PROJECT REPORT ON

MULTISTAGE TEST RIG FOR AUTOMOTIVE

VEHICLE BATTERY (6VOLTS/12VOLTS)
A
PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Mechanical Engineering

Submitted to:

Submitted By:

Dr. Ashok Choudhary

Hemant Singh Shekhawat

(HOD. ME. Dept.)

Enrolment No.: 12E1SBMEM45P018

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sri Balaji Technical Campus, Jaipur
November, 2015

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BATTERY
During the last few decades, rechargeable batteries have made only moderate improvements
in terms of higher capacity and smaller size. Compared with the vast advancements in areas
such as microelectronics, the lack of progress in battery technology is apparent. A comparable
size reduction would literally shrink a heavy-duty car battery to the size of a coin. Since
batteries are still based on an electrochemical process, a car battery the size of a coin may not
be possible using our current techniques.
The consumer market, for example, demands high energy densities and small sizes. Relentless
downsizing of portable equipment has pressured manufacturers to invent smaller batteries.
This, however, must be done without sacrificing runtimes. By packing more energy into a pack,
other qualities are often compromised. One of these is longevity.
The storage battery is the heart of the charging circuit. It is an electrochemical device for
producing and storing electricity. A vehicle battery has several important functions, which are
as follows:
a) It must operate the starting motor, ignition system, electronic fuel injection system and
other electrical devices for the engine during engine cranking and starting.
b) It must supply ALL of the electrical power for the vehicle when the engine is not
running.
c) It must help the charging system provide electricity when current demands are above
the output limit of the charging system.
d) It must act as a capacitor (voltage stabilizer) that smoothers current flow through the
electrical system.
e) It must store energy (electricity) for extended periods.
The type of battery used in automotive, construction and weight-handling equipment is a leadacid cell-type battery. This type of battery produces direct current (dc) electricity that flows in
only one direction. When the battery is discharging (current flowing out of the battery), it
changes chemical energy into electrical energy, thereby, releasing stored energy. During
charging (current flowing into the battery from the charging system), electrical energy is
converted into chemical energy. The battery can then store energy until the vehicle requires it.
With rapid developments in technology occurring today, battery systems that use neither
nickel, lead nor lithium may soon become viable. Fuel cells, which enable uninterrupted
operation by drawing on a continuous supply of fuel, may solve the portable energy needs in
the future. Instead of a charger, the user carries a bottle of liquid energy. Such a battery would
truly change the way we live and work.

1.2 HISTORY
One of the most remarkable and novel discoveries in the last 400 years has been electricity.
One may ask, Has electricity been around that long? The answer is yes, and perhaps much
longer. But the practical use of electricity has only been at our disposal since the mid-to late
1800s, and in a limited way at first. At the world exposition in Paris in 1900, for example, one
of the main attractions was an electrically lit bridge over the river Seine.
The earliest method of generating electricity occurred by creating a static charge. In 1660, Otto
von Guericke constructed the first electrical machine that consisted of a large sulphur globe
which, when rubbed and turned, attracted feathers and small pieces of paper. Guericke was
able to prove that the sparks generated were truly electrical.
The first suggested use of static electricity was the so-called electric pistol. Invented by
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an electrical wire was placed in a jar filled with methane gas.
By sending an electrical spark through the wire, the jar would explode.

Fig. 1.1 - Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery.

1600
1791
1800
1802
1820
1833
1836
1859
1868
1888
1899

History of Battery Development

Gilbert (England)
Establishment electrochemistry study
Galvani (Italy)
Discovery of animal electricity
Volta (Italy)
Invention of the voltaic cell
Cruickshank (England)
First electric battery capable of mass
production
Ampre (France)
Electricity through magnetism
Faraday (England)
Announcement of Faradays Law
Daniell (England)
Invention of the Daniell cell
Plant (France)
Invention of the lead acid battery
Leclanch (France)
Invention of the Leclanch cell
Gassner (USA)
Completion of the dry cell
Jungner (Sweden)
Invention of the nickel-cadmium battery

1901
1932
1947

Edison (USA)
Shlecht & Ackermann
(Germany)
Neumann (France)

Invention of the nickel-iron battery

Invention of the sintered pole plate

Successfully sealing the nickel-cadmium

battery
Mid 1960 Union Carbide (USA)
Development of primary alkaline battery
1992
Kordesch (Canada)
Commercialization reusable alkaline battery
1999
Commercialization lithium-ion polymer
2001
Anticipated volume production of proton
exchange membrane fuel cell
Table no. 1.2: History of battery development.

1.3 TYPES OF BATTERY

Some of the basic types of batteries are primary, secondary, wet-charged, dry-charged, lowmaintenance cell batteries. These all have their individual function and individual uses, so we
cant use the primary batteries in the place of secondary batteries. Some of the batteries are
as follows:
1. PRIMARY CELL: The chemical reaction totally destroys one of the metals after a period
of time. Small batteries for flashlights and radios are primary cells.
Ex: i. Alkaline battery
ii. Aluminum-ion battery
Applications: Radio, calculator, remote control, regular camera, compact disk player, regular
camcorders, cellular phones etc.
Cathode/Anode/Electrolyte: Manganese Dioxide/Zinc/Aqueous Potassium Hydroxide.
Chemistry: (MnO2 + H2O + e- MnOOH + OH-) X 3
3MnOOH + e- Mn3O4 + OH- + H2O
Zn + 4OH- Zn(OH)4 + 2eZn + 2OH- Zn(OH)2 + 2e(Zn(OH)2 ZnO + H2O) X 2

3MnO2 + 2Zn Mn3O4 + 2ZnO

cathode
anode - early reaction
anode - late reaction

(discharge reaction)

Distinguishing Characteristics:

Higher energy density

Better service performance
o Continuous & intermittent
o Low & high rate compatible
o Ambient & low temperature
Lower internal resistance
Longer shelf life
Greater resistance to leakage
Improved dimensional stability

2. SECONDARY CELLS: The metals and acid mixture change as the battery supplies
voltage. The metals become similar, the acid strength weakens. This is called discharging.
By applying current to the battery in the opposite direction, the battery materials can be
restored. This is called charging. Automotive lead-acid batteries are secondary cells.
Ex: i. Fuel Cell
ii. Lead-acid Battery
3. WET-CHARGED: The lead-acid battery is filled with electrolyte and charged when it is
built. During storage, a slow chemical reaction will cause self-discharge. Periodic charging
is required. For Toyota batteries, this is every 5 to 7 months.
Ex: i. Lead-acid battery
4. DRY-CHARGED: The battery is built, charged, washed and dried, sealed, and shipped
without electrolyte. It can be stored for 12 to .18 months. When put into use, it requires
adding electrolyte and charging.
Ex: i. zinc-carbon battery
5. LOW-MAINTENANCE: Most batteries for Toyota vehicles are considered lowmaintenance batteries. Such batteries are built to reduce internal heat and water loss. The
addition of water should only be required every 15,000 miles or so.

1.4 SECONDARY CELLS

Secondary batteries are the rechargeable batteries. They have the advantage of being more
cost-efficient over the long term, although individual batteries are more expensive. Generally,
secondary batteries have a lower capacity and initial voltage, a flat discharge curve, higher
self-discharge rates and varying recharge life ratings. Secondary batteries usually have more
active (less stable) chemistries which need special handling, containment and disposal. Ni-Cd

and small-size lead acid batteries require special disposal and should not be simply thrown
away.
The electrodes of the cells in a lead storage battery consist of lead grids. The openings of the
anodic grid is filled with spongy (porous) lead. The openings of the cathode grid is filled
with lead dioxide {PbO2}. Dilute sulfuric acid {H2SO4} serves as the electrolyte. When the
battery is delivering a current, i.e. discharging, the lead at the anode is oxidized:
Pb2+ + 2 e

Pb

Because the lead ions are in the presence of aqueous sulfate ions (from the sulfuric acid),
insoluble lead sulfate precipitates onto the electrode. The overall reaction at the anode is
therefore:
Pb + SO42

PbSO4 (electrode) + 2 e

Electrons that flow from the anode simultaneously reduce the lead dioxide at the cathode:
2 e + PbO2 + 4 H+

Pb2+ + 2 H2O

Again, the lead ions that are formed react with aqueous sulfate ions to form insoluble lead
sulfate on the electrode, and the overall reaction at the cathode is:
2 e + PbO2 + 4 H+ + SO42

PbSO4 (electrode) + 2 H2O

1.4.1 Advantages
Best solution for high drain applications
For high utilization applications the cost of the charger is soon paid back.
1.4.2 Shortcomings
Cost of charger. For low cost applications such as toys the charger could cost much more than
the product it supports.
Safety issues with mains power.
Lower energy density than primary cells unless exotic chemistries used.
Lack of standards
Many custom pack designs and limited interchangeability. (Disadvantage for the user but
creates a captive aftermarket for the manufacturer)
1.4.3 Applications
Traction
Power tools
Motor drives
Laptop computers

Mobile phones
Camcorders
Toys

1.5 LEAD ACID CELL

A lead-acid cell works by a simple principle: when two different metals are immersed in an
acid solution, a chemical reaction creates an electrical pressure. One metal is brown-colored
lead dioxide (Pb02). It has a positive electrical charge. The other metal is gray colored
sponge lead (Pb). It has a negative electrical charge. The acid solution is a mixture of sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) and water (H20). It is called electrolyte.
If a conductor and a load are connected between the two metals, current will flow. This
discharging will continue until the metals become alike and the acid is used up. The action
can be reversed by sending current into the cell in the opposite direction. This charging will
continue until the cell materials are restored to their original condition.

Fig. 1.2 Lead-acid cell

1.6 CONSTRUCTION
1. CASE: Container which holds and protects all battery components and electrolyte,
separates cells, and provides space at the bottom for sediment (active materials
washed off plates). Translucent plastic cases allow checking electrolyte level without
removing vent caps.

2. COVER: Permanently sealed to the top of the case; provides outlets for terminal posts,
vent holes for venting of gases and for battery maintenance (checking electrolyte,
adding water).
3. PLATES: Positive and negative plates have a grid framework of antimony and lead
alloy. Active material is pasted to the grid brown-colored lead dioxide (Pb02) on
positive plates, gray-colored sponge lead (Pb) on negative plates. The number and size
of the plates determine current capability batteries with large plates or many plates
produce more current than batteries with small plates or few plates.
4. SEPARATORS: Thin, porous insulators (woven glass or plastic envelopes) are placed
between positive and negative plates. They allow passage of electrolyte, yet prevent
the plates from touching and shorting out.

Fig. 1.3 Construction of lead-acid cell

5. CELLS: An assembly of connected positive and negative plates with separators in
between is called a cell or element. When immersed in electrolyte, a cell produces
about 2.1 volts (regardless of the number or size of plates). Battery cells are connected
in series, so the number of cells determines the battery voltage. A "1 2 - volt" battery
has six cells.
6. CELL CONNECTORS: Heavy, cast alloy metal straps are welded to the negative
terminal of one cell and the positive terminal of the adjoining cell until all six cells
are connected in series.
7. CELL PARTITIONS: Part of the case, the partitions separate each cell.
8. TERMINAL POSTS: Positive and negative posts (terminals) on the case top have
thick, heavy cables connected to them. These cables connect the battery to the
vehicle's electrical system (positive) and to ground (negative).

9. VENT CAPS: Types include individual filler plugs, strip-type, or Box-type. They
allow controlled release of hydrogen gas during charging (vehicle operation).
Removed, they permit checking electrolyte and, if necessary, adding water.
10. ELECTROLYTE: A mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O). It reacts
chemically with the active materials in the plates to create an electrical pressure
(voltage). And, it conducts the electrical current produced by that pressure from plate
to plate. A fully charged battery will have about 36% acid and 64% water.

1.7 ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION

A lead-acid storage battery can be partially
discharged and recharged many times. There
are four stages in this discharging/charging
cycle.
1. CHARGED: A fully charged battery
contains a negative plate of sponge lead
(Pb), a positive plate of lead dioxide
(Pb02), and electrolyte of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and water (H20).
2. DISCHARGING: As the battery is
discharging, the electrolyte becomes
diluted and the plates become sulfated.
The electrolyte divides into hydrogen
(H2) and sulfate (S04). The hydrogen
(H2) combines with oxygen (0) from the
positive plate to form more water (H20).
The sulfate combines with the lead (Pb)
in both plates to form lead sulfate
(PbS04)
3. DISCHARGED: In a fully discharged
battery, both plates are covered with lead
sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte is
diluted to mostly water (H2O).
4. CHARGING: During charging, the
chemical action is reversed. Sulfate (S04)
leaves the plates and combines with
hydrogen (H2) to become sulfuric acid
(H2SO4). Free oxygen (02) combines
with lead (Pb) on the positive plate to
form lead dioxide (Pb02). Gassing occurs
as the battery nears full charge, and
hydrogen bubbles out at the negative
plates, oxygen at the positive.
Fig. 1.4 Electrochemical reactions

Fig. 1.5 Reaction involved in battery

1.8 FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGING

1. TEMPERATURE: As the temperature decreases the electrolyte resists charging. A cold
battery will take more time to charge; a warm battery, less time. Never attempt to charge a
frozen battery.
2. STATE-OF-CHARGE: The condition of the battery's active materials will affect
charging. A battery that is severely discharged will have hard sulfate crystals on its plates.
The vehicle's charging system may charge at too high of a rate to remove such sulfates.
3. PLATE AREA: Small plates are charged faster than large plates. When sulfation covers
most of the plate area, the charging system may not be able to restore the battery.
4. IMPURITIES: Dirt and other impurities in the electrolyte increase charging
difficulty.
5. GASSING: Hydrogen and oxygen bubbles form at the plates during charging. As these
bubble out, they wash away active material, cause water loss, and increase charging
difficulty.

Fig. 1.5 Factors affecting charging

1.9 ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Advantages:
Inexpensive and simple to manufacture in terms of cost per watt hours, the
SLA is the least expensive.

Mature, reliable and well-understood technology when used correctly, the

SLA is durable and provides dependable service.

Low self-discharge the self-discharge rate is among the lowest in

rechargeable battery systems.

Low maintenance requirements no memory; no electrolyte to fill.

Capable of high discharge rates.

Limitation:
Cannot be stored in a discharged condition.

Low energy density poor weight-to-energy density limits use to stationary

and wheeled applications.

Allows only a limited number of full discharge cycles well suited for standby
applications that require only occasional deep discharges.

Environmentally unfriendly the electrolyte and the lead content can cause
environmental damage.

Transportation restrictions on flooded lead acid there are environmental

concerns regarding spillage in case of an accident.
Thermal runaway can occur with improper charging.

Chapter 2

LITURATURE REVIEW
1. http://www.buchmann.ca/default.asp
(Copyright 2001 Isidor Buchmann. All rights reserved)
The battery has become our steady travel companion - it helps call a friend; it expands
our workplace beyond four walls; and it supports critical missions for people in need.
Performance specifications for batteries and chargers are often based on ideal conditions.
Manufacturers carry out battery tests on brand new equipment within protected
environments. In Batteries in a Portable World, Mr. Buchmann observes the battery as
used by consumers in everyday life.
The battery handbook addresses the strengths and limitations of the modern battery. It
illustrates which battery chemistry is most appropriate for each application. You will learn
about charger technology, battery maintenance to prolong battery life and methods to
restore weak batteries with a battery analyzer.

2. http://www.slideshare.net/munibz04/wet-dry-batteries?from_action=save
(LinkedIn Corporation 2015)
From this site we obtain the slides of various thing. This link gives us the detail about the
dry and wet battery
Wet cell Dry cell Batteries
Wet cell batteries contain a liquid electrolyte solution which consists of sulphuric acid and
water. Also known as Vented/flooded acid batteries.
Wet cells will produce 2.1 Volts each and 6 cells connected in series (+ - ) allows them to
produce the 12.6 - (12) Volts used by the automobile.
The main concern for wet cell batteries in all applications is leaking sulfuric acid, as it is
a dangerous corrosive that can damage what it contacts and can burn human tissue.
Dry cell batteries will only produce 1.5 Volts per cell and can be connected in series (to
produce more voltage). Dry cell batteries are batteries, which the electrolytes are in form
of moist paste. They also refer to electrical batteries, which the electrochemical cells
converts stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
i. Wet cell Batteries:
Lead-acid battery: This is the chemistry used in a typical car battery. The electrodes
are usually made of lead dioxide and metallic lead, while the electrolyte is a sulfuric
acid solution. The amount and size of plates in a battery cell, determine the capacity
of the battery.
Example: Automobiles Batteries.

ii. Dry cell Batteries:

Zinc-carbon battery: Zinc and carbon are used in all regular or standard AA, C and D
dry-cell batteries. The electrodes are made of zinc and carbon, with a paste of acidic
materials (ammonium chloride or zinc chloride) between them serving as the
electrolyte.

3. https://www.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/netorial/rottosen/tutorial/modules/el
ectrochemistry/06battery/18_64.htm
From here we are going to search about primary and secondary cells. We are going to
learn about the reaction of all the primary and secondary cells, how it works and what are
the reaction that take place in the batteries.

4. http://www.mpoweruk.com/secondary.htm
5. http://depts.washington.edu/matseed/batteries/MSE/references.html