum that occurs
at a point where the
derivative does not
exist is called a singular
point.
y = f(x)
Note
The function f(x) = |x| shows that a local extremum of a function may exist at which the
derivative does not exist. As a consequence, we say that the local extrema of any function f
occurs at the points c where f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist. Such points are given a special
name.
Applications of the Derivative
353
Definition
critical point
The value c in the domain of f is called a critical point if either
1. f (c) = 0, or
2. f (c) does not exist.
EXAMPLE
16
Solution
EXAMPLE
17
Solution
x2
.
x 1
2 x( x 1) x2 1 x( x 2)
=
.
( x 1)2
( x 1)2
Since x = 0 and x = 2 are the roots of f (x) = 0, they are critical points. Next, observe that
f (x) does not exist when x = 1. However, since f is not defined at that point, the point
x = 1 is not a critical point.
EXAMPLE
18
y = f(x)
Solution
354
a. Observe that there are horizontal tangents at the points x = c, d, and e, so f (x) = 0 at
these points. Next, f (x) does not exist at x = a because the tangent line at this point is
vertical. Finally, since there is a corner at x = b, f (x) does not exist there.
Algebra 10
b. From the graph of f, we say that f has a local maximum at x = d, and a local minimum at
x = b and x = e. Note that f (c) = 0 and f (a) does not exist, and f has no local extrema
at these points. We conclude that not every critical point gives rise to a local extrema.
Check Yourself 5
Find the critical points of the following functions.
1. f(x) = x3 3x + 4
2. f(x) = 1 x
Answers
1. 1, 1 2. 0
inc.
dec.
f>0 + f<0
+
355
dec.
+
+
inc.
f<0
f>0
c
y
f>0
+ f>0
f<0
f<0
+
c
Moreover, we know that f(x) is increasing where f (x) > 0 and decreasing where f (x) < 0.
These observations are the basis of the following test.
THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST
Let c be a critical point of a function f(x).
1. If f (x) changes from positive to negative at c, then f(x) has a local maximum at c.
2. If f (x) changes from negative to positive at c, then f(x) has a local minimum at c.
3. If f (x) does not change sign at c, then f(x) has no local maximum or minimum at c.
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Find the critical points of the function f(x) = x3 3x2 9x + 6, and classify each critical
point as a local maximum, a local minimum, or neither.
f (x) = 3x2 6x 9 = 3(x 3)(x + 1)
x = 3 and x = 1 are the critical points (where f (x) = 0). Since f (x) is a polynomial
function, it is differentiable everywhere. Thus, we have no points c such that f (c) is not
defined.
x
f (x)
f(x)
(max)
(min)
From the sign chart, f increases for x < 1 and decreases for 1 < x < 3. So, f has a local
maximum at x = 1.
Similarly, f decreases for 1 < x < 3 and increases for x > 3. So, f has a local minimum at x = 3.
356
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
2
1
2
x3 =
3
2
1
3 x3
There is no root of f (x) = 0.
f (x)
f(x)
(min)
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
1,
x>1
1,
x<1
f (x)
f(x)
(min)
357
EXAMPLE
22
Solution
f (x)
f(x)
Check Yourself 6
Find the local extrema of the following functions.
1. f(x) = 2x2 2x + 5
2. f(x) = 1 x4
Answers
1. min.: x =
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
3. f(x) =
x2 +1
x
4. f(x) = |x2 x|
1
1
2. max.: x = 0 3. max.: x = 1, min.: x = 1 4. max.: x = , min.: x = 0, x = 1
2
2
If the function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + 15x + b has a local maximum at the point (1, 10), then
find a and b.
We know that an extremum of a function must occur at a point where f (x) = 0 or f (x) does
not exist. Since f is a polynomial function, f is differentiable everywhere.
So, we have f (1) = 0.
f (x) = 3x2 + 2ax + 15
f (1) = 0
3 12 + 2a 1 + 15 = 0
a = 9
Since the point (1, 10) is on the graph of f, we say that f(1) = 10.
f(1) = 10
13 + a 12 + 15 1 + b = 10
a + b = 6
b = 3 (since a = 9)
358
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
24
-2
y = f (x)
-1
1
Solution
We know that f(x) is increasing when f (x) > 0. f (x) > 0 means that the graph of f (x) must
be above the x-axis. In the figure f (x) > 0 for x > 1. So, f(x) is increasing for x > 1. Similarly,
f(x) is decreasing when the graph of f (x) is below the x-axis. So, f(x) is decreasing for x < 1.
x
f (x)
f(x)
(min)
25
Solution
For what values of m does the function f(x) = x3 (m 1)x2 + 3x 2 have no local extrema?
Since f has no extrema, there must be no root of f (x) = 0.
f (x) = 3x2 2(m 1)x + 3
The equation 3x2 2(m 1)x + 3 = 0 must have no root.
We need < 0:
[2(m 1)]2 4 3 3 < 0
4(m2 2m + 1) 36 < 0
4(m2 2m 8) < 0
4(m 4)(m + 2) < 0
Let us construct a chart to solve the above inequality:
2
+
So 2 < m < 4.
Applications of the Derivative
359
Check Yourself 7
1. The function f(x) = x3 3x2 9x + a has a local maximum value of 10. Find a.
2. The graph of the derivative of the function f(x) is given. Find the local extrema of the
function f.
y
x
y = f (x)
Answers
1. 5 2. max.: x = 0, x = 4, min.: x = 2, x = 2
y
1
x
1
x
minimum value is 1
maximum value is 1
minimum value is 0
no maximum value
no minimum value
no maximum value
We have seen that some functions have absolute extrema, whereas other do not. In what
conditions does a function have both the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum?
The following theorem answers this question.
360
Algebra 10
Theorem
If a function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both an absolute maximum
and an absolute minimum on [a, b].
The above theorem guarantees the existence of the absolute extrema of a continuous
function on a closed interval [a, b]. Moreover, we know that each absolute extremum can
occur either at a critical point in the interior of [a, b] or at an endpoint of the interval. The
following steps give a useful method for finding the absolute extrema of a continuous
function on [a, b].
CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD
1.
2.
3.
4.
EXAMPLE
26
Solution
y
3
max
3
x
-1
y = f (x)
min
361
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 12x2 + 18x + 6 on
the closed interval [2, 0].
f (x) = 6x2 + 24x + 18 = 6(x + 1)(x + 3)
f (x) = 0 when x = 1 and x = 3.
But x = 3 is outside the interval [2, 0]. So, we do not take it.
The only critical point is x = 1.
Additionally, we should consider the endpoints of the interval [2, 0].
Now, we evaluate f(x) at x = 1, 2, and 0:
f(1) = 2
f(2) = 2
f(0) = 6
fmax[2, 0] = 6, fmin[2, 0] = 2.
Notation
fmax[a, b] denotes the maximum value of the function f on the interval [a, b].
fmin[a, b] denotes the minimum value of the function f on the interval [a, b].
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
We have f(x) = 2,
x + 1,
We say that f (1) does not
x>1
x=1.
x<1
exist because f (1) = 1 and f (1+) = 1 are not equal.
So x = 1 is a critical point.
Next we consider the endpoints of the interval [1, 3]. So, we should find the values of f for the
points x = 1, 1, and 3.
f(1) = 2
f(1) = 0
f(3) = 0
fmax[1, 3] = 2, fmin[1, 3] = 0.
362
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
x 2
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f ( x) = + on [3, 3].
2 x
1 2
x2 4
2=
2 x
2 x2
x = 2 and x = 2 are the roots of f (x) = 0. So, they are critical points. Next, f (x) does not
f ( x) =
exist when x = 0, but f is not defined at this point; so 0 is not a critical point.
Now let us find the values of f for critical points and endpoints.
13
13
f (3) = ,
f ( 2) = 2,
f (2) = 2,
f(3) =
6
6
f max [3,3]=
13
6
13
6
Check Yourself 8
Find the absolute extrema of each function on the given interval.
1. f(x) = x2 x + 2, [0, 1]
3. h(x) = x x, [1, 4]
Answers
1. fmax = 2, fmin =
7
4
2. fmax = 3, fmin = 3
3. fmax = 2, fmin = 0
363
EXERCISES
5 .2
b.
y = f (x)
3 1
c. f(x) = x + 4x + 3
d. f(x) = x3 + 6x
x3
e. f(x) =
2x2 + 2
3
f. f(x) = 3x4 + 4x3 12x2
1
g. f(x) =
2x
h. f(x) = x2/3
5x
i. f(x) =
x2
3
x 1
k. f ( x) = sin x +
b. x + f(x)
d. f(x2)
x2 ax
is
x2 4 x + 3
b. f(x) = x2 + 1
j. f(x) =
1
x
3
2
1
1
f ( x) = x3 + mx2 4x +1 decreasing
3
for all real numbers?
y
y = f (x)
y
a
b
x
y = f(x)
b. f 2(x) + x
c. x2 f(x)
Algebra 10
y = f (x)
x2
x3
x4 x5
x6
x7
x8 x9
maximum value of 8.
1
x2
b. f(x) = 2x
c. f(x) = |x + 1|
13.
y = f (x)
a
22.
y
2
1
3
6
2
3
7
x
y = f (x)
a. f(x) = 2x 4x + 3,
[0, 2]
b. f(x) = x2 + 2x 1,
[2, 2]
c. f(x) = x 6x,
[1, 4]
[0, 2]
e. f(x) = x2 4x,
[0, 3]
f. f(x) = x5 5x4 + 1,
[0, 5]
[3, 3]
h. f(x) = 9 x2 ,
[1, 2]
i. f(x) = x
1
,
x
[1, 1]
x1
k. f(x) =
,
x +1
[0, 4]
l.
f(x) = |x 3x|,
[1, 4]
[, 0]
29.
3
366
4
5
y = f (x)
y=
x3
2 x2 + x 5 have the smallest slope?
3
24. Find the sum of the smallest value and the greatest
y = 2t2 + 4t + 5
x = t3 + t.
[1, 3]
j. f(x) = 3x2/3,
Mixed Problems
y
y = f (x)
3x4 4 x3 24 x2 + 48 x, x 0.5
.
f ( x) =
8 x3 +12 x2 + 2,
x < 0.5
A. CONCAVITY
In this section we discuss the concept of concavity. As illustrated in the following figures, two
increasing graphs on an interval may have different shapes. This depends on how the graphs
bend or turn. As we scan the graphs from left to right, we see that the graph of f turns to the
left (upward), while the graph of g turns to the right (downward). We say that the function f
is concave up on the interval (a, b) and the function g is concave down on
the interval (a, b). We now define concavity geometrically.
y
y
y=f(x)
y=g(x)
increasing, concave up
Definition
concavity
A function f is concave up on an interval I if the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines
on the interval I.
Similarly, f is concave down on I if the graph of f lies below all of its tangent lines on I.
367
f > 0 f is increasing
f < 0 f is decreasing
The graphs above illustrates the definition of concavity. Now, we shall see that the
second derivative f tells us where f is concave up and where f is concave down. If f is
concave up on (a, b), then the slopes of the tangent lines increase from left to right as shown
in the left figure above. This means that the first derivative f is increasing on (a, b). We know
that if f is an increasing function, then its derivative f must be positive on (a, b). In a
similar way, it can be shown that if f is concave down on (a, b), then f (x) < 0 on (a, b).
These observations suggest the following theorem.
Theorem
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
As a conclusion of the
above theorem, we must
examine the sign of the
second derivative.
Determine where the following functions are concave up and where they are concave down.
a. f(x) = 9 x2
b. f(x) = x3
y
a. f(x) = 9 x2
f (x) = 2x and f (x) = 2
Since f (x) < 0 for all the values of x, f is concave down
everywhere.
b. f(x) = x3
f (x) =3x2 and f (x) = 6x
Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 0.
x
f (x)
f(x)
x
+
concave
down
concave
up
y = 9 x2
y = x3
From the sign chart, f(x) changes sign from negative to positive at the point x = 0. Observe
that the point (0, 0) on the graph of f(x) = x3 is where f changes from concave down to
concave up. We call it the inflection point of f.
368
Algebra 10
Inflection point
Definition
f (a) = 0
f (a) = 0
Note
At each inflection point, either
1. f (a) = 0 or
2. f (a) does not exist.
31
Solution
Investigate f(x) = (x + 1)4 for concavity and find the inflection points.
y
concave
up
concave
up
From the sign chart, f(x) is concave up for all the values of x.
Also, we have f (x) = 0 when x = 1.
But (1, 0) is not the inflection point of f because f does not change sign across x = 1.
Applications of the Derivative
369
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
1 4
x 4 x3 +9 x2 7 x+5.
2
f (x)
f (x)
concave up
concave down
(inf)
concave up
(inf)
From the sign chart for f , we see that f is concave up on (, 1) and (3, ) and concave
down on (1, 3). It would also be true to say that f is concave up on (, 1] and [3, ) and
concave down on [1, 3].
Also, observe that f (x) changes sign at x = 1 and x = 3. Therefore, the points (1, f(1)) and
(3, f(3)) are the inflection points of f.
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for f(x) = cos x sin x on [0, 2].
f (x) = sin x cos x and f (x) = cos x + sin x
Since f is differentiable on [0, 2], we must find the solutions of f (x) = 0 on [0, 2].
5
f (x) = 0 cos x + sin x = 0 tan x = 1 x =
and x = .
4
4
sin
f = 0
+
f (x)
f = 0
cos
f(x)
5p
4
p
4
concave
down
(inf)
2p
concave
up
concave
down
(inf)
5
) and ( , 2) and concave up on
4
4
2
2
5
5
5
2
2
f ( ) = cos sin =
= 0 and f ( ) = cos
sin
= +
=0
4
4
4
2
2
4
4
4
2
2
5
So, ( , 0) and ( , 0) are the inflection points of f.
4
4
370
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 3 has an inflection point at (1, 3). Find the values of a
and b.
f (x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b and f (x) = 6x + 2a
We know that the inflection point of f occurs at a point where f (x) = 0 or f (x) does not
exist.
Since (1, 3) is an inflection point, f (1) = 0.
Also we have f(1) = 3 because the point (1, 3) is on the graph of f.
f (1) = 0 6 1 + 2a = 0 a = 3
f(1) = 3 13 + a 12 + b 1 + 3 = 3 a + b = 0 b = 3
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
1
at its inflection point.
x
1
2
and f ( x) = 2+ 3
2
x
x
371
Note
In the beginning of this section we have
seen that an increasing graph can be either
concave up or concave down. This shows
that the increase and decrease of a function
is independent of the concavity of the
function.
Remember that the sign of the first derivative determines where f is increasing and decreasing,
whereas the sign of the second derivative determines where f is concave up and concave down.
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
x
y = f(x)
f > 0, f increasing
f > 0, f increasing
f < 0, f decreasing
f < 0, f decreasing
f > 0, f concave up
f > 0, f concave up
Check Yourself 9
1. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for each function.
x +1
x1
2. The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 has an inflection point at (1, 1). Find a and b.
a. f(x) = x3 2x2 7x + 3
b.
f ( x) =
y
y = f(x)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2
2
2
1. a. concave up: ( , ) , concave down: ( , ) , inflection point x = .
3
3
3
b. concave up: (1, ), concave down: (, 1), no inflection point.
2. a = 3, b = 1 3. a. increasing: (1, 2), (4, 6), (8, 9) b. concave up: (3, 6), (6, 9)
decreasing: (2, 4), (6, 8)
concave down: (1, 3)
372
Algebra 10
y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
c
local minimum at c.
local maximum at c.
The graphs above illustrates the second derivative test. We know that f is concave up near c
if f (c) > 0. This means that the graph of f lies above its horizontal tangent at c and so
f has a local minimum at c.
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
Apply the second derivative test to find the local extrema of the function
f(x) = x3 3x2 9x + 6.
f (x) = 3x2 6x 9 and f (x) = 6x 6.
So, f (x) = 0 gives x = 1 and x = 3, the critical points of f.
To apply the second derivative test, we compute f at these points.
f (1) = 12 and f (3) = 12
Since f (1) < 0, the second derivative test implies that f(1) = 11 is a local maximum value
of f. And since f (3) > 0, it follows that f(3) = 21 is a local minimum value.
Remember that we had found the same results by using the first derivative test in Example 24.
373
Note
The second derivative test can be used only when f exists. Moreover, this test fails when
f (c) = 0. In other words, if f (c) = 0 = f (c), then there might be a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither at the point x = c. In such cases we must use the
first derivative test.
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
f(x)
We see that f does not change sign at x = 0. So, f does not have a local maximum or
minimum.
Check Yourself 10
Apply the second derivative test to find the local extrema of each function.
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 12x + 7
2. f (x) = 8x5 5x4 20x3
4
3. f (x) = x +
x
Answers
1. max.: x = 2
1
min.: x =
2
374
2. max.: x = 1
3
min.: x =
2
3. max.: x = 2
min.: x = 2
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
5 .3
A. Concavity
i. f(x) =
5 x
f ( x) =
sin x
1 cos x
b.
k. f(x) = Arcsin(x 2)
l.
j. f(x) =
x +1
a. f(x) = x2 5x + 6
b. f(x) = 2x2 + 7x
c. f(x) = x3 + x2
d. f(x) = x3 3x2 + 5x 7
e. f(x) = 3x4 16x3 + 30x2 + 4
f. f(x) =
1 4
x 6x2 + 4x 7
4
1
x2
y
1
3
5
3
x
y = f (x)
375
4
3
c. f(x) = 4x + x ,
x=0
x = 1
2
d. f(x) = x2 + , x =1
x
1 3
1
x 2 x2 + 3x + at its inflection point.
3
3
d. f(x) = ( x + 3) 3
e. f(x) =
1
1 + x2
f. f(x) = x + sin x
Mixed Problems
8. Given the graph of f(x), plot a rough graph of
f (x).
y
y = f(x)
376
In this section we solve applied maximum-minimum problems in which the function is not
given directly. When we face such a problem, we are required to first find the appropriate
function to be maximized or minimized. The following steps will be helpful for solving these
problems.
1. Determine the quantity to be maximized or minimized and label it with a letter (say M for now).
2. Assign letters for other quantities, possibly with the help of a figure.
3. Express M in terms of some of the other variables.
4. Use the data in the problem to write M as a function of one variable x, say M = M(x).
5. Find the domain of the function M(x).
6. Find the maximum (or minimum) value of M(x) with the help of the first derivative.
Such problems where we look for the best value are called optimization problems.
38
EXAMPLE
Solution
b
a
Given a rectangle with
sidelength a and b
Perimeter = 2(a + b)
Area = a b
377
Note
Suppose that f has only one critical point c in the interval I. If f (x) has the same sign at all
points of I, then f(c) is an absolute extremum of f on I. This absolute interpretation of the
second derivative test is useful in optimization problems.
39
EXAMPLE
Solution
Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 15 and x2 + 5y is as small as possible.
We have x + y = 15 and we want to minimize M = x2 + 5y. Expressing M as a function of
just one variable we get M(x) = x2 + 5(15 x) = x2 5x + 75 (since y = 15 x).
Since both numbers are positive, x > 0 and y = 9 x > 0 or 0 < x < 9.
5
The derivative is M(x) = 2x 5. So, the critical point is x = .
2
Since M(x) = 2 > 0 for all the values of x in (0 , 9), the second derivative test implies that
5
x = is the minimum value of M(x).
2
5
5 25
Therefore, M gets its minimum value when x = , and y = 15 x = 15 =
.
2
2
2
40
EXAMPLE
Solution
A( r ) = 2 r 2 + 2 r (
h
500
1000
) = 2 r 2 +
, r > 0.
r 2
r
250
.
2000
250
> 0 for r = 3
, the second derivative test implies that A gets its
3
1000 4( r 3 250)
=
.
r2
r2
250
.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
41
Solution
Find the area of the largest rectangle that has two vertices on the x - axis and another two above
the x - axis on the parabola y = 3 x2.
y
(x, y)
3
3
x
y = 3 x2
42
Solution
Find the point on the line y = x + 2 that is the closest to the point (1, 2).
Let (x, y) be a point on y = x + 2 such that the distance
d between (x, y) and (1, 2) is a minimum.
2
We have d = ( x 1)2 +( y 2) 2 .
Distance between
two points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
( x1 x2 )2 +( y1 y2 )2 .
y=x+2
(x, y)
d
(1, 2)
-2
x
It is clear that the minimum of d occurs at the same point as the minimum of d2. So, we
minimize d2 to simplify calculations by letting M = d2.
M(x) = 2x2 2x + 1 has derivative M(x) = 4x 2.
1
1
So, M(x) = 0 when x = . Since M(x) = 4 > 0, the minimum value occurs at x = .
2
2
1
5
1 5
Since y = + 2 = , the point ( , ) is the closest point to the point (1, 2).
2
2
2 2
Applications of the Derivative
379
EXAMPLE
43
Solution
The swimmer is 40 m from the shoreline. The lifeguard is 100 m from the point on the shore
that is directly opposite the swimmer. The guard can run at a speed of 5 m/s and swim at a
speed of 3 m/s. What path should the guard follow to get to the swimmer in the least time?
Let x be the distance denoted in the given diagram.
swimmer
402 + x2
40 m
guard
100 x
We wish to minimize the total time elapsed. So, we differentiate this equation to get
T ( x) =
1 1
1
x
1
1
(40 2 + x2 ) 2 (40 2 + x2 ) =
.
3 2
5 3 40 2 + x2 5
Check Yourself 11
1. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 9 and x2y is as large as possible.
2. A rectangle has area of 144 m2. What dimensions will minimize its perimeter?
3. An open rectangular box with a square base is to be made from 300 cm2 of material. Find
the dimensions of the box with the maximum volume.
4. Find the minimum distance from the line 2x + 3y = 13 to the origin.
Answers
1. x = 6, y = 3
380
2. 12, 12
3. 5, 10
4. 13
Algebra 10
incident
ray
q1
P
q2
medium 1
medium 2
refracted
ray
381
Snells law can be derived from a physics principle discovered by Pierre de Fermat,
the seventeenth-century mathematician. Fermats principle states that a ray of
light travels the path of minimum time. The derivation of Snells law from
Fermats principle represent an interesting application of the derivative.
Suppose a light ray is to travel from A
to B, where A is in the medium 1 and
B is in the medium 2. Using the
geometry of the figure given above,
we see that the time it takes the ray
to travel from A to B is
d
d
t= 1 + 2
1 2
t( x) =
A
d1
q1
x
medium 1
medium 2
q2
d2
distance
(time=
),
velocity
( d x) + b
a +x
+
.
1
2
2
dx
We obtain the least time, or the minimum value of t, by taking the derivative of t
with respect to x and setting the derivative equal to zero.
t( x) =
1 a2 + x2
dx
2 ( d x)2 + b2
1 a2 + x2
From the figure, we see that sin 1 =
Using these equations, we obtain
382
x
a2 + x2
dx
2 ( d x )2 + b2
and sin 2 =
dx
( d x)2 + b2
sin 1 sin 2
, which is Snells law.
=
1
2
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
5 .4
8. A closed rectangular
3. The sum of two positive integers is 10. Find the
maximum value of the sum of their squares.
y
x
2x
48 cm
tin, 30 cm by 48 cm,
has four equal squares
cut out at the corners.
The sides are then
turned up to form an
open rectangular box.
Find the largest possible
volume of the box.
30 cm
383
2R
B
to the line y = x.
(4, 3)
45
x +1 at positive x-values, the
4
one which intersects y-axis at maximum y-value
y = x 3 6 x2 +
A. ASYMPTOTES
When plotting the graph of a function, we need to know the behavior of the function at
infinity and the behavior near points where the function is not defined. To describe these
situations, we define the term asymptote.
y = f(x)
An asymptote is a line that a curve approaches closer and
closer until the distance between the asymptote and the
We represent an asymptote
by drawing a dashed line.
Definition
asymptote
y
y=
x1
x+1
y=1
x
x = 2
vertical asymptote
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x) if
either
lim f(x) = or lim f(x) = .
x a+
x a
x
vertical
asymptote
A rational function f ( x) =
385
EXAMPLE
44
Solution
x
.
x 4
2
Definition
horizontal
asymptote
f ( x) =
an xn + an 1x n 1 +...+ a1x + a0
bm xm + bm 1x m 1 +...+ b1x + b0
horizontal asympote:
lim f ( x) =
EXAMPLE
45
Solution
if
n>m
an / bm
if
n = m.
if
n<m
x
.
x 4
2
Since the degree of the polynomial in numerator is smaller than the degree of the polynomial
x
= 0. So, y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
in denominator, lim 2
x x 4
EXAMPLE
46
Solution
x2 x
.
2 x 5x + 3
2
x2 x
1
= . So, y = 1/2
x 2 x2 5 x + 3
2
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
47
Solution
EXAMPLE
48
Solution
2 x2 3x +5
.
x2 +1
2 x2 3x +5
= 2. So, y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
x
x2 +1
Since the denominator x2 + 1 is never equal to zero, f has no vertical asymptotes.
lim
We know that the limit of a polynomial at infinity is the limit of the term of highest degree.
So, lim (2 x3 5 x2 + 7 x 12) = lim 2 x3 = 2 ( ) 3 = .
x +
x+
In other words, lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) do not exist. Therefore, f has no horizontal asymptote.
x +
Note
A polynomial function has no vertical or horizontal asymptotes.
Definition
oblique asymptote
The line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f(x)
if either
y oblique asymptotes
387
EXAMPLE
49
Solution
x2 + x
.
x2
x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f because 2 makes only the denominator zero.
Note that the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. So,
the graph of f has an oblique asymptote.
6
x2 + x
By long division of x 2 into x2 + x, we can find that f ( x) =
= x + 3+
.
x2
x2
So, y = x + 3 is an oblique asymptote of f.
Check Yourself 12
Find all the asymptotes of the graph of each of the following functions.
1. f ( x) =
x 1
2x + 3
2. f ( x) =
5x
3 + x2
2. y = 0
3. x =
3. f ( x) =
x2 9
3+7 x 2 x2
4. f ( x) =
x2 x 2
x 1
Answers
3
1
1. x = , y =
2
2
1
1
,y=
2
2
4. x = 1, y = x
B. CURVE PLOTTING
Curve plotting is the final part of our study of the derivatives. So far we have seen how to use
the derivatives to find the most interesting features of a graph. With the use of all the
information about the graph of a function, we can easily draw it.
STEPS OF CURVE PLOTTING
1. Domain: Find where f(x) is defined.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: Construct the sign chart of f (x) to determine the
intervals where f(x) is increasing and where f(x) is decreasing.
3. Local Extrema: Find the critical points of f and classify each as a maximum, a
minimum, or neither by using the First Derivative Test.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: Construct the sign chart of f (x) to determine the
intervals where f(x) is concave up and where f(x) is concave down. With the help of
the chart, find the inflection points.
5. Intercepts: In y = f(x) setting x = 0 gives the y-intercept and y = 0 gives the
x-intercept(s). To find the x-intercept(s) may be difficult, in which case we do not use
this information.
6. Behavior at Infinity: Consider lim f(x) and lim f(x) to see how the graph of f
x +
x
behaves as x .
7. Asymptotes: Find all the asymptotes of the graph and draw the asymptotes in a
coordinate plane by using dashed lines.
8. Graph: Start graphing by plotting the local extrema, inflection points, and intercepts.
Then, using the rest of the information, complete the plot by joining the plotted points.
388
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
50
Solution
1. Domain: Recall that the domain of a polynomial function is all real numbers. So, f is
defined for all the values of x.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f (x) = 3x2 3 = 3(x + 1)(x + 1)
When f (x) = 0 we have x = 1 and x = 1.
1
x
The sign chart of f shows that f is increasing
+
f (x)
on (, 1) and (1, ) and decreasing on (1, 1).
f(x)
(max)
(min)
f (x)
f(x)
concave
down
concave
up
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y = 2 (y-intercept)
Setting y = 0 leads to a cubic equation. Since the solution is not readily found, we will
not use this information.
6. Behavior at Infinity: Recall that the limit of a polynomial function at infinity is the limit
of the term of highest degree.
lim f(x) = lim (x3 3x 2) = lim x3 = ()3 =
(This means that f(x) decreases without bound as x decreases without bound. So, the
graph of f goes to plus infinity as x )
lim f(x) = lim (x3 3x 2) = lim x3 = (+)3 = +
x +
x +
x +
(This means that f(x) increases without bound as x decreases without bound. So, the
graph of f goes to plus infinity as x +)
7. Asymptotes: A polynomial function has no asymptotes.
Applications of the Derivative
389
local
maximum
f(x) +
as x +
1
x
y = f(x)
inflection
point
2
f(x)
as x
local
minimum
51
Solution
f (x)
f(x)
(max)
(min)
(max)
3. Local Extrema: From the sign chart of f (x), f has local maximum at x = 2 and
x = 2, a local minimum at x = 0.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points:
x
f (x) = 12x2 + 16 = 0
2
3
and x =
2
3
f(x)
2
3
2
3
concave
down
concave
up
f (x)
concave
down
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y = 7 (y-intercept)
y = 0 x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 7, x4 = 7 (x-intercepts)
390
Algebra 10
6. Behavior at Infinity:
lim f(x) = lim (x4) = ()4 = and lim f(x) = lim (x4) = (+)4 = +
x +
x +
2
3
5
2
5
, f(
)= .
3
3
3
)=
local
(and absolute) maximum
9
inflection point ( 2 , 5 )
3 3
( 2 , 5 ) inflection point
3 3
5
3
7
2 1
y = f(x)
7
f(x)
as x
f(x)
local
minimum
as x +
Check Yourself 13
Plot the graph of each function.
1. f(x) = 2x3 3x2 12x
Answers
y
1.
2.
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
1
1
20
391
EXAMPLE
52
Solution
x3
.
2x + 4
1. Domain: Recall that the domain of a rational function is all real numbers except the
numbers that make the denominator zero. So, f is defined everywhere except x = 2.
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f ( x) =
1 (2 x + 4) ( x 3) 2
10
=
2
(2 x + 4)
(2 x + 4)2
Since f (x) > 0 for all the values of x except 2. So, f is always increasing in its domain.
3. Local Extrema: Note that f does not change its sign. By the first derivative test, we say
that f has no local extrema.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f ( x) =
40
(2 x + 4)3
3
( y - intercept)
4
y = 0 x=3
( x - intercept)
x
f (x)
f(x)
concave
up
concave
down
6. Behavior at Infinity:
1
x3
lim f(x) = lim
= .
x
x 2x + 4
2
1
is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
2
Also, x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f because 2 makes the denominator zero.
8. Graph:
y
y = 1 horizontal asymptote
2
y = f(x)
1
2
2
x = 2
vertical asymptote
392
3
4
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
53
Solution
x
.
x 4
2
1 ( x2 4) x 2 x
x2 4
( x2 + 4)
= 2
= 2
2
2
2
( x 4)
( x 4)
( x 4) 2
Since f (x) < 0 for all the values of x except 2 and 2, f is always decreasing in its domain.
3. Local Extrema: f has no local extrema.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points:
2 x( x +8)
f ( x) =
( x2 4)3
f (x)
concave
down
f(x)
-2
concave concave
up
down
(inf)
+
concave
up
Thus, f is concave up on (2, 0) and (2, ) and concave down on (, 2) and (0, 2). The
sign of f (x) changes at the points x = 2, 0, and 2. But the only inflection point is
x = 0 because f is not defined at 2 and 2.
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y = 0 and y = 0 x = 0.
The point (0, 0) is the only intercept.
6. Behavior at Infinity:
lim f(x) = lim
x
= 0.
x 4
2
y
x=2
vertical
asymptote
y = f(x)
y=0
horizontal
asymptote
x=2
vertical
asymptote
393
EXAMPLE
54
Solution
x2 x + 4
.
x 1
(2 x 1) ( x 1) ( x2 x + 4) x 2 2 x 3
=
( x 1)2
( x 1)2
f (x)
f(x)
(max)
(min)
8
( x 1)3
concave
down
concave
up
f (x)
f(x)
5. Intercepts: x = 0 y = 4 (y-intercept)
y = 0 x2 x + 4 = 0 < 0 (no x intercepts)
2
6. Behavior at Infinity: lim f(x) = lim x x + 4 = .
x
x
x1
7. Asymptotes: Note that the degree of the numerator of f is exactly one more than the
degree of the denominator of f.
(3, 5)
local min.
y=x
oblique
asymptote
3
3
4
y = f(x)
394
(1, 3)
local max.
x=1
vertical
asymptote
Algebra 10
Check Yourself 14
Plot the graph of each function.
x
x +1
Answers
1. f ( x) =
2. f ( x) =
1.
x +1
2x
y
1
y = f(x)
1/2
1/2
2.
y
y = f(x)
1/2
2
x
395
EXERCISES
5 .5
A. Asymptotes
2
x +1
b. f ( x) =
1
( x 1)3
3x + 2
c. f(x) = x 4x 5x + 6 d. f ( x) =
4x
3
y = f(x)
3 x
e. f ( x) =
( x + 3)2
f. f ( x) = x +1
1 x2
2
g. f ( x) = 2( x 1)
x + 2x 3
2
h. f ( x) = 4 2 x 3x
2 x + 3x 9
i. f ( x) =
x3
x2 5 x 6
j. f ( x) =
polynomial function of
degree 4 whose graph is
shown in the figure.
3x 1
has exactly one vertical
x2 + x + m
asymptote. Find m.
y = f(x)
x3
x2 +9
2
k. f ( x) = x + 2 x + 3
x 1
2. The curve y =
y = f(x)
1
2
B. Curve Plotting
a. f ( x) =
x 1
x +1
b. f ( x) =
c. f ( x) =
x 1
2
x 2x 3
2
d. f ( x) = 2( x + 1)
x 4x + 3
2
e. f ( x) = x2 9
x + 3x
d. f(x) = (x 4)(3 x)
1
x +1
2
f. f ( x) = x + x
x2
e. f(x) = x4 2x2 + 1
Mixed Problems
y = f(x)
a. f ( x) = x 4 x2
1
1
x
396
b. f ( x) =
x2
x+ 2
A) 1
5A
5. For what values of k is f(x)=x3 +(k+1)x2 +3x+2
x2 + x 2
.
x2 4 x + 3
B)
3
2
always increasing?
D)
C) 0
3
4
E)
2
3
A) 6 < k < 3
B) k > 0
C) 4 < k < 0
D) 3 < k < 2
E) 4 < k < 2
x
1 sin
2
2. Find lim
.
x
x
1
A) 1
B)
2
C) 0
E) 1
B) 1
D) 2
C) 0
E) no extremum
decreasing.
A) (, 3)
C) (3, )
B) (3, 3)
D) (0, )
E) (, 6)
y = f(x)
1
A) f(2) = 0
B) f (1) = 0
C) f (1) > 0
D) f (1) > 0
E) f (0) < 0
A) 0
B)
1
2
C) 1
concave up.
x 1
.
x2 1
D)
1
3
E)
1
6
A) (2, )
B) (, 2)
D) (, )
C) (2, 2)
E) (2, )
397
A) 3
A) 0
B) 2
C) 1
D) 0
y
y = f (x)
of the function
f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is
given in the figure.
Find a + b.
A) 17
B) 11
E) 1
C) 5
D) 17
B) 1
C) 1
D) 2
E) 2
x2
that is
2
3
closest to the point ( , 0).
2
1
1
A) ( 1, )
B) (1, )
2
2
1 1
D)( , )
2 8
y
5
2
3 x
.
x+ 2
A) (2, 3)
D) (2, 1)
1 1
E) ( , )
2 8
E) 10
y=
C) (0, 0)
x
y = f(x)
B) (3, 1)
C) (2, 1)
A)
E) (1, 3)
3
2
B) 0
C) 1
D) 2
E)
5
2
graph of y = x4 2x2?
A)
B)
B) f(2) < 0
1
C) f is concave up on ( , ).
2
D) f is always increasing.
D)
C)
E)
x
y
x
Algebra 10
5B
B) f(2) < 0
C) f (1) < 0
of f ( x) =
x2 + 3x + 2
, find a + b.
x2 2 x 3
A) 1
B) 2
B)
2
5
B) 12
C) 3
D) 18
E) 9
x +x
has a local extremum
x+ a
at x = 2, find a.
4
5
E) 5
A)
D) 4
2. If the function f ( x) =
C) 3
D)
C) 1
4
5
E)
2
5
y
3
4
3
x
y = f(x)
A) 3
A) 1
B)
5
2
C)
3
4
D)
5
4
E)
3
2
B) 4
9.
A)
19
14
B)
9
7
C) 1
D)
17
14
E)
8
7
7
x
E) 3
y = f (x)
D) 0
y
3
values of f ( x) =
C) 6
B) 6
C) 4
D) 7
E) 16
3 1
4
y = f(x)
A) f(x) = (x + 1)2(x 2)
11
) <0
5
A) f (2) = 0
B) f (
C) f(1) = 0
D) f (1) > 0
13
E) f ( ) < 0
4
B) f(x) = (x + 1)(2 + x)
y = f(x)
C) f(x) = (x + 1)(2 x)
D) f(x) = (x + 1)2(2 x)
E) f(x) = (x 1)2(x 2)
399
A) 2
1
C)
D)
A) 2
C) 0
D) 1
x2 +1
. Find the distance between
x
these points.
A) 5
400
B) 25
C) 35
x2 1
has no local extrema?
mx + 3
B) 1
C) 0
D) 2
D) 45
E) 4
E) 55
E) 2
E) 2
D) 1
E)
C) 0
1
1
B) 1
1
3
3
x
x +1
x2 2 x 3
x +1
C) y = 2
x + 2x + 3
A) y =
E) y =
x 1
x2 2 x 3
x +1
D) y = 2
x +3
B) y =
1
x2 2 x 3
Algebra 10
Definition
Let A and B be two actions that cannot both be performed at the same time. If action A can
be performed in m ways and action B can be performed in n ways, then the action A or B can
be performed in m + n ways.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Mary has three different Barbie dolls and two different Cindy dolls. She wants to take them
out to play with her friend. However, Marys mother will only let Mary choose one doll. In
how many ways can Mary choose a doll?
Mary has three alternatives for her Barbie dolls and two alternatives for her Cindy dolls. So
she can choose a doll in 3 + 2 = 5 ways.
In this example, Mary had five different dolls. If we name the dolls D1, D2, ..., D5 then we can
list the possible results of Marys choice as {D1, D2, ..., D5}. Each element in this set is a
possible outcome of Marys choice.
402
Algebra 10
B. SYSTEMATIC LISTING
In the previous examples it was easy to list the outcomes. Sometimes, however, it can be
more difficult: there may be many different outcomes in a problem, or a task may be
complicated. In this section we will look at different ways of listing the outcomes of a task or
decision.
1. Simple Listing
If our task contains only one part, listing the possible outcomes is very
easy. For example, if we roll a fair dice there are six different possible
results. The list of outcomes is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
EXAMPLE
Solution
David wants to buy a shirt. There are four different colored shirts in Davids size. In how
many different ways can David buy a shirt?
Let us assume that the colors of the shirts are blue, red, yellow and
green. We can list the available shirts as {blue, red, yellow, green}.
Since David only chooses one shirt, each shirt in this set is a possible
outcome. So the answer is four.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Selman needs to go into and out of the library. If the library has two doors, in how many ways
can Selman go in and out?
There are two tasks for Selman: going into the library and going out. Let the two library doors
be A and B. For each task, Selman can choose either door.
The product table for Selmans library visit looks like this:
Selmans library visit
Go in
Go out
A
(A, A)
(A, B)
(B, A)
(B, B)
We can see that there are four different ways for Selman to go into and out of the library.
Probability
403
EXAMPLE
Solution
How many two-letter words can be formed from the letters in the set {a, b, c}?
This task contains two parts: choosing the first letter and choosing
make a product table to list the possible outcomes.
Second letter
Two-letter combinations
a
b
a
aa
ab
b
ba
bb
First letter
c
ca
cb
c
ac
bc
cc
The table shows us that the outcomes are aa, ab, ac, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb and cc. So there are
nine possible words.
Of course, these are not real words in English. In problems like this, word means a sequence
of letters, not a real English word.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Anton is in his first year at university. He has to take one math or science course in the first
term and a different math or science course in the second term. The courses available are
Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Biology and Chemistry. In how many ways can Anton choose his
two courses?
The required task has two parts: choosing the first terms course and choosing the second
terms course. If we denote each course by its first letter, we can show the possibilities in a
table as follows:
Antons courses
First
term
A
G
P
B
C
A
GA
PA
BA
CA
Second term
P
B
AP
AB
GP
GB
PG
PB
BG
BP
CG
CP
CB
G
AG
C
AC
GC
PC
BC
Notice that some pairs are omitted from the table since Anton cannot take the same course
twice. So there are 20 distinct possibilities.
What would happen if Anton had to take two courses together in the same term? In this case
there would only be 10 possibilities. Can you see why?
Check Yourself 1
1. How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 3, 5 and 9?
2. Two dice are rolled and their numbers are added. How many possibilities are there that
the result is prime?
Answers
1. 9
404
2. 15
Algebra 10
180
30
15
3
6
2 2
5
180 = 3 5 2 2 3
2
2
=2 3 5
EXAMPLE
Solution
Joseph has one black and one navy pair of pants. He has also three shirts which are red,
yellow and green respectively. In how many different ways can Joseph choose to wear his pants
with a shirt?
Pants Shirt Result
Let us list the choices of pants as {B, N} and the choices
of shirts as {R, Y, G}. Since it is not important whether
Joseph chooses his pants or shirt first, we may assume
that he chooses his pants first.
The tree diagram for this problem is opposite. We can see
that Joseph has six possible choices.
EXAMPLE
Solution
R
Y
G
BR
BY
BG
R
Y
G
NR
NY
NG
A student rolls a dice and then tosses a coin. How many different outcomes are possible?
This task contains two different parts which occur in an
order. Constructing a tree diagram will help us to list the
different possible outcomes systematically. Let us list the
outcomes of the dice roll as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and the
outcomes of tossing the coin as {T, H}.
The tree diagram shows us that there are 12 different
possible outcomes.
Dice
1
2
3
4
5
6
EXAMPLE
Solution
Probability
6 results
Coin
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
Result
1T
1H
2T
2H
3T
3H
4T
4H
5T
5H
6T
6H
In a company, three people applied for a department managers position and three different
people applied for an accountancy position. Show all the different ways of filling these two
positions using a tree diagram.
Let A, B and C be the people who applied for the managers position. Similarly, let D, E and
F be the people who applied for the accountancy position. Then we can construct a tree
diagram as follows:
405
Department Accountant
manager
Result
D
E
F
AD
AE
AF
D
E
F
BD
BE
BF
D
E
F
CD
CE
CF
The data in the tree diagrams we have created so far could also have been shown in a product
table. This is because the problems we have looked at contain at most two tasks. However, if
we want to use a product table for a question that includes three or more tasks, we will have
to construct a three-dimensional table. This is difficult to draw on paper. In this case, a tree
diagram is the most appropriate way of listing the outcomes.
Check Yourself 2
Solve each question by making a tree diagram.
1. There are three different routes from city P to city Q and four different routes from city Q
to city R. Aydos wants to travel from city P to R through city Q. In how many ways can he
do this?
2. How many three-digit numbers can be made from the set {5, 6, 9} if
a. any digit can be used more than once in a number?
b. each digit can only be used once in a number?
3. An international conference is being held in Merida, Mexico. The Kyrgyz team must
choose a flight route from Bishkek to Merida. The possible routes are shown in the
following diagram.
Houston
Frankfurt Moscow
Merida
Bishkek
Istanbul
Regardless of the number of flight connections, how many different possible routes are there?
Answers
1. 12
406
2. a. 27
b. 6
3. 7
Algebra 10
Definition
Let a multiple-part task which satisfies the uniformity criterion consist of k parts. If the first
part of the task can be performed in n1 ways, the second part can be performed in n2 ways
and so on, then the number of ways to perform the entire task is n1 n2 n3 ..... nk.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Nicole has four different skirts, three different blouses and two pairs of shoes which she can
wear for a business meeting. In how many ways can Nicole dress for the meeting?
We can use a table with three boxes, one for each part of the task. This problem satisfies the uniformity criterion because any of the three blouses can be worn with any of the skirts and shoes.
Skirts
Blouses
Shoes
4
choices
3
choices
2
choices
10
Solution
How many different two-digit numbers can be formed using the digits in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}?
This task has two parts: choosing the tens digit and choosing the units digit. Since there are
no restrictions we can start by choosing either the tens digit or the units digit, and each digit
can take five different values.
Tens
Units
5
choices
5
choices
407
EXAMPLE
11
Solution
In the previous example, how many numbers can be formed if a digit cannot be used twice
in a number?
This time we cannot use a digit that we have already used. Therefore, we can choose any of the
five digits in the set for the tens but only four digits remain for the units.
This situation still satisfies the uniformity criterion because we always have five choices for the
tens and four choices for the units.
Tens
Units
By the multiplication principle, the number of two-digit numbers that can be formed without
using a digit twice is 5 4 = 20.
EXAMPLE
12
Solution
Tens
Units
10
10
EXAMPLE
13
Solution
How many different three-digit odd numbers can be formed using the digits in the set
{4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}?
The number formed must be an odd number. This is a restriction. In such cases we should
first consider the digit(s) affected by the restriction. In this question it is the units digit that
determines whether the number is odd or even. If the number is odd then the units digit
must be 5, 7 or 9. So there are three ways to choose the units digit. We are free to choose the
two other digits.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
14
Solution
EXAMPLE
15
Solution
A company must form a committee comprising a manager, an assistant and a secretary from
a group of nine people. Assuming that any person can do any job, in how many ways can the
committee be formed?
The restriction here is that no one can hold more than one position. Since the order of
selection is not important, suppose that we first select the manager, then the assistant and
finally the secretary. Then there are nine possible ways to select the manager, eight ways to
select the assistant, and seven ways to select the secretary.
Manager
Assistant
Secretary
EXAMPLE
16
Solution
EXAMPLE
17
A briefcase has a five-digit combination lock. The second digit in the combination is 5. At
most how many different combinations must we try if we want to open the lock?
10 1 10 10 10 = 104 = 10000
A four-digit number is formed using the digits in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
a. How many different numbers can be formed?
b. How many numbers can be formed if no digit can be used more than once?
c. How many numbers greater than 4000 can be formed if no digits are repeated?
d. How many numbers less than 3000 and divisible by 5 can be formed if no digits are
repeated?
Probability
409
Solution
a. Since there is no restriction and there are six digits, the answer is 6 6 6 6 = 1296.
b. Since no digit can be used more than once, the answer is 6 5 4 3 = 360.
c. There are two restrictions: the thousands digit must be greater than 3 and no digit can be
used more than once. Since our number must be greater than 4000, the possible values
for the thousands digit are 4, 5 and 6. Therefore there are
3
5 4 3 = 180
4,5,6
numbers which satisfy the conditions.
d. This problem sets three restrictions. First, no digit can be repeated. Second, the number
must be divisible by 5, so the units digit must be 5. Third, the number must be less than
3000. So there are two possible numbers for the thousands digit: 1 and 2.
Consequently, the total number of possibilities is
2
4 3
1 =24.
5
1,2
EXAMPLE
18
Solution
a. Provided we do not use zero in the hundreds place, all the other digits can be used
without restriction.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
b. There are restrictions on the first and last digits. Since the digits cannot be repeated there
are two cases: if a number is greater than 500 it will not end with a 5, but any other number can end with zero or 5.
First case: Consider the case in which the first digit is 5. Then for the units digit only zero
is possible since the number must be divisible by 5. Since 5 and zero are used, there are
four possible digits left for the tens place.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1
4
1
only 5
1,2,3, or 4
only zero
As we can see, there are four possible numbers (they are 10, 520, 530 and 540).
410
Algebra 10
Second case: Now suppose the number does not begin with 5. Then the hundreds digit
will be 3 or 4. There are two possibilities for the units digit: zero and 5. Since two digits
have been used for the first and last digits, there are four possible digits left for the tens.
Hundreds
Tens
Units
3 or 4
zero or 5
Hundreds
Tens
Units
4
1
2, 3, 4, 5
zero
Hundreds
Tens
Units
3
1
3, 4, 5
Hundreds
Tens
Units
3
1
2, 3, 5
Hundreds
4
Tens
2
1
2 or 4
Units
zero
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1, 3 or 5
We need to consider the case in which 4 is the units digit in two parts. (Can you see why?)
Probability
411
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1, 3, 5
Hundreds
Tens
Units
4
1
1
1, 2, 3 or 5
zero
The union of all these possibilities gives us the total number of three-digit numbers which
are divisible by 4. So there are (4 2 1) + (3 3 1) + (3 1 1) + (4 1 1) = 24 numbers.
Notice that problems b, c and d in Example 26 did not satisfy the uniformity criterion
directly. However, we were able to break each problem up into separate cases which satisfied
the uniformity criterion and then we added he result of each case. This is a useful strategy
when we are solving combinatorics problems.
Check Yourself 3
1. Kamil lives in city E. He wants to go to city G via city F. Four different bus companies
travel from E to F and three more bus companies travel from F to G.
a. In how many different ways can Kamil travel by bus from E to G?
b. Kamil does not want to use the same companies again on his way back home. In how many
different ways can he arrange his trip from E to G and back?
2. We have a list of 12 questions for the second part of this chapter. We need to choose one
question as an Example, one for a Check Yourself section and one for an Exercises
section. Assuming that any question can be used in any section, in how many different
ways can we make our choice?
3. An astronomer wants to name 7000 celestial objects with a code made up of two letters
from the English alphabet followed by a digit. Is this possible?
4. Almazs teacher asks him to write a five-digit number whose first and last digits are even
while the others are odd. How many different numbers can Almaz write if he does not
want to use the same digit twice?
5. How many three-digit numbers greater than 450 can be formed from the digits in the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}?
Answers
1. a. 12 b. 72
412
2. 1320
3. no
4. 960
5. 168
Algebra 10
Facial identification is an important part of forensic science. When a person commits a crime,
witnesses of the crime can sometimes describe the persons appearance to the police. A forensic artist
works with the witnesses to make a picture of the persons face, either with pen and paper or with a
computer program. This process is called facial reconstruction.
Facial reconstruction programs store many pictures (or variations) of different parts of a face: the eyes,
nose, ears, mouth and hair, etc. Some of these parts, such as the eyes and nose, are very important in
determining the overall appearance of a face. Sometimes the forensic artist guides the witness to keep
the different parts of a face consistent and in natural proportion.
There are several different facial reconstruction programs. Newer programs allow an operator to
construct a face in three dimensions. One program has the following number of variations for the
different parts of a face:
The following pictures are examples of some two-dimensional faces produced by the program:
By the multiplication principle, we can calculate that this program can produce over 1030 possible faces
using the given variations.
EXERCISES
6 .1
B. Systematic Listing
2. A house has 5 windows and 2 doors. In how many
ways can a burglar break in through a window and
get out through a door? Show the possibilities in
a product table.
14. n dice are rolled together and all of them show the
same number. In how many ways can this be
done?
a. repetition is allowed?
b. repetition is not allowed?
a. repetition is allowed?
416
Algebra 10
A. PERMUTATION FUNCTIONS
permutation function
Definition
Let A be a non-empty set. A one-to-one and onto function from A to A is called a permutation
function in A.
For example, consider the function f: A A with A = {0, 1, 2, 3}
and f(0) = 1, f(1) = 3, f(2) = 0, f(3) = 2.
f is shown in the Venn diagram opposite. We can see that it is a
one-to-one and onto function, and so it is a permutation function.
f = {(0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 0), (3, 2)}.
.0
.0
.1
.1
.2
.2
.3
.3
0 1 2 3
.
Alternatively we can write it in the form f =
1 3 0 2
Note that f is not the only permutation which can be defined in A in the example above. In
fact, we can define n! different permutation functions in a set with n elements. So in this example we can define 4! = 24 different permutation functions in A.
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
, f3 =
f2 =
3 2 0 1
2 1 0 3
functions.
EXAMPLE
19
Solution
Probability
0 1 2 3
and f4 =
0 1 2 3
p q r
r q p
417
Definition
Let I be a permutation function defined in a set A. If I(x) = x for every x A then I is called
the identity permutation function in A.
For example, if I is the identity function defined in the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4} then I(1) = 1,
I(2) = 2, I(3) = 3 and I(4) = 4.
1 2 3 4
We can write this identity permutation function as I =
.
1 2 3 4
in the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then the composite function f g is f g(x) = f(g(x)), so
f
EXAMPLE
20
Solution
1 2 3 4
.
g=
4 1 2 3
g=
3 1 4 2
1 2 3 4
3 2 4 1
1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3
a b c d
a b c d
are two permutations defined in H = {a, b, c, d}. Show
and g =
f =
b c a d
d b a c
that f g g f.
a b c d
f g=
d b a c
a b c d a b c d
b c a d b a d c
a b c d a b c d a b c d
=
g f =
b c a d d b a c d c b d
418
1 2 3 4
gg
Algebra 10
Notes
gg
f.
h=f
(g
g)
I=I
h) because
f = f since
Note that f
EXAMPLE
21
Solution
22
= f 1
f = I.
then g1 =
.
If g =
=
= I.
g 1 =
1 3 5 7 9
and g are two permutations defined in the set K = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
f =
37 9 5 1
Solution
0 1 2 3
, i.e. f 1 =
2 1 3 0
In a set K = {{,,,,U}, the permutation function g =
is defined.
1
Show that g g = I.
So g
EXAMPLE
3 1 0 2
1
is a permutation in P then f =
0 1 2 3
1 3 5 7 9
is given. Find g.
f =
75 3 9 1
f)
f =g
(f
f )=g
f.
I = g.
1 3 5 7 9
1 3 5 7 9
then f 1 =
So we must find f 1. If f =
.
37 9 5 1
9 1 7 3 5
So g = (g
f)
1 3 5 7 9
=
75 3 9 1
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
=
.
9 1 7 3 5 1 7 9 5 3
given
Probability
419
Check Yourself 4
0 1 2 3
1. f =
3 2 1 0
1
is defined in K = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Find f .
2 4 6 8
2. g =
6 2 8 4
g.
3. g =
and f are defined in H = {, , , }. g
is given. Find f .
f =
Answers
0 1 2 3
1.
3 2 1 0
2 4 6 8
2.
8 6 4 2
3.
B. PERMUTATIONS OF n ELEMENTS
We have defined a permutation as ordered arrangement of a set of elements or items. In a
permutation, the order of the items is important. We considered some permutation problems
in our study of the multiplication principle.
Here is another example of a permutation problem: in how many different ways can the three
students Faruk, Oleg and Evgeny be seated at a desk?
420
Algebra 10
permutation
Definition
An ordered arrangement of some or all of the elements of a given set is called a permutation.
The number of permutations of all of the n distinct elements in a set is denoted by P(n, n),
where P(n, n) = n(n 1) (n 2) ... 2 1 = n!.
In our library seating problem we can see that there are six ways for three students to sit at
a desk. Using the permutation notation described above, we can write P(3, 3) = 6.
EXAMPLE
23
Solution
Fifth book
1
Again we find that there are 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 ways to put the books in a pile.
EXAMPLE
24
Solution
EXAMPLE
25
Solution
Probability
How many different eight-letter permutations are there of the letters in the word
ISTANBUL?
Notice that there are eight letters and each letter is distinct. So we can use the formula for
P(n, n) using n = 8: P(8, 8) = 8! = 40320 permutations.
A football league has 18 teams. How many different rankings from first to last are possible in
the end-of-season league table, assuming that there are no ties?
Since each football team is distinct we can use the permutation formula. Therefore the
answer is P(18, 18) = 18! possible rankings.
421
EXAMPLE
26
Solution
a. There is no restriction on the order of the books on the shelf so we do not need to
consider the subjects. Since there are twelve books, the answer is P(12, 12) = 12!
different ways.
b. In this case we need to consider the subjects separately.
P(5, 5) P(3, 3) P(4, 4) 3! = 5! 3! 4! 3! = 120 6 24 6 = 103 680 arrangements.
math
biology
physics
Check Yourself 5
1. In how many different ways can 5 students form a queue?
2. Rasim, Togrul and Elnur are going to establish a company whose name will be a
combination of their initials. How many company names are possible?
3. There are 10 desks in a classroom and each desk has two seats. In how many different
ways can 20 students sit in the classroom?
Answers
1. 120
2. 6
3. 20!
422
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
27
Solution
How many different two-letter combinations can we form from the letters of the word KANO
if a letter cannot be used more than once?
The order of the letters is important and a letter cannot be used more than once. By the
multiplication principle, the number of combinations is: 4 3 = 12. These combinations are
KA
KN
KO
AK
AN
AO
NK
NA
NO
OK
OA .
ON
In this section we will use a new formula to solve problems of this type.
Definition
P(4, 2) =
4!
4!
= =12.
(4 2)! 2!
Note
Any question which can be solved using this permutation formula can also be solved using
the multiplication principle.
EXAMPLE
28
Solution
Probability
5!
7!
5! 7!
= 7 6 5 4 3 = 2520
(5 3)! (7 2)! 2! 5!
423
EXAMPLE
29
Solution
EXAMPLE
30
Solution
b. P(n, n)
c. P(n, 0)
a. P(7,3) =
7!
7! 7 6 5 4!
= 210
=
=
(7 3)! 4!
4!
b. P( n, n) =
n!
n! n!
=
=
= n!
( n n )! 0! 1
c. P( n,0) =
n!
n! n!
=
=
=1
( n 0)! n! n!
EXAMPLE
31
Solution
How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits in the number 13567 if a digit
cannot be used more than once?
We are choosing three digits from five digits. So there are
P(5, 3) =
5!
5 4 3 2!
= 60 different three-digit numbers.
=
(5 3)!
2!
Notice that we could have solved the same question using the multiplication principle:
5 4 3 = 60.
EXAMPLE
32
Solution
Three raffle tickets will be selected in order from a box containing 30 tickets. The
person holding the first ticket will win a car, the person with the second ticket will win a
computer, and the person with the third ticket will win a CD player. In how many different
ways can these prizes be awarded?
Since the question is about an ordered arrangement of three tickets selected from thirty
tickets, we can use the formula:
P(30, 3) =
424
30!
30! 30 29 28 27!
=
=
= 24360.
(30 3)! 27!
27!
Algebra 10
Remark
For example,
P(5, 4) = 5 4 3 2 = 120, P(10, 3) = 10 9 8 = 720 and P(20, 1) =
3 factors
4 factors
EXAMPLE
33
Solution
20
= 20.
1 factor
A fighter plane has seats for a pilot and a copilot. In how many
different ways can these be selected from a squadron of 18 soldiers?
P(18, 2) =18 17 = 306
2 factors
EXAMPLE
34
Solution
How many different combinations of at least 3 letters can be formed from the letters in the
word MATHS if no letter can be used more than once?
At least 3 letters means the combination can have 3 letters, 4 letters or 5 letters. So we need
to consider three mutually exclusive cases: combinations of 3 letters, 4 letters and 5 letters.
Then we add the number of permutations in each case:
P(5, 3) + P(5, 4) + P(5, 5) = (5 4 3) + (5 4 3 2) + (5 4 3 2 1)
3 - letter words
4 - letter words
5 - letter words
EXAMPLE
35
Solution
Kemals bookcase has three shelves. Kemal has 5 different math books, 6 different biology
books and 7 different physics books. He wants to arrange 3 math books, 4 biology books and
5 physics books on the shelves so that each shelf is for one subject only. In how many different ways can Kemal arrange his books?
There are P(5, 3) possible ways to arrange the math books. There are also P(6, 4) and P(7, 5)
different possible ways to order the biology and physics books respectively.
However, Kemal can choose the shelves for the subjects in 3! ways. As a result there are
P(5, 3) P(6, 4) P(7, 5) 3! = 60 360 840 6
math
biology
physics
shelves
425
EXAMPLE
36
Solution
a. The problem is the same as finding the number of three-digit permutations of the set
{1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9} (5 excluded): P(6, 3) = 6 5 4 = 120.
b. The total number of three-digit permutations of the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9} is
P(7, 3) = 7 6 5 = 210. From part a, 120 of these permutations do not contain the digit 5.
So there are 210 120 = 90 three-digit numbers which contain the digit 5.
c. We begin by calculating the number of three-digit permutations in which 1 and 7 are not
used: P(5, 3) = 5 4 3 = 60 permutations. So there are 210 60 = 150 three-digit
numbers which contain 1 or 7 or both 1 and 7.
Check Yourself 6
1. There are 7 different pieces of fruit on a tray. We will choose 3 of them and arrange them
in a row on a plate. How many different arrangements are possible?
2. The students in a class are photographed in pairs such that each student is photographed
with every other student. If there are 90 photos, how many students are there in the class?
3. A machine generates all the possible two-letter combinations of the letters ABCDE,
without using a letter twice. What percentage of the combinations do not contain a
consonant?
4. How many of the four-digit numbers formed from the digits of the number 12345
without repetition do not begin with the digit 2?
5. A group A contains 6 students and a group B contains 8 students. In a class photo, two
students who are to sit in the front will be from A and three students who are to stand at
the back will be from B. How many arrangements are possible?
Answers
1. P(7, 3) = 210
426
2. 10
3. 10%
4. P(5, 4) P(4, 3) = 96
EXAMPLE
37
Solution
How many five-letter words can we form using all the letters in the word MERAK if A and K
must be next to each other?
First we count the group of letters A and K as a single element. Then the problem is to find
the number of permutations of four elements, namely M, E, R and (A, K). However, for each
permutation of these four elements there are two arrangements within the group (A, K).
Therefore the answer is
(
M , E, R
EXAMPLE
38
Solution
) ! 2!
group of
A and K
= 4! 2! = 24 2 = 48 words.
A, K
1
group of
Ahmet and Cemal
)!
2!
= 3! 2!
Ahmet , Cemal
EXAMPLE
39
Solution
In how many ways can the children Anar, Maksat, Sasha, Dilshat, Catalin and Mehmet sit in
a row if Maksat and Catalin must not sit together?
The total number of possible arrangements of six children is 6! = 720.
From these, the number of permutations in which Maksat and Catalin sit together will be
(4 + 1)!
2!
= 5! 2! = 240.
Maksat , Catalin
So the number of permutations in which Maksat and Catalin are not together is
720 240 = 480.
Probability
427
EXAMPLE
40
In Example 38, Murat had five different math books, three different biology books and four
different physics books. In how many ways can Murat arrange his books on a shelf if
a. the math books must be kept together?
b. the biology and physics books must be kept together in two different groups?
c. all the books on the same subject must be kept together?
Solution
a. Since the math books must be together we consider them as a single book.
So the answer is
(
group of
math books
b. (
math
books
1
group of
biology
books
EXAMPLE
41
Solution
group of
math books
3!
biology
books
1 )!
group of
physics
books
= 8! 5!.
math
books
1 )!
group of
physics
books
)! 5 !
physics
books
group of
biology
books
c. (
3
biology
books
= 7! 3! 4!
4!
physics
books
3!
biology
books
4!
5!
physics
books
= 3! 3! 4! 5!
math
books
group of
hzm files
1
group of
jpg files
1
group of
txt files
6!
hzm files
3!
jpg files
5!
= 3! 6! 3! 5!
txt files
Check Yourself 7
1. A company owns 3 different green cars, 2 different red cars, one blue car and one yellow
car. In how many different ways can they be parked in the companys parking lot so that
cars of the same color are parked together?
2. Five different countries each send 3 people to an international meeting. A photographer
wants to photograph all the people in a row such that people from the same country stand
together. How many different photographs are possible?
Answers
1. 4! 3! 2!
428
2. 5! 3! 3! 3! 3! 3!
Algebra 10
Theorem
Let A be a set of n elements which has n1 of one kind of element, n2 of a second kind, n3 of
a third kind, and so on, where n1 + n2 + n3 + ... +nr = n .
Then the number of distinguishable permutations in A is
EXAMPLE
42
Solution
n!
.
n1 ! n2 ! n3 ! ... nr 1! nr !
4!
= 12 different permutations.
2! 1! 1!
To check our answer let us list the possible permutations. To avoid confusion between the
two 1 digits we will name them 11 and 12.
571112 511712 511127 751112 711512 711125 115712 115127 117512 117125 111257 111275
571211 512711 512117 751211 712511 712115 125711 125117 127511 127115 121157 121175
We can see that the permutations in the bottom row are the same as those in the top row. In
the bottom row, we have simply swapped the positions of the two identical digits. So there are
indeed 12 different permutations.
EXAMPLE
43
Solution
How many distinguishable permutations are there of the letters in the word NAHCIVAN?
The letters A and N each occur twice.
By the formula, the answer is
Probability
8!
8 7 6 5 4 3 2!
= 8 7 6 5 3 2 = 10080.
=
2! 2!
2! 2 1
429
EXAMPLE
44
Solution
EXAMPLE
45
Solution
In a kitchen there are 3 identical porcelain dishes, 2 identical metal dishes and 4 identical
glass dishes. In how many ways can they be piled up?
n!total
9!
=
= 1260
n!porcelain n!metal n!glass 3! 2! 4!
1
group of
biology
books
1
group of
math books
1
group of
physics
books
)!
3!
3!
biology
books
4!
4!
physics
books
5!
= 3! 1 1 1
5!
math
books
= 6 different ways.
As an extension to this example, try calculating the number of possible arrangements if books
on the same subject do not have to be kept together.
EXAMPLE
46
Solution
How many three-letter words can be formed from the letters in the word NARIN if each word
must contain both Ns?
We have three possible sets of letters: {A, N, N}, {R, N, N} and {I, N, N}.
For each set, the number of words that we can form is 3! = 3.
2!
Since there are 3 sets, there are 3 3 = 9 possible words:
ANN, NAN, NNA, RNN, NRN, NNE, INN, NIN, NNI.
EXAMPLE
47
Solution
430
I toss a coin successively 7 times. In how many ways can I get 4 heads and 3 tails?
Let H represent heads and T represent tails. Then we can write the result of 7 tosses as a
sequence of 7 letters. So the problem is equivalent to finding the number of seven-letter
words which contain 4 H letters and 3 T letters, such as HHTHTTH, HTTHHTH or
TTTHHHH.
7!
7 6 5
So the answer is
=
= 35 different ways.
3! 4! 3 2 1
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
48
Solution
school
North
house
East
school
East
Check Yourself 8
1. In a competition, 2 students will receive a gold medal, 3 students will receive a silver
medal and 4 students will receive a bronze medal. In how many ways can the medals be
awarded to 9 students?
2. A restaurant prepares a shish kebab with 5 identical pieces of meat,
3 slices of tomato and 2 identical pieces of pepper. In how many
different ways can these pieces be put on the skewer
3. Esra is writing a test of multiple choice questions. Each question has 5 possible choices,
and the test will include 20 questions. Esra will also prepare an answer sheet. How many
different possible answer sheets can she prepare if the number of correct choices are
equally distributed?
Answers
1. 1260
2. 2520
3.
20!
4!4!4!4!4!
3. Circular Permutations
Consider the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 and
look at two different ways of arranging
them in a line:
Probability
2
2
1
2
3
5
431
Let us look at another example. In how many ways can we arrange the letters A, B and C in
a line and in a circle?
Linear arrangements
Circular arrangements
A
ABC
ACB
BAC
BCA
CAB
CBA
2! = 2 ways
2nd object
3rd object
4th object
1 possible place
(2 1)
2 possible places
(3 1)
3 possible places
(4 1)
14444444444424444444444443
nth object
n 1 possible places
144444444444444424444444444444444443
Total number of permutations of four objects = 1 1 2 3 = (4 1)!
14444444444444444444444244444444444444444444443
Total number of permutations of n objects = 1 1 2 3 ... (n 1) = (n 1)!
Conclusion
The total number of circular permutations of n distinct objects is (n 1)!.
432
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
49
Solution
EXAMPLE
50
Solution
In how many different ways can 5 girls sit around a circular table for
dinner?
Since there are 5 distinct people, the number of possible
arrangements is (5 1)! = 4! = 24.
In how many different ways can a family of 2 parents and 4 children sit around a circular
dining table if the parents must sit together?
Four children together with the parents make 6 people. In this question we can think of the
parents as a single member of the group. So there are 5 members.
There are (5 1)! = 4! = 24 ways of sitting 5 people around a table. However, within the
group of parents there will be 2! = 2 different possible linear arrangements. So the family
can sit in (5 1)! 2! = 24 2 = 48 ways around the table.
EXAMPLE
51
Solution
In how many ways can 3 Turkish, 5 Kyrgyz and 4 Turkmen diplomats be seated around a
circular table if diplomats from the same country must sit next to each other?
There are 3 groups of diplomats so the groups can be seated in
(3 1)! different ways around the table. However, we must
also consider the linear permutation of the diplomats in each
group.
So there are (3 1)! 3! 5! 4! = 2 6 120 24 = 5760
different possible ways of seating the diplomats.
EXAMPLE
52
Solution
Probability
A room contains a circular table with 5 chairs and a bench for 3 people. In how many ways
can 8 students be seated in the room?
Let us first sit 3 students on the bench. This is a linear permutation, so there are P(8, 3) ways
to do this. Then the remaining 5 students can be arranged around the circular table in
(5 1)! different ways. So the total number of arrangements is P(8, 3) (5 1)! = 8064.
433
EXAMPLE
53
Solution 1
In how many different ways can 3 girls and 3 boys be seated around a circular table with 6
chairs if no two girls must sit together?
If no two girls can sit together, the students must sit alternately:
B
G
B
G
We can seat the boys in (3 1)! different ways. However, if we fix the position of one boy
(say B1), we can think of the rest of the seats as a linear arrangement:
B1
G
In this linear arrangement, the boys can be seated in 2! ways and the girls can be seated in
3! ways. So there are a total of 2! 3! = 12 different ways to seat the students.
Solution 2
Alternatively, we can make use of circular permutation. The boys can sit in (3 1)!
different ways and the girls can also sit in (3 1)! different ways. However, a certain girl (say
G1) can sit in three different positions with respect to a certain boy (say B1):
B1
B1
G1
B1
G1
G1
Algebra 10
Some permutation problems ask us to arrange objects on a chain or on a circular string, for
example: arrange a set of beads on a necklace, or arrange a set of keys on a key ring. In these
problems we must divide the total number of circular permutations by 2 since two
permutations can simply be the same arrangement viewed from the front and back.
EXAMPLE
54
Solution
In how many ways can a red bead, a blue bead, a green bead and a yellow bead be arranged
on a necklace?
(4 1)!
= 3 ways. We divide by 2 because there are two different points of view,
2
from the front and from the back.
The answer is
For instance,
and
Check Yourself 9
1. The construction department on Planet Zop is building a new flying saucer with 5
windows equally spaced around it. Each window will have a different color. In how many
different ways can the windows be arranged?
2. In how many different ways can we put 6 keys on a key ring?
3. Three families will have a supper at a large round table. Each family has 2 parents and
the families have 1, 2 and 3 children respectively. In how many different ways can all the
people be seated around the table if members of the same family must sit together and
the children must sit between their parents?
Answers
1. (5 1)! = 24
Probability
2.
(6 1)!
= 60
2
3. 192
435
EXERCISES
6 .2
A. Permutation Functions
is a permutation function
1. g =
1
defined in A = {1, 2, 3}. Find f g
a b c d e
and g are defined in
d a e c b
a b c d e
.
S = {a, b, c, d, e} such that ( f g) =
b e a d c
Find g.
4. The functions f =
c.
P( n, 4)
P( n, 3)
e.
P(5, 5)
P(7, 7)
b. P(8, 3) P(5, 4)
d.
P(4, 3) + P(8, 3)
P(6, 3)
a. P(n + 2, 2) = 12
b. P(n, 4) = 12 P(n, 2)
c. P(x, 2) = 72
d.
P( n +1, 2)
=2
P( n, 3)
12. In how many ways can the first, second and third
6. In how many ways can a group of 7 students be
seated in a row of 7 chairs if a particular student
insists on being in the first chair?
b. include Anton?
Probability
437
38.
35. Humuhumunukunukuapua
is the native Hawaiian name
for the triggerfish.
Find the number of different
permutations of the letters
in this word.
438
Mixed Problems
50. How many zeros are there at the end of
(4!)! + (5!)! + 240!?
When the order of the elements chosen from a set is important, we use permutation.
However, order is not always important when we are choosing elements. For example, we
may want to choose a certain number of people from a group to form a committee. The order
of the chosen members is not important since the result is a group of people, not an ordered
set. An unordered selection of elements like this is called a combination.
An r-element subset is a
subset with r elements.
When we talk about a combination of n objects taken r at a time, we mean the r-element
subsets of a set with n elements. We write total the number of such combinations as
n
C(n, r) or (n, r ] and 0 r n).
r
For example, if we are asked to choose two digits from the set {2, 3, 5}, we might choose
{3, 5} or {5, 3}. These are the same combination. This is very different to the problem of
forming a two-digit number using the digits 3 and 5 because 35 and 53 are two different
outcomes.
K = {1, 2, 3}
Combinations
with 2 elements
Permutations
with 2 elements
{1, 2}
12
21
{2, 3}
23
32
{1, 3}
13
31
We can see that the number of permutations with two elements is twice the number of the
combinations with two elements: 2 C(3, 2) = P(3, 2).
If we now consider the
three-element combinations
Combinations
with 3 elements
{a, b, c}
abc
acb
bac
bca
cab
cba
{a, b, d}
abd
adb
bad
bda
dab
dba
{a, c, d}
acd
adc
cad
cda
dac
dca
{b, c, d}
bcd
bdc
cbd
cdb
dbc
dcb
following table:
440
A = {a, b, c, d}
Permutations with 3 elements
Algebra 10
There are four combinations and 24 permutations. We can see that the number of permutations with three elements is 3! times the number of combinations with three elements: 3!
C(4, 3) = P(4, 3).
If we repeated this exercise for two-element permutations and combinations we would find
2! C(4, 2) = P(4, 2).
We can generalize this pattern as
C( n, r )
ways of choosing
a group
with r elements
r!
ways of arranging
arranging those
elements
C( n, r ) =
P( n, r )
=
r!
n!
( n r)!
r!
n!
.
( n r )! r !
combination
Definition
C(n, r) is sometimes
written as Crn ,
n
C , n Cr or n Cr .
r
C
n r is sometimes read as
n, choose r.
EXAMPLE
55
Solution
EXAMPLE
56
Solution
Probability
8!
8!
8 7 6 5!
=
=
= 56.
3! (8 3)! 3! 5!
3! 5!
12!
7!
12!
7!
12!
=
5! (12 5)! 2!(7 2)! 5! 7! 2! 5! 5! 2! 5!
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5!
= 11 2 9 2 7 6 = 16632
5 4 3 2 2 5!
441
EXAMPLE
57
Solution
EXAMPLE
58
Solution
EXAMPLE
59
Solution
Find the number of groups of 3 students which can be chosen from a class of 10 students.
The number of such groups is C(10, 3) =
10!
10 9 8
=
= 120.
3! (10 3)! 3 2 1
There are 10 players in a list. A basketball coach will choose 6 players from the list for a
school team and make one of them the captain. In how many ways can the coach form the
team?
10!
= 210 .
The coach can choose 6 players in 210 ways C(10, 6) =
6! (10 6)!
Additionally, any one of these six chosen players can be the captain. By the multiplication
property, the coach can form the team in C(10, 6) 6 = 1260 ways.
EXAMPLE
60
Solution
In a group of 9 children, 4 children will be given apples, another 3 children will be given
oranges and the rest will be given peaches. In how many ways can these fruits be given?
9
We can choose four children from nine in ways and from the remaining five children we
4
5
can choose three in ways. There will only be one way to choose the other two children.
3
9 5
So the total number of possible groupings is 1 = 1260.
4 3
Note that we can also solve this problem by treating it as a permutation with some identical
elements.
442
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
61
Solution
EXAMPLE
62
Solution
Classes 10A and 10B have 12 and 18 students respectively. A basketball team of 5 players will
be formed by choosing 2 students from 10A and 3 students from 10B. How many different
teams can be formed?
The basketball team has five players.
12
We can choose 2 students from 12 students in ways.
2
18
We can choose 3 students from 18 students in ways.
3
12 18
So the team can be formed in = 66 816 = 53856 ways.
2 3
EXAMPLE
63
Solution
Probability
How many three-digit numbers abc can we write which satisfy the condition c < b < a?
Notice that the digits a, b and c must all be different. So any three-element set of digits
{a, b, c} will be enough to form a valid number, because we can just arrange the digits to
satisfy the condition. For example, the digits set is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and from the
chosen subset {3, 5, 8} we can form the number 853. So we just need to find the total
number of three-digit subsets of the set of digits: C(10, 3) = 120 different numbers can be
formed.
443
EXAMPLE
64
Solution
(Notice that we cannot use circular permutation in this problem. Can you see why?)
EXAMPLE
65
Solution
A room contains a circular table with 5 chairs and a bench for 3 people. In how many ways
can 8 students be seated in the room?
We studied this problem in Example 64. In that solution we began by sitting three of the students on the bench. Now let us begin by sitting five students at the circular table. We can
8
choose these students in different ways. Then they can be arranged around the table in
5
(5 1)! ways. Finally, we have 3! ways for the remaining students to sit at the bench. So the
8
total number of arrangements is 4! 3!= 56 24 6 = 8064.
5
EXAMPLE
66
Solution
In a queue of 5 students at the canteen, 2 students are from class A and the rest are from
class B. If we know that there are 7 students in class A and 9 students in class B, find the
total number of possible ways to form the queue.
7
In a queue, the order is significant. There are possible two-student groups from class A
2
9
and possible three-student groups from class B. Those five students can form a queue
3
in 5! different ways.
7 9
So the total number of possibilities is 5!= 21 84 120 = 211680.
2 3
Remark
n!
n!
n!
=
=
= C( n, r ).
( n r )! [ n ( n r )]! ( n r)! [ n n+ r]! ( n r)! r!
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
67
Solution
The number of 3-element subsets of a set is equal to the number of 6-element subsets of the
same set. Find the number of 7-element subsets of this set.
We know that C(n, r) = C(n, n r) and we have C(n, 3) = C(n, 6). So n = 9.
9
So the number of 7-element subsets of this set is = 36.
7
EXAMPLE
68
Solution
There are 9 students in a class. Four of them will be chosen to go on a picnic and the rest of
the students will form a basketball team. In how many ways can the picnic group be
chosen?
Let us calculate the number of ways of establishing the basketball team, since each student
is only involved in one activity:
9!
9 8 7 6 5
9
=
=126.
5 =
5! (9 5)! 5 4 3 2 1
Note that would have found the same answer if we had begun by considering the picnic group.
EXAMPLE
69
Solution
On Planet Zop there are 7 Zozos and 5 Yoyos. The army wants to form a crew of 3 members
for a spacecraft. How many different crews can be formed if there must be at least one Yoyo
in the crew?
12
The number of groups with three members is 3 . This number is the sum of the
7
number of groups with only Zozos ( ) and the number of groups with at least one Yoyo.
3
Let us call this second group y. Then we can write
12 7
12 7
3 = 3 + y, so y = 3 3 which means y= 220 35 =185.
EXAMPLE
70
Solution 1
Probability
Second bird
4
1
5
1
4 5 =20.
445
Solution 2
9
4
Alternatively, there are ways of choosing a pair of birds. Of these, pairs contain only
2
2
5
pigeons and pairs contain only parrots. Let d be the remaining number of mixed pairs.
2
Then 9 = 4 + 6 + d, so d = 9 4 + 5 = 36 (6 +10) = 20.
2 2 2
2 2 2
This second solution may seem a bit longer than the first one. However, the strategy we have
just used will be helpful in other questions.
EXAMPLE
71
Solution
EXAMPLE
72
A football team is made up of 10 players plus a goalkeeper. Five more players are reserves. The
team coach wants to substitute 2 team players (not including the goalkeeper) with 2 reserves
and then choose 3 forward players from the resulting team. If each player can play any
position, in how many ways can the coach choose the 3 forward players?
10
The coach can choose the players to substitute in different ways. He can choose the
2
5
reserve players in different ways. Finally, he can arrange the forwards in 10 different
3
2
10 5 10
In how many different ways can 10 people be separated into 2 equivalent groups if
a. one group travels to Izmir and the other group travels to Kayseri?
b. the two groups play basketball together?
Solution
10
a. The group which goes to Izmir can be chosen in = 252 ways.
5
The rest of these ten people will go to Kayseri. So the answer is 252 ways.
10
b. There will be two teams of five players each. We can choose the first team in = 252
5
ways and the rest of the people will be in the second team.
However, half of these 252 possible teams will be the same as the other half.
10
5
= 126
So the ten people can be separated into two teams in
ways.
2
In the same way, 15 people can be separated into three teams of five members in
15 10 5
5 5 5
ways.
3!
In how many ways could 12 students be separated into four equal teams?
446
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
73
Solution
Derive a formula that gives the number of diagonals in a convex polygon with n sides.
A polygon with n sides has n vertices A diagonal is a line segment which joins two
non-adjacent vertices. The total number of line segments which join any of the vertices is
n!
n ( n 1)
n
determined by the two-element subsets of all the vertices: =
=
.
2
2 2! ( n 2)!
However, line segments which join two adjacent vertices are not counted as diagonals. They
are the sides.
If we subtract n sides from the first formula, the formula for the number of diagonals is
n ( n 1)
n ( n 3)
n
n =
.
2 n =
2
2
EXAMPLE
74
Solution
6 (6 3)
= 9 diagonals.
2
I toss a coin successively 7 times. In how many ways can I get 4 heads and 3 tails?
We have already solved this question as a permutation in Example 59. Now we can solve it
as a combination. Let the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 represent each toss of the coin. Then
any four-element subset chosen from this set will represent a group of outcomes in which the
coin is heads. For example, 1, 2, 4, 6 means heads on the first, second, fourth and sixth toss.
2, 3, 4, 5 is another possibility.
7
There are = 35 such groups, so can get the result in 35 ways.
4
EXAMPLE
75
Solution
A canteen has 2 circular tables with 4 seats each and a bench with 5 seats. In how many
different ways can 13 students chosen from a class of 15 students sit in the canteen?
15
We can choose 13 students in 13 different ways.
13
From these students, students will sit at the first circular table and
4
sit at the second circular table. These students can be seated in 3! and 3!
9
4 students will
ways respectively.
The remaining five students can sit on the bench in 5! different ways.
So the total number of possible arrangements is a product:
15 13 9
13 4 4 3! 3! 5!=105 715 126 6 6 120 = 40 864 824 000.
Probability
447
EXAMPLE
76
Solution
8
a. There are eight working bulbs, so we must select four bulbs from eight bulbs: = 70
4
possible sets.
b. There are four bulbs in the set. If the set contains at least two defective bulbs, there must
be 2 or 3 or 4 defective bulbs and 2 or 1 or zero working bulbs in each set:
5 8
5 8
5 8
2 2 + 3 1 + 4 0 =(10 28)+(10 8)+(5 1) = 365.
groups with 2
defective bulbs
EXAMPLE
77
Solution
EXAMPLE
78
groups with 3
defective bulbs
groups with 4
defective bulbs
There are 11 points on a circle. How many triangles can we form using any three of these
points as the vertices?
Any three points on the circle are not collinear. So any three points will
11
make a triangle. So the total number of triangles is =165.
3
Seven points are given as shown in the adjacent figure.
a. How many lines can be draw which pass through at
least two of the points?
b. How many triangles can be formed using the points
as vertices?
Solution
a. Two lines are already given. There are three collinear points on the top line and four
collinear points on the bottom line. Other lines can pass through one of the top and one
of the bottom points. There are 3 4 = 12 such lines. Including the top and bottom line,
there are 12 + 2 = 14 possible lines.
b. For any triangle we want to draw, there are two cases:
Case 1: A side is on the upper row and the vertex is a
point on the lower row. Since two points determine a
3
side, there can be 4 =12 such triangles.
2
Some of them are shown in the figure.
448
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
79
Solution
For a decision to be passed, all the permanent members must vote in favor. This is possible
4
in = 1 way.
4
But this is not enough. At least four more votes are necessary since at least eight votes are
needed in favor. These four or more votes can be provided by the nine elected members of
the board in 9 , 9 , 9 , .... or 9 different ways.
4 5 6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
So there are + + + + + ways in which at least four of the nine
4 5 6 7 8 9
elected members can vote in favor of the decision. As a result, a decision can be passed in
4 9 4
+
4 4 4
9 4
+
5 4
9 4 9 4
+ +
6 4 7 4
9 4
+
8 4
9
9
4 9 9 9 9 9 9
= + + + + +
4 4 5 6 7 8 9
=1 (126+126+84+ 36+9+1) = 382 ways.
EXAMPLE
80
Solution
Probability
n n 1 n 1
Prove that =
+
, where n, r ` with r n.
r r 1 r
Theorem
Proof
For a given subset there are two possibilities for each element of the main set: either it is in
the subset or not in the subset. If the n elements are a1, a2, a3, ..., an we can construct the
following table:
a1
a2
a3
...
an
...
n elements
81
Solution
EXAMPLE
82
Solution
Check Yourself 10
1. P(n, 3) = (n + 1) C(n, 3) is given. Find n.
2. Find the number of subsets of the set {a, b, c, d, e} which contain at least 3 elements.
3. There are 12 people in a room. Each person shakes hands with all the other people. How
many handshakes are there?
4. In how many different ways can Hunfrid distribute 9 different toys among 3 children so
that each child gets 3 toys?
5. A box holds 7 red cards and 5 green cards. How many different groups of 6 cards can be
selected from the box if the selection must contain at least 3 red cards?
Answers
1. 5
450
5 5 5
2. + +
3 4 5
3. 66
9 6 3
4.
3 3 3
5. 812
Algebra 10
EXERCISES
6 .3
b. C(6, 2) + C(8, 3)
P(7,4)
C(7,4)
d. 9 + 9 + 9 + 9 +...+ 9
0 1 2 3
9
e. 13 + 13 + 13 +...+ 13
0 2 4
12
c. C(n, 2) + C(n, n 2)
b. n + 20 = 8
2
3
c. n +1 = n 1 +17
n 1 2
G = {k, l, m, n, r}.
} have?
a. C(4, 2)
c.
22. Ali and his 7 friends are in group. Three people are
chosen from the group to form a committee. How
many of the possible committees include Ali?
452
29. How many parallelograms are formed by the intersection of the parallel lines in the figure below?
d1
d 2 d 3 d4
l1
l2
l3
l4
l5
l6
l7
Mixed Problems
40. If P(n + 1, 4) = 40 C(n 1, 2), find n.
Start
Row
Sum
0
1
Probability
5
6
28
15
56
4
5
35
70
32
1
6
21
56
16
15
20
10
35
1
3
10
21
7
28
64
128
1
8
256
455
We can see that the coefficients in each expansion are the same as the entries in the
corresponding row of Pascals triangle.
Remark
The expansion of a binomial expression to the nth power has the following properties:
There are n + 1 terms in the expansion.
The coefficients of the terms in the expansion correspond to the entries in the nth row of
Pascals triangle.
The power of the first term in the binomial expression begins at n in the expansion and
decreases by 1 in each term down to zero.
The power of the second term in the binomial expression begins at zero in the expansion
and increases by 1 in each term up to n.
In the expansion of (x + y)n, the sum of the exponents of x and y in each term is n.
A constant term in an
expression is a term that
does not change with the
variable.
456
The sum of the coefficients of an expansion can be found by substituting 1 for each variable
in the binomial expression.
If the binomial expression is a polynomial then substituting zero for each variable in the
binomial expression gives us the constant term of the expansion.
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
83
Solution
EXAMPLE
84
Solution
EXAMPLE
85
Solution
EXAMPLE
86
Solution
Expand n + 1 .
n
7
6 1
5 1
4
n + = n +7 n + 21n + 35 n
n
n
n
= n7 +7 n6
87
Solution
Probability
1
2
+ 21n
n
1
1
1
+7 n +
n
n
n
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ 21n5 2 + 35 n4 3 + 35 n3 4 + 21n2 5 +7 n 6 + 7
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
= n7 +7 n5 + 21n3 + 35 n +
EXAMPLE
1
3
+ 35 n
n
35 21 7
1
+ + + .
n n3 n5 n7
EXAMPLE
88
Solution
Check Yourself 11
Expand the binomials.
4
1. (3x + y)
1
2. x
x
3. (2 2)5
Answers
1. 81x4 + 108x3y + 54x2y2+12xy3 + y4
B.
3
2. x 3x +
3 1
x x3
3. 232 1642
C(5,1) = 5
C(5,2) = 10
C(5,3) = 10
C(5,4) = 5
C(5,5) = 1.
Can you see the similarity between the number of combinations and the entries in the fifth
row of Pascals triangle?
Perhaps one of the most interesting characteristics of Pascals triangle is its relationship with
combination. We can describe this relationship simply: entry number r in row n is the
number of subsets of r elements which can be taken from a set with n elements.
This gives us another interesting characteristic of Pascals triangle: the sum of the terms in
the nth row of the triangle is 2n (can you see why?).
The symmetrical property of Pascals triangle can also be related to the combination rule
n n
=
( n, r ] and 0 r n).
r n r
458
Algebra 10
For example, the third entry in the eighth row of the triangle is the same as the fifth entry in
the same row since C(8, 3) = C(8, 5) = 56.
Let us now redraw Pascals triangle using combination:
Row
0
0
2
1
2
0
3
1
3
0
3
4
0
6
0
6
1
3
2
5
2
6
2
2
2
4
2
4
1
5
1
5
0
5
6
1
1
1
0
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
4
4
5
4
6
4
5
5
6
5
6
6
Using the above triangle, we can generalize the expansion of a binomial to any power n as
n
n
n
n n 1 n n
( x + y)n = xn + xn 1y + x n 2 y2 +. . .+
xy + n y
0
1
2
n 1
Notice that the coefficient 1 in the first and last terms of the expansion is obtained from
and n respectively.
n
EXAMPLE
89
Solution
n
0
459
EXAMPLE
90
Solution
5
5 4
4
5
4 (2 a) ( b) +( b)
= 32 a5 5 16 a4 b +10 8 a3 b2 10 4 a2 b3 +5 2 ab4 b5
= 32 a5 80 a4 b +80 a3 b2 40 a2 b3 +10 ab 4 b5
EXAMPLE
91
Solution
Expand x + 1 .
x
7
7
7
1
7
6 1
5
+
x
=( x ) + ( x ) + ( x )
x
x
1
2
2
1 7
4
+ ( x )
x 3
3
1 7
3
+ ( x )
x 4
1
x
5
6
7
7
7
1
1 1
+ ( x )2 + ( x ) +
5
6
x
x x
= x7 +7 x6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ 21 x5 2 + 35 x4 3 + 35 x3 4 + 21 x2 5 +7 x 6 + 7
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
= x3 x +7x2 + 21 x +
35 35 x 21 7 x 1
+
+ 4+ 6 + 7
x
x3
x
x
x
The relation between combination and Pascals triangle helps us to calculate any particular
term in a binomial expansion without writing out the entire expansion.
For example, suppose that we are asked to find the third term in the expansion of (x 2y)3.
Using our knowledge of the properties of binomial expansion, we can say that 2y will have
exponent 2 in this term and x will have exponent 1 since the sum of the exponents must be
3
3. Now we only need to find the coefficient, which we can calculate as = 3.
2
3
2
2
2
So the third term is x(2 y) = 3x 4y = 12 xy . We can easily check this against the full
2
expansion: (x 2y)3 = x3 6x2y + 12xy2 8y3.
We can formulize our findings as follows:
460
Algebra 10
Remark
n n( r 1) r 1 n n r+1 r1
The rth entry in the expansion of (x + y)n is
y =
y .
x
x
r 1
r 1
EXAMPLE
92
Solution
EXAMPLE
93
Solution
9
1
EXAMPLE
94
Solution
Probability
What is the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (2x 4y)7?
7
r = 4 means r 1 = 3. So the fourth term is (2 x)73( 4 y)3 = 35 16 x4( 64) y3. From this
3
we can calculate the coefficient to be 35840.
461
EXAMPLE
95
Solution
EXAMPLE
96
Solution
4
43
3
7
3
3 ( ax) (2 y) = 2 xy
4(ax)43(2y)3 = 27xy3
4(ax)23y3=27xy3
25(ax)y3 = 27xy3. So a is 22 = 4.
EXAMPLE
97
Solution
10
3
What is the constant term in the expansion of 2 + x ?
2
2
x
10 2 10 r +1 x3 r 1
Let the constant term be
.
r 1 x2
2
10 11 r 5 r 25
x
r 1 2
This becomes
after simplification.
2 r 1
If this is the constant term then the power of x must be zero. This gives us 5r 25 = 0 and
2115 x5525
5 1
26 210
=
= 840, which is
Substituting r = 5 in the expression gives us
51
24
2
the constant term.
462
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
98
Solution
Evaluate 5 + 2 5 + 2 2 5 + 2 3 5 + 2 4 5 + 2 5 5 .
0
1
2
3
4
5
n
n
n
Notice that the expression is the same as ( x + y)n = xn + xn 1y +...+ yn
0
1
n
for n = 5.
5
Since there is nothing but the coefficient in the first term, the first term in the
0
5
binomial is 1. The term with the coefficient is 25.
5
We can rewrite the expression as follows:
5 5 5 4 1 5 3 2 5 2 3 5
5 5
4
0 1 + 1 1 2 + 2 1 2 + 3 1 2 + 4 1 2 + 5 2 .
EXAMPLE
99
Solution
7
What is the rational term in the expansion of ( 3 x + 2 x ) ?
Let us write the rational term as 7 ( 3 x )7 r+1(2 x )r 1 and try to solve for r.
r 1
7 r 1
Simplifying gives us
2 x
r 1
make this rational.
In 7 2 r 1 x
r 1
13+r
6
However, x
rational term.
13+r
6
8r
3
r 1
2
13+r
6
7 r 1
=
2 x
r 1
r 1
13+5
6
= 560 x3 is the
Check Yourself 12
1. What is the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (x+b)15 ?
2. What is the seventh term in the expansion of (3x+y)11?
9
Answers
15
1. = 455
3
Probability
2. 112266x5y5
3. 5376
463
EXERCISES
6 .4
b. (2x2 5)4
c. (4x3 3y2)5
8. Evaluate
3. Find the middle term in the expansion of
9
9
9
9
9
+ 4 + 42 + 43 +...+ 4 9 .
0
1
2
3
9
(2x 5y)4.
b. (3x2 + 2y)15
3 1
2x + 2 ?
x
464
Algebra 10
In this section we will learn some rules of probability which are frequently used for solving
problems.
rules of probability
Rule
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Note
Many problems in probability are written in natural language. The key word for recognizing
the union operation () in a written problem is or. When we use the word or (A or B) in
mathematics, we mean A or B or both.
The key word for recognizing the intersection operation () in a written problem is and.
When we use the word and (A and B) in mathematics, we mean both A and B.
EXAMPLE
Solution
Let T mean the die shows 3 and F mean the die shows S. Then 3 or 5 means T F.
Since T and F are mutually exclusive events, by the rules of probability we can write
P(T F) = P(T) + P(F)
1 1 1
1
= + = . So the probability is .
6 6 3
3
EXAMPLE
101 A die is rolled. Find the probability that it shows an even number or a prime number.
Solution
The possible prime numbers are 2, 3 and 5 and the even numbers are 2, 4 and 6. Showing
an even number (E) or a prime number (P) are not mutually exclusive events, since the
outcome is in both events.
1
1
Since P(2) = , P( E P) = .
6
6
So the probability of E or P is P( E P ) = P( E) + P( P ) P( E P )
1 1 1
= +
2 2 6
5
= .
6
Probability
465
EXAMPLE
102 An urn contains five blue marbles, four red marbles and six yellow marbles. We want to take
one marble from the urn. What is the probability of taking a red or a yellow marble?
Solution 1
Solution 2
P( E ') =1.
We also know that P( E)+
drawing
a blue marble
EXAMPLE
5 10 2
=
= .
15 15 3
103 We have twenty cards numbered from 1 to 20. A card is drawn at random. What is the
probability of drawing an even number or a number divisible by 3?
Solution
Let the event that an even number is drawn be E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20} and
the event that a number divisible by 3 is drawn be T = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}. We can see that
E T = {6, 12, 18}.
So we can write P( E T ) = P( E)+ P( T ) P( E T ) =
EXAMPLE
10
6
3
13
=
+
.
20 20 20 20
104 A coin is tossed four times. What is the probability that the coin shows tails at least once?
Solution
466
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
105 A
Solution
Let E be the sample space for the experiment. Then E contains 3656 possible outcomes,
because there are six people.
n( A ')
365 364 363 362 361 360
= 1
0.05.
So the probability of A is 1
n( E)
3656
Check Yourself 13
1. A die is rolled. What is the probability that the die shows a number greater than 3 or an
even number?
2. A number is drawn at random from the set A = {1, 2, 3, ... ,100}.
a. What is the probability that the number is divisible by both 2 and 3?
b. What is the probability that the number is divisible by 2 or 3?
Answers
1. 2
2. a. 4
25
3
b. 67
100
Probability
467
In our probability studies up to now, we have considered sample spaces with only a small
number of outcomes. These outcomes can be listed easily. But sometimes the sample space of
an experiment has a large number of outcomes. Determining this number might not always be
easy or practical. In such cases we can use the counting methods we learned in Chapter 1 to
determine the number of outcomes in a sample space and an event.
EXAMPLE
is selected at random from the three-digit numbers formed using the digits
106 A{1,number
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} without repetition. Find the probability that the selected number is an
even number.
Solution
EXAMPLE
The number of outcomes in the sample space is 7 6 5 = 210. There are also three even
numbers in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. So there are three possible choices for the units digit.
There are then six possible choices for the hundreds digit and five possible choices for the
tens digit.
90
3
= .
So the number of outcomes in the event is 6 5 3 = 90 and the desired probability is
210 7
machine generates all the three-letter sequences of the letters in the word KAHVE, with
107 Arepetition
allowed. Each sequence is written on a card and the cards are put in a box. mer
draws a card. Find the probability that he draws a sequence beginning with the letter H.
Solution
EXAMPLE
There are 5 5 5 = 125 possible sequences, so n(S) = 125. If H is the event that the
n( H ) 25 1
=
= .
sequence begins with H, n(H) = 1 5 5. So the probability is P( H ) =
n(S) 125 5
108 Six people including Murat and Saim are to be seated around a circular table. Find the
probability that Murat and Saim are seated next to each other.
Solution 1
We can use the formulas for circular permutation. The number of outcomes in the desired event
Solution 2
is (5 1)! 2! = 4! 2! and the number of outcomes in the sample space is (6 1)! = 5!.
So the probability is 4! 2! = 2 .
5!
5
Alternatively, let us seat Murat first. Then we need to seat five
more people in the remaining chairs, as shown opposite. Saim
Murat
can sit in any one of these chairs, so there are five possible
places for him. But only two of the chairs are next to Murat, so
2
the probability that he sits in one of these chairs is .
5
468
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
109 A box contains 4 yellow marbles and 6 red marbles. Two marbles are drawn at random from
the box. What is the probability that both marbles are yellow?
Solution
EXAMPLE
Solution
5 13
So the number of outcomes in the event is =130.
2 1
The number of outcomes in the sample space for selecting 3
18
bulbs from 18 is =186.
3
5 13
2 1 = 65 .
So the probability is
408
18
3
b. Let the event be E. Then E is the event that no defective bulbs are selected. In other
words E is the event that three working bulbs are selected.
13
3
265
So the answer is P( E) =1 P( E ') =1 =
.
18
408
3
Probability
469
EXAMPLE
111 A coin is tossed eight times. What is the probability of getting 5 heads and 3 tails?
Solution 1
The number of outcomes in the sample space is n(S) = 28 = 256. The number of outcomes
in the desired event is n(E) = C(8, 5) C(3, 3).
8 3
n( E) 5 3
7
Therefore the probability is P( E) =
=
= .
n(S)
256
32
Solution 2
EXAMPLE
8!
8 7 6
=
= 56.
5! 3! 3 2 1
56
7
= .
256 32
112 In a group of 13 people, 4 people speak English, 6 people speak Turkish and 3 people speak
German. A committee of 5 people is chosen at random from the group. What is the
probability that the committee contains 2 English speakers, 2 Turkish speakers and one
German speaker?
Solution
We can choose 5 people from 13 in C(13, 5) different ways without any restriction. So the
number of outcomes in the sample space is C(13, 5). However, the desired selection can be
achieved in C(4, 2) C(6, 2) C(3, 1) different ways.
4 6 3
4!
6! 3!
2 2 1
n( E) 2! 2! 2! 4! 2!
30
.
=
=
=
So the probability is P( E) =
13!
n(S)
143
13
5! 8!
5
EXAMPLE
Solution
470
Algebra 10
EXAMPLE
114 A machine generates a random four-letter sequence of letters from the letters in the word
KARTAL. What is the probability that the word begins and ends with A?
Solution
4
The number of outcomes of the desired event is 2! because there are four letters left to
2
choose from if the two As have to be chosen.
4
2!
1
2
= .
So the required probability is
16
4
4
4!
4! +
4!+
3
2
2!
1!
1!
sequences
with no A
sequences
with one A
sequences
with two A's
Check Yourself 14
1. A student will choose 4 courses at random to study next term. There are 14 courses in
the list. Six of them are science courses. What is the probability that the student chooses
all science courses?
2. A machine generates a three-letter sequence of letters from the elements in the set
{a, b, c, d, e}, with repetition. What is the probability that the letters in the word are all
different?
3. Ahmet, Kemal and their seven friends are called randomly to sit in 9 chairs placed side
by side. What is the probability that Ahmet and Kemal are seated next to each other?
4. Set A has 6 elements. Each subset of A is written on a card and all the cards are put in a
box. A student chooses a card at random. What is the probability that he selects a card
which shows four elements?
Answers
1.
Probability
15
1001
2.
12
25
3.
2
9
4.
15
64
471
A STICKY PROBLEM!
A box contains seven sticks which are respectively 2 cm,
3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm, 8 cm and 11 cm long.
Two mathematicians were talking about how important their jobs were.
My dear friend, our country is not taking math seriously. I think the government
should tax people who cant do math, complained one mathematician.
That is what the lotto is for! said the other.
472
Algebra 10
Many countries hold a 6/49 lottery. 6/49 means that you must correctly guess
six numbers from the first 49 positive integers to win the first prize. Does it
sound easy? Only six numbers!
In fact, it is not very easy to win a lottery like this. There are so many possible
combinations of six numbers that the chances of choosing the right
combination is very small indeed.
Here are two sets of six lottery numbers: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and
B = {5, 12, 18, 23, 33, 41}. Which set of numbers do you think is more
likely to win? Some people think that set B is more likely than set A. In fact, both
sets of numbers have an equal chance, since six numbers are chosen from 49
at random.
So what is the real probability that you will win the lottery with one ticket? The
answer is
1
. In other words, about one in 14 million! Can you believe
13983816
49
.
6
49!
49 48 47 46 45 44
=
= 13983816. Your
(49 6)! 6!
6 5 4 3 2 1
lottery ticket is only one of these sets of six numbers, so the probability that you
will win the lottery with one ticket is
1
0.00000007.
13983816
To be sure of winning the lottery, you would therefore need to fill in 13983816 tickets, using each possible
combination of numbers just once. If it takes you 15 seconds to fill in one ticket, you would need approximately
58265 hours to complete them all. This is the same as 2427 days, or 6.65 years with no break. And of course, you
would have to pay for all the tickets.
Do you still want to play the lottery?
EXERCISES
6 .5
random around a circular table. What is the probability that Ahmet and Can are seated next to
each other?
Probability
475
6A
5. A box contains 5 different green balls and 9
B) 9
C) 10
D) 12
E) 14
B) 45
C) 40
D) 35
E) 9! 5!
A) 2520
B) LDDL
D) DDDLLL
C) DDDDL
B) 9040
D) 4880
C) 5140
E) 3600
1 2 3 4
and
1 3 4 2
1 2 3 4
are given. Find the permutation
g=
4 2 3 1
E) DDLLL
B) 42
C) 28
D) 21
E) 49
1 2 3 4
A) h =
3 4 2 1
1 2 3 4
B) h =
2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4
C) h =
3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4
D) h =
2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4
E) h =
4 2 1 3
4. Evaluate
( n + 2)!( n 2)!
.
( n +1)!( n 1)!
A) (n 3)
B) (n 1)
D)
476
( n + 2)
( n 1)
( n +1)
( n + 2)
B) 180
C) 144
D) 96
E) 240
Algebra 10
B) 2480
D) 3360
C) 3200
E) 3640
B) 330
C) 480
D) 660
E) 7920
D) 6x2y2
B) 724
C) 844
D) 696
E) 576
B) 120xy2
C) 5000xy3
E) 160x2y2
8 4 6
C)
3!
4 2 3
8 4 6
D)
9!
4 2 3
E) 3! 4! 2!
A) 132
A) 18
B) 124
C) 111
D) 104
E) 91
B) 24
C) 28
D) 42
E) 56
477
6B
6. Fatma has 5 different history books and 4
1.
B) 2880
D) 8640
C) 5160
E) 12520
B) 36
C) 24
D) 44
E) 60
B) 62600
D) 48800
A) 720
B) 760
C) 840
D) 900
E) 960
C) 57420
E) 36000
8.
4. Solve
B) 32
C) 35
D) 42
E) 45
(2 n)!
n!
= 28 for n.
(2 n 3)! ( n 2)!
A) 90
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5
E) 6
478
B) 120
C) 144
D) 150
E) 180
Algebra 10
A) 144
A) 84
B) 168
C) 196
D) 225
E) 240
B) 280
C) 560
D) 448
E) 35
B) 216
C) 196
D) 164
E) 144
B) 90
C) 100
D) 110
11
B) 4!
5
C) 7 4!
5
11
7
D) 4!
5
5
7
E) 4
4!
2 3
E) 120
B) 276
C) 360
D) 420
E) 480
B) 3755
C) 4225
E) 4775
B) 5! 1!
C) 7 12!
3
9
D) 12
4
3
E) 7 5! 7!
3
479
EXERCISES
1. a. f:
b.
b. g:
[1, 4) c.
1 .1
{5}
c. h:
3. a. [11, 7] b. (3, 5]
(0, 5]
{2}
{3}, f 1(x) =
3
9. a = , b = 4
2
{0}
2. a. [13, 13]
4. a. [0, 2] b. [0, 4]
1
, r(x) = 5 x, f(x) = r(t(h(g(x)))) 7. a. f 1:
x
5. a. (x + 1)2 b.
3x 3
x 1+ 2
c. f 1: [1, +) [1, +), f 1(x) =
x+ 2
2
11. a. ( ,
7
]
4
x2 +1
, f 1(x) = 2 5x
8. a.
7
b. [ , )
4
1
b. 2
2
EXERCISES
1. 2
2. a.
1 .2
y = f(x)
1
O
b.
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
2
O
1
O
1
x + 3 if x 3
3. a. f ( x) =
x 3 if x < 3
2 x if x 0
b. f ( x) =
0 if x < 0
x<2
2 x +5 if
d. f ( x) = 1
if 2 x < 3
x>3
2 x 5 if
2 x
e. f ( x) = 2
2 x
480
c.
if
x2 x 2 if x (1, 2)
c. f ( x) =
x2 + x + 2 if x (1, 2)
x < 1
if 1 x < 1
if
x 1
2 x2 + 2 x if
f. f ( x) =
if
6 x
x 4
x < 4
Answers to Exercises
4. a.
b.
c.
y = |x|
2
e.
1
21
1 O
b. x < 1
c. x {1, 0, 1}
1 O
d. x {1, 0, 1}
3
y = |5x + 4| + 2x 1
5. a. x > 0
4
5
y = |x2 4x 5|
5
1
f.
3 2 1
y = x|x + 1| + 3
y = |x2 1|
y = |2 4x|
d.
2
3
6. a.
b.
y
y = sgn(x2)
y = sgn(x 1)
c.
O
1
1
1 O
b.
y = f(x)
2
2 11
O1 2
1
y = f(x)
c.
5
4
3
2
5
7
) e. x ( , 1]
2
3
y
4
1
2
1 1
2
O
d.
y
y = f(x)
1
3 2 1 O
1
y = sgn(xx +
2)
y = f(x)
2
1
2 1 O
1 2
e.
2 1
2
3
x2 + 2 x if x > 1
3x +7 if x 0
x 1 if x > 1
12. a. f ( x) =
1 x if x 1
Answers to Exercises
11.
f 1 :
y = f(x)
4
3
2
1
O1 2
1
2
3
4
x +1
if x > 3
, f 1( x) =
x1
if x 3
x2 3x 4 if x (0, 3)
b. f ( x) =
x2 + 3x 4 if x (0, 3)
x3 x if x 0
c. f ( x) =
3
x x if x < 0
481
x2 if x 0
13. a. f ( x) =
2
x if x < 0
2 x +1 if x < 0
d. f ( x) =
1
if 0 x < 1
2 x 1 if x 1
EXERCISES
1. 17
y
8.
2. 24
3. 27
y = f(x)
x<2
1
if
e. f ( x) = 2 x 5 if 2 x < 3
x3
1
if
4. 17
y
6. 2a3 + a2
5. 2k + 1
9.
f. f ( x)=
x2 x 1
x 1
if
x x +1 if 1 < x < 0
0 x <1
x2 + x +1 if
2
x +x 1
x 1
if
2 .1
7. b2 2b + 1
a. 0 b. 4 c. 4
y = f(x)
4
3
2x + 3
if x (1, 3)
c. f ( x) =
2 x2 2 x 3 if x (1, 3)
2 x 1 if x 1
b. f ( x) =
if x < 1
1
10.
c. 2
x
O 2
2 y = f(x)
4
7
5
5.1
4.9
e. 1 f. 2
lim f ( x) = 0
b. x = 1, x = 1
22. 28
x1
23. a. 1 b. 0 c. 1 d. 1 e. 1 f. 1
c. 1
d. 2
e. 2
f. 2
31. 6
16. a. 3 b. 1 c. 1 d. 0
lim f ( x) =1, lim+ f ( x) =1,
x 0
x 1
20. x = 0
15
e. 11 f. 0
8
f. g. h. 0 30. a. b. c. d.
EXERCISES
b. x = 2
24. a. 5 b. 1 c. 0 d.
x0
x 1
x 1
x 1
b. 1
32. a.
25. a. 4
27. a.
2
3
29. a. 0 b. c. d. e.
3
1
6
b. 16 c. 0 d. 23 e.
3
2
2 .2
1. a.
1
5
b.
c. 7 d. 15 e. 6 f. 2 g. 1 h. m i. 16
10
3
2. a.
1
5
1
1
2
b.
c. 3 d.
e.
f.
g. 1 h. 1 i. 2
2
7
2
2
2
j. 6
3. a. 3 b. 0 c. d. e. 0 f. 1 g. 1 h. 2
4. a.
6
7
6. a.
b. 5 c. 3 d.
2
5
5. a.
1
5
1
b.
c. 2 d.
7. a. e2 b. e9 c. e3 d. e1/3 e. e4/3 f. e6/5 g. e14/5 h. e18 i. e1 j. e4
2
2
2
482
4
9
b.
1
1
c. d.
2
2
Answers to Exercises
EXERCISES
2 .3
1. continuous at x = 2, x = 1, x = 0, x = 2, discontinuous at x = 3, x = 1, x = 3
3. discontinuous
c.
{1} d.
4. x = 1, x = 2
{1, 6} e.
5. continuous
{0} f.
c. {x | 2k x (2k + 1), k } d.
EXERCISES
g.
7. m = 0, n = 2
6. 3
2. continuous
8. a {1, 2}
9. a.
b.
b. {x | x = 2k, k }
[1, 4] 10. a.
5
3
[2, 2] g. [ , ] 11. 6 12. 4
2
4
h.
(2, 2)
{2} e. [3, 5] f.
3 .1
1. a. fourth b. third c. third d. third e. third f. second 2. a. 0.785 b. 1.832 c. 1.221 d. 1.346 e. 16.336
24
3. a. 154 b. 359 c. 10 d.
19
9
4. a. (1, 0) b. 2 , 2
2
2
5. 108
6. a. x = 105 + (k 180)
34
2
k 2
d. x = +
7. a. 17 b.
c.
8. 91 9. 6 10. 8+ 2 3 11. 13
6
6
3
3
729
9
12. a.
b. 12 13.
units 14. a. sec x b. 1 c. csc x sec x d. sin x e. sin x f. cot x 15. a. 1 sin x b. 1 sin
32
4
b. x = + 24k
c. x = k 90
EXERCISES
1. a. 0
e.
b. 0
c. 1
2 k
{ + }, k
3 3
c. [7, 1]
b.
c. +
3 .2
d. 3
e. 0
2. a.
b.
5 k
{ + }, k
18
3
f.
d. [2, 6] e. [0, 6]
d. + e. +
19. 2
f.
d. , e. , f. ,
f. [4, 0]
g.
g.
g.
h. +
h.
h.
i.
1 k
{ + + }, k
2 8 4
c.
j. +
k
n
{ + } { }, k, n
4 2
5
i. (, 0] [2, )
k. +
l.
{1 + k}, k
d.
3. a. [1, 1]
j. (, 3] [1, )
5. e, f, j, k
6. a. 7, 1
k.
b. 2, 2
b. [5, 5]
4. a. +
c. 4, 6
11
g. 5 h. 2 18. a.
b. 3 c.
d. 5 e. f. g. 5 h. 2
8
12
15
12
19
14
6
9
17
10
2
1
1
15
3
19
f.
g.
h.
21. a.
b.
c. 1 d. 1 e.
f.
7
2
2
2
73
2
99
c. 3
d. 3
Answers to Exercises
e. 1
2
f.
2
2
g. 1
h. 3
3
23. a. 1
2
b. 1
2
b. 5 c. 5 d. 3 e. 2 f. 2
12
13
5
13
14
19. a.
b. c. 3 d. 4 e.
6
3
7
13
15
g. 1
h. 3
c. 1 d. 3 e. 2
2
22. a.
2
2
b. 3
2
f. 1 g. 1 h. 3
2
483
2
24. a. 1 b. 1 c. 1 d. 3 e.
f. 1 g. 1 h. 3 25. a. 2 b. 0 c. 6 26. a. tan + cot 2sin b. 0
2
2
2
2
2
, tan = 1, cot = 1 c. sin = 5 , cos = 4 , cot = 4
27. a. cos = 1 , tan = 3 , cot = 3 b. sin =
2
2
3
5
41
41
3
3
2
28. a. cos =
, tan = 1, cot = 1
2
13
13
2
7
7
24
4
1
1
, cot =
, cos =
, cot =
b. sin = , tan =
c. sin =
25
24
7
4
17
17
2
3 17
7 2
1
1
1
7
3
cos =
, tan =
d. sin =
29. a.
b.
c.
d. 4 30. a. cot =
b. cos =
10
13
10
7
3
13
4
25
d. sin =
c. sec =
, cos =
, tan =
31. a. 57 b. 3 3 32. P = 26, A = 213 33. a. 48 30 b. 136 12 c. 21345 d. 313 47 34. a. 121.25
3
2
b. 346.8 3 c. 198.32 d. 23.94 35. a. 0.3971 b. 0.5842 c. 2.9208 d. 0.4975 36. a. 0.8549 b. 0.9737 c. 1.1323
2
2
d. 0.0032 37. a.
b.
c. d.
e.
f.
38. a.
b.
c. 5
d.
39. 22
40. a.
3
5
2
5
5
5
3
3
b. 2 c. 2 d. 2 e. f. g. 2 h. 2 i. j. 3
41.
42. 2
2
43. a.
y
3
p
6
p
2
1
p
6
p
3
b.
5
p
3
2p
3
c.
1
p
d.
p
2
p
2
3p
2
2p
p
2
p
3
p
6
p
6
p
3
p
2
y
p
p p
3p
4 2 4
p
4
p
2
3p
4 p
3p
2
2p
x
2
4
484
Answers to Exercises
e.
44. a.
y
1
p
2
p
3p p
2 2 4
p
8
p
4
p
8
3p
8
p
2
p
6
p
3
5p
6
2p
3
1
4
b.
c.
y
p
4
d.
3p
4 p
p
2
2
x
p
2
p
2
e.
y
3
3
2
p
45. III, V, VI
e. 0
b.
3
2
c. 22
46. a. y = 2 sin x
f. 150
c.
1
2
d.
g. 90
d.
1
3
12
13
e.
h. 180
e. 0 f.
17
17
b. 1, c. [2, 4] d.
3
48+ 25 3
60.
61. 0
11
Answers to Exercises
3
4
f. 3
c. y = 3+sin x
b. y = sin 3x
48. a.
50. a.
52. a.
2 4
5 , 5
e.
62. 1
63.
4
7
b.
3
2
b.
64.
c.
2
2
5
2
c.
54.
b.
f.
d.
c.
3
2
3
3
47. a. 0
e.
5
6
f.
d.
d.
24
7
e.
56.
5
6
55. 0
e.
3 7
7
57.
b. 45
f.
4
g.
f.
120
169
17 13
65
c. 90
h.
2
3
d. 45
49. a. 1
24
4
b.
25
5
3
5
53. a. ,
2
2
4
58.
59.
3
5
51. a.
5
2
485
3 .3
EXERCISES
13 6 3 b. 3+ 37 c. 1 + 13 d. 2 5 2 3 2. a.
2
1. a.
113 b.
13 c.
3
14 d.
2
19 e.
2 f.
2
79 3.
120
2
14 3
d. 2 7.
units 8. a. 56 cm b. 52 cm
3
3
17
9. 6 cm 10. m(A) = 30, m(B) = 60, m(C) = 90 11. 84 cm2 12.
units 13. a. 2 ( 3 +1)
2
4
10
7 3 15
4. 135 5. a. 2 + 6 b. 2 c. 9.6 6. a. 5 b.
c.
10
16
6
b.
2
2
2
1 5 3
(1 3) e. 3 2 f. 2 3 g.
(1 3) h. 2 3 14. a. +
( 3 1) c. 2 + 3 d.
4
4
4
6
12
1 5 3
51
3 34
5
5
51
c.
3 d.
+ 3 e. 55 (9 3 + 32) f. 71 (9 3 + 32) 15. a. 1 b. 34
6 12
6 2
6 2
2
47
17
4
17
c.
d.
e. 0 f.
16. a. cos x b. 2cos x cos y c. 3 sin x
d. 2sin y cos x
2
289
17
3tan tan 3
24
7
24
18. a. sin 2 x = , cos 2 x = , tan 2 x=
17. cos 3 = 4cos3 3cos , tan 3 =
2
25
25
7
1 3tan
b.
b. sin 2 x =
120
119
120
, cos 2 x =
, tan 2 x=
169
169
119
d. sin 2 x =
15
7
15
, cos 2 x = , tan 2 x=
8
8
7
19. a. sin
5
x
x 2 5
x 1
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
5
2
5
2 2
c. sin 2 x =
e. sin 2 x =
b. sin
336
527
336
, cos 2 x =
, tan 2 x=
625
625
527
12
5
12
, cos 2 x =
, tan 2 x=
13
13
5
x
5
x
2 5
x
1
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
5
2
5
2
2
c. sin
1
2 2 +3
1
x
x
x
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
2
2
2 2 +3
18+12 2
18+12 2
d. sin
1
x
x
=
, cos =
2
2
4+ 2 2
f. sin
x
1
x
5+ 26
x
1
=
, cos =
, tan =
2
2
2
5+ 26
52+10 26
52+10 26
e.
2 f. g. 2 h.
0
2
2
e. 2 cos
26.
8
11
35. 6
5
486
2 sin
2 +1
4+ 2 2
, tan
x
= 2 1 e. sin x = 6 , cos x = 30 , tan x = 5
2
2
6
2
6
2
5
20. a.
2
2
b.
6
2
c.
2
2
d.
2
( 3 1)
2
5x
3x
11x
7x
sin
c. 2sin 5x sin x d. 2 cos
cos
2
2
2
2
3x
9x
5x
7x
x
33
f. 2 sin
g. sin 11x + sin 9x = 2sin 10x cos x h. 2 sin
sin x 24. 25 25.
cos
sin
2
65
2
2
2
2
19
27.
3 10
10
36. 26
37.
28.
2
( n +1)2
1
16
38.
29. 3
4
3 + 2x
4
30.
33
56
39. 3
4
2
31. sin 40 = 2 x 1 x
40. 2
4
32.
55
24
33.
3
4
34. 23
41. 1
Answers to Exercises
3 .4
EXERCISES
1. a.
3
+ 2 k, + 2 n, k, n
4
4
c. ( 1)k +1
k
+ , k
12 2
c.
11 k
+ , k
60
5
b.
k
+ , k
24 4
b.
c. 1620
k
+ , 2 n, k, n
8 4
d.
k
, k
3
8. a.
e.
k
+ , k
18 6
f. + 2 k,
b.
f.
10.
3
,
4 4
9. a.
k
, k
2
12
+ 2 k, k
5
d.
+ 2 k, + 2 arctan 2+ 2 n , k, n
2
2
c.
+ k, arctan 2+ n, k, n
4
i. 0
e.
b.
e.
3. a. + k, k
4
b.
k
+ , k
12 2
+ k, k
2
4. a.
+ k, k
4
f.
g.
b. ( 1)k
k
+ , k
4 2
h.
c.
f. 2arccot 2 + 2k, k
+ , + n, k, n
4 2
3
3
+ k, arccos + 2 n , k, n
2
4
+ 2 n, k, n
3
2 k
+
, k
18
3
d. no solution
3
+ 3k, k
4
k
+ , + n, k, n
8 4 2
e.
k
+ , k
30 5
k, ( 1)n+1 + n, k, n
6
c.
k n
+ ,
, k, n
8 4
2
+ , ( 1)n +1 + n, k, n
4 2
6
k
+ , k
4 2
2 k 5 2 n
+
,
+
, k, n
18
3
18
3
d.
b.
k
+ , k
6 2
k
+ , k
36 2
7 k
+ , k
36 3
12. a. no solution
7
+ 2k,
+ 2 n, k, n
12
12
e.
11.
f.
Answers to Exercises
k
+ , k
3 3
+ k, arctan 2+ n, k, n
4
+ 2 n, k, n
2
+ 2 k, k
6
c. arctan
d.
7. a. k,
2 4
,
3
3
3 9 11
,
,
,
8 8 8
8
d.
6. a.
+ 2 k, + 2 n, k, n
3
2 k
+ +
, k
20 20
5
e. 3arccot 2 + 3k, k
3 k
+ , k
8
2
c.
c.
h.
k
+ , k
90 3
d.
f.
d.
5
+ 2 k, k
6
2k
+
, k
30
5
g.
5. a. 4340 b. 3420
c.
or ( 1) k +1 + k , k
3
d. ( 1)k
2. a. + 2k, k
4
+ k, k
6
2
b. + 2k,
+ 2 n, k, n
3
3
k
3
k
e. ( 1)k +1 + + k, k
f.
g. +6 k, k
+ , k
, k
9 3
3 5
5
4
2
( 1)k +1 arcsin
3 + k , k j. + 4k, k
i.
k. ( 1)k +1 + 2 k, k
l. no solution
4
4
2
h. + k, k
3
f.
or ( 1) k + k , k
4
1
13. a. arctan + k, k
2
d. + k,arctan3+ n, k, n
4
b.
e.
+ k, k
4
c.
+ k, k
4
4
b. arctan + 2 k, k
3
+ 2k, + 2 n, k, n
3
+ k, k
6
14. a. 5, 5 b. 2, 2
c. 3, 3
d. 2, 2
487
3
, ,
, 2
2
2
18. 0,
22. ( x, y) = (2 k,
24.
19. k,
25. a.
d.
k
k
b. +
< x<
+ , k
8 4
24 4
c.
5 k
k
+
< x< + , k
18
3
3 3
21. 0
7 2k
2k
+
< x<
+
, k
18
3
18
3
5
+ k < x <
+ k, k
2
6
c. ( , 0), (0, )
4
4
17 2 k
8 2 k
+
+
, k
x
45
3
45
3
b.
b. ( , 0)
2
17. a. ( , )
6 6
20. 34 a 34
2 k) or ( + k , k ), k Z
4
4
c. + k x
+ k, k
8
8
28. a.
+ k, n, k, n Z
2
+ 2 n, k, n Z
2
+ k, arccot2+ n, k, n Z
4
d. no solution e.
16.
b. + 2k < x < + 2k , k
2
6
e. x
c.
2 k
+
10
5
9
9
+6 k x
+6 k , k
4
4
k
k
27. a. +
< x< + , k
6
3
12 3
2
23
+ 2k x <
+ 2 k , k
9
18
b. 2k < x
d.
k
k
+
< x< + , k
15 5
10 5
3
+ 2k , k
2
7
3
29. a. + 2k, + 2k + 2 n,
+ 2 n , k, n
4
6
6
b. + 2k, + 2k + 2 n, + 2 n , k, n
6
3
6
3
d. + k, + k , k
6
3
e. ( k,
b. (
c. (
c. + 2 k,
+ 2 k + 2 n , + 2 n , k, n
3
3
3
3
+ k) ( + k , + k ), k, n
4
4
2
4
+ 2 k,
+ 2 k), k
3
3
2
1
1
2
+ 2 k, arccos + 2 k ) (arccos + 2 n ,
+ 2 n ), k, n
3
3
3
3
e. ( + k,
+ k), k
4
4
31 a. ( + k, + k), k
3
3
b. ( + k, arctan 2+ k) ( + n , + n ), k, n
2
4
2
488
d. + k, + k , k
4
4
c. + k, + k + n ,
+ n , k, n
6
4
4
6
Answers to Exercises
2k 2k
32. a. +
,
+
, k
3
12
3
12
d. (
+ k,
+ k), k
12
12
c. + k,
+ k , k
12
12
e. ( + 2 k,
+ 2 k) ( + 2 n , 2 n ), k, n
6
6
k
k
+ ,
+ ), k
12 6
36 6
5
c. ( + k,
+ k), k
3
12
k k
b. ( + , + ), k
4 2 2 2
33. a. (
EXERCISES
7 2 k 2 k
b. +
,
+
, k
3
18
3
18
34. a.
4 .1
1
1
5
4
g. h.
2. a. y = 2x + 5 b. y = 3x c. y = 11x 16 d. y = x + 2 3. 2
4
2
4
9
1. a. 5 b. 7 c. 2 d. 2 e. 0 f.
16
6. 9;11 7. a. rate of change of fuel consumption with respect to change in velocity b. if velocity
9
4. 30; 40 5.
8. a. x10; 1 b.
3
( x 1)2
c.
d.
2x x
2 3x +1
EXERCISES
1. a. 0 b. 0 c. 0 d.
m.
1
2 x
1
3
3 x
18. a. 50
b. 60
19. a = 1, b = 6, c = 0 20. 0
21. 9.95
2 7
1
x e. 1.6x0.2 f. x 5 g. 0 h. 0.21x0.3 i. 84 x13 j. 10x 3 k. 2 x + 2 + 2 l. 16t5 + 9t4 2t2
3
x
1
5
5 x
n.
1
2 x
x x
l. 3 3x + 2 x + 3
2 x(3x 1)2
1
3
1
o. 2
2. a. 15x2 5 b. 12x + 1 c. 300x 20 d. 4x3 + 3x2 1
x
x2
2x x
3 21
t
2
g.
6
(2 x + 4)2
h.
3
(2 x +1)2
3. a. 8 b. 2 c. 9 d. 1
4.
g. 3( x +1+ x )2 (
1
2 x +1
1
2 x
4
h. 4( x 1) (4 x +1)
(3x +1)
2
3
i.
1
2 x
Answers to Exercises
x; 8 c. 3x; 4 d. cos x;
4 .2
x2 2 x 2
( x2 + x +1)2
b. ( + k, + k), k
4
2
+ 2 k, k
4
5
(1+ 3x)2
j.
1 3x2
2 x( x2 +1)2
5. a. 1 b. 8 c. 8 d. 8
40 x +12
4x
f.
(5x2 + 3x 1)3
(4 x2 +1)3
2
j. 405( x 3)
4
8( x + 2)
489
k.
d.
c.
5
2x 1
3
2
3
2
3
2
l. 3 + [2 x + ( x +1) ] 4 [4 x + 2( x +1)3 x ]
4
2(2 x 1)(3 x +1) 3 x+1
2( x x) x x
81
8(3x 1)
3x 1
12. 2 x + 27
25
50
5
x x f ( x)+ x2 x f ( x )
2
13. a.
2
3
16. a. C (t ) =
3x2
( x3 1)2
2
1
12
9. a. 6 b. 14(x2 + 1)5(13x2 + 1) c. ( x 1)3 d.
10. a. 120x 18 b. 4
(2 x 1) 2 x 1
x
(2 x 1)( x2 x 1)
2
7. 12 8. a. 8x + 4 b. 2x c.
63
25
0.2 0.2 t2
b. 0, 3 17. 6 18. f g( x)h( x) ( g ( x)h( x)+ g( x)h ( x))m( n( x)) 2g( x)h( x)m ( n( x))n ( x)
2
2
(t + 1)
125
( m( n( x)))
m( n( x))
19. 3 + 43
21. 15
4
20. 1
EXERCISES
22. ( 1)n
1 n!
2 xn+1
4 .3
1 cos x 9 2 sin x
cos x(cos x + sin 2 x+1)
)
j. 10(
2
2
1+
cos x (1+ cos x)2
sin x(cos x + 1)
4. a. 0 b.
b.
3t 3 t 2
4t
x + 3x x
c.
490
2
4
8. a.
10. a.
2 x +1
1
x
d.
e.
+
1+( x2 + x 1)2
1+ x2
1 x2
l. 9x2cot2(x3 1)csc2(x3 1)
2. y = x
2x
6 x3 + y
2
3x2 + 2x y
5
y
2 x +5 y
c. 2 d. 0 5. 5 6. a. b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
3y
x
3
x
4
1 x
5x + 3y2
4
17
f. 5 cot t 9. a. y = x 1 b. y = x
3
3
4
x2 +1
x3
x3
tan 2
x 1
x 1
( x2 1)2
(2 x4 6 x2 )sec 2
y 2 xy3
y xy 6xy
h.
7. a. y = x 3 b. y = x
x + 3x2 y2
4xy2 x xy
e.
2
2
k. (2 x 1)sec x x 1
2 x2 x 1
h.
14. a.
t2 +1
2t 2
2t + 3
b. 2
c.
d. (4t +6) t +1
t (2t +1)
3
3t 2 2t
6( t2 t 1)
6
b. 2 c. 0 11. a.
(2t 1)3
t
1
4 x2
12. y = 3x + 3
3
6
3
2 cos x cos x
4
2 xy + 2y2
27 x4 3x
3 2
6y
3
b.
c.
d. 2 y + 2 y
3
7
3
2
( x + 2 y)
16 y
2y
x
3x 3 x 3x 3 x2
EXERCISES
1. a. 0 b.
5 .1
6 5
1
3
1
5
3
1
1
2
1
c.
d. 3 e.
f. 3 g. h.
i. 2 3 j.
k. cos a l. 1 m. n.
o.
6
2
2
6
4
3
5
48
4
9
b. 1 c. 1 d.
p.
1
2. a. 0
4
5
1
3
1
4
e.
3. a.
b. 1 c. 0 d. 0 e. f. 0 g.
3
3
2
EXERCISES
5 .2
1. a. increasing: (, 2) and (0, 2); decreasing: (2, 0) and (2, ) b. increasing: (, 3); decreasing: (3, 0) and (0, )
2. a. decreasing: (, ) b. increasing: (0, ); decreasing: (, 0)
d. increasing: (, ) e. increasing: (, 0) and (4, ); decreasing: (0, 4) f. increasing: (2, 0) and (1, ); decreasing:
(, 2) and (0, 1) g. increasing: (, 2) and (2, ) h. increasing: (0, ); decreasing: (, 0) i. increasing: (, 0)
5
5
1
7
) 4. f ( x) =
> 0 for all x, so f is increasing 5. 2 < m < 2 6. 1 < a < 4
+ 2 k , k 3. ( ,
+ 2 k;
4
4
1+
x2
6
6
7. 1 < a < 3
8. 8
c. increasing 11. local max.: x2, x4, x6; local min.: x3, x5, x7, x8; absolute max.: x6; absolute min.: x1, 12. a. no critical point
b. 1 c. 1 13. a. f (a) = f (b) = f (c) = 0, f (d) and f (e) do not exist. b. local max.: a, d; local min.: b; neither: c, e
14. a. min.: x = 4 b. max.: x = 1; min.: x = 1 c. no local extrema d. min.: x = 3, x = 1; max.: x = 1
e. no local extrema f. min.: x = 2 g. max.: x = 0; min.: x = 2, x = 2 h. min.: x = 7 + 2 k, x = 11 + 2 k;
6
6
max.: x =
+ k, k
2
21. 1 < m < 0 22. max.: x = 2, x = 7; min.: x = 3 23. a. f min =1, fmax = 3 b. f min = 9, fmax = 0
c. f min = 88, fmax = 7 d. f min =19, fmax = 30 e. f = 3, f = 9 4 3 f. f min = 255, fmax =1
min
max
g. f min = 0, fmax = 20
h. f = 5, f = 3 i. f min = 0, fmax =
min
max
8
3
j. f min = 0, fmax = 3
1
24. 24 25. 2 26. a = , b = 3
4
k. f min = 1, fmax =
3
5
27. 2
28. a. increasing: (2, ); decreasing: (, 2) b. min.: x = 2 29. a. increasing: (, 4) and (4, 6); decreasing:
(4, 4) and (6, ); b. min.: x = 4; max.: x = 4, x = 6 30. x = 2 32. (, 6] [16, ) 33. a 3
Answers to Exercises
491
EXERCISES
5 .3
1. a. positive: (0, ); negative: (, 0) b. positive: (, 3), (3, 1), (2, ); negative: (1, 2) 2. a. concave up: (, ),
1
1
no inflection point b. concave down: (, ), no inflection point c. concave up: ( , ), concave down: ( , ),
3
3
inflection point x = 1 d. concave up: (1, ), concave down: (, 1), inflection point: x = 1 e. concave up:
3
5
5
5
(, 1), ( , ), concave down: (1, ), inflection points: x = 1 and x = f. concave up: (, 2), (2, ),
3
3
3
concave down: (2, 2) inflection points: x = 2 and x = 2 g. concave up: (1, 0), (1, ), concave down: (, 1), (0, 1)
inflection points: x = 1, x = 0, x = 1. h. concave up: (, 0), (0, ), no inflection point
i. concave down: (1, ), no inflection point j. concave up: (5, ), concave down: (, 5), inflection point: x = 5
k. concave up: (1, 2), concave down: (2, 3), inflection point x = 2 l. concave up: (2k, + 2k), concave down:
3. a = 6, b = 0 4. (1, 19) 5. concave up: (1, 3),
( + 2k, 2 + 2k), inflection point x = + k, k
concave down: (, 1), (3, ), inflection points: x = 1, x = 3 6. a. minimum b. maximum c. minimum d. minimum
7. a. max.: x = 3, min.: x = 1 b. max : x = 3+ 5 , min : x = 0, x = 3 5 c. max.: x = 0, min.: x = 4
2
2
d. min.: x = 3 e. max.: x = 0 f. no extremum
8.
a
9. consider the second derivative of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 10. consider the second
y
b
EXERCISES
5 .4
512
1. 15 and 15 2. 2 and 2 3. 50 4. 2m 5. m = 1 6. 50 m by 50 m 7. 30 m by 60 m 8.
cm 3 9. 2, 2 and 1 m
3
5
6
10. 3888 cm3 11. 3
m 12. 250 13. 2R2 14. 22 15. (1, 0) 16. 24 17. y = 22 18. 13 19. r = 2 cm, h = cm
3
EXERCISES
1. a. x = 1, y = 0
g. x = 3, y = 1
3. a.y
5 .5
b. x = 1, y = 0
h. x =
b.
32
c.
6 x
3
5/3
d. x = 4, y = 3
f. x = 1, y = 1
e. x = 3, y = 0
3
3
i. x = 6, x = 1, y = 0 j. y = x k. x = 1, y = x + 3
, x = 3, y =
2
2
c. no asymptotes
1 x
50
27
1
3
d.
1
e.
y
2
4 1
2. ,
9 4
f.
x
1
1 x
2
12
492
Answers to Exercises
4.
4
27
8 a.
5. a =
3
7
, b=
14
2
b.
c.
d.
e.
1/3
x
1
1/3
3
f.
1
1
1
6. 0 7. y = ( x 2)2 ( x +1)( x + 2)
2
5/3
3
3
3
2
9 a.
b.
y
2
2
c.
p/2
EXERCISES
6 .1
1. 12 2. 10 ways
Windows
1
Doors
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A
1B 2B 3B 4B 5B
8. 12 9. 13 10. 4 11. 624 12. 46 13. 24 14. 6 15. 14 16. 412 17. a. 412 b. 512 18. 240 19. 28800
20. 264 = 456976
21. 5000
22. 4 000 000
23. a.10 b. 210 = 1028
24. 5850
25. 74360
26. No
27. No
28. a. 25 b. 10
29. 1944
30. 48
31. 135
32. 159
33. 8500
34. 12
35. a. 1792
b. 320 36. a. 140 b. 36 37. 9990000 38. 367 267 107 = 70322353920 39. 52(26 + 262 + 263) = 456950
40. Hint: Apply to the pigeonhole principle
EXERCISES
6 .2
1. g1 =
1 2 3
2.
2 1 3
1 2 3 4
3.
4 3 2 1
b. 81
c. n 3
a b c d e
4.
e c b a d
d. 3
e.
1
42
5. 5! = 120
11. a. 2
b. 6
6. 720
c. 9
7. 120
8. 5040
d. 3 12. 336
23. 2 3! + 3 3! = 30
b. 3! 4! 6! 7! = 522547200
Answers to Exercises
20. a. 120
b. 4 P(6, 3) = 480
24. P(7, 4) 24
27. 6! 5! 2! = 480
21. 4 5! = 480
25. 5! 2! = 240
9!
=1260
3! 4! 2!
20!
35.
9! 2! 2! 2! 2! 2!
29.
41. 3! 5! = 720
47.
37. 126
c. 24
32.
44. 2! 4! 4! = 1152
EXERCISES
b. 71
36. 60
8!
=140
3! 4! 2!
1. a. 6
13!
33. 540 34. 50
= 60060
3! 4! 6!
8! 4!
12!
38.
b. 3! 4! 3!
= 168 39. a.
6!
2!
2!
2!
5!
8! 4!
= 6 8!
2! 2! 2!
45. 5! 3! = 720
46. 6! = 720
d. 29 = 512
e. 212 = 4096
2. a. 12 b.
16
7. 60 8. 35 9. 78 10. 45 11. 20 12. 10 13. =1820
4
n2
6
c. n2 n
3. a. 6
48
14. = 69668534468
12
b. 9
7 3 4 3 4 3 4
23. or + + = 21
5 1 4 2 3 3 2
7 5 7 5 7
b. + + = 246
5 2 6 1 7
19
39. a. = 3876
15
5
43. P(5,3) = 600
3
5 5 5 5
26. + + + = 26
3 2 1 0
8 7
30. + + 3 = 94
3 3
2010
35.
= 678072034710
4
35
b. = 3247943160
15
7
44. 4!= 504
5
494
6
40. 4 41. 4! = 360
4
48. 65 4! 25 = 5971968
6. 10
12 10 9
21.
5 4 2
9 3 4
27. 21 28. a. 29 b. = 79
3 3 3
29 37
37. = 7843173975
5 5
5 6
45. a. 8!
4 4
5. 64
5 7
25. a. = 350
3 4
26
31. 45045 32. 600 33. = 14950
4
49
36. = 1906884
5
3 6 5 18
47. = 146880
1 1 1 3
51. 15
8 5
24. = 65
4 4
c. 9
40
15. = 91390
4
5 5
3 3 3
12 8
11
16. = 330 17. + + = 9 18. = 27720 19. 45 20. 3! = 600
2 2
2 1 1
8 3
4
7 4
29. = 126
2 2
54. 2 18!
6 .3
4. {(k, l, m), (k, l, n), (k, l, r), (k, m, n), (k, m, r), (k, n, r), (l, m, n), (l, n, r), (l, m, r), (m, n, r)}
7
22. = 21
2
40. 4! = 24
21
34. = 1330
3
19
38. = 75582
11
5
b. P(5, 4) P(6, 4) 2! = 86400 46. 34 = 810
2
12
49. 5! = 110880
6
7 7
50. + = 56
3 2
9
52. 3! 2! = 1008
3
Answers to Exercises
EXERCISES
6 .4
b. 515
4. a. 625
EXERCISES
1.
1
2
2.
2
9
3.
1
63
4.
1
4
5.
13.
3
4
1
60
6.
13
28
14.
7.
3
7
210 90
1 3 = 9968
c.
133653
300
4 5 4 4 5 4 4
+ +
1 1 1 1 2 1 2 = 72
21.
143
13
3
99
1
=
100 50
Answers to Exercises
5
4 = 65
29. 1
11 66
4
8
11
8.
9. 3360
1
1
=
42 111930
4
4
4
15. 1
12
4
90
4
5162
d. =
300
668265
10
3
67
22. 1 =
15
91
3
15 5 15 5 15 5 15 5 15
+ + + +
6 4 7 3 8 2 9 1 10
25.
20
10
28.
8. 59
7. 240
10. 252
6 .5
32 168
1 3 = 12419456
12.
32342475
200
210 90
2 2 11837
=
b.
44551
300
8
6. (3x4 )3 ( y3 )5
5
3. 600x2y2
2. 243
18.
31. 1
5! 4!
9!
10. 150
11.
1
88 6
19.
7
18
7
3
7
20. =
10 24
3
7 4
3 2
3
24. =
8
5
10
4 3
5 5 5 5
3 +
3 1 1 1 = 31
27.
91
15
3
64
77
=
9 9 81
2 2
1
63
210
4 = 532
17. a.
300 2235
3
7
7
3
1
23. 1 =
8
2
4
10
6! 2!
1
5
=
26.
11
12
7!
7
6 4
2
16
4
=
30.
33
12
4
16.
9.
32.
50
1
=
100 99
495
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A
D
E
B
D
B
D
A
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
E
B
B
A
C
A
A
D
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
C
E
C
D
A
E
C
A
TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
E
D
C
D
496
TEST
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
C
E
C
C
B
C
D
C
3C
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
A
A
E
B
C
E
E
B
TEST
C
E
E
C
A
C
B
C
4A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
D
A
E
D
B
A
D
C
TEST
B
C
C
C
B
A
A
E
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A
E
E
C
E
C
E
B
TEST
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
A
E
C
C
E
B
E
A
3D
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
E
B
A
D
D
C
B
A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
B
D
C
D
A
C
E
D
TEST
C
C
E
E
B
D
D
B
6A
5.
6.
7.
8.
E
A
B
E
E
E
A
E
TEST
4B
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
B
C
A
E
E
E
D
A
TEST
B
A
B
E
9.
10.
11.
12.
D
A
C
E
13.
14.
15.
16.
D
A
B
C
1.
2.
3.
4.
A
A
E
C
3A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
TEST
E
C
C
D
A
B
D
C
3E
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
D
B
D
B
C
D
D
E
TEST
B
C
A
A
D
E
B
C
5A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
3B
3F
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
B
D
C
D
E
A
C
A
TEST
E
B
E
C
A
D
C
D
D
B
C
E
B
C
A
5B
B
C
C
D
B
A
D
E
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
E
D
B
A
E
D
E
A
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
C
D
B
E
B
A
E
B
A
D
C
A
9.
10.
11.
12.
E
B
D
D
13.
14.
15.
16.
E
B
D
E
6B
5.
6.
7.
8.
Answers to Exercises
Answers to Exercises
497
498
Answers to Exercises
Answers to Exercises
499
500
Answers to Exercises