HRJ 5 2 July Dec 2013 PDF

HIGHWAY RESEARCH
JOURNAL
* PAVEMENT
* TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
Volume 5 No. 2
July - December 2012
(All Rights Reserved. No part of this Publication shall be reproduced, translated or

transmitted in any form or by any means without the permission of the
Indian Roads Congress)
Published on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress at Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi-110 011 and
Printed at Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., W-30 Okhla Phase-II, New Delhi-110 020.
Editor Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House,
Shahjahan Road, New Delhi-110 011.
14000
Members of the IRC Highway research Board

(2012-2014)
1.

2.

The Director General (Road Development) &

Special Secretary, to the Govt. of India
(Shri C. Kandasamy)
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Transport Bhawan, 1, Parliament Street,
NEW DELHI 110 001
[in the event of DG(RD) not in position,
the President, IRC will function]
Chairman
The Secretary General

(Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad)
Indian Roads Congress,
Kama KotiMarg,
Sector 6, R.K. Puram,
NEW DELHI 110 022
Secretary
Members
3.

The President, IRC

(Shri P.N. Jain)
Chief Engineer (NH) & Addl. Secretary,
Road & Building Deptt. Govt. of Gujarat,
Block No. 14, 1st Floor,
New Sachivalaya,
GANDHINAGAR-382 010
4.

The Director
(Dr. S. Gangopadhyay)
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute,
P.O. CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road,
NEW DELHI 110 020
5.

The Additional Director General

(Shri V.L. Patankar)
NEW DELHI 110 001
6.

The Additional Director General-II

NEW DELHI 110 001
7.

The Director General Border Roads

Seema Sadak Bhawan,
Ring Road, Delhi Cantt.,
NEW DELHI 110 010
8.

The Member (Technical)

National Highways Authority of India,
Plot No.G-5 & 6, Dwarka,
NEW DELHI 110 075
9.

The Director (Technical)

(Dr. I.K. Pateriya)
National Rural Roads Development Agency (NRRDA),
5th Floor, NBCC Towers,
BhikajiCama Place,
NEW DELHI 110 066
10.

The Director
(Shri S.N. Das)
Indian Academy of Highway Engineers,
A-5, Institutional Area,
Sector 62, NH-24 Bypass,
NOIDA 201 301 (U.P.)
11.

The Chief Engineer (Roads) SR&T

(Shri Arun Kumar Sharma)
NEW DELHI 110 001
12.

The Chief Engineer (Bridges) SR&T

(Shri A.P. Pathak)
NEW DELHI 110 001
13.

The Engineer-in-Chief
(Shri Mahesh Kumar)
Haryana Public Works (B&R) Department,
NirmanSadan, Plot No.1,
DakshinMarg, Sector 33A,
CHANDIGARH (Haryana)
14.

The Chief Engineer (NH),

(Shri R.P. Singh)
Punjab P.W.D. B&R Branch,
Nirman Bhawan,
Block-C, Mini Secretariat,
PATIALA-147 001 (Punjab)
15.


(Shri B.P. Chauhan)
PWD Rajasthan,
JAIPUR-302 006 (Rajasthan)
16.

The Chief Engineer (NH) & Addl. Secretary

(Shri P.N. Jain)
R&B Deptt.,
Block No.14, 1st Floor,
New Sachivalaya,
GANDHINAGAR-382 010 (Gujarat)
17.

The Chief Engineer (NH)

Public Works Region,
Konkan Bhawan,
NAVI MUMBAI-400 614
(Maharashtra)
18.

The Engineer-in-Chief (R&B), Admn. & NH

(Shri K. Siva Reddy)
R&B Department,
Errummanzil,
HYDERABAD 500 082
(Andhra Pradesh)
19.


(Shri M. Bhagat)
Road Construction Deptt.,
Engineering Hostel,
HEC, Dhurwa,
RANCHI-834 004 (Jharkhand)
20.

The Engineer-in-Chief-cum-Secretary
to the Govt. of Odisha
(Shri Subhendu Kumar Ray)
Works Department,
Odisha Secretariat,
BHUBANESWAR 751 001 (Odisha)
21.


P.W.D. (Roads),
Barik Compound,
Opposite State Library,
SHILLONG-793 001 (Meghalaya)
22.

The Chief Engineer

(Shri N.N. Deka)
(N.H. Works) Assam,
Chandmari,
GUWAHATI-781 003(Assam)
23.

Thiru R. Rajaraman
Chief Engineer
Quality Assurance and Research,
76, Sardar Patel Road,
Opp. Raj Bhavan,
CHENNAI 600 025 (Tamil Nadu)
24

The Joint Director

Kerala Highway Research Institute,
PWD Kariyavattom,
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM 695 581 (Kerala)
25.

The Joint Director (Roads)

(Shri M.K. Sheth)
Gujarat Engineering Research Institute (GERI),
Race Course,
VADODARA 390 007 (Gujarat)
26. The Director General

(Shri D.D. Bhide)

Design, Training, Hydrology, Research & Safety
(DTHRS),

Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute (MERI),

Dindori Road,

NASHIK 422 004 (Maharashtra)
27.

The Director
UPPWD Research Institute and
Quality Promotion Organisation,
Nirman Bhawan, 96, M.G. Marg,
LUCKNOW-226 001 (UP)
28.

Dr. S.S. Jain

Professor of Civil Engineering ,
Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
ROORKEE 247 667
(Uttarakhand)
29.

Prof. A. Veeraragavan
Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
CHENNAI 600 036 (Tamil Nadu)
30.

Dr. P.K. Sarkar

Professor, Deptt. of Transport Planning,
School of Planning & Architecture,
E-799, C.R. Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
37.

The Chief Engineer

(Shri K. K. Srivastava)
Uttarakhand Rural Roads Agency,
Opp. I.T. Park, Shastradhara Road,
DEHRADUN- 248 001 (Uttarakhand)
31.

Prof. L.S. Ramchandra

Head, Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
KHARAGPUR-721 302 (West Bengal)
32.

Dr. Animesh Das

Associate Professor,
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
KANPUR- 208 016 (Uttar Pradesh)
38.

The Director
(Shri G. Dinshaw)
Central Institute of Road Transport,
Post Box No. 1897, Bhosari,
Pune-Nasik Road,
PUNE 411 026 (Maharashtra)
33.

Shri S. B. Vasava
Chief Engineer, Panchayat &
Addl. Secretary,
Roads & Buildings Department,
Sachivalay,
GANDHINAGAR (Gujarat)
39

Prof. P.K. Sikdar

(Former Director, CRRI),
President, Intercontinental Consultants &
Technocrats (ICT) Pvt. Ltd.,
A-9, Green Park,
NEW DELHI 110 016
34.

The Chief Operating Officer

(Shri Mahesh M. Hiremath)
Karnataka Rural Road Development Agency,
Nirman Bhavan, II Floor,
KSCC Building,
Rajajinagar Ist Block,
Dr. Rajkumar Road,
BANGALORE-560 010
(Karnataka)
40

Shri R.S. Sharma

Jt. Managing Director,
Consulting Engineers Group Limited,
C-478, 2nd Floor, Block-C,
Vikas Puri,
NEW DELHI-110 018
41.

Shri A.K. Banerjee

Director (Technical),
Scott Wilson India Pvt. Ltd.,
B-210, Second Floor, C.R. Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
42.

Major V.C. Verma

Executive Director Marketing,
Oriental Structural Engineers Pvt. Ltd.,
21, Commercial Complex,
Malcha Marg, Diplomatic Enclave,
NEW DELHI 110 021
43.

Shri M.M. Khan

Vice-President,
Gammon India Ltd.,
Library Tech., Gammon House,
Veer Savarkar Marg, Prabhadevi,
MUMBAI 400 025
44.

Shri U. Jayakodi
Director (Technical)
BSCPL Infrastructure Ltd.,
M. No. 8-2-502/1/A, JIVI Towers,
Road No. 7, Banjara Hills,
HYDERABAD 500 034

35.

The Chief Engineer

(Shri C. P. Tongden)
Rural Management & Development
Department, Tashiling, Secretariat,
GANGTOK (Sikkim)
36.

The Chief Executive Officer

(Shri Ranjit Kumar Majumder)
Tripura Rural Road Development Agency
(TRRDA) & JS PWD,
Govt. of Tripura, Directorate of
Urban Development,
3rd Floor of Khadya Bhavan,
Pandit Nehru Complex,
AGARTALA 799 006 Tripura (W)
Co-opted Members
45

Dr. L.R. Kadiyali

Chief Executive,
M/s. L.R. Kadiyali & Associates,
RZ-44, Bhawani Kunj,
Behind D-2, Vasant Kunj,
NEW DELHI 110 070
46.

Shri D.P. Gupta

DG (RD) & AS (Retd.), MOST
D-21, Ground Floor,
Greater Kailash Enclave Part-I,
NEW DELHI 110 048
47.

Shri P.L. Bongirwar

(Principal Secretary (Retd.),
PWD Maharashtra)
Advisor, L&T,
B/1102, Pataliputra CHS,
Near Four Bunglow Signal,
Andheri (E),
MUMBAI 400 053
48.

Shri D. Sanyal
Managing Director,
M/s. CRAPHTS Consultants (I) Pvt. Ltd.
14/3, Mathura Road,
FARIDABAD-121 003 (Haryana)
49.

Shri T. Elangovan
Scientist-G (Formerly Director)
National Transportation Planning &
Research Centre (NATPAC),
Sasthra Bhawan, Pattom Palace P.O.,
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM 695 004 (Kerala)
50.

Dr. G.V.S. Raju

Chief Engineer (Roads & Buildings),
Rural Roads, Errummanzil,
HYDERABAD 500 082
51.

Shri K.S. Krishna Reddy

Chief Engineer
HARSHITHA,
No. 1333, 8th Cross,
11th Main, Judicial Layout,
GKVK Post,
BANGALORE 560 065
52.

Dr. G. L. Sivakumar Babu

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science,
BANGALORE 560 012
53.

Prof. K. Sudhakar Reddy

Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
KHARAGPUR-721 302
55.

Dr. C.S.R.K. Prasad

Professor & Head,
Transportation Division,
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology,
WARANGAL 506 004
(Andhra Pradesh)
contents
PAVEMENT
Page
Rigid Pavement Response to Environment and Traffic Loading Investigated

through Instrumentation
Binod Kumar, Renu Mathur & S. Gangopadhyay
Automated Detection and Measurement of Potholes from Road Surface Video Clips
Huidrom Lokeshwor, Lalit K. Das & S.K. Sud
Reinforced Cement Concrete Pavement for Village Roads in Alluvial Region:

A Sustainable Option
R.K. Srivastava, S.K. Duggal & K.K. Shukla
19
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Modeling Occurrence and Severity of Road Crashes on Selected Multi Lane
Carriageways in India
S. Padma, S. Velmurugan, E. Madhu, J. Sitaramanjaneyulu, S. Gangopadhyay
& A Revathi
27
Application of Fuzzy Logic in Traffic Signal Coordination

R. Ashalatha & Manjusha
33
written comments on the papers published in this

highway research journal are invited and may be sent
at hrb@irc.org.in BEFORE 31st JANUARY, 2013
The opinions and conclusions in this Journal are those of the

Authors and not of the IRC Highway Research Board
RIGID PAVEMENT RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND TRAFFIC LOADING

INVESTIGATED THROUGH INSTRUMENTATION
Binod Kumar*, Renu Mathur** & S. Gangopadhyay***
ABSTRACT
The response of concrete pavement slabs to environmental and traffic loadings has been captured through instrumented test sections laid
at Allahabad by-pass on NH-2; Kota, Rajasthan, on NH-76 and Siliguri, West Bengal, on NH-31. The sensors, embedded into the concrete
pavement slabs during construction, included Vibrating Wire (VW) type temperature sensors and strain gauges, and resistance type dynamic
strain gauges. VW temperature sensors measured temperature within the concrete slabs at various depths. VW strain gauges measured the
strain induced at different depths due to the temperature. Resistance type dynamic strain gauges measured the strains induced within the
concrete due to vehicle axle loads under dynamic conditions. Concrete slab behaviour during hardening phase and afterwards was studied.
Theoretical curling stresses were compared with measured stresses. Tests were conducted under road traffic to measure the dynamic strains
induced at non-tied and tied edges with different axle loads.
INTRODUCTION
Rigid pavement design is largely based on past experience

and empirical data. Theoretically temperature stresses and
wheel load stresses at mid slab edge in concrete pavements
are calculated using Westergaards classical approach which
is based on various assumptions. Temperature gradient
across the depth of the concrete pavement slab causes the
slab to curl and deform resulting in the bending stresses.
Westergaard1 presented an analysis of curling stresses in
concrete slab based upon the plate theory, and Bradbury2
developed a simple chart and equations to calculate curling
stress. The analysis is based on the assumption that the
temperature distribution is linear throughout the depth of the
slab. This is an approximation, because studies have shown
that the actual distribution is nonlinear3,4.
The load stresses induced in the concrete pavement
slabs can be determined using formulae developed by
Westergaard. These formulae were developed for single
wheel load. Pickett and Ray charts can be used for multiple
wheel loads of any configuration. The present guidelines of
IRC:58, 2nd revised for design of rigid pavements, are based
on the determination of temperature and load stresses as per
Westergaard and Pickett-Ray formulae respectively.
The real field conditions with regard to the subgrade
support, presence of granular and dry lean concrete subbases
under the slabs, dowel bars at transverse joints and tie bars
at longitudinal joints between slabs of different lanes and
at tied shoulders etc. are quite different from theoretical
assumptions. Thus, the actual response of concrete pavement
slabs subjected to environmental and traffic loading may be
different from what is obtained theoretically. The pavement
response to environmental and vehicle loads may be

characterized more accurately by measuring temperature and
strains through various sensors and instruments embedded
into the concrete slabs. Keeping this in view, instrumented
concrete pavement sections were constructed near Silliguri
(NH-31), Allahabad (NH-2), and Kota (NH-76) on three
different National Highways. This Paper presents the
findings related to the response of instrumented concrete
pavement slabs under real field conditions.
2
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
The response of concrete pavement slabs to environmental

and traffic loading was studied through sensors embedded
into the concrete pavement slabs during construction. The
sensors which were embedded into concrete slabs included
Vibrating Wire (VW) type temperature sensors and strain
gauges, and resistance type dynamic strain gauges. VW
temperature sensors measured temperature within the
concrete slabs at various depths. VW strain gauges measured
the strain induced at different depths due to temperature
variation. Resistance type strain gauges were used to measure
the strains induced within the concrete due to vehicle axle
loads under dynamic conditions. The data from the VW type
sensors and resistance type strain gauges was captured by
using static and dynamic data loggers.
3
DESCRIPTION OF TEST SECTIONS
Instrumented concrete pavement test sections were

constructed at three locations near Silliguri on NH-31 in
West Bengal, Allahabad by-pass on NH-2 in U. P., and near
Kota on NH-76 in Rajasthan. The instrumented test section
near Silliguri is approximately 60 km from the city at chainage
508.341 on NH-31. Thickness of concrete pavement slabs is
The views expressed in the Paper are personal views of the author. For any quary, the author may be contacted at e-mail
*
Scientist, Rigid Pavements Division
** Head, Rigid Pavements Division
*** Director
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
highway research journal, july december 2012
Kumar, Mathur & Gangopadhyay on

310 mm and slab size is 4.375 m x 5.0 m laid over 150 mm
thick Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) sub-base and 200 mm thick
drainage layer. The instrumented test section, located on
Allahabad By-pass on NH-2, is approximately 25 km from
Allahabad at a chainage of 188.885 near ROB. Thickness
of concrete pavement slabs is 320 mm and slab size is
4.75 m x 5.0 m. The thickness of underlying drainage layer
and DLC sub-base is 200 mm and 150 mm, respectively.
The instrumented test section near Kota is approximately
20 km from the city and at chainage 370.493 on NH-76.
Thickness of concrete pavement slabs is 300 mm and slab
size is 4.25 m x 4.5 m laid over 150 mm thick Dry Lean
Concrete (DLC) sub-base and 150 mm thick drainage layer.
Dry lean concrete with 7 days compressive strength of
10 MPa and Pavement Quality Concrete of M40 Grade was
used at all the test sections. A separation membrane in the
form of 125 micron thick PVC sheet has been used between
concrete slabs and DLC sub-base at Allahabad and Silliguri
test sections. A layer of wax base curing compound has been
used as separation membrane at Kota test section.
4
EMBEDDMENT OF SENSORS INTO

CONCRETE
Sensors were installed into concrete pavement slabs after

tying them on steel chairs so that the orientation and
location of the sensors may not change during pouring and
compacting the concrete. The chairs were fabricated in the
workshops at site using 6 mm dia steel wires. The height
of the chairs was so fixed on the basis of the thickness of
slabs that the top most sensor when tied onto the chair gets
a minimum concrete cover of 25 mm. Before tying the
sensors, the chairs were fixed into the dry lean concrete subbase with the help of sharp nails/U-shaped clips made at site.
Different kinds of chairs were required for the placement
of different sensors. Since, the VW temperature sensors and
VW strain gauges were to be placed at different depths of
the slab, it was ensured that the sensors are horizontally and
vertically staggered into the concrete and the chairs were
prepared accordingly.
4.1
Installation of VW Temperature Sensors
The purpose of installing temperature sensors was to measure the

temperature of concrete slab at different depths. Through thickness
temperature variation is an important phenomenon of concrete
pavement slabs which causes the upward or downward curling
of slab and induces curling stresses in the slabs. Measurement of
temperature at top and bottom gives the temperature differential
across the thickness of the slab. Temperature sensors were installed
at depth interval of approximately 40 mm and in the centre of the slab
(Photo 1).
2
Photo 1. Installation of Temperature Sensors
Photo 2. Installation of VW Strain Gauges
4.2
Installation of VW Strain Gauges
Vibrating Wire Strain gauges were installed at mid slab

edge along the longitudinal and transverse direction
(Photo 2). Strain gauges have been embedded at various
depths to measure temperature induced strains due to curling
of the concrete slabs. Strains to be measured by VW strain
gauges are slow strains that are induced inside concrete slab
due to the curling caused by temperature differential between
top and bottom of the concrete slab. During the day time,
when the temperature on the top of the slab is greater than
that at the bottom, the top tends to expand with respect to the
neutral axis, while the bottom tends to contract. This leads
to the curling downward of the concrete slab. The weight of
the slab restrains the curling of the slab. Thus, compressive
stresses are induced at the top and tensile stresses at the
bottom. The measured strain values were used for estimating
the temperature stresses or curling stresses in the slab.
4.3
Installation of Dynamic Strain Gauges
Dynamic strain gauges or electrical resistance type strain
Rigid Pavement Response to Environmental and Traffic Loading Investigated through Instrumentation
gauges measure the dynamic strains induced in the concrete
due to traffic movement. The measured compressive strains in
the top fibers and tensile strains in the bottom fibers were used
for estimating load stresses induced in the concrete slabs. The
design of concrete pavement is based on the edge stresses at
the middle of the slab. Therefore, the dynamic strain gauges
have been installed in such a way so that the compressive and
tensile strains could be measured at the critical mid slab edge.
Strain gauges were embedded near the top and bottom at the
mid slab along the longitudinal tied joint edge and longitudinal
untied edge towards median (Photo 3).
different channels of multiplexers which were attached to

datalogger. The data stored in the memory of datalogger was
downloaded into a laptop computer from time-to-time. The
static data was collected at an interval of 30 min.
Photo 4. Static Data Collection
5.2
Photo 3. Installation of Dynamic Strain Gauges
FIELD TESTING AND DATA COLLECTION
A data acquisition system is required for capturing the

continuous data generated by the instruments. It measures
the input from various types of sensors and facilitates the
analysis of data. It comprises mainly of a datalogger, a
computer attached to datalogger, and necessary software
which provides the facility for putting threshold values of
the sensor parameters and analysis of the collected data.
Two different kinds of datalogger were used for collecting
static data from VW type sensors and dynamic data from
electrical resistance type sensors.
5.1
Static Data Collection
Geokon Micro-10 multi-channel datalogger, was used

for collecting data from VW temperature sensors and
strain gauges (Photo 4). The basic system consisted of the
MICRO-10 datalogger and a multiplexer. The nominal
operating voltage of the datalogger was 12 volts. However,
the minimum voltage for proper operation of the datalogger
was 9.6 volts. Two multiplexers attached with the MICRO10 were used in the project to collect data from all the
VW sensors. The cables of the sensors were connected to
Dynamic Data Collection
Power DNA UEILogger data acquisition system, was used

for collecting data from dynamic strain gauges during
load testing of instrumented slabs. The cables of electrical
resistance dynamic strain gauges were connected to the
channels of the datalogger which was connected to the
laptop computer. The sampling rate of the datalogger was
1000 samples per second per channel. The data logging
was started by triggering the datalogger from the laptop at
the beginning of each load test and stopped at the end of
the test. Thus, each time a load was made to pass over the
instrumented slabs, the datalogger was triggered on and off
through the laptop to record the dynamic strains generated
under the load.
6
STATIC DATA ANALYSIS
Collection of data related to variation of temperature and

strains was started from the moment the sensors were
embedded into the concrete to capture the response of
the slab during first few days of concrete hardening. Data
was also collected during peak summer days to record the
hardened concrete slab response during diurnal cycles of
temperature variations.
6.1
Concrete Response during Hardening
Concrete gets its strength due to the chemical reaction between

cement and water known as hydration of cement which is
an exothermic reaction. Since the thermal conductivity of
concrete is comparatively low, it acts as an insulator. Thus,
in the interior of a concrete mass, hydration can result in

a rise in temperature. At the same time the exterior of the
concrete mass loses some heat so that a temperature gradient
is established. The set time of the concrete was taken as
the time when strain begins to develop with changes in
temperature. The temperature and strain of concrete during
hardening, at different depths, were monitored and following
observations were made.
At Silliguri, the maximum temperature rise due to

evolution of heat of hydration in the initial hours
of hardening of concrete was observed to be 53
C at a depth of 200 mm from the top, after nearly
13 hours of placing the concrete. The concrete
pouring temperature was 33 C and the ambient
temperature during laying in the evening was 38.6 C.
The temperature at top and bottom was observed to
be 44.1C and 52.1C respectively at the same time.
The time of final set of concrete was observed to be
6.30 hours after placement. At the time of set, the
temperature of top concrete surface was 10.6C less
than the temperature at the bottom of the slab. Thus,
the concrete slab was observed to have set under a
negative temperature differential of 10.6 C.
At Allahabad, the rise in temperature due to heat

evolved during hydration reaction of cement was
observed to be 54 C at a depth of 178 mm from
the top, after 19 hours of placing the concrete. The
concrete pouring temperature was 33 C. The concrete
was laid in the evening at an ambient temperature of
35 C. A negative temperature differential of 10.9 C
was observed at the time of setting of concrete.
t Kota, the maximum temperature rise due to heat

A
of hydration was observed to be 38.4 C at a depth of
165 mm from the top, after nearly 10 hours of placing
the concrete. The concrete pouring temperature was
28 C and the ambient temperature at the time of
laying in the evening was 32 C. The temperature at
the top and bottom of the slab was observed to be
33.4 C and 37.5 C at around the same time. The
time of set of concrete based on the static strains
was observed to be around 5 hours. A negative
temperature differential of 4.3 C was observed at the
time of setting of concrete.
6.2
Concrete Slab Response to Diurnal Temperature

Variation
Fluctuations in air temperature and intensity of solar

radiation cause volumetric changes in concrete pavement
4
slabs. Axial and curling displacements are induced in

the slabs due to diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in
temperature. Temperature changes cause a change in length
while temperature differential between the top and bottom
of concrete slab causes the pavement slab to curl. The
curling upward or downward of slab depend on the sign
and magnitude of temperature gradient. The temperature
at slab sub-base interface varies little in comparison to the
temperature variation at slab surface. Thus, a temperature
gradient exists daily in the slab as it tends to warm during
daylight hours and cool at night.
6.2.1 Through thickness temperature variation: Variation
of temperature at different depths in the concrete pavement
slab was recorded. The maximum fluctuation in the
temperature was observed at the top. The range of variation
in temperature due to variation in ambient temperature go
on decreasing with the depth of the slab and is minimum
near the bottom of the slab. Fig. 1 shows the temperature
variation near the top and bottom of the slab with the
variation in ambient temperature. The pattern of rise and
fall of temperature near top is similar to the pattern of
variation in ambient temperature. The time of maximum and
minimum temperature at the top coincides with the time of
peak and least ambient temperature. However, this does not
happen in case of bottom temperature where the maximum
and minimum temperatures are recorded a few hours later.
Fig. 1. Temperature Variation Near Top and Bottom (Kota)
Positive and Negative Temperature Differentials

During one diurnal cycle of temperature variation at top and
bottom, the concrete pavement slabs experience both positive
and negative temperature differentials. Fig. 2 shows the
variation of temperature differential during daily cycles of
temperature variation. During a cycle of 24 hours, the condition
of zero temperature differential is reached twice once around
9 AM in the Morning and next around 8 PM in the evening.
The maximum positive and negative temperature differential
was observed between 1.00 PM and 3.00 PM in the afternoon
and between 4.00 AM and 6 AM in the Morning, respectively.
top and bottom temperature at the time of occurance of zero
temperature differential in the morning. It is slightly higher
than the top and bottom temperature at the time of occurance
of zero temperature differential in the Evening.
Fig. 2. Variation of Temperature Differential
The maximum positive temperature differential during

summer was observed to be 17.1 C for 300 mm thick
slab at Kota, 18.9 C for 310 mm thick slab at Siliguri and
19.2 C for 320 mm thick slab at Allahabad. The corresponding
values of maximum temperature differential according to
IRC:58 are 15.8 C, 16.84 C, and 16.4 C for Kota, Silliguri,
and Allahabad, respectively6. Thus, the values of maximum
temperature differentials measured in the field are higher
than the values recommended by IRC:58.
The values of positive and negative temperature differentials
indicate that higher the positive temperature differential,
higher will be the value of negative temperature differential.
Thus, the phenomenon of curling upward and curling
downward of the slab is expected to be more prominent in
thicker slabs in hot weather as compared to that in thinner
slabs during cold weather.
Distribution of positive temperature differential during
12 hours of day time indicated that its average value between
12 Noon to 4 PM was 90per cent of the maximum value that
happened at some point of time in the afternoon. Between
10 AM to 12 Noon and 4 PM to 6 PM, the average temperature
differential was around 62 per cent of the maximum. During
first two hours in the morning (8 AM to 10 AM) and last two
hours in the evening (6 PM to 8 PM), it was about 25 per
cent of the maximum.
Non-linearity of Temperature Distribution
Fig. 3 shows the through thickness temperature variation at
different time of a day. As can be seen from the Fig., the
variation of temperature at different depths of the slab is not
linear as is assumed while calculating the curling stresses
in the slab. The non-linearity is least in the morning around
the time when temperature differential is least or nil. As the
temperature of the slab starts rising, non-linearity of through
thickness temperature variation also increases and becomes
maximum in the afternoon around the time of occurance
of maximum positive temperature differential in the slab.
Even at the time of almost zero temperature differential
between top and bottom of the slab, the temperature of the
core of the slab is different from that of top and bottom. The
temperature of the core of the slab is slightly less than the
Fig. 3. Through Thickness Temperature Variation at Different Time of a

Day
6.2.2 Strain variation with temperature: Diurnal

fluctuations in thermal condition throughout the depth of
the concrete slab induce strains in the slab. Fig. 4 shows
this variation of strain at top and bottom. As can be seen
from the Fig., the strain both at top and bottom starts rising
with the rise in temperature after 8.30 AM in the morning
and continue to rise till it become maximum around 2.30
PM in the afternoon. This represents the heating phase of
the slab when average temperature of the whole concrete
slab rises and become maximum in the afternoon. Strains
after reaching the maximum value starts decreasing with the
decrease in surface temperature during cooling phase of the
slab and continue to decrease through evening and night to
reach the minimum value in the morning hours after which
they again start to rise.
The strains at top and bottom are positive tensile strains
during the period from around 8.30 AM in the morning to
around midnight indicating expansion of the concrete slab.
During this period, tensile strains at the top are higher that
the tensile strains at bottom which indicate the curling down
of the slab. After midnight and up to 8.30 AM in the morning,
the strains at top and bottom are negative compressive
strains indicating contraction of the slab. The compressive
strains are more at top than those at bottom which represent
the curling upward condition of the slab.
Fig. 4. Strain Variation with Zero Strain Condition at 8.30 AM

6.3
Curling Stresses: Theoretical Vs Measured
Significant bending stresses can result from curling because

the self weight of concrete restrains curling. Weight
restraining effect of the self weight of the slab on temperature
induced strains can be observed through measurement of
strains. The mid slab edge will have least restraining effect
in the direction perpendicular to the edge i.e. in transverse
direction1. Theoretically, at the edge of the concrete pavement
slab, there should be no warping stress in a direction
perpendicular to the edge5. Thus, the strain measured with
the gauge placed at mid slab edge in transverse direction
may be considered as resulting from unrestrained warping
and may be used as a base for determining the amount of
restraint and hence the warping/curling stresses at mid slab
edge in longitudinal direction.
Fig. 5 shows the variation of the temperature induced strains
in transverse and longitudinal directions. As can be seen, the
strains induced in transverse direction are much larger than
the strains in longitudinal direction. The transverse strains
at the top of mid slab edge are due to unrestrained warping
while the longitudinal strains are the strains recorded under
the restraining effect of the weight of the slab. These strains
can be used for calculating the stress inducing strains in
longitudinal direction at mid slab edge.
Fig. 5. Variation of Transverse and Longitudinal Strain
Theoretical stresses were calculated by using equn. 1. This

equation is based on the assumption that the temperature
distribution is linear throughout the depth of the slab.
Stresses were calculated for two different values of modulus
of subgrade reaction, k, which is required to find the radius of
relative stiffness of the slab and Bradburry correction factors
for finite slab dimensions. Indian Roads Congress (IRC)
recommends a k-value of 417 MN/m3 over 150 mm thick
dry lean concrete base6. This is also the maximum value of k
as recommended by American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)7. Portland Cement
Association (PCA) recommends a maximum value of 220
MN/m3 under concrete pavements8. These two values have
been used for determining the theoretical stresses.
t = E C T / 2
(1)
where,
t = theoretical curling stresses
E = elastic modulus of concrete (=32.6 GPa,
6
determined by laboratory tests)

= coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
(9.0 strains/oC, determined by laboratory test)
C = Bradbury correction factor for finite slab
T = temperature difference between top and bottom of
slab
Stresses from measured strains were determined by using
equation 2 as per Teller and Sutherland5.
m = ( t l ) E / ( 1 + )
(2)
where,
m = measured curling stresses
t = strain recorded in transverse direction
l = strain recorded in longitudinal direction
= Poissons ratio of concrete (= 0.15)
Fig. 6 shows the comparison of measured and theoretical
stresses. Measured stresses are significantly less than the
theoretical stresses during heating phase of the slab for both
the k-values. The difference between the two values starts
rising with the rise of surface temperature and becomes the
maximum when surface temperature and positive temperature
differential reach their peak values in the afternoon during
day time. At the time of maximum positive temperature
differential, measured stresses were observed to be 60 per
cent to 70 per cent of the theoretically calculated stresses.
The difference between the measured and theoretical stresses
reduces gradually in the cooling phase of the slab when
measured values, though slightly higher than the theoretical
values but still very close to it during late night and early
morning hours. The difference between the measured and
theoretical stresses may be attributed to the nonlinearity of
actual temperature distribution throughout the slab depth. The
nonlinearity of temperature distribution is most predominant
around the time of maximum positive temperature differential
during day time and not so significant during the night hours
as observed in other as well as this study (6).
Fig. 6 Measured Vs Theoretical Curling Stresses
7
DYNAMIC DATA ANALYSIS
Load testing of instrumented concrete slab was conducted to

capture the pavement response to vehicular loads. Pavement
response to vehicle loads was obtained through dynamic
strain gauges which were embedded into the concrete at
different locations during construction of test sections.
Since the dynamic strain sensors are located near the top and
bottom of the concrete slab both at non-tied edge and tied
edge, the load testing was performed by running the trucks
on non-tied edge as well as tied edge to see the effects of tie
bars presence on edge load strains and stresses. Load tests
were conducted under controlled conditions where known
axle loads of known axle configurations were allowed to
pass over the instrumented slabs as well as under real traffic
passing on the road sections. All the axles of the trucks used
during load testing were weighed before conducting the
tests. Fig. 7 shows the strain development at top and bottom
edge of the slab under a moving single rear axle truck.
Fig. 7. Strain Development Under Moving Single Axle Truck
7.1
Effect of Tie Bars on Edge Load Stress
Load tests were conducted to study the effect of tie bars on

edge strains produced under moving vehicular loads. Tests
were performed using different axle loads by passing them
first over the non-tied edge and then on the edge having
tie bars. Tests have shown considerable reduction of edge
strains due to the presence of tie bars at longitudinal joints.
Fig.8 (a) and Fig. 8 (b) show the bottom tensile strain
produced under a single axle truck at non-tied edge and the
tied edge of the slab respectively recorded during a test with
same axle load for both the conditions. As can be seen from
the Figs., the edge load strain produced under rear axle of
the truck reduces from18 microns at non-tied edge to 13
microns at tied edge, a reduction of around 28 per cent.
Several such tests were conducted on the instrumented slabs.
The reduction in bottom tensile strain at tied edge during the
performed tests ranged from 13.7 per cent minimum to 29.4
per cent maximum. The average reduction was observed to
be 29.0 per cent, 23.61 per cent and 22.5 per cent at Silliguri,
Kota and Allahabad test sections, respectively.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8. Bottom Tensile Strain at Tied and Non-Tied Edge of Slab
7.2
Effect of Load Passing Away from the Edge
Thickness design of concrete pavement slabs is based on

edge load stresses. Critical stress condition is achieved when
wheel load is placed directly over the free edge of the slab.
Practically all the wheel loads may not pass just over the
edge. If the wheel load passes even few centimeters inside
the edge, resulting load strains/stresses are expected to be
less than that when it passes just over the edge. Load tests
on instrumented slabs were performed to know the reduction
in load induced strains/stresses when wheel load is placed
25 cm inside the free edge of the slab. The tests indicated
that when the wheel load was placed 25 cm inside the slab
edge, there was a considerable reduction in edge strains. The
reduction was observed to be in the range of 22 per cent to
40 per cent with an average reduction of 31.4 per cent.
8
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the analysis

of data collected under the study:
Measurement of temperature and strain during

hardening phase of concrete in pavement slabs
have indicated that slabs get set under a negative
temperature differential i.e. top surface of the slab
being at lower temperature than its bottom. The value
of negative temperature differential was observed to
be 10.6 oC at Siliguri, 10.9 oC at Allahabad and be
4.3 oC at Kota. It may be noted that the instrumented
slabs at all places were laid during evening time and
thus final setting of the concrete took place during
night. This negative temperature differential has
a stress reducing effect when slabs curl downward
under positive temperature differentials. Theoretical
Thus, the test results of all the three test locations indicate an
average reduction of 25.0 per cent in the strains produced at
tied edge as compared to the strains at non-tied edge.
Kumar, Mathur & Gangopadhyay on Rigid Pavement Response to Environmental and Traffic Loading
Investigated through Instrumentation
calculation of curling stresses as per Westergaard
analysis and IRC:58-2002, which is based upon
positive temperature differentials, do not take into
account the negative temperature differentials under
which slabs have been observed to have finally set.
It is recommended that it should be considered while
calculating the curling stresses.
Concrete slabs remain under positive and negative

temperature differentials for almost 12 hours
each during day time and night time respectively.
The maximum positive and negative temperature
differentials were observed between 1PM and 3
PM in the afternoon and 4 AM and 6 AM in the
early morning respectively. Maximum positive
temperature differential was recorded as 17.1 C for
30 cm thick slab at Kota, 18.9 C for 31 cm thick
slab at Siliguri and 19.2 C for 32 cm thick slab at
Allahabad. These values are slightly higher than the
values recommended by IRC:58.
istribution of positive temperature differential
D
during 12 hours of day time indicates that its average
value between 12 Noon to 4 PM is 90 per cent of the
maximum value that happens at some point of time
in the afternoon. Between 10 AM to 12 Noon and
4 PM to 6 PM, the average temperature differential
was around 62 per cent of the maximum. During first
2 hours in the morning (8 AM to 10 AM) and last 2
hours in the evening (6 PM to 8 PM), it was about
25per cent of the maximum. Present design methods
assume a constant value of positive temperature
differential for calculating curling stresses which is
not justified. It is recommended that different values
of temperature differential should be used for stress
calculation during different time of the day.
Measured curling stresses were found to be
considerably less than the theoretically calculated
stresses as per IRC:58 by using modified Westergaard
equation. It was estimated that measured stresses
are approximately 50per cent to 65per cent of the
theoretical stresses depending upon the value of the
modulus of subgrade reaction, k.
Load testing of tied edge and non-tied free edge of
concrete slabs indicated considerable contribution of
tie bars in reducing load induced strains and hence
load stresses at mid slab edge. Average reduction in
load induced strains and hence edge load stresses due
to the presence of tie bars was observed to be of the
order of 25per cent. Present thickness design methods
of concrete pavements do not take into account the
stress reducing effect of tie bars. It is recommended
that the reduction of edge load stresses due to the

presence of tie bars at longitudinal joint between lanes
and between outer lane and tied shoulders should be
considered while calculating the edge load stresses.
Comparison of strains developed at the mid slab edge

when wheel loads were placed just over the free edge
with the strains that developed when wheel loads were
placed 25 cm inside the free edge revealed significant
reduction of strains in later case. Strain reduction was
found to be in the range of 22 per cent to 40 per cent
for different loads with an average reduction of 31.4
per cent
The conclusions drawn above are based on the

limited study carried out at three locations only. It is
recommended that further study should be taken up to
cover different climatic zones of India as envisaged
in IRC:58; different sub-base types, slab thicknesses,
and slab sizes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of

India, New Delhi is acknowledged for sponsoring this study.
Sh. Dinesh Ganvir, Scientist; Sh. Pankaj Goel, Technical
Officer; Sh. Ashok Pant, Senior Technical Assistant, Rigid
Pavements Division, CRRI, New Delhi are thankfully
acknowledged for their assistance during field work.
REFERENCES
1.
Westergaard, H. M. Analysis of Stresses in Concrete Roads

caused by Variation of Temperature, Public Roads, Vol. 8, No. 3,
May, 1927, pp 54-60.
2.
Bradbury, Royall D. Reinforced Concrete Pavements, Wire

Reinforcement Institute, Washington, D. C., 1938.
3.
Richardson, J. M. and Armghani, J. M. Stress Caused by

Temperature Gradient in Portland Cement Concrete Pavements,
Transportation Research Record 1121, TRB, National Research
Council, Washington D. C., 1987, pp. 7-13.
4.
ouzid Choubane and Mang Tia, Non-Linear Temperature

B
Gradient Effect on Maximum Warping Stresses in Rigid
Pavements, Transportation Researech Record 1370, TRB,
National Research Council, Washington D. C., 1991, pp. 11-19.
5.
Teller, L. W. and Sutherland, E. C. The Structural Design of

Concrete Pavements, Public Roads, Vol.16, No.9, November
1935.
6.
I RC:58-2002. Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid

Pavement Highways. Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 2002.
7.
AASHTO, 1993. Guide for Design of Pavement Structures.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.
8.
PCA, 1984. Thickness Design for Concrete Highways and Street

Pavements. Portland Cement Association.
AUTOMATED DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF POTHOLES FROM ROAD

SURFACE VIDEO CLIPS
Huidrom Lokeshwor*, Lalit K. Das** & S K. Sud***
ABSTRACT
The assessment of potholes is an essential part of a road maintenance management system for developing repair and maintenance strategies.
Nowadays, road condition assessment is gradually being automated by using various imaging systems. However, the processing of the
collected raw visual data is still being done manually or semi-automatically in India. Existing methods of data processing are very costly,
time consuming and mostly focused on the detection and classification of cracks only. This paper presents an efficient and accurate algorithm
for automated detection and measurement of potholes out of a large volume of road surface video clips of Indian Highways. In the proposed
algorithm, potholes are detected and their features are measured automatically out of a video clip in one go, using various image processing
techniques supported by user defined decision logic. This algorithmis implemented in a Windows environment with the help of Visual Studio
2008 and OpenCV, an open source computer vision library and tested on nine different road video clips. The results show that this algorithm
can detect and measure potholes automatically with accuracy upto 94 per cent. The information extracted using the proposed algorithm can
be used for determining maintenance levels of Indian roads and taking further appropriate actions for repair and maintenance.
INTRODUCTION
The assessment of road surface distress is an essential part

of road management system for developing repair and
maintenance strategies to ensure a good and an effective
road network. And having a quality road network is the
foremost requirement for achieving the desired economic
growth of a country1. Potholes are the most visible and
severe forms of road surface distress, which increases the
vehicle operating costs extremely while decreasing the safety
of public. According to the book of Paterson3, a pothole is
defined as a cavity in the road surface with 150 mm or more
in average diameter and 25 mm or more in depth and this is
the minimum size of a pothole that affects the motion of a
car wheel and measures the roughness significantly. Based
on this definition, the minimum surface area of a pothole
can be estimated to 177cm2 using the formula . (radius)2 by
assuming pothole as a circle with diameter of 150 mm.
Thus, early detection and measurement of potholes having
area equal to or more than 177cm2 is necessary for managing
road maintenance and this can be done by finding its location,
number of occurrence per km, measuring its area, extent and
severity levels3,4,5.
In India, millions of kilometers of roads need to be urgently
evaluated for their performance. The last extensive road
data collection was done in India via traditional manual
inspections during 1980s only10. Now, after a gap of three
decades, the manual technique needs to be updated to a
faster and automated evaluation system so that maintenance
and repair requirements can be quickly, continuously and

accurately assessed.There are thousands of kilometres
(50,000 km approx.) of road video data of National
Highways in Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI),
collected using a road network survey vehicle (NSV)
procured under Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MORTH) sponsored R&D Scheme (T-5) Development
of GIS Based National Highways Information System.
In Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI), the
processing and analysis of these raw video data are done
offline and semi-automatically using the processing tool kit
supplied with the NSV (NSV Toolkit). This toolkit may be
considered as one of semi-automated type since the amount
of human involvement is being reduced as compared to that
of a traditional field inspection. Using the NSV Toolkit, the
detection and classification of a distress is done manually
through human intervention while video frames extraction,
reporting information and distress area measurement are
done semi-automatically. With the toolkit, a trained staff
needs to mark the distress area by drawing a rectangle with
the mouse over the distress on each frame of the video and
system measures the influenced area of the distress, i.e. the
area of rectangle. The toolkit takes many trained staffs and
many hours to analyze only one km video.
In the past, various automated potholes detection methods
had been developed by earlier researchers using 3D-based
laser scanning6, 3D-stereovision7 techniques, vibration-based
accelerometers sensors 8 and 2D-image based techniques9.
Koch and Brilakis (2011) proposed a model for potholes
* Technical Officer, Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI), Delhi, Email: hlokeshwor@gmail.com
** Ex-Head, IDD Centre, Indian Institute of Technology (IITD), Delhi, Email: lalitdas@gmail.com
*** Chief Design Engineer, IDD Centre, Indian Institute of Technology (IITD), Delhi, Email: sksud123@hotmail.com
Lokeshwor, Das & Sud on
detection in pavement images using histogram shape-based

thresholding technique. However, quantification of potholes,
which is an essential task for road maintenance management,
was not done. Since the 3D image - based methods cost
very high, the vibration-based methods lack accuracy and
reliability9 and the existing 2D image-based methods rely on
selected individual images, the development of automated
potholes detection and measurement algorithm out of a
video clip still remains as a challenge.The key challenges
before the researchers is the segmentation of potholes out of
a large noisy road video data collected in different sunlight
intensities with different images of objects (manholes,
animals, vehicles or their parts), different shadows of
various objects (vehicles, manholes, animals, trees or poles)
and different road markings (white, yellow or black).
This paper proposesan efficient and accurate algorithm
for automated detection and measurement of potholes out
of a road surface video clip.Here, a pothole is defined as
a series of interconnected small distinct (dark or bright)
regions appearing against the background of a road
surface image with a minimum standard deviation of 10.0,
minimum circularity of 0.20 and minimum average width of
60 mm. Standard deviation (std) is a measure of variation or
dispersion of pixels intensities representing a pothole in a road
image from their mean value. The value of std is computed
using the Equn.1. Circularity is a shape factor which describes
the circular shape of a pothole numerically and its value is
1 for an ideal circle and between 0 & 1 for all other shapes.
The value of circis computed from area (A) and perimeter (P)
covering the pothole, using Equn.2 while the average width
(w) of the pothole is computed using Equn.3.
In the proposed algorithm, a frame is extracted from an
input road video clip and selected its blue channel from
default 24-bit RGB format using OpenCV for applying
image processing techniques more efficiently. The blue
channel image is subjected to Median filtering, followed by
a clipping technique for noise removal. Then, the clipped
image is applied to an adaptive thresholding, followed by a
chain of morphological operations for image binarization.
Later, the binary image is applied to a connected component
labeling using contour tracing technique and Freeman chain
coding supported by user defined logic for the potholes
detection and their measurement. The results show that the
proposed algorithm can detect potholes automatically out of
a video clip based on three features of a pothole. The first
feature is the statistical visual texture as given by standard
deviation of the pixels intensities covering the pothole
from their mean valuewhile the second feature is the shape
of pothole as given by circularity and the third feature is
the dimension of pothole as given by average width. The
10
results obtained are also compared with that of two semiautomated toolkits. One is the NSV Toolkit while another
one is ImageJSoftware17, open source medical image analysis
software developed by National Institute of Health, USA.
The information extracted using the proposed algorithm
can be used for determining maintenance levels for Indian
roads and taking further appropriate actions for repair and
maintenance related issues, such as, allocating budgets
or awarding contracts for repairing the critical roads in a
short duration of time1, 11. The results obtained are up to 94
per cent accurate.
In the next section, a brief description of road video data
collection systems used in this research programme is given.
After that the proposed algorithm for automated potholes
detection and measurement is described. Later, test results
are presented and compared with that of two existing semiautomated toolkits. Finally, conclusions and future works
are given.
2
POTHOLES DETECTION AND

MEASUREMENT METHOD
The overall objective of this research is to test whether a large

database of road surface video clips of Indian highways that
have been captured by existing imaging systems without any
artificial lighting systems, can be utilized for the purpose of
speedy and accurate assessment of Indian roads condition.
With regard to this objective, the NSV and an omni present
passenger van have been chosen as road survey vehicles to
capture the video clips of Indian Highways. The database
of collected video clips captured is processed offline using
the proposed algorithm. The result is two different types
of video frames category viz. frames with potholes and
frames without potholes. Here, a video frame belongs to
frames with potholes category if the frame contains at least
one pothole, otherwise the video frame belongs to frames
without potholes category.The potholes in the former
category are tagged with a different color and measurement
information is reported in a printable format. The results are
compared with the current methods practiced in the field for
the evaluation of the proposed method.
2.1
Road Video Data Collection Systems
First imaging system used in this study is the pavement

video imaging module in the NSV while the second one is
just a Kodak easyshare digital camera held manually in a
running Tata Magic Passenger Van.The NSV continuously
captures road surface video clips using two monochrome
FireWirebased cameras in distance mode (every interval of
3 metres). The two progressive scan digital cameras are fitted
in the back of a Tata Sumo and are synchronized with the
triggers provided by a distance measuring instrument(DMI)

fitted to the rear wheel of the vehicle. One video frame
covers 3m length by 2.5 m width of the road with a
resolution of 1280X960 pixels. Each square pixel covers
2.5mm2.5 mm.
Using a Kodak easyshare digital camera, the road visual
data of State Highway No.1 in Manipur state of India, are
recorded as video clips in continuous mode (time mode) by
sitting in the rear sit of a running Tata Magic passenger van.
This digital camera records video clips with a resolution of
640 x 480 in 24-bit RGB color format. One video frame
covers approximately 2.5m width by 2.0m length of the
road surface with each pixel covering 4mm X 4mm. Use
of video clips recorded using such an economical common
digital camera without any extra costs of DMI, vehicle, data
acquisition system and laptop or personal computer is also
being tested in this research study for automated potholes
detection and measurement. This method may be useful for
developing repair and maintenance strategies with minimum
cost at regional or project levels.
2.2
Potholes Detection and Measurement Algorithm
The automated potholes detection and measurement algorithm

proposed in this study is developed for automated detection of
frames with potholes as well as measurement of potholes from
a noisy road video clip stored in a hard drive. This algorithm is
able to group all the frames of a video into two main categories
viz. Frames with Potholes and Frames without Potholes,
based on user defined decision logic. Using this algorithm,
a video frame is grouped into the frames without potholes
category if total area of objects in the image computed using
this algorithm is less than 177cm2 or the objects do not satisfy
three criteria mentioned in our potholes definition (section
1). The remaining video frames are grouped into frames with
potholes category. A video frame is considered to the frames
with potholes category if total area of objects is greater or
equal to 177cm2 and there is at least one object that satisfy
the three criteria mentioned in our potholes definition. The
authors choose 177cm2 to be the minimum cut off limit, since
it is the minimum area of a pothole that affects the motion of
a car wheel and measures roughness significantly3. The area
of 177cm2 which is used in the decision logic can be modified
as per the actual requirement in context of road repair and
maintenance.However, the authors have been found that
177cm2 as the most significant threshold value to identify
potholes out of a noisy road video clip and this threshold
value has been determined by experimenting on 120 road
images with potholes.
The algorithm which is developed for the automated
detection of frames with potholes as well as measurement of
potholes out of a video clip is listed below:

1. Input a road video clip of road surface;
2. Extract the first frame;
3. Convert its default 24-bit depth format into 8-bit depth
format by selecting its blue channel (section 2.2.1);
4. Apply median filtering for image enhancement (section
2.2.2);
5. Apply clipping technique to remove unwanted features
such as white road markings and white spots (section
2.2.3);
6. Apply adaptive thresholding to convert clipped enhanced
image into binary image with black pixels representing
objects of interest (2.2.4);
7. Apply morphological erosion to add black pixels to
bridge the gaps in binary image (section 2.2.5);
8. Apply morphological dilation to remove isolated black
pixels or their small cluster (section 2.2.6);
9. Apply morphological erosion again to add black pixels
to the binary image;
10. Apply connected component labeling and chain coding
techniques (section 2.2.7) to count the number of objects
or region of interest and estimate each objects area (A)
and perimeter (P);
11. Filter out all the objects whose A<177cm2 (Non-Critical
Objects) in the binary image;
12. Determine std, circ and w of each remaining objects
(objects whose A >=177cm2);
13. Classify each object into two types: (a) Potholes, if std>=
10.0 &circ>= 0.20 & w>= 60mm; (b) Non-Potholes, if
otherwise (section 2.2.8);
14. Store the corresponding extracted frame along with the
extracted information in a folder;
15. Repeat steps 3 to 14 for all remaining video frames;
16. End.
Various image processing techniques applied in the proposed
algorithm are discussed in the Sections 2.2.1 to 2.2.7.
2.2.1 8-Bit Depth Format Conversion
The original video frame extracted from a video clip is in the
RGB 24-bit depth (24-bit per pixel) format. Each channel (Red,
Green and Blue) is represented by 8-bit array and their pixel value
ranges from 0(black) to 255(white). Thus, the blue channel image
which contains more detail information is selected. This makes
the frame compatible with our image processing techniques and
saves memory space and processing time.
11
2.2.2 Median Filtering

The blue channel image needs to be enhanced or smoothened
before they can be used for analysis. For this, median
filtering12,13 is applied to the gray scale (8-bit depth) image.
There may be many reasons for doing smoothening but
it is done here mainly to reduce noise or camera artifacts
developed during road image acquisition. This filter
replaces each pixel by the median or middle pixel in a
square neighborhood around the centre pixel. The size of the
neighborhood used for filtering is 5X5 pixel. Other technique
like simple blurring that replaces each pixel by an average
pixel value can be sensitive to noisy images, especially
images with large isolated outliner points, sometimes called
shot noise. Large differences in even a small number of
points can cause a noticeable movement in the average value.
However, median filtering is able to ignore the outliners by
selecting the middle points.
2.2.3 Clipping Values
Besides noises or camera artifacts, there are still unwanted
features present in the road frames, such as, road markings
or white spots. These unwanted features need to be removed
before segmentation. For this, all the pixel intensity values
above the average value of the enhanced image are clipped
to its average value. This is because most of the values of
pixels representing these road markings or white spots are
found to be above the average value of the image and an
average value of an image represents the most occurring
pixel value. If clipping values technique is not applied then
some of these features will be falsely detected as potholes.
2.2.4 Adaptive Thresholding
It is not wise to apply many layers of preprocessing steps
since it will slow automation of image processing and also
waste some valuable information. The main objective at this
stage is only to determine which pixel belongs to object or
region of interest. To achieve this segmentation,an adaptive
thresholding technique based on the weighted mean12, 14 is
applied. This is a modified threshold technique in which the
threshold level is itself variable. The threshold level is set
on a pixel by pixel basis by computing a weighted mean of
a neighborhood region around each pixel location minus a
constant. All the pixels in the region are weighted equally.
By trial and error method, the optimal neighborhood region
and the best constant value are determined for a frame
resolution of 1280 X 960 which covers an area of 3m X 2.5m
as well as for a frame resolution of 640 X 480 which covers
2.5m X 2m. Global thresholding is not applied here since
getting an optimum threshold is very difficult for large set of
12
images, collected without any artificial lighting systems due to

varied conditions. Other techniques of segmentation, such as
histogram based thresholding and edge detection techniques
are not able to give reliable results due to the highly textured
or uneven nature of road surface, which resulted in highly
noisy road images18. However, adaptive thresholding based
on weighted mean is found to be very useful for images
that are characterized by strong illumination or reflectance
gradient as a result of variation of illumination. Besides,
this technique is also able to remove uniformly distributed
shadows or image parts of some unwanted features present
in the images while saving computation time.
2.2.5 Morphological Erosion Operation
By applying adaptive thresholding, the grayscale image is
converted into a binary image with black pixels representing
objects which may be a distress or noise while white pixels
representing the background. Further processing of this
binary image is required for removing noise, mapping
the actual area of the objects as measured on the road and
extracting their visual properties. For this purpose, a series of
morphological operations is applied followed by connected
component labeling and chain coding techniques. Then, the
shape and size of objects are measured from the binarized
image while the visual texture of each object is calculated
from the original image by mapping the co-ordinates of
objects on the binarized image.
Morphological operations, such as, erosion, dilation etc., can
be used for different purposes like removing noise, isolating
individual elements, joining disparate elements and finding
intensity bumps or holes or gradients in an image12. Erosion
operation is used in the proposed method to join the disparate
elements or bridge the gaps between black pixels (object
pixels). Basically, this operator adds more black pixels to
a binary image. The action of this operator is equivalent
to computing a local minimum over the area of the kernel.
As the kernel is scanned over the image, it computes the
minimum pixel value overlapped by the kernel and replaces
the image pixel under the anchor point of the kernel with
that minimum value. This operator is iterated a limited
number of times using a square 3X3 kernel with the anchor
at its centre, just before the dilation operation (discussed in
Section 2.2.6), as well as just after the dilation, so that more
detail and useful information is retained in the image.
2.2.6 Morphological Dilation Operation
After the erosion operation has been applied, isolated
black pixels or their small clusters which constitute noise
are developed in the binary image.This noise needs to be
removed. For this, dilation operation12is applied, which is
basically addition of white pixels to a binary image. The

action of the dilation operator is equivalent to computing
a local maximum over the area of the kernel. As the kernel
is scanned over the image, it computes the maximum pixel
value overlapped by the kernel and replaces the image pixel
under the anchor point of the kernel with that maximum
value. By iterating this operation a limited number of times
using same kernel used in erosion, some of the isolated black
pixels or their small clusters are removed away without
affecting the larger black regions. To map the actual shape
and size of the segmented object with physical road, total
number of iterations that has been eroded throughout the
processing must be dilated back.
2.2.7 Connected Component Labeling and Chain Coding
After applying all the above image processing techniques, an
image containing probable objects of interests is obtained.
To simplify the process as well as save time, all the objects
whose area are less than 177cm2 (minimum cut off limit)
are filtered out and called them non-critical objects (NCOs).
The authors choose 177cm2 to be the minimum cut off limit
since it is the minimum area of a pothole that affects the
motion of a car wheel and measures roughness significantly3.
Then, some information are extracted from the remaining
bigger objects, which are called as critical objects (COs).
This minimum size of critical objects of our interest can
be decided in accordance with the actual requirements of a
concerned authority. For extracting the required information,
a connected component labeling algorithm using contour
tracing technique15 is applied. Unlike traditional two-pass
algorithms, labeling is done here in a single pass over
the image, while contour points are revisited more than
once but not more than a limited value. This technique is
applied here since the computational speed is faster than
other traditional connected component labeling techniques.
Using this technique and the 8-connected Freeman chain
coding technique16, the number of COs present in each
image has been counted, and their area (A), perimeter (P),
circ, maximum dimension (D) and average width (w) are
estimated from the binary image using Equn. (1-6), while std
of pixels intensities from their mean value () is computed
from the original image by mapping the corresponding
pixels co-ordinates of the CO (binary image).
A (m2) = (Number of pixels in CO) * pixel size (m2);
(4)
P (m) = {/8 (1+ 2) (ne+ ne)} * pixel length (m);
(5)
Where, ne and no are number of even and odd Freeman chain elements respectively;
D(m) = {P + (P2 16*A)} / 4; if (P2 16*A) > 0;
= P / 4; if (P2 16*A) <= 0;
(6)
2.2.8 Decision Logic for Potholes Identification

The extracted information such as std, circ and w are
compared with user defined decision logic for the automated
identification of potholes out of short listed COs. This
decision logic has been developed by experimenting on
120 numbers of video images having potholes.The images
with potholes used for the experiments have been selected
randomly to determine the deciding range of values or
significant thresholds for std, circ and w.
In this decision logic, a CO is classified using Eq. (7).
In the developed logic, the average width of 60 mm is the

minimum limit of average width that has been computed
from area and perimeter of a pothole in a video image, using
the developed algorithm. This computed average width
may be sometimes more or less than that of actual width
of a pothole in a road surface due to the presence of noise,
developed automatically during the course of various image
processing stages.This dimension has been used in the
proposed method for automated identification of potholes
in a noisy road video image. However, this method has not
attempted to measure the actual width of a pothole.
The procedure for automated detection and measurement of
cracks is illustrated in Fig.1 to 2. Here, images in column
(a) are original images; column (b) are binary images B
after median filtering, clipping and adaptive thresholding;
column (c) are binary images BE after erosion; column (d)
are binary images BED after dilation; column (e) are binary
images BEDE after erosion; column (f) are detected potholes
with a minimum size of 177cm2 in binary image BEDE
whereblack color represents non-critical objects (NCO), gray
color represents critical objects (CO) with dark gray color
represents non-potholes (NP),bright gray color represents
critical potholes (P) and brightest gray color represents
biggest critical object (BCO); and column (g) are extracted
information reporting all the required measurements with
POTHOLE_REPORT represents information of detected
potholes using Eqn.7, NON-POTHOLE_REPORT
represents information of detected non-potholes using Eqn.7;
BIGGEST_CO_REPORT represents extracted properties
of the biggest critical object (BCO) based on which the
decision logic has been developed. This BCO report is just
to illustrate the effectiveness of the logic.
13
Fig. 1 (a)
Fig. 1 (b)
Fig. 1 (c)
Fig. 1 (d)
Fig. 1 (e)
Fig. 1 (f)
Fig. 2 (c)
Fig. 2 (d)
Fig. 2 (e)
Fig. 2 (f)
Fig. 2 (g)
Fig.2 Procedure to detect and measure potholes using the

proposed method in video image with potholes and cracks
3
Fig.1 Procedure to detect and measure potholes using the proposed
method in video image with potholes
Fig. 2 (a)
14
Fig. 2 (b)
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For testing the performance of the proposed algorithm,

nine numbers of video clips has been selected randomly
from a database of video clips collected using two different
imaging systems (discussed in Section 2.1). These video
clips have all the varieties of features that occur on a road
e.g. road markings, shadows / images of trees, and vehicle
ortheir parts, distress like potholes, cracks, water bleeding,
patching.The detailed analysis reports whichhave been
obtained by implementing the proposed algorithm in a
Windows environment (BENQ Joybook mini-Laptop with
Intel Atom CPU 1.60 GHz, 1 GB RAM and OS XP SP3) is
listed below in Table 1 to 2 and Graph 1 to 2.
Total processing time taken by the proposed algorithm on

video clips having 57 to 432 frames has been found to be
only3 to 19 minutes depending upon the video frame size and
the total number of critical objects in the video. The same
video clips when analyzed using the NSV Processing Toolkit
has taken around 99 to 829 minutes. Thus, a considerable
amount of time, money and manpower resources can be
saved using the proposed algorithm. These savings will
be more if we can afford a higher speed computer with a
largermemory at a little extra cost.
Graph 1. Accuracy of proposed algorithm in terms of error (per cent)
Furthermore, the proposed method has been able to retrieve

frames with potholes with accuracy up to 94 per cent for 8
video clips out of 9 video clips tested. Some examples of results
obtained by applying the proposed algorithm are illustrated
in Fig.3 to 18. However, the authors have observed some
false detection in one of video clip under tested (NSV.3) and
this has been mostly due to presence of shadows or images
of black markings, manholes, poles, vehicles and their parts
in the video clips. Some of these features when distributed
non-uniformly over the road surfaces, their shapes and sizes
look very similar to that of potholes in the video images.
Such examples are illustrated in Fig.5.
The three maximum permissible maintenance levels based
on potholes for Indian highways given in the committee
report1,11 can also be determined using the proposed method
by applying Eqn.(8) or Eqn. (9).
Graph 2. Efficiency comparision between proposed algorithm
Per centage of frames with potholes (per cent)

= (No. of frames with potholes / TNF)*100;
(8)
Number of potholes per km = Sum of total number of

potholes in each frame / RL; (9)
and NSV toolkit
Table 1 Comparisons of evaluation done using the proposed method and NSV Toolkit
Video clips
NSV.1
NSV.2
NSV.3
NSV.4
NSV.5
Color.1
Color.2
Color.3
Color.4
TNF
57
300
200
300
200
225
370
432
182
Proposed method
NSV Toolkit
No. of
FNPour
No. of
FPour
Time
taken
(min)
No. of
FNPt
No. of FPt
53
294
116
292
170
32
231
377
30
4
6
84
8
30
193
139
55
152
3
19
13
16
10
7
9
11
5
54
300
200
286
164
46
233
374
34
3
0
0
4
36
179
137
58
148
Error (per Time saving

cent)
(min)
No. of
No. of
Falses Falses in
in FNPour
FPour
0
0
0
8
9
0
3
4
0
1
6
84
2
3
8
5
1
4
Time
taken
(min)
102
525
398
594
396
431
701
840
355
1.7
2.0
42.0
3.3
6.0
3.5
2.2
1.2
2.2
102-3 = 99
525-19 = 506
398-13 = 385
594-16 = 578
396-10 = 386
431-7 = 424
701-9 = 692
840-11 = 829
355-5 = 350
Note:- Tnf = Total Number Of Video Frames; Fp = Frames With Potholes, Fnp = Frames Without Potholes;
Error(Per Cent) = {(No. False Detections In Fpour + No. False Detections In Fnpour)/ Tnf}*100;
15
Where, RL = Road length in km covered by the

video clip = TNF * Length of one frame in km;
Table 2 Comparisons of critical potholes area
measured using our method, NSV Toolkitand ImageJ.
Frames Frame Total critical potholes area Error12 Error13
with
area
(m2)
(per
(per
2
potholes (m )
cent)
cent)
ImageJ NSV Proposed
(Manual) Toolkit Algorithm
(1)
(2)
(3)
Fig.1
4.915
0.296
0.599
0.307
102.4
3.7
Fig.2
7.680
0.046
0.124
0.044
169.6
4.3
Fig.4 (1) 4.915
0.134
0.194
0.156
44.8
16.4
Fig.4 (2) 4.915
0.344
0.795
0.353
122.7
2.6
Fig.4 (3) 4.915
0.361
0.787
0.408
118.0
13.0
Fig.4 (4) 4.915
0.174
0.301
0.168
72.9
3.5
Fig.4 (5) 4.915
0.266
0.538
0.314
102.2
18.0
Note:-

Error12 = [{potholes area (1) potholes area (2)} / potholes

area (1)] * 100;
Error13 = [{potholes area (1) potholes area (3)} / potholes

area (1)] * 100;
Critical potholes area measured using the proposed algorithm

and the NSV Toolkit have been compared manually with that
of ImageJ17 for 7 frames with potholes and the results are
shown in Table 2.Using ImageJ, area of a pothole has been
obtained in terms of pixels by fitting polygons or freehand
selections manually over a distress area in the video image.
The comparisons show that potholes area measured using
the proposed algorithm and ImageJ have less error than that
of error calculated for NSV Toolkit. The error calculated
for potholes area measured using ImageJ and the proposed
algorithmis found to be varying from 2.6 per cent to 18.0per
cent while the error is found to be varying from 44.8per
cent to 169.6per centwhen measured using ImageJ and NSV
Toolkit. This is mainly because theNSV Toolkitmeasures the
area of the rectangle that encloses a pothole instead of actual
area of the pothole on a video image. And the rectangle that
encloses a pothole always consists of some non-potholing
area. Thus, the potholing area estimated by drawing
rectangle over a pothole using NSV Toolkit is always more
than that of the actual potholes area on road depending
upon the geometrical patterns of potholes. Examples of
results obtained using proposed algorithm are illustrated in
Fig.3 to 5 where images in column (a) are original video
images, column (b) are processed images using the proposed
algorithm and column (c) are reports showing all required
measurements.
16
Fig. 3 (1)
Fig. 3 (2)
Fig. 3 (3)
Fig. 3 (4)
Fig. 4 (1a)
Fig. 4 (1b)
Fig. 4 (1c)
Fig. 4 (2a)
Fig. 4 (2b)
Fig. 4 (5b)
Fig. 4 (2c)
Fig. 4 (3b)
Fig. 4 (3a)
Fig. 4 (3c)
Fig. 4 (4b)
Fig. 4 (4c)
Fig. 4 (5a)
Fig. 4 Examples of Processed video frames with truly detected Patholes
Fig. 5 (1a)
Fig. 5 (1b)
Fig. 5 (2a)
Fig. 5 (2b)
Fig. 5 Examples of Processed video frames with falsely detected Patholes
Fig. 4 (4a)
Fig. 4 (5c)
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
In this Paper, resulting from doctoral research of the first

author, an efficient and accurate algorithm for automated
detection and measurement of potholes from road surface
video clips using various image processing techniques
has been presented.The proposed algorithm has been
implemented in a Windows environment and tested on nine
road video clips captured by two different imaging systems
without any artificial lighting systems.
The results obtained by applying the proposed algorithm have
been compared with that of two existing toolkits viz. NSV
Processing Toolkit and ImageJ. The results have been found
to be up to 94per cent accurate for video clips without many
non-uniformly distributed features such as water bleeding,
shoulder defects, black color road markings and images of
manholes or vehicle parts. Applying the proposed algorithm,
potholes can bedetected out of a video clip in one go and
17
Lokeshwor, Das & Sud on Automated Detection and Measurement of Potholes from Road Surface Video Clips
their locations, number of occurrences, areas, and extent

(relative area) can be measured automatically while saving
considerable time, money and manpower resources.This
algorithm can be readily applied in professional practice and
effectively to meet the challenges faced by Indian highway
professionals both for road maintenance management and
evaluation of the current health condition of the national
highways. The method is worthy of field implementation and
only field testing will demonstrate its novelty and innovative
character. There is potential in developing an automated road
surface imaging system which is optimally designed for the
described method to get even far better results.
6.
.Li, M. Yao, X. Yao, B. Xu (2010), A Real-Time 3D Scanning

Q
System For Pavement Distortion Inspection, Meas. Sci. Technol.
21
7.
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3D Pavement Imaging Through Sereovision, Proc. of Int. Conf. on
Transportation Engineering (ICTE 2007), pp. 376-381.
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Evaluation, Proc. of the 9th Int. Conf. on Applications of Advanced
Technology in Transportation (AATT), pp. 183-189.
9.
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Images, Advanced Engineering Informatics, Elsevier, Volume
25, Issue 3, August, pp. 507-515.
10.
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N
hrs IST, TNN, Available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
article show/780093.cms.
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ommittee (2007), The Report of the Working Group on Roads

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(2007-2012) for 11th Five Year Plan, MORTH, Govt. of India,
April, p. 30, http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/
wkgrp11/wg11.road.pdf.
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Inc., Sebastopol, CA, First Edition.
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Pearson Educational International, Upper Saddle River, Third
Edition.
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Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, p. 408.
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MORT&H (2004), Guidelines for Maintenance Management of

Primary, Secondary, and Urban Roads, Indian Roads Congress,
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R.Robinson, U.Danielson, M.Sneith ( 1998 ), Road Maintenance

Management, Palgrave, New York, pp. 3-4.
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Labeling Algorithm Using Contour Tracing Technique, Computer
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Techniques, NCHRP Synthesis 334, Transportation Research
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of this

research by MORTH and CSIR-CRRI, particularly Professor
S.K. Brahmachari, Director General (CSIR), Professor
Gangopadhyay, Director (CSIR-CRRI) and D.C. Sharma,
Head, Instrumentation Division (CSIR-CRRI). Furthermore,
the authors would like to acknowledge the support of IIT
Delhi and thank Professor K.K.Biswas for his illuminating
lectures in the field of Digital Image Analysis which the first
author had the honour to attend.
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(2007), Data Collection For Road Management, East Asia Pacific
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February.
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT FOR VILLAGE ROADS IN

ALLUVIAL REGION: A SUSTAINABLE OPTION
R.K. Srivastava* S.K. Duggal** & K.K. Shukla***
abstract
Reinforced cement concrete pavement with reinforcement at top and bottom is designed for village roads in alluvial regions.
The concrete grade used in pavement is M 20. Design curves for village roads are presented. It is observed that for low volume
traffic roads, M20 grade is found to be suitable. Proposed RCC pavement is suitable for sub-grade having low modulus of
reaction. The proposed RCC pavement comes out to be economical in comparison to conventional rigid pavement.
1
Introduction
Village roads in general have low volume of traffic, consisting

mostly of rural transport vehicles, like, agricultural tractors/
trailers, light goods vehicles, buses, animal drawn vehicles,
motorized two-wheelers and cycles. Some of the village
roads may also have light and medium trucks carrying
sugarcane, timber, quarry material, etc. Due to shifting of
industries towards villages there is an increase in volume
of traffic on village roads. It necessitates providing the
cost effective solution of connectivity to the villages. As of
now, flexible pavements are in use for village connectivity
program because of low initial construction cost. But, high
cost of maintenance, sensitivity to water logging and lack
of institutional set up for the maintenance, the village roads
deteriorate very fast, especially in alluvial regions. As most
of northern parts of India belong to alluvial region having
soft soil and poor drainage conditions, lot of expenditure is
being incurred every year to maintain the flexible pavements
in their congenial condition. This necessitates the use of
cement concrete road, a better option from climatic and
environmental considerations. The planners and engineers
are bound to think about the option of rigid pavement as a
substitute of flexible pavement for village roads.
Different options have been tried for village roads depending
upon the soil and climatic considerations. Visser and Hall1,2
developed a concept of cell-filled pavement termed as flexible
concrete pavement for village roads. Pandey3,4 investigated
cell filled concrete for village roads. Sahu et al.5 investigated
the structural behavior of cell-filled concrete pavement.
Sinha et al.6 presented the concept of white topping as a
rehabilitation measure by strengthening of deteriorated
bituminous pavements and observed that white topping will
result in better and long performing roads at a much lesser

cost.
Rigid pavement comes out to be a better alternative to
flexible pavement where the soil strength is poor, aggregate
are costly and the drainage conditions are bad but they
demand a high degree of professional expertise at the design
stage, construction and maintenance besides high initial
cost. The guidelines have been developed by Indian Roads
Congress (IRC) for the design and construction of cement
concrete pavements for village roads in year 2004, named as
IRC: SP: 62-20047. For low traffic volume roads, i.e. village
roads and streets, a rural road manual has been introduced by
IRC where cement concrete roads are preferred in populated
areas/streets to meet the problems of maintenance due to
poor drainage, etc. M 30 grade concrete is being used in
the cement concrete road. The state of Punjab has already
adopted cement concrete pavement in villages. In year 2008,
state of Uttar Pradesh opted for the construction of rigid
pavement for village roads/streets in Ambedkar villages. In
near future the states of northern India that fall in alluvial
regions, facing the problem of poor sub-grade and water
logging will be forced to adopt rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements consist of a number of joints to reduce the
temperature stresses and are one of the principal causes of
discomfort and inconvenience to the users and traffic. IRC:
101-19888 specifies technique of continuously reinforced
concrete pavement which reduces the need of expansion
and contraction joints. This permits longer slab lengths with
improved riding quality and reduced maintenance cost than
that for the plain cement concrete pavement (PCP). The
conventional Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(CRCP) requires per centage of steel 0.7 to 1.0 per cent
Chief Engineer Head Quarter 1, UPPWD, Lucknow
**
Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
*** Professor, Applied Mechanics Department
MNNIT, Allahabad
19
Srivastava, Duggal & Shukla on

of concrete cross section. The per centage of steel can be
reduced to about half, i.e., 0.4 to 0.5per cent if elastic joints
are provided; this also reduces the random cracks that may
occur in conventional CRCP slab. Since the reinforcement is
provided in middle of the slab the structural efficiency does
not increase.
It is observed that rigid pavements constructed in past
show distress after few years due to temperature, moisture,
environment and shrinkage. Further, closely spaced joints
are a cause of inconvenience to the traffic. Two layered
reinforcement in the pavement may be considered to check
the development of cracks as well as to increase the spacing
of joints to facilitate smooth and comfortable flow of the
traffic. The possibility of deriving advantage of increasing
the flexure strength of the pavement can also be studied.
In the paper an attempt is made to address these problems.
The grade of concrete is proposed to be reduced to M 20 for
reinforced concrete pavement. A detailed study of reinforced
cement concrete pavements with reinforcement at top and
bottom instead of the provision of it at middle of the pavement
slab (as per IRC: 101-1988) is done to minimize the number
of joints for smooth riding and to assess savings against
conventional design practice. Pavement constructed with
M 20 grade concrete and reinforcement at top and bottom
yields an overall economy of 4per cent compared to that
with plane cement concrete of M 30 grade. For low volume
traffic roads, village roads or streets, M 20 grade concrete
emerges to be more suitable because of easy implementation
of specifications for concreting with traditional methods and
is economical as well.
2
(ii)
At interior,
(iii)
At corner,
Stresses due to temperature:

(i)
At edge,
(ii)
At interior,
(iii)
At corner,
Where,
Radius of load contact,
Radius of equivalent distribution of pressure,
DESIGN OF RCC PAVEMENT
The proposed type of pavement has been designed for single

wheel load placed on edges and reinforcement provided
at 40 mm below the top and above the bottom of the slab,
respectively. Reinforcement is calculated for CRCP based
on consideration of frictional stresses. Stresses due to wheel
load and temperature variation are obtained on the basis of
provisions of IRC: SP: 62-2004. An equivalent section of
RCC pavement in terms of concrete is obtained by replacing
the steel area by equivalent concrete area which equals
modular ratio times the steel area. The design steps are
similar to PCP as given below. It is observed that critical
condition occurs at edges.
Radius of relative stiffness,
Tyre pressure =

0.50 N/mm2 for 30 kN

single wheel load
(a)
Stresses due to wheel load:
(i) At edge,
0.70N/mm2 for 51 kN
single wheel load
20
The design of reinforced cement concrete pavement for

village roads in alluvial regions of Uttar Pradesh with lean
concrete as base is done. Two cases are considered; (i) 30
kN single wheel load and pavement width 3.0 m and, (ii) 51
kN single wheel load and pavement width 3.75 m. Design
parameters are:
Reinforced Cement Concrete Pavement for Village Roads in Alluvial Region: A Sustainable Option
modified k value is taken as 16.6 kg/cm2/cm and 5.6 kg/cm2/
cm, respectively (IRC: 58-20029). In case of RCC pavement
over existing base of WBM/BOE/GSB, the modulus of subgrade reaction k based on field observations of Benkelman
beam deflection is taken as 8 kg/cm2/cm. The design
parameters are summarized in Table 1.
Temperature gradient
= 12.5 oC for pavement
width 3.0 m

= 13.1 oC for pavement
width 3.75 m
Modulus of Elasticity
(EPQC)
= 30,000 N/mm2
Poissons ratio
= 0.15
Maximum joint
spacing (L)
= 50 m
Design life
= 20 years
Coefficient of thermal
expansion
= 10.0*10-6/0c
The amount of reinforcement is calculated using the

following relations:
Area of steel (cm2),
Spacing of reinforcing bars on each face (cm),
Number of bars on each face,
Equivalent thickness of the RCC
pavement (cm),
Frictional stresses (kg/cm2),

Total stresses in the concrete at the
pavement edges,
The stresses are calculated in the equivalent section. The
modulus of sub-grade reaction k based on field observation
of CBR value is taken as 4.2 kg/cm2/cm and 2.1 kg/cm2/
cm. The pavement is laid over lean concrete and hence the
The stresses in the RCC pavement with reinforcement at

top and bottom are calculated at edge, corner and interior
of the pavements and the results are shown in Tables 2-3.
The stresses in RCC pavement on WBM/BOE/GSB are
calculated and shown in Tables 4-5. It can be seen that the
RCC pavement with M 20 grade concrete is sustainable for
village roads. The critical condition occurs when wheel is
placed at edges during the day time just in noon/afternoon.
The cost comparisons of the proposed RCC pavements
shown in Figs. 1-4 are made with plain concrete pavement
(PCP) and tabulated in Table 6-9. It is seen that savings for
proposed RCC pavement are meager, but the performance
will be better than the PCP since the former will take care of
the temperature stresses and cracks will be arrested.
The proposed RCC pavements were constructed at three places
to observe their performance. First, Lucknow-Nagram road
to Sarthua link road 3.0 m width and of 15 cm thickness was
constructed in the year 2004 for PMGSY with reinforcement at
top and bottom. Sub-grade of 1:3:6 PCC was of 10 cm thickness.
Second, Pratapgarh-Jathwara-Lal Gopalganj road 7.0 m width
and of 20 cm thickness was constructed in the year 2007 with
reinforcement at top and bottom. Sub-grade was provided with
WBM/BOE. The third, Sakutiya-Byodhan-Khurd Road 3.0
m width and of 20 cm thickness was constructed in year 2009
with reinforcement at top and bottom. Sub-grade was provided
with WBM/BOE. The performances of these RCC pavements
were observed and it has been found that there are no visible
cracks on the surface of the pavements and there are no signs of
distress. The RCC pavements observed for their performance
are shown in Figs. 5(a to c).
Table 1 Design Parameters

S.
No.
Width of
Modulus of Sub-grade
Pavement (m) Reaction, k (kg/cm2/cm)
Single Axle
Load (kN)
Thickness of
PQC (cm)
Thickness of Base Layer (cm)
Permissible
Stress (N/mm2)
1.
3.0
16.6
30
12.5
10.0 LC
3.75
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.75
3.0
3.75
3.0
3.75
16.6
5.6
5.6
8.0
8.0
51
30
51
30
51
16.0
12.5
16.0
15.0
17.5
10.0 LC
10.0 LC
10.0 LC
11.0 BOE/15.0GSB/ 15.0WBM
11.0 BOE/15.0GSB/ 15.0WBM
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
21

Table 2 Stresses at Different Locations in RCC Pavement (Axle load: 60 kN).
S. Location
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k

(kg/cm2/cm)
4.2
4.2
4.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
Edge
Interior
Corner
Edge
Interior
Corner
Effective k Over 10 cm Stress (N/mm2)

Temperature
LC (kg/cm2/cm)
tc
0.7 tc
16.6
1.77
1.24
16.6
2.08
1.46
16.6
0.39
0.27
5.6
1.77
1.24
5.6
2.08
1.46
5.6
0.34
0.24
Load
Friction
2.68
1.67
2.40
3.13
1.92
3.0
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
Total Stress (N/mm2)

Temperature
tc
0.7 tc
3.55
3.02
2.85
2.23
1.89
1.77
4.00
3.47
3.10
2.48
1.79
1.69
Table 3 Stresses at Different Locations in RCC Pavement (Axle load: 102 kN).
S.
Location
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Edge
Interior
Corner
Edge
Interior
Corner
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k

(kg/cm2/cm)
4.2
4.2
4.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
Stress (N/mm2)
Effective k Over 10 cm
Temperature
Load
LC (kg/cm2/cm)
tc
0.7 tc
16.6
1.93
1.35
2.72
16.6
2.27
1.59
1.66
16.6
10.4
0.28
2.50
5.6
1.93
1.35
3.14
5.6
2.27
1.59
1.89
2.9
0.35
0.24
5.6
Friction
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9

Temperature
tc
0.7 tc
3.75
3.15
3.03
2.35
2.03
1.88
4.17
3.59
3.26
2.58
2.24
2.35
Table 4 Stresses in 12.5 cm RCC Pavement on BOE/GSB/WBM (Axle load: 60 kN = 8kg/cm2/cm).

S.
Location
No.
1.
2.
3.
tc
1.79
2.15
0.35
Edge
Interior
Corner
Stress (N/mm2)
Temperature
Load
0.7 tc
1.33
2.75
1.5
1.38
0.25
2.13
Friction
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9

Temperature
tc
0.7 tc
3.64
3.18
2.63
1.98
1.58
1.48
Table 5 Stresses in 17.5 cm RCC Pavement on BOE/GSB/WBM (Axle load: 102 kN = 8kg/cm2/cm).
S.
No.
1.
2.
3.
Stress (N/mm2)
Temperature
Load
tc
0.7 tc
1.95
1.36
2.87
2.25
1.57
1.74
0.36
0.25
2.68
Location
Edge
Interior
Corner
Friction
-0.9
-0.9
-0.9

Temperature
tc
0.7 tc
3.92
3.33
3.09
2.41
2.14
2.03
Table 6 Per km. Cost Comparison of PCP and Reinforced Concrete Pavement (Pavement width 3.0 m Wheel Load 30kN). (Using
M 30 Concrete in PCP and M 20 in RCC Pavement as PQC and Base as LC)
Plain Concrete Pavement
S.
No. Item
Measurement
Rate
Amount
(Rs.)
4913
per m3 2210850.00
Qty.
Composite Cement Concrete Pavement

Measurement
Qty.
Rate (Rs.)
Amount
30 Grade Cement
1. M
1x1000x3.0x0.15 450 m3
Concrete
2. M 20 Cement Concrete
1x1000x3.0x0.125 375 m3 4555 per m3 1708125.00
1000
226
3000
per
1000
3. Number of Joints
21 No. 3000 per Joint 63000.00
4.44
No.
Joint 678000.00
50
4. M 10 Concrete as base 1x1000x3.0x0.1 300
3744 1123200.00 1x1000x3.0x0.1 300 m3
3744
1123200.00
Reinforcement
10 mm in Longitudinal
5. Direction
8 mm in Transverse
Direction
Saving = 3.16%
22
Total: 4012050.00
16120
2x20x1350x0.62 5896.80
2x20x1263.0x0.39 22016.8
kg
45 per kg
990756.00
3885081.50
Fig. 1 Cross Section of RCC Pavement over BOE/GSB/WBM Base for

Dead End Road (Joint Spacing: 50)
Fig. 2 Cross Section of RCC Pavement over BOE/GSB/WBM Base for

through village Road (Joint Spacing: 50m)
Fig. 3 Cross Section of RCC Pavement over LC Base for Dead End
Village Road (Joint Spacing: 50m)
Fig. 4 Cross Section of RCC Pavement over LC Base for Through Village
Road (Joint Spacing: 50 m).
(a) Lucknow-Nagram to Sarthua Link Road
(c) Sakutiya-Byodhan-Khurd Road

Fig. 5 RCC Pavements with Reinforcement at Top and Bottom
5.
Pratapgarh-Jathwara-Lalgopalganj Road
DESIGN CURVES FOR RCC PAVEMENT
For the design of RCC pavement for village roads, a

program is developed in MS-Excel. The values of the total
flexural stresses in the rigid pavement with varying joint
spacing and sub-grade modulus are obtained. Design curves
for determining thickness of rigid pavements are shown in
Figs. 6 to17 for different modulus of sub-grade reactions in
zone-I and zone-II, to facilitate the designers in designing
RCC pavement for village roads.
23

Table7 Per km. Cost comparison of PCP and Reinforced Concrete Pavement (Pavement width 3.0m Wheel Load
30kN). (Using M30 Concrete in PCP and M20 in RCC Pavement as PQC and Base as BOE/GSB/WBM)
S.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Item
Measurement
M 30 Grade
1x1000x3.0x0.15
Cement Concrete
M 20 Cement
Concrete
1000
Number of Joints
4.44
Reinforcement
10 mm in
Longitudinal
Direction
8 mm in
Transverse
Direction
Qty.
450 m
Rate
Amount
(Rs.)
4913 per
2210850.00
m3
3000 per
226 No.
Joint

Rate
Measurement
Qty.
(Rs.)
1x1000x3.0x0.125
1000
50
678000.00
2x20x1350x0.62
2x20x1263.0x0.39
4555 per
m3
3000 per
Joint
375 m3
21 No.
16120
45 per
5896.80
kg
22016.8 kg
Total: 2888850.00
Saving = 4.40 per cent
Amount
1708125.00
63000.00
990756.00
2761881.00
Table 8 Per km. Cost Comparison of PCP and Reinforced Concrete Pavement (Pavement width 3.75 m Wheel Load 51kN).
(Using M30 Concrete in PCP and M20 in RCC pavement as PQC and Base as LC)
S. Plain Concrete Pavement

Measurement
No. Item
M 30 Grade
1.
1x1000x3.75x0.2
Cement Concrete
M 20 Cement
2.
Concrete
1000
3. Number of Joints
4.44
M 10 Concrete as
4.
1x1000x3.75x0.1
base
Reinforcement
10 mm in
Longitudinal
5. Direction
8 mm in Transverse
Direction
Qty.
Rate (Rs.)
450 m
Amount
4913 per m 3684750.00

3
1x1000x3.75x0.175
656.25 m3 4555 per m3 2989218.75
226 No.
4000 per
Joint
904000.00
1000
50
21 No.
4000 per
Joint
84000.00
375
3744
1404000.00
1x1000x3.75x0.1
375 m3
3744
1404000.00
2x20x1350x0.62
45 per kg
1503495.00
2x20x1263.0x0.39
-
5992750.00
Total:

Measurement
Qty.
Rate (Rs.)
Amount
26040
7371.80
33411.0 kg
5980714.00
Table 9 Per km. Cost Comparison of PCP and reinforced Concrete Pavement (Pavement width 3.75m Wheel Load
51kN). (Using M30 Concrete in PCP and M20 in RCC Pavement as PQC and Base as BOE/GSB/WBM)
S. No. Item
Measurement
1.
2.
M 30 Grade
Cement Concrete
M 20 Cement
Concrete
3.
Number of Joints
4.
Reinforcement
10 mm in
Longitudinal
Direction
8 mm in Transverse
Direction
1x1000x3.75x0.2
1000
Qty.
750 m3
226 No.
4.44
Rate
Amount
(Rs.)
4913 per
3684750.00
m3
4000 per
904000.00
Joint
Total: 4588750.00

Measurement
Qty.
1x1000x3.75x0.175
656.25 m3
1000
50
2x20x2150x0.62
2x20x1263.75x0.39
21 No.
26040
Rate (Rs.) Amount
4555 per
m3
3000 per
Joint
2989218.75
84000.00
45 per kg 1503495.00
7371.00
33411.0 kg
4576714.00
24
Fig. 6 Stresses in RCC Rigid Pavement for Rural Dead End Roads in
Alluvial Region (Zone I).
Alluvial Region (Zone II).
Fig. 9 Stresses in RCC Rigid Pavement (for Rural Dead End Roads in
Fig. 12 Stresses in RCC Rigid Pavement for Rural Through Roads in




25
Srivastava, Duggal & Shukla on Reinforced Cement Concrete Pavement for Village Roads in Alluvial
Region: A Sustainable Option


CONCLUDING REMARKS
Reinforced cement concrete pavement with reinforcement

placed at top and bottom are designed for village roads. For
low volume traffic roads, M 20 grade concrete is found to
be more appropriate because of its easy implementation
in the field for village roads. Proposed RCC pavement is
suitable for sub-grade having very low modulus of reaction.
RCC pavement for dead end roads (CBR = 5, k = 4.2 kg/
cm2/cm, modified k = 16.6 kg/cm2/cm, joint spacing = 50
m) is economical by 4.0 per cent in comparison to PCP
pavement as specified by IRC. The temperature and moisture
variations may also cause tension at top and bottom of
slab. Reinforcement at middle specified in CRCP is not so
effective since cracks appear first at top and bottom face and
then move towards inner region. Flexural use of steel is not
possible if it is placed at neutral axis. By providing steel
at both faces of pavement, the spacing of contraction joint
can be increased that further improves the riding comfort.
The advantage of long length of panel also increases the
frictional stresses which are compressive in nature and
ultimately reduce the critical tensile stress. The proposed
RCC pavements are constructed and their performance in
the field have been observed and found to be satisfactory.
REFERENCES:
1.
26
2.
Visser, T., and Hall, S. (2003), Innovative and Cost Effective

Solutions for Roads in Rural Areas and Difficult Terrain,
Transportation Research Record 1652, J. Transportation Research
Board, 1819A/2003, 169-173.
3.
Pandey, B.B., (2006), Low Cost Concrete Roads for Villages,

Grameen sampark, National Rural Road Development Agency,
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Vol. II, No.
1 &2, June 2006,14-15.
4.
Pandey, B.B., (2007), Durable Pavements for Villages with SandCement, Grameen Sampark, National Rural Road Development
Agency, Ministry of Rural development, Government of India,
May 2007, 23-24.
5.
Sahu, U.C., Reddy, K.S., and Pandey, B.B. (2006), Structural

Evaluation of Concrete Filled Cell Pavement, Int. J. Pavement
Engineering & Asphalt Technology, U.K., 7 (1), 27-27.
6.
Sinha,V.K., Kumar.S., and Jain.R. K. (2007), WhiteTopping-A

Cot-Effctive rehabilitation Alternative for Preserving Bituminous
Pavements on Long-Term Basis Indian Roads Congress. Vol.
68-3
7.
IRC:SP:62-2004 (2004), Guidelines for the Design and

Construction of Cement Concrete Pavements for Rural Roads,
The Indian Roads Congress, 2004.
8.
IRC: 101-1988 (1988), Guidelines for Design of Continuously

Reinforced Concrete Pavement with Elastic Joints, The Indian
Roads Congress, 1988.
9.
IRC: 58-2002 (2002), Guidelines for Design of Plain Jointed

Rigid Pavements for Highways, The Indian Road Congress
2002.
Visser, T., and Hall, S. (1999), Flexible Portland Cement Concrete

Pavement for Village Roads, Transportation Research Record
1652, Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C., 121-127.
Modeling Occurrence and Severity of Road Crashes on Selected

Multi Lane Carriageways in India
Padma S*, Velmurugan.S**, Madhu Errampalli**, Sitaramanjaneyulu.J***, Subhamay Gangopadhyay,****
Revathi.A*****
ABSTRACT
The causative factors for road crashes are well known and they can be classified into three groups namely vehicle, road and driver. However,
the apportionment of these factors which leads to road crashes is a very difficult task. This requires exhaustive representation of road
crash severity considering each and every causative parameter. Whatever savings that are gained from the high speed corridors in terms of
enhanced speed and increased capacity are getting lost due to the road crashes and it is estimated that about 3 per cent of GDP in India is
lost due to road crashes. Considering these issues, it is proposed to study the trend of these road crashes and quantify loss to economy in
the present study. In order to do that the road crash data was collected from National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) for the selected
high speed corridors for the last two years. The road crashes are modeled to predict road crash occurrence as well as severity using Binary
Logit Model and Multinomial Logit Model. For this, the influencing parameters such as road characteristics, geometry, weather conditions
etc. are considered.
BACKGROUND
India has one of the largest road networks in the world

hovering around 3.5 million km at present. For the purpose
of management and administration, roads in India are
classified into five categories namely, National Highways
(NH), State Highways (SH), Major District Roads (MDR),
Other District Roads (ODR) and Village Roads (VR).
The National Highways (NHs) are intended to facilitate
medium and long distance inter-city passenger and freight
traffic across the country. NHs is main arterial roads which
constitutes less than 2per cent of total road network. The
existing road infrastructure and available transport services
in the country are highly inadequate for achieving faster
movement of passengers and goods in comparison with
other developed countries. In order to overcome these
shortcomings in the transport sector, the Government of
India has initiated massive construction programmers of
highways linking major cities/activity centres. This has led
to the gradual growth in the quantum of NH network over
the last decade. The proposed NH programs promise a better
ridership quality in terms of speed and capacity; however,
the road safety issue has not been addressed adequately.
Statistics indicate that over 1.2 million people die of road
crashes each year around the world and more than 90per
cent of them are in low and middle-income countries,
which have only 48per cent of worlds registered vehicles.
According to WHO Global Status report on Road Safety,

about 130,000 people died in road crashes in India in
2010, which was highest for any country in the world and
thereby accounting for approximately 14 deaths every
hour. The augmentation of roads in India began with the
implementation of Golden Quadrilateral connecting Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai coupled with North - South
and East - West corridors. This comprised of expanding the
existing highways from the existing two lanes to four lane
divided carriageways or alternatively from four lanes to
six lane divided carriageways under the National Highway
Development Program (NHDP) covered under Phases I - VII.
As the country is embracing prominent position in global
economy, which in turn has contributed to the increase in the
number of vehicles plying on roads, the need to address the
issue of road crashes has become imperative. The insurgence
of vehicular traffic and the need to drive faster has resulted
in widening of several sections of the corridors. However,
during this process of road capacity augmentation carried
out in the first three phases of the above mentioned NHDP
program, road safety has been neglected to a large extent
which has resulted in the increase of number of fatalities on
Indian roads. Though the causative factors for road crashes
are well known and they can be classified into three groups
namely, vehicle, road and driver, the apportionment of these
factors which leads to crashes is indeed a very difficult task.
This requires exhaustive evaluation of crashes representing
Scientist and corresponding author, Traffic and Transport Planning Area
**
Scientist, Traffic and Transport Planning Area
*** Scientist, Pavement Evaluation Division

**** Director
Central Road Research Institute (C.R.R.I.),

New Delhi-110020, INDIA
***** Post Graduate Student, College of Engineering, Anna University, Guindy, Chennai-600025, INDIA
27
Padma, Velmurugan, Madhu, Sitaramanjaneyulu, Gangopadhyay & Revathi on
each and every causative parameter. In this study, an attempt

has been made to understand the role of causative factors
and therefore an investigation into the relationship between
the causative factors and the occurrence as well as severity
of road crashes has been investigated.
2
combinations of varying causative factors were considered.

To understand the nature of road crash within the dataset,
critical analysis of the causative variables was carried out.
STUDY CORRIDORS AND DATABASE
The database consisted of secondary data collected from

various National Highways shown in Table 1.
Table 1 List of National Highways considered for Road
Crash Analysis
NH-1
NH -5
NH-7
NH-45
NH-8
NH-2
NH-68
NH-76
NH-79
NH-46
NH-28
NH-37
NH-36
NH-54
NH-6
NH-3
NH-47
NH-22
NH-79A
NH-45C
NH-5A
NH-13
Fig. 2 Variation of Occurrence and Severity of Road Crashes with respect

to the Weather Conditions

to the Intersection Type
NH-17
The parameters required for the model development were

appropriately chosen from the collected data. They are
mainly date and time of road crash, vehicles involved in
the road crash, nature of road crash, severity of road crash,
number of fatalities, grievous and minor injuries, weather
condition, road feature, road condition, intersection type.
A total of 3019 reported road crashes on the above road
stretches were analyzed in terms of occurrence and road
crash severity. Each causative factor was segregated into
a number of sub-sections which were then appropriately
coded to avoid difficulty at the time of analysis. In all 84000
Fig. 1 Temporal Variation of Occurrence and Severity of Road Crashes
28

to the Road Feature

to the Cause of Road Crash
Modeling Occurrence and Severity of Road Crashes on Selected Multi Lane Carriageways in India

to the Nature of Road Crash
are almost same. Fig. 5 indicates that the major causative

factor for the occurrence of majority of road crashes is due
to over speeding; however, the per centage of the minor road
crashes is the same irrespective of the cause of road crash.
Fig. 6 show that overturning and rear end collisions are the
major causes of road crashes in the dataset. Fig. 7 indicates
that at the midblock rear end collisions were predominant
and during cloudy weather conditions overturning nature of
road crashes were predominant. After carrying out the above
analysis, the process of identifying the appropriate variable
has became easier as the interaction amongst the variables
was properly understood. The probability of occurrence of
road crashes has been modeled using Binary Logit model
whereas the probability of a road crash severity was modeled
using Multinomial Logit Model.
2.1
Fig. 7 Nature of Road Crash at various Intersection types
Fig. 8 Nature of Road crash with respect to the Weather Condition
Fig. 1 illustrates that during any time period of the day, the
per centage of fatal and minor injuries are almost equal
to each other. It has been found that grievous injury road
crashes are maximum during any time period of the day.
Fig. 2 indicates that the minor road crashes are dominant
during windy weather conditions however the per centage
of fatal road crashes is almost the same irrespective of the
weather conditions. Fig. 3 indicates that the maximum
numbers of road crashes occur at the midblock. Fig. 4
shows that the proportion of grievous injury occurring on
single lane, two-lane and four lane divided carriageways
Modeling Road Crash Occurrence
The occurrence of a road crash is a probabilistic phenomenon;

however statistical evidence shows that the occurrence of a
road crash can be defined as a combination of several casual
factors. In this study, an attempt has been made to model
the probability of road crash occurrence from the collected
road crash data. The data contained fields indicating the
combination of various causative factors responsible for
road crash occurrence. The study assumes that the remaining
combination of causative factors fail to cause a road crash or
do not result in a road crash. The analogy adopted in this study
is based on the premise that the probability of occurrence of
a road crash is based on the causative factors available in the
dataset and the same is defined as 1 whereas the probability
of non-occurrence of a road crash due to absence of various
causative factors is defined as 0. Various causative factors
for occurrence of a road crash considered in the study are
time, causes, road feature, road condition, and intersection
type and weather condition. Considering these factors, the
dataset containing both non-occurrence and occurrence of
road crashes was generated from the collected road crash
data. From all the combinations of the causative factors, the
database of about 84,000 records was generated. Out of the
84,000 records, 70per cent was used for the calibration of
road crash occurrence prediction model and the remaining
30per cent was used for validation of the model. The model
formulation is as shown in equn. 1.
equn. 1
Where,
i is the probability the ith case experiences the event of
interest or the probability the ith case experiences an road
crash
Zi is the value of the unobserved continuous variable for
29
Padma, Velmurugan, Madhu, Sitaramanjaneyulu, Gangopadhyay & Revathi on
the ith case or the propensity towards the ith case experience
and road crash.
Zi = b0+b1 xi1+b2 x i2+...+ bpxip
Where,
xij is the jth predictor for ith case
bj - is the jth coefficient
p is the number of predictors
Observed
Samples
Table 2 Prediction Accuracy of Binary Logit Model

during Calibration
Predicted Samples
30
Predicted Samples
equn. 2
For the development of the road crash occurrence prediction

model, the independent variables considered include time,
causes, road features, road condition, intersection type and
weather condition. Since the dependent variable is either
(i.e. non-occurrence of road crash) or 1 (i.e. occurrence of
road crash) and all the independent variables are divided
into categories by appropriately assigning codes and since
dependent variable is having two choices and independent
variables are not continuous variables, a binary Logit model
has been developed by establishing relationship between
these variables. The calibration of the road crash occurrence
prediction model is carried for the 70 per cent of sample
using the software called the SPSS (Statistical Packages for
Social Studies). The R2 value of the developed model was
found to be 0.537 (Nagelkerke), 0.518 (Macfadden) and
0.074 (Cox and Snell) indicate that the developed model
can be used to predict with reasonable degree of accuracy.
The prediction accuracy of the calibrated sample is given
in Table 2. From this table, it can be observed that overall
prediction accuracy is about 98.9 per cent which implies that
the model is able to predict the road crash occurrence with
a reasonable degree of accuracy. The parameter coefficients
obtained from the calibration process were then used for
validating the model and during the validation process; the
remaining 30 per cent data has been used. The prediction
accuracy table of the validated sample is shown in Table 3. A
close look at the above table shows that the validated sample
has an overall prediction accuracy of 98.6 per cent.
Observed
Samples
Table 3 Prediction Accuracy of Binary Logit Model

during Validation
Probability
Per centage
Accuracy
57906
93
99.80 per
cent
568
268
32.10 per
cent
Overall Per
centage
99.40 per
cent
0.60 per
cent
98.90 per
cent
2.2
Probability
Per centage
Accuracy
24686
57
99.80 per cent
295
127
30.1 per cent
Overall Per
centage
98.8 per
cent
69.0 per
cent
98.60 per cent
Modeling Road Crash Severity
The road crash severity is classified into three categories

namely; fatal, grievous and minor as discussed earlier. The
dependent variable considered in the model is road crash
severity which is discrete in nature. The modeling involves
the prediction of road crash severity between the dependent
variable namely the severity of road crash (i.e. based on
fatal, grievous, minor) and independent factors, such as
nature of road crash, causes of road crash, road feature, road
condition, intersection type, weather condition. All these
independent variables are also discrete in nature as discussed
in the previous section. The easiest and most widely used
discrete choice model for Modeling road crash severity is
Multinomial Logit Model (MNL). Its popularity is due to
the fact that the formula for the choice probabilities takes a
closed form and is readily interpretable. The basic limitation
of the MNL model is that it has the property termed as the
independence from irrelevant alternatives (IIA). The IIA
property implies that the relative probability of choosing
between any two alternatives is independent of all other
alternatives. Correlation among unobserved factors across
alternatives makes the MNL model ineffective under these
conditions. In addition, the MNL model does not account
for the ordinal nature of discrete data and thus the ordering
information for road crash severity (ranked for e.g. fatal,
grievous, minor) is lost.
The MNL model for road crash severity prediction has
been modeled using SPSS software as was done in road
crash occurrence prediction model. As done in the case
of road crash occurrence prediction model, the road crash
severity prediction model was also calibrated by considering
70 per cent of the dataset and the remaining 30 per cent
of the data was used for validation purpose. The statistical
output generated from the MNL model by using SPSS is
presented in Tables 4 and 5.
Modeling Occurrence and Severity of Road Crashes on Selected Multi Lane Carriageways in India
Table 4 Multinomial Logit Model Output for Road crash

Severity Prediction
Model
Model Fitting
Criteria
Likelihood Ratio Tests
-2 Log Likelihood Chi-Square

Intercept
Only
1.709E3
Final
1.552E3
157.146
df
Sig.
52
.000
Table 5 Multinomial Logit Model Output of Goodness of fit for

Road Crash Severity Prediction
Pearson
Deviance
Chi-Square
df
Sig
985.003
985.407
864
864
.003
.002
From Table 4, it can be inferred that the presence of a

relationship between the dependent and independent variables
exists. The significance value for the model is 0.000 which is
less than 0.05 indicating that the null hypothesis which states
that there is no difference between the model having the set of
independent variables and the model having no independent
variable is rejected. The existence of a relationship between
the independent variable and the dependent variable is hence
established. From Table 5, it can be concluded that goodness
of fit of the model is reasonable as the significance values
of Pearson and Deviance are lesser than 0.05 indicating that
the proposed model fits the present data set with reasonable
degree of accuracy. The reference category for calibration was
chosen to be minor injuries as they form the largest category
amongst Road Crash severity. The estimated parameters
are the log odds used to predict the dependent variable. The
parameter estimates associated with the explanatory variables
are the estimators of the change in Logit model for unit change
in the dependent variable. The log of odds of various groups
was calculated as follows:
Zik =bko + bk1xi1 + bk2xi2 + ...+ bkpxip
equn. 3
Where,
xij - is the jth predictor for ith case
bkj - is the jth coefficient for the kth unobserved variable
p - is the number of predictors
ik =
Where,
Zik
Zi1 +eZi2 +eZik
equn. 4
ik is the probability the ith case falls in category k

Zik is the value of kth unobserved continuous variable for
the ith case
The probabilities were then used to estimate the accuracy of

the model in terms of road crash severity for the validation
sample. The relationship of individual variables with the
dependent variable is highlighted in Table 6.
Table 6 Likelihood Ratio Tests for Multinomial
Logit Model
Effect
Intercept
time
Nature of acc
causes
Road feature
Road condition
intersection
weather
Model Fitting
Criteria
-2 Log
Likelihood
of Reduced
Model
1.552E3
1.567E3
1.573E3
1.597E3
1.565E3
1.573E3
1.567E3
1.572E3
Likelihood Ratio Tests

ChiSquare
df
Sig.
.000
15.668
21.397
45.706
13.933
21.232
15.232
20.249
0
8
8
6
6
6
12
6
.
.047
.006
.000
.030
.002
.229
.003
The statistical significance of the relationship between the

independent variables and the dependent variable is based
on the statistical significance of the chi-square statistic in the
likelihood ratio test. The probability of chi square statistic for
the independent variable time was 0.047 which is lesser than
the level of significance of 0.05. Hence the null hypothesis
that all the b coefficients associated with the independent
variable time is equal to zero is rejected. The existence of a
relationship between the independent variable time and the
dependent variable severity of road crash was established.
Similarly the probability of chi square statistic for the
independent variables nature of road crash, causes,
road feature, road condition, and weather are lesser
than the level of significance of 0.05. From this it can be
inferred that the null hypothesis that all the b coefficients
associated with these independent variables are equal to zero
gets rejected. The existence of a relationship between these
independent variables and the dependent variable of road
crash severity was thus proven. However, the probability of
chi square statistic for the independent variable intersection
type is more than the level of significance. Hence the
model indicates that either this independent variable should
be rejected or else should be refined to be included in the
model. The significance of the independent variables can
also be tested by comparing the difference in -2LL of the
overall model with the reduced model. This difference
is assessed by the chi square value, that is, for significant
variables the larger the chi square values, the greater is the
loss to the model fit if that parameter is dropped. Based on
the developed model, prediction table (as shown in Table
7) has been formulated based on the parameter estimates
derived from the calibration sample.
31
Padma, Velmurugan, Madhu, Sitaramanjaneyulu, Gangopadhyay & Revathi on Modeling Occurrence and Severity of Road
Crashes on Selected Multi Lane Carriageways in India
Table 7 Level of Road Crash Severity Prediction during

Calibration
Predicted Samples
Severity
Fatal Grievous
Fatal
10
23
Observed
Grievous
1
94
Samples
Minor
6
63
Overall Per 0.8 per 8.5 per
centage
cent
cent
Minor
Per centage
Accuracy
3.0 per cent
14.5 per cent
298
554
1064 93.9 per cent
90.7 per 53.3 per cent
cent
From Table 7, it can be noted that an overall prediction

accuracy of 55.3per cent with 3per cent prediction accuracy
for fatal road crashes, 14.5per cent prediction accuracy for
grievous road crashes and 93.9per cent prediction accuracy
for minor injuries. The remaining 30per cent of the dataset was
used for validation. The validation was done with coefficients
obtained by the parameter estimated. The probabilities were
then used to estimate the accuracy of the model in terms of
road crash severity for the validation sample. The prediction
table for the validated sample is presented in Table 8.
Table 8 Level of Road Crash Severity Prediction
during Validation
Predicted Samples
Severity
Fatal Grievous
Fatal
7
56
Observed
Grievous
3
111
Samples
Minor
10
214
Overall Per 0.8 per 8.5 per
centage
cent
cent
Minor
Per centage
Accuracy
5.9 per cent
37.9 per cent
56
179
268
54.5 per cent
90.7per 42.7 per cent
cent
From Table 8, it can be seen that an overall prediction

accuracy of 42.7 per cent with 5.9 per cent prediction
accuracy for fatal, 37.9 per cent prediction accuracy for
grievous and 54.5 per cent prediction accuracy for minor
injuries. Though the overall prediction accuracy is about
43 per cent, the fatal road crash prediction rate is very less
which is about 6per cent. From all these calibration and
validation results, it can be concluded that the developed
model would be able to predict the minor road crashes with
quite reasonable accuracy, but the fatal road crash prediction
rate is quite poor. It is recommended from the results of the
study that the improvement in the model can be done by
considering other soft computing tools like fuzzy logic for
modeling the road crash severity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Director, Central Road
Research Institute (C.R.R.I.), New Delhi-110020 for kindly
giving permission to publish the Paper from the studies
carried out by this institute. They also would like to extend
32
their thanks to all the team members of the study in C.R.R.I

including Shri Sher Singh, Shri, Rajan Verma and Shri S.K.
Ummat.
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Modeling Accident Severity Using Multinomial Logit Model.
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APPLICATION OF FUZZY LOGIC IN TRAFFIC SIGNAL CO-ORDINATION

Ashalatha R* & Manjusha M**
ABSTRACT
Design of traffic signal coordination in the conventional method makes use of only traffic related parameters. A design
procedure which can incorporate user perception also in addition to traffic related parameters can lead to a better design. In
this study an attempt was made to design two phase coordinated traffic signal incorporating quantitative as well as qualitative
parameters using fuzzy logic approach. Fuzzy rules were formulated by relating the important quantitative parameters
like average stream speed, volume to capacity ratio and average control delay and quality of progression was taken as the
qualitative parameter. The design procedure was implemented on a real corridor consisting of three intersections. Measures
of effectiveness such as band width, efficiency, attainability, average control delay per vehicle per cycle length were used to
determine the efficacy of the design procedure. It gave an efficiency of 64 per cent and an attainability of 92 per cent while
improving the average stream speed from existing 14 kph to 32 kph. The average control delay per vehicle per cycle length
on major stream was reduced by 69 per cent and on the minor stream was reduced by 70 per cent.
1
INTRODUCTION
Coordinated signalized intersections are the most sought after

type of intersection control especially along urban corridors.
But if the signal coordination is not properly designed taking
into consideration, maximum flow and minimum delay, it
will be the main cause of delay along the major corridor.
These delays will lead to huge economic loss to the society
in terms of time lost in waiting and wastage of fuel due to idle
running of engines during the red phase. Properly designed
traffic signal coordination also reduces number of stops and
accident potential at intersections.
The basic concept of signal coordination is that when the first
vehicle in a platoon of vehicles approaches an intersection;
the signal should turn green before braking would have to
occur for a red light. This relieves congestion to a great
extent. Maintenance of a preferred speed and ability to
send vehicles through adjacent intersections in moving
platoons are the other benefits of coordination. Good signal
coordination should also be able to take into account dynamic
conditions, such as, corridor speed, traffic signal spacing,
pedestrian volume, congestion, and traffic volumes on major
and minor streets, traffic signal cycle lengths and additional
phasing. Common practice is to coordinate signals less than
eight hundred metres apart on major streets and highways.
Signal coordination plans require that all signals have the
same cycle length or multiples of the minimum cycle length

(Mc Shane et al., 1998).
Design of signal coordination in the conventional manner
makes use of only traffic related parameters without taking
into account the user perception. If the user perception can
also be accounted in the design procedure, it will lead to a
better design (Niittymki and Pursula, 1998). Fuzzy control
technology is capable of incorporating qualitative parameters
like user perception along with the quantitative parameters
like traffic parameters.
2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Quite a few studies are reported on traffic signal coordination.

Some of these have devised their own techniques while some
have explored the use of fuzzy logic to achieve an efficient
signal co-ordination. Certain others have tried various policy
options in their efforts to get best signal coordination. Some
important works on traffic signal coordination are reviewed
here for the benefit of the readers.
Pappis and Mamdani (1977) highlighted the potential of
fuzzy logic in traffic signal control. The effect of platoon
progression on capacity was studied by Todd (1988). The
study found that unfavourable intersection spacing, turning
vehicles; platoon dispersion lowered the system capacity and
impaired the successful progression of traffic. Chui (1992)
*

**
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum, Thiruvananthapuram 695016, INDIA.
Email:ashu.cet@gmail.com
Ex-Post Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum, Thiruvananthapuram 695016, INDIA
33
Ashalatha & Manjusha on
in his study has presented a distributed approach to traffic

signal control, where the signal timing parameters at a given
intersection were adjusted as functions of the local traffic
condition and of the signal timing parameters at adjacent
intersections. A set of 40 fuzzy decision rules were used
for adjusting the signal timing parameters. Chand and Chui
(1993) presented an approach to self-organizing traffic signal
control based on a fully distributed system of cooperative
local controllers. This fully distributed architecture provided
for a fault-tolerant, responsive traffic control system, while
the underlying fuzzy rule-based algorithm provides for a
flexible and easily extensible control law. Niittymki and
Pursula (1998) also studied the application of fuzzy control in
traffic signal control. They conducted a theoretical analysis of
fuzzy traffic signal control and fuzzy rules were generalized
using linguistic variables. The study validated fuzzy control
principles and membership functions were also calibrated
and a fuzzy adaptive signal controller was developed. Their
study revealed that the incorporation of fuzzy parameters to
traffic control problems enlarges usefulness of the approach
and makes it possible to implement the results in an adaptive
traffic control. Niittymki and Turunen (2003) used the
principles of fuzzy logic in traffic signal control and found
it to be superior in complex transportation problems with
multi objective decisions.
and per centage of stopped vehicles, etc. Solving such an

optimization problem mathematically will be difficult. Fuzzy
control has proved to be successful in problem areas where
exact mathematical modeling is difficult or impossible. Thus,
traffic signal control is a suitable task for fuzzy control.
3
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY STRETCH
In the present study, a corridor along National Highway47 passing through Thiruvananthapuram city (in the
southern part of India), with three isolated intersections was
selected. Fig. 1 gives the schematic sketch of the selected
corridor along with the traffic volume. The major road is
4-lane divided carriageway and minor legs are single lane
approaches. The major stream through traffic (one direction)
during the morning peak was observed in the range of 720
The effect of varying offsets is known to make a significant

impact on signal design. This aspect was studied in detail
by Singh and Morgan (2003). In this study the offsets were
calculated by plotting the time-space diagrams and adjusting
the offsets manually so as to maximize the bandwidth.
Under mixed traffic conditions the composition of vehicles
in traffic stream changes over time and space. Suhas (2005)
conducted studies on time and space allocation to maximize
heterogeneous traffic flow through signalized intersections.
They found that it is possible to coordinate the working of
adjacent traffic signals, even under mixed traffic conditions
and thus ensuring significant reduction in delay to traffic.
The main drawbacks of the study were that it considered
only the traffic related parameters and was designed for the
static traffic flow conditions. Tian and Urbanik (2007) used
system partition technique for improving signal coordination
at Texas Avenue. As per the study, bandwidth was expressed
in terms of upper interference and lower interference at
intersections where the interferences were contributed by
the upstream and downstream signals, respectively.
Traffic signal control is an optimization problem which
includes
several simultaneous maximization and
minimization criteria like average delays, queue lengths
34
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the selected corridor
Application of Fuzzy Logic in Traffic Signal Co-ordination
vph-900 vph, while the minor stream traffic ( straight and

right turn) was 350 vph, 400 vph and 200 vph at intersections
1, 2 and 3 respectively. The range of traffic composition on
the corridor was observed as buses 6per cent -10per cent,
two wheelers 50 per cent - 55per cent, cars 20per cent - 23
per cent and motorized three wheelers 10 per cent - 15 per
cent. All the intersections at present are controlled by fixed
time signal. It was observed that the signals were switched
off during the peak hours and the entire traffic was controlled
manually. These points to the inefficiency of the signals
installed there in handling peak demand. The existing timespace diagram is shown in Fig. 2. The bandwidth is about 11
s towards south and 15 s towards north, which is very less.
The average control delay experienced by a through vehicle
along this corridor was found to be in the range of 20 -25
seconds. The average stream speed along this corridor is as
low as 14 kph and the variation in speed of different types of
vehicles is about 10 per cent to 15 per cent.
Fig. 2 Existing time-space diagram
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL

COORDINATION USING FUZZY LOGIC
APPROACH
In this study an attempt was made to develop fuzzy rules

to effectively design a two traffic signal coordination
incorporating both quantitative and qualitative parameters.
Quantitative parameters considered were volume to capacity
ratio, average stream speed and delay. The qualitative
parameter considered was quality of progression. Volume
to capacity ratio, average stream speed and quality of
progression were the input parameters and delay was taken
as the output parameter.
4.1
preferences and/or experience. The triangular membership

function is the most frequently used function and the most
practical one. In this study triangular membership functions
were used for all parameters because of its simplicity.
Linguistic expressions, like, low, medium, high, very high
were used for quantitative input parameters like, average
stream speed and volume to capacity ratio and terms like,
poor, unfavourable, random arrival, favourable, highly
favourable and excellent were used for expressing quality
of progression. Delay which is taken as the output parameter
was expressed in terms of low, medium, high. Ranges of
quantitative parameters (delay and average stream speed) as
well as the qualitative parameter needed for developing fuzzy
rules were determined on the basis of a questionnaire survey
conducted from among the users of the selected corridor. 150
users of the selected corridor were interviewed. Through the
questionnaire survey, users response regarding the delay he/
she experiences at present while traveling through the study
stretch, the acceptable delay, acceptable average stream
speed and acceptable quality of progression were obtained.
These responses were to be related to the traffic volume
during his/her period of travel, so that the volume to capacity
value corresponding to his/her time of travel was obtained.
For this hourly traffic volume was collected from 7 am to
6 pm on a typical working day and based on the time of
travel (which is recorded in the questionnaire) the responses
of the user regarding delay experienced and acceptable,
average stream speed and acceptable quality of progression
were linked to the actual traffic volume (vph) and thus the
corresponding volume to capacity ratio. An expert opinion
survey was conducted for fixing the ranges of member ship
function for volume to capacity. As per IRC: SP:41-1994,
intersection capacity should be equal to the capacity of the
approach roads. In the present study the major road approach
is 4 lane divided arterial road. The value of capacity was
taken as 2600 pcu /hr/ direction as per IRC: 106-1990. The
acceptable average speed and average delay obtained from
questionnaire survey are shown in Fig. 3 and 4 respectively.
It shows that majority of the users of the corridor preferred
an average speed in the range of 35 kph to 45 kph and an
average delay of 15 s/ veh / cycle length to 30 s/ veh / cycle
length. Fig. 5, 6 and 7 show the membership functions
selected for the quantitative parameters.
Selection of Membership Function and Fixing of

Range
Fuzzy logic implements human experiences and preferences

via membership functions and fuzzy rules. Fuzzy membership
functions can have different shapes like triangular,
trapezoidal, bell shaped etc, depending on the designers
Fig. 3 Average speed preferred by the users
35
found from the user perspective through the questionnaire

survey. Once this value was determined, another parameter
called platoon ratio, RP (HCM, 2000) can be found for a
known value of green time to cycle length ratio as given in
equn. 1.
equn. 1
where,
Fig. 4 Acceptable delay preferred by the users
RP = platoon ratio
P= proportion of the total approaching vehicles in movement
arriving during the phase
C= cycle length at the downstream signal, s
g= green time for the phase at the downstream signal, s
Fig. 5 Ranges of membership function chosen for volume to capacity ratio
The classification of RP into six linguistic variables and

their ranges was based on the work reported by (Suhas,
2005). Ranges of membership functions assigned to the
qualitative parameter, quality of progression is shown in
Fig. 8. Fig. 9 gives the variation in the user perception with
respect to as obtained through the questionnaire survey. It
can be inferred from this Fig. that maximum number of the
users (60 per cent)
Fig. 6 Ranges of membership function chosen for average stream speed

Fig. 8 Ranges of membership function chosen for quality of progression
Fig. 9 Variation in the user perception with respect to P
Fig. 7 Ranges of membership function chosen for the output delay
The qualitative parameter, quality of progression was taken

as an indication of the proportion of the total traffic (P ) that
can effectively utilize green time and move without delay
through the corridor. The value of this parameter ( P) was also
36
preferred that about 60 per cent -85 per cent of the total
approaching traffic should be able to effectively utilize green
and clear the corridor without delay. A rough estimate of g/C is
required initially to estimate the value of RP In the present study
a C of 65 s and of g 45 s as obtained for the same corridor in a

separate study done by the authors (Manjusha and Ashalatha,
2008) was used. Using the average value of P preferred by
majority of users and a C value of 65 s and g value of 45 s,
the preferred platoon ratio RP was found out as per equation
(1). The preferred value of P as revealed by the questionnaire
survey was later used as one of the input parameters to the
rule base viewer in MATLAB 7.0.1 version.
4.2
Formulation of Fuzzy Rules Using Scoring

Technique
Fuzzy rules, which describe relationships in a linguistic

sense, are written as antecedent consequent pairs of IFTHEN statements. Once the ranges of quantitative as well
as qualitative parameters were determined, fuzzy rules were
formulated using scoring technique. For this a survey of the
users of the corridor was required. 150 users of the corridor
were surveyed. Care was taken to ensure that those who were
surveyed were frequent travellers through the selected corridor
and could understand the functioning of signal coordination
when briefed upon. The survey was conducted in two stages;
the score stage and numeric level indication stage. The factors
considered under score stage were volume to capacity ratio,
average stream speed, quality of progression and delay. In the
score stage participants were asked to assign scores to (rate)
the various factors in the questionnaire. The factor score
(out of 12) represents the degree to which the participants
rate the important quantitative and qualitative parameters
which is needed for designing the signal coordination. In the
numeric level identification stage, each participant was asked
to indicate an average value for each of the levels (expressed
as linguistic variables) mentioned under each parameter.
Modeling of fuzzy rule base adopted in the present study is
based on the assumption that the linguistic variable for the
output parameter, delay can be determined from the sum of
the products of the attribute scores and the perceived level
scores of the input parameters. Formulation of fuzzy rules
using scoring technique is explained here with the help of an
illustration.
In the questionnaire survey each user was asked to prioritize
the parameters of traffic signal coordination. Out of the
various combinations of the orders of priorities obtained from
the survey, the one which was preferred by the maximum
number of users was selected. As per the present study the
combination - average stream speed, acceptable delay, quality
of progression and volume to capacity (in the decreasing
order of priority) was preferred by majority of the users. The
scores (out of 12) for the corresponding parameter were also
assigned by the user. The average value of scores for each
of these parameters was then found out. The average values
are given in Table 1. For the combination of the parameters
preferred by majority of the users, the score given to each of

the levels expressed as linguistic variables (out of 12) was
also averaged out. The average values are given in Table 2.
Table 1 Preferred order and scores assigned
Parameters
Average stream speed
Score ( out of 12)

12
Acceptable delay
Quality of progression
Volume to capacity ratio
11
8
6
Table 2 Score for the linguistic variable for each

parameter
Factor/ weight
Average stream
speed ( 12/12)
Delay ( 11 /12)
Volume to capacity
ratio ( 6 /12)
Quality of progression ( 8 / 12)
Term
Low
Medium
High
Very High
Low
Medium
High
Low
Medium
High
Very High
Poor
Unfavorable
Random
Favourable
Highly favourable
Excellent
Score
3
6
9
12
12
6
0
12
9
6
3
0
2
4
6
8
12
Based on the priority preferred by majority of the users and

scores obtained for each parameter as well for each linguistic
variable, the fuzzy rules were formulated.
A sample rule formulation is given below.
If the average stream speed is high, volume to capacity
is low and quality of progression is random, then the
linguistic variable to be assigned to delay can be worked out
as follows (using the values from Table 1 and Table 2).
Score obtained for average stream speed
=
12/12
Score obtained for high average stream speed = (12/12) *9
Score obtained for volume to capacity ratio =
6/12
Score obtained for low volume to capacity = (6/12)*12
Score obtained for quality of progression
=
8/12
Score obtained for random quality of
progression
= (8/12) *4
Score obtained for delay = (12/12)* 9 + (6/12)*

12 + (8/12)* 4 = 17
This value is greater than 12; hence for this combination
of input parameters, the linguistic variable for the output
parameter delay is low (as per Table 3).
37
Using this scoring technique 96 fuzzy rules were formulated

with various combinations of the parameters. The rules were
cross checked using neuro fuzzy technique.
Fuzzy logic is a rule based system. The input to the fuzzy
system is a scalar value that is fuzzified. The set of rules
is applied to the fuzzified input. The output of each rule is
fuzzy. These fuzzy outputs need to be converted into a scalar
quantity so that the nature of the action to be performed can
be determined by the system. This process of converting a
fuzzy output into a scalar quantity is called defuzzification.
There are many defuzzification techniques available. Centriod
defuzzification technique was used in the present study.
4.3
Selection of Common Cycle Length
To determine the common cycle length to be adopted for

coordination the following procedure was adopted. For
a given value of volume to capacity ratio and quality of
progression as preferred by the maximum number of users
(60per cent - 85per cent), in the fuzzy logic tool box the
average stream speed was varied within the logical limits
(25 kph-35 kph) till a minimum delay was obtained. An
interface was developed between fuzzy logic tool box and
the MATLAB program which calculated the cycle length
as per Websters delay model (Webster, 1961). The cycle
length was determined using the MATLAB program based
on the minimum delay obtained through the fuzzy logic
rule viewer. Once the cycle length was obtained, the green
time was apportioned among the two phases based on the
ratio of approach flow to saturation flow. Saturation flow
rate was determined using U.K. method. Fig. 10 shows the
procedure adopted for designing a two phase traffic signal
co-ordination using fuzzy logic.
the range of 720 vph to 1080 vph this range was adopted
for comparison. The various measures of effectiveness like
bandwidth, efficiency and attainability were determined for
this range. Table 4 gives the design parameters as well as
the measures of effectiveness obtained for a through traffic
volume of 720-1080 vph.
Table 3 Details of traffic signal coordination at different
flow values
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Flow values
(vph)
<360
360 - 720
720 - 1080
1080 - 1440
1440 - 1800
1800 -2400
Cycle
lengths (s)
70
75
80
85
90
90
Offset
(s)
22
22
24
30
34
40
Speed
(kph)
35-40
35-40
30-35
30-35
20-25
20-25
Efficiency Attainability
(per cent)
(per cent)
66
94
65
94
64
92
62
91
60
86
60
86
Table 4 Design parameters and measures of effectiveness

Cycle Offset (s) Average v/c ratio at Bandwidth Efficiency Attainability
length (s)
stream Intersection
(s)
(%)
(%)
speed
No.
(kph)
I II III
80
24
30-35 0.34 0.38 0.37
51
64
92
Fig. 11 shows the time-space diagram obtained using fuzzy

logic approach for a through traffic volume in the range of
720 vph/hr-1080 vph/hr. Field control delay during the peak
hour was determined using HCM (2000) procedure. This
is compared with the average control delay obtained for a
through traffic range of 720 vph/hr-1080 vph/hr when signals
are coordinated using fuzzy logic approach. A comparison
of the delay values is given in Table 5.
Table 5 Comparison of average control delay
Condition under which delay
is determined
Existing condition
After design using fuzzy logic
Average control delay to (s/veh/cycle length)

Major traffic flow
Minor traffic flow
Intersection
Intersection
1
16
22
20
27
29
26
10
Fig. 10 Procedure adopted for designing traffic signal co-ordination
This process was repeated for various ranges of volume to

capacity from 0.1 to 1 in steps of 0.1 increments. For each
range of flow value, the average control delay per vehicle per
cycle length which provided the same quality of progression
as preferred by the majority of users for a logically accepted
average stream speed was found out. Table 3 gives the
details of the two phase traffic signal coordination designed
for various ranges of traffic flow in the major corridor. Since
the observed through traffic during peak hour falls within
38
Fig.11 Time-space diagram after coordination using fuzzy logic
VALIDATION
The proposed methodology of traffic signal co-ordination

using fuzzy logic has to be validated to ensure that it performs
satisfactorily in the field. For validation, a particular volume
to capacity ratio was selected and the quality of progression
as preferred by majority of the users, the average stream
speed was varied from 25 kph to 35 kph. The delay obtained
through the fuzzy logic rule viewer for each value of stream
speed was noted. The offset corresponding to each value
of the stream speed was found out using eqn. 2, assuming
that the signal coordination is effective and that there are no
stranglers.

off =(Lavg/Vavg
where,
off = offset, s
Lavg = Average Spacing Between Intersections, M
Vavg = Average stream speed along the section, mps
equn. 2
The value of average delay obtained for each value of stream

speed for a given volume to capacity ratio and preferred
quality of progression was plotted against the corresponding offset. Fig. 12 shows the effects of varying offsets on
average delay per vehicle per cycle length for two different
approach traffic volumes.
Fig. 12 Effect of offset on average control delay
It can be seen that for each approach traffic volume there

exists an optimum value of offset which gives the minimum
delay for a given approach volume. This trend is along
the expected lines and is in agreement with the findings
of (Sunkari et. al., 2004). Thus the methodology of traffic
signal coordination using fuzzy logic is validated.
6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To ascertain whether the proposed methodology of traffic

signal coordination is efficient various measures of
effectiveness like bandwidth, attainability, average stream

speed and average delay per vehicle per cycle length were
determined. Analysis and comparison are made for an
approach traffic volume of 720 vph/hr- 1080 vph/hr for the
reason stated earlier.
The minimum green time available for a platoon of vehicles
to pass through a system of signals without hindrance is
called the bandwidth. For the study stretch the existing
bandwidth is only 11s but when fuzzy logic approach of
signal co-ordination was used it gave a bandwidth of 51 s
for a cycle length of 80 s. Ratio of bandwidth to cycle time
is defined as the efficiency of the signal coordination and
ratio of bandwidth to minimum green time is defined as
attainability. For good signal coordination an efficiency of
40 per cent to 50 per cent is needed (Mc Shane, 1998) and
attainability should be maximum. Traffic signal coordination
using fuzzy logic approach when applied on a real corridor
gave an efficiency of 64 per cent and an attainability of 92
per cent while maintaining a quality of progression of 60per
cent to 85 per cent in the major direction. The average stream
speed improved from the existing 14kph to 32kph while
the average control delay (s/vehicle/ cycle length) reduced
significantly from 19.33 s to 6 s (69 per cent reduction) for
major road and from 27.33 s to 8 s (70 per cent reduction)
for the minor. A nonstop volume of 2295 can be attained
under this signal coordination (assuming headway of moving
platoon as 2 s) which is much better than a non stop volume
of 600 vph obtained under the existing field condition.
It has been observed through this study that fuzzy logic
approach of traffic signal coordination when applied on a set
of signals with fixed separation, maximizes bandwidth and
minimizes delay and satisfies majority users demand . All
the measures of effectiveness like bandwidth, attainability,
average stream speed and average delay per vehicle per
cycle length are much better. Hence it can be concluded
that fuzzy logic approach of traffic signal coordination
incorporating both quantitative and qualitative parameters
is a better approach. But in order to achieve the benefits of
traffic signal coordination the vehicles should travel at the
designed speed. To ensure this, desired speed of progression
should be displayed at appropriate locations along the
corridor so that vehicles can attain the required speed as and
when they enter the coordinated section.
Fuzzy logic can also take into consideration dynamic traffic
flow condition. According to the changing traffic flow, the
cycle length can be varied. In order to implement this fuzzy
system in field, fuzzy controller unit together with a system
39
Ashalatha & Manjusha on Application of Fuzzy Logic in Traffic Signal Co-ordination
of sensors are required. The sensors should be installed at

appropriate locations so that the approaching traffic can be
sensed and based on the software designed the cycle length
and phasing can be displayed. Electronic speed display
units should be provided indicating the speed at which
vehicles should traverse the section to utilize the benefits of
coordination.
Thus the present study gives a new approach towards signal
coordination where by both traffic as well as users demand
and preferences can also be incorporated in the design.
REFERENCES
1.
Chui, S. (1992), Adaptive Traffic Signal Control Using Fuzzy

Logic.
2.
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Proceedings of the IEEE

Intelligent Vehicle Symposium, 98-107.
3.
Chui, S. and Chand, S. (1993), Self Organizing Traffic Control

Via Fuzzy Logic. Decision and Control, Proceedings of the 32nd
IEEE Conference, 2, 1897-1902.
4.
HCM (2000), Highway Capacity Manual. SR 209, Transportation

Research Board, National Research Council, Washington D.C.
5.
Indian Roads Congress, (1994), Guidelines for the Design of at

Grade Intersections in Rural Area and Urban Areas. IRC SP 41,
New- Delhi.
6.
Indian Roads Congress, (1990), Guidelines for Capacity of Urban

Roads in Plain Areas. IRC: 106, New- Delhi.
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Manjusha, M. and Ashalatha, R. (2008), Design of Traffic Signal

Using Modified Conventional Method. Proceedings of the
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8.
Matlab 7 (2004), Getting Started Guide. The MathWorks, Inc.
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Niittymki, J. and Pursula, M. (1998), Signal Control Using

Fuzzy Logic. Transportation Research, 116 B (19), 11-22.
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Niittymki J. and Turunen E. (2003), Traffic Signal Control

on Similarity Logic Reasoning. Fuzzy Sets and Systems 133,
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Pappis, C. P. and Mamdani, E. H. (1977), A Fuzzy Logic

Controller for a Traffic Junction. IEEE Transactions on Systems,
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Singh, I. and Morgan, D. J. (2003), Importance of Offset in Signal

Coordination. Indian Highways, 31(12), 7-52.
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Suhas, B. K. (2005), Time and Space Allocation to Maximize

Heterogeneous Traffic Flow Through Signalized Intersections.
Unpublished, M.Tech. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai, India.
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Sunkari, S. R., Engelbrecht, R. J. and Balke, K.N. (2004),

Evaluation of Advance Coordination Features in Traffic Signal
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Texas A&M University System, Texas.
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Todd, K. (1988), Effect of Arterial Platoon Progression on

Capacity. Traffic Engineering + Control, 29 (9), 468-475.
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Tian, Z. and Urbanik, T. (2007), System Partition Technique to

Improve Signal Coordination and Traffic Progression. Journal of
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Webster, F. W. (1961), Traffic Signal Settings. Dept. of Scientific

and Industrial Research, Road Research Laboratory, Road
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Engineering. Prentice- Hall Publications, New Jersey, Second
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July - December 2012

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Rigid Pavement Response to Environment and Traffic Loading Investigated

Reinforced Cement Concrete Pavement for Village Roads in Alluvial Region:

Application of Fuzzy Logic in Traffic Signal Coordination

written comments on the papers published in this

The opinions and conclusions in this Journal are those of the

RIGID PAVEMENT RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND TRAFFIC LOADING

Rigid pavement design is largely based on past experience

response to environmental and vehicle loads may be

The response of concrete pavement slabs to environmental

DESCRIPTION OF TEST SECTIONS

Instrumented concrete pavement test sections were

Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

highway research journal, july december 2012

Kumar, Mathur & Gangopadhyay on

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Sensors were installed into concrete pavement slabs after