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HISTORIANS

THE

HISTORY
THE

OF
A

comprehensive
as

recorded
all ages

narrative

by
:

WORLD

thousand

two

over

edited,with

board

of the rise and

the

of the
of

assistance

of advisers

development

and

of nations

great writers
a

of

distinguished

contributors,

by
HENRY

SMITH

IN

VOLUME

POLAND,

EASTERN

THE

TURKEY

BALKANS,

STATES,

P? Outlook Company
New

LL.D.

VOLUMES

TW1ENTY-FIVE

XXrV"
MINOR

WILLIAMS,

CHINA,

JAPAN

Association
T^f History

York

London
1904

CoPTKionT,

By

henry

1904,

WILLIAMS.

smith

A.U

rU/hta

reaerved.

Contributors,and Editorial Revisers.

Prof. Adolf Erman,


Prof.

of
University

Berlin.

JosephHalevy,Collegeof
Prof. Thomas

K.

France.

Cheyne,Oxford University.

Prof. Andrew

C.

of Michigan.
McLaughlin,University

Prof. David

H. Miiller,
of Vienna.
University

Prof. Alfred Eambaud,

of
University

Paris.

Tokio.
Capt.F. Brinkley,

Prof. Edaard

of
Meyer,University

Dr. James

T.

Berlin.

Columbia
Shotwell,

Prof. Theodor

University.

of Strasburg.
Noldeke,University

Prof. Albert B. Hart, Harvard

University.

Dr. Paul Bronnle,Royal Asiatic


Dr. James

Prof. Ulrich

von

Wilamowitz

Gairdner,C.B., London.

of Berlin.
Mollendorff,
University

of
Prof. H. Marnali,University

Dr. G. W.

Budapest.

Columbia
Botsford,

University.

Prof. Julius Wellhausen,University


of
Prof. Franz R.

von

Drew
Rogers,

Prof. A.

Gottingen.

of Graz.
Krones,University

Prof. Wilhelm

Prof. R. W.

Society.

Soltau,Zabem

University.

Theological
Seminary.

of Budapest.
Vambery,University

of Berlin.
Prof. Otto Hirschfeld,
University

Dr. Frederick Robertson Jones, Bryn Mawr


Baron

Bernardo di San Severino Quaranta,London.


Dr. John

Dr. S.

School
Rappoport,
Prof. Hermann

College.

of Oriental

P.

New
Peters,

York.

Languages,Paris.

of Berlin.
Diels,University

Prof. C. W.

C. Oman, Oxford

University.

Prof. I. Goldziher,
of Vienna.
University
Prof. W.

L.

of
Fleming,University

West

Virginia.

Prof. R. Koser,University
of Berlin.

m\]^^

CONTENTS

XXIV

VOLUME

BOOK

POLAND

I.

CHAPTER

I
PAGE

Earliest

The

Years

Poland

of

(till

a.d.)

1382

.1
.

Early

rulers,

Wladislaw

Foundation

2.

II, 8.

Mieczyslaw

and

Boleslaw,

I, surnamed

Aristocratic
Casimir

(III) the

9.

National

27.

Great,

32.

the

house

The

Careless,

the

rulers,

of

Hedwig,
The

reigns

advanced

period

character

of

Sobieski,

knights,
Augustus,
Jagellos,

Sigismund's
Treaty

Michael's
John

by

the

49.

The

53.

of

is succeeded

Teutonic

under

Bathori,

of

decline,

Weakness

57.

Michael

of

of

reign,

(III)

the

flight of
The

75.
Poland

under

machinations,
of

the

against

69.

Stanislaus,

accession

86.

Internal

45.
The

23.

Piasts,

30.

Poland,

prize

the

The

tion,
competiSweden,

Michael

is

made

campaign,

Turkish

Vienna,

of

43.

46.

of
and

Russia,

unwiUing

relief

,40

,'

administration,

Turkey,

and

The

of

crown

The

55.

Sobieski
60.

63.

The

59.

double

access

is

The

of

III

Kingdom

(1696-1796

The

68.
of

Augustus

interregnum,
An

Sweden,

Augustus

III, 77.

The

op

disposal

Frederick

Augustus

republic,

The
72.

of

81.

the

'.'

Growth

with

Oliva,

58.

Sobieski,

Extinction

campaign

Augustus,

of

65.

The

of

Wry-mouthed,

42.

47.

wars

CHAPTER

Augustus'

the

dynasty

a.d.)

(1382-1696

Sigismund

of

Poland

of

reign

The

king,

Sigismund

the

of

I and

the

I,

II, 16.

II

Decline

and

defeat

civilisation

48.
51.

The

40.
of

I, 13.

37.

CHAPTER

Zenith

of

extinction

I, Boleslaw
Boleslaw

III, surnamed

Boleslaw

progress;

Mieczyslaw

6.

Casimir

interregnum;

20.

Louis,

Piast,

of

again

Polish

73.

of

70.

crown,

king,

Stanislaus

patriotism,

of

The

the

ment
dethrone-

intervention;

Augustus'

Czartoryski,

Augustus,
86.

Russian

decadence,

the

cersus

Warsaw

close

The

Political

II, 75.

Poniatow.ski
8.3.

capitulation

Polish

the

.67

a.d.)

85.

The

diet

of

76.
80.

first

1788,

reign,
of

State
Russian

partition
87.

The

CONTENTS

viii

of

Prussian

provinces;reverses
Poland,

king

without

the

against
The

Lithuania, 97.

in
A

99.

tide turns

dictator, 92.

fall of

in the

Uprising

patriots,95.

The

Kosciuszko, 98.

final

100.

country,

named

Kosciuszko

patriots,91.

of the

The

Kosciuszko, 93.

Victories

of
partition

revolt

The

partition,88.

second

IV

CHAPTER

PAGE

P.^RTIAL

ReSTOR.\TION

Poland,

Napoleon's policytowards
under

the

of

1863,

Reference-list

of

insurrection

BuiEF

BOOK

DISSOLUTION

(1796-1863

The

Poland,

allies and

Infractions

of the

charter,

the

leading to

Conditions

A.D.)

107.

Polish

opment
devel-

national

The

111.

insurrection

102

1846, 117.

of

121.

Authorities

Chapters

by

124

STATES

BALKAN

THE

II.

104.

charter, 108.

new

association against Russia, 114.


The

FiNAL

AND

MODEEN

AND

GREECE

CHAPTER
The

Rise

Vlad

Great,

the

Turks, 136.

and

ruin, 140.

The

Peace

131.

in the

of the

of

John

Terrible

the

Rumania

and

Impaler

the

Kutchuk-Kainardji,

the

Russo-Turkish

Earliest
The

160.
of

the

Greek
The

inhabitants

Christianisation

of the

Bulgarian Empire,

164.

Basil

Customs

ference
inter-

Russian
144.
intrigues,146.
conventions, 147. The union

151.

Bogomiles,

165.

1.56

of Slavs
first

The

and

Bulgars, 157.

Bulgarian Empire,

Crum,
Decline

163.

Bulgaria is incorporated into

168.

Death

garian
Bul-

conflict with

Ivan

the

Latins, 170.

173.

constitution,179.
War
185.

with

Asen

Bulgaria under

Prince

Scrvia,

of

183.

The

revolt

Alexander
Russian

Byzantine supremacy,
The
Asen; reign of Kaloyan, 169.

the

II,
Empire,
Bulgarian Empire, 168.

second

Empire,
Nationality recognised,177.
182.

Russian

Bulgaria

of

land, 161.
the

to

duphcity

Bulgar-Slayer, 167.

166.

Bulgarian

new

History

Bulgaria, 156.

of

tributary

Michael's

II

CHAPTER
The

Rumania

beginning of

The

142.

sions,
invaMircea

Moldavia, 130.

Brave, 138.

Rumania,

rule in

147.

and

Barbarian

period, 127.

Great, 132.

independent kingdom,

The

150.
principahties,

Michael

dependency,

Fanariot

Balkans, 143.

the

.125
.

Roman

Stephen

and

Turkish

The

125.

Rumania

of

of Wallachia
principalities

of the

Formation

128.

the

Development

and

Rumania,

of

Originalinhabitants

and

the
of

II, 171.
Turks,

1876, 178.
Russia, 180.

intrigues, 184.

and

Decline
175.

Treaty
Union

fall of the

National
of
with

Bulgaria

revival, 176.

Berlin, 178.
eastern

under

second

The

Rumelia,

Prince

nand,
Ferdi-

CONTENTS

ix

CHAPTER

III
PAGE

The
and

Origin
Milutin,
the

early history, 187.

Turks,

and

Austrian
Servia

187

.....

dynasty,

Nemanya

Urosh

189.

the

Great

and

The
decline and
fall of the
Dushan, 191.
Servia under
Kosovo, and the last struggles,194.

battle of

insurrectiofi ; Kara

Servian

administrative

New

The

19.3.

195.

Servia

of

III; expansion under

Urosh

190.

Empire,

Servian

History

regulations, 201.

Russian

George,

The

rivalry,204.

Obrenovich,
under

kingdom

mui'der

and

reign

Milosh

198.

Ser\-ia becomes

of

200.

Milan, 203.

Alexander,

204.

The

to-day, 205.

of

CHAPTER
The
The

Montenegro, 207.
the Porte, 209.

IV

Lesser

Balkan

inauguration of
Bosnia

Albania, 211.

and

States

theocratic

207
Wars

208.

government,

Herzegovina, 215.

Macedonia,

217.

with
Mount

Athos, 219.
CHAPTER
The
under

Greece

the

The

The

227.

Treaty

Greek

The

becomes
236.

Brief

Mohammedan

The

Greece

"Battle"

of

221.
Christianity,

of

The

223.

Miiller

Navarino, 233.
Otto,

Greece

is

Greece

becomes

the

Ottoman

The

Battle

the

on

dominion,

attitude

of

of

foreign

Navarino,

Crete
King George, 236.
again brought to war with Turkey,
235.

agitation, 238.

Reference-list

of

Summary

Chronological

Authorities

of

by

History

the

Chapters

of

239

Balkan

the

States

and

Modern

Greece

BOOK

conspiracy of Catherine

227.

King

221
.

Finlay on
European sentiment, 231.

organisation of Greece, 234.


the property of the Porte, 236.

Domestic

Modern

and

government,

Kutchuk-Kainardji,

of

revolution, 228.

governments, 232.
233.

Medi.eval

of

Slavs; the introduction

The

disputed land, 223.


II, 226.

History

240

III.

THE

HISTOET

OF

THE

TUEKISH

EMPIEE
CHAPTER

Antecedents

Social

of the Chinese
266.

Anarchy
268.

the

China,

Arabs

caliphs,270.

266.

Turkish

in Turkestan
The

Manchus

five

and
masters

Nations

257

primitiveTurkish

nations, 261.

against the Turks, 263.


in

Turkish

....

The

of the Turkish

state

the

of

of languages, 258.
Classification

life,260.

Nomadic
nations, 259.
Wars
Religion of the Turks, 262.

Exploits of Pan-Tchao,
ambitions,

267.

Tibet, 269.
of

Northern

Contact

Turkish

265.

with

Islam

mercenaries

China, 271.

and

Iran

The

and

Turan,
tianity,
Chris-

in service
two

of

Chinese

CONTENTS

TemuJcnghiz Khan and the Mongohan Empire, 274.


empires and the Mongols, 272.
The
destruction
of the
Temujine takes the imperialtitle,277.
jine'sfirst battles,275.
tianity,
of Jenghiz Khan, 284.
Buddhism, ChrisThe
successors
Khwarezmian
Empire, 280.
in
286.
reaction
of
285.
Conquests
Khwarezmians,
and
Attempted
Islam,
The
last
ghiz
Jen289.
Successors
of
The election of Guj'uk, 288.
Guyuk,
Europe, 287.
The
Religious revolution,292.
routes, 292.
Khanids, 291.
great commercial

Empire

Mongolian

beginning of the fourteenth

Timur, king

oxania, 295.
relations with

of

of Tatar

by Timur,
The

Europe, 301.

splitting
up

Transoxania,

founded

Empire

298.

The

the

at

death

of

"

298.

theocratic
of

Conquest

299.

of Transof government,

system

of

Timur's

300.

Khorasan,

CiviUsation

Timur, 302.

State

294.

century,

Timur's

Transoxania, 302.

30G.

power,

CHAPTER

II
PAGE

The

Osman,

Status

327.

II, 321.

Russia

between

and

of

Ulemas,
SeUm

Turkey, 337.

Suleiman

Further

334.

Bayazid II,

Rhodes,

The

with
348.

('ampaign

356.

Literature

decline

of the

Muhammed

in

under

empire,

Murad

Last

of the

janissaries,344.

Battle

of

Mohacs,

Suleiman, 363.
Selim

366.

Ahmed

I,

The

Treaty
1672

A.D.,

387.

depositionof
The
of
the

385.

Death

383.

Candia

Campaigns

of relations

349.

Influence

of the

and

War,

sultans

Mustapha

reign of terror,

377.

Murad,

372.

II, Mustapha

by

Ahmed
and

r^

Rapid

(1656-1807 a.d.)

Decline

KopriU,

The

384.

Crete, 386.

The

battle

Cossacks;

of St.

Koprili Zade

Mustapha,

396.

Koprili Hussein,

European intercourse,404.

The

Peace

Karlowitz,

janissaries,406.
with

383
.

The

origin of the

Russia

and

of
of

Passarowitz, 406.

Circassians, 407.

409.
.\ustria,

Accession

The

The

Treaty

of

campaign

403.

The

The

The

II,

ences
influ-

rebellion
war

Belgrade, 410.

of

The

Mustapha

disastrous
of

the

Gotthard;

Polish

the

reforms

War

the

for

Expedition against Persia,

The

Persia,408.

France,

The second
KopriH, 389.
siegeof Vienna, 389.
Two
IV; his character, 390.
religiousimpostorrs,392.

II, 394.
of

of

I, Osman

402.

Peace

with

Causes

Death

371.

of

standing
Under-

harem; Roxelana,

architecture, 365.

Persian

and

Asia, 345.

of Ahmed

Muhammed

reign of Suleiman
401.

Followed

KopriU,

Vasvar,

in

Belgrade

of

capture

Murad, 381.

Revival

of

The

340

a.d.)

(1520-1656

Character

CHAPTER

Muhairmied

relations

First

347.

Arts

II, 367.
374.

Murad's

IV, 375.
of

years

Decline

of

Hungary; siege of Vienna,

III, 373.

II, 374.
379.

meeting

France, 346.

Muhammed,

of

337.

stantinople
Con-

of

Capture

conquests

of

III

Ibrahim, gi'and vizir, 342.

I, 342.

343.

Bayazid
Battle

I, 338.

Beginning

and

I, 318.

II, 326.

329.

CHAPTER
Meridian

Murad

310
.

Christians, 322.

Muhammed

conquered Greeks,

Organisation of empire, 333.

329.

of

Treachery

Accession

325.
of

a.d.)

(1200-1520

MiUtary organisation,315.

Murad

320.

war,

Aggrandisement

of

314.

Scanderbeg,

323.

Varna,

Orkhan,

312.

Civil

I, 319.

Period

of

with

The

CONTENTS
Treaty of

1740

The

411.

a.d.,

reign of Mustapha

412.

The

death

of Mustapha,

419.

Pasha

SeUm

III,422.

III,

411.

between

Turkey

War

412.

Catherine's

Hassan, 420.

Wahhabees,

"oriental

with

Relations
and

Russia,
the

Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji hastens

The

418.

rise of the

xi

The

fall of Turkey,

Porte

The

project,"421.

Europe,

414.

declares

war;

PAGE

Turkey

Reference-list

Brief

Authorities

of

Summary

Chronological

BOOK

between

War

History

Selim

I and

organisation of the country,


The

449.

revolt

of

The

The

of

conquest

expedition

The

Egypt

to

Egypt,

The

444.

Mehemet

447.

of the

intervention

Egypt,

443

444.

French

Ali, 4.51.

Mehemet

STATES

Modern

and

the Mamelukes,

446.

438

Mediaeval

of

437

MINOE

CHAPTER

The

425

Turkey

of

SOME

lY.

Vambery

Chapters

by

History

the

of

A.

By

Century.

Nineteenth

the

in

Ali,
The

453.

powers,

last days of Mehemet


The
of
The
Ali, 454.
successors
investiture,454.
in
Tewfik
Ismail
Mehemet
Pasha, 459.
English intervention
Ali, 455.
Pasha, 457.
International
463.
Internal
459.
4
61.
Progress of
problems,
Egypt,
reorganisation,
The Anglo-Egyjatian
Sudan, 466.
reform, 464.
Fashoda, 465.
firman

of

CHAPTER

Small

The

Berbers, 467.

States

Dynasties and

of

472.

467

....

of northern

469.

Saadians,

Africa

Northern

sects

The
Foreign relations,470.
Hassanian
dynasty, 473.
476.
Conflict
Occupation of Algiers,476.
The
Ottoman
of
organisation
barossa, 479.
regencies, 481.
Algeria in the nineteenth

Morocco,

II

conquest
Turkish
with

Africa, 468.
of the

Sudan, 471.
in the

conquests
Charles

Africa,479.
century, 483.

The

Fall

north

of

Successors

V, 477.
The

sherifate of
of the

Africa,
of Bar-

Corsairs; the

Tunis, 485.

Barbary
TripoU and

Barca, 487.

CHAPTER

The

Religion,

Babism,
A

489.

493.

Chronological

History

of

Literature,

Persia

Medi.eval

491.

in the nineteenth

Summary

of

the

III

Barbarian

488

Persia

Modern

and

Sufic

invasions,491.

dynasty,

492.

century, 494.

History

of

Persia
.

"

496

CONTENTS

xii

IV

CHAPTER

PAGE

The

States

Bittfer

Asia

Central

of

500
....

'

Afghanistan,
The

of

Kovenimcnt

Tibet,
Siam,

India, 513.

Farther

History,

500.

Refere.\ce-list

BOOK

HISTORY

The

retribution, 527.

The

state, 530.
the

of

system

and

and

Indo-Chiua,

517.

land

of

and

AJSTD

JAPAIST

I
Chinese

Civilisation

523
....

Official

the

Confucius, 525.
people, 523.
The
Confucius, 526.
worship of spirits,527.

Chinese

sects, 529.

Buddhism,

and
the
super-\-isors,
Learning, hterature, art, 530.

Mandarins,

family,534.

522

CHII^A

OF

Psychology

of the

Characteristics
to the

512.

Chapters

by

CHAPTER

according

Bhutan,

510.

French

History, 515.

People,514.

Authokities

of

THE

T.

history,

capital,507.

The

505.

Nepal,

509.

Foreign relations,519.

Early history, 518.


Brief

513.

of

Outline

508.

People,

Tibet, 504.

501.

History

532.

army,

The

Tao

reUgion
teaching

doctrine,

530.

Education, agriculture,

II

CHAPTER
The

530.

Moral

of

542

China

Keen-lung and Kea-king, 545.


dynasty, 544.
The progress
545.
Taiping rebellion,
Hung-Siu-Tsuen, 546.
The
of Taiping power;
the Triads, 547.
customs
Foreign interests in Shanghai, 549.
of Kwang
The accession
The collapseof the Taiping rebellion,552.
Su,
service,550.
Murder
The
552.
of Mr. Margary, 553.
553.
tributary
states;
consoUdation,
Imperial
Korea
anil Japan, 554.
Construction
555.
in the interior,
Tongking and Hanoi, 555.
The moral results of the struggle,
with Japan,
War
557.
557.
Anti-foreign agitations,
The Treaty of Shimonoseki
558.
559.
intervention,
Valley
dispute,
Mekong
; European
560.
Port
ence,"
door"
and
561.
Kiaochow,
Arthur, Wei-Hai-Wei,
"spheres of influ"Open
562.
The reform edicts,
564.
Railway concessions,564. The reform movement,

Early dynasties,542.
leading

Conditions

The

565.

coup

Diplomacy
The

569.

German
The
Yalu

at

to

The

d'etat,566.

bay,

567.

The

flightof the Chinese


agreement,

Manchu

the

572.

Manchu

ascendency,

action

of the

court, 571.

The

Bvmmary

of

Early

The
negotiations,572.
China-Japan War of 1894-95,

Japanese

History.

Boxer

siege

Manchurian
575.

567.

movement,

legations,

of the

situation,571.
political

574.
i)rotocol,
Battle,576.
Wei-Hai-Wei,577.

peace

The

568.

The

CHAPTER
A

powers,

The

566.

The

.\nglo-

convention, 573.

Kowshing incident,576.

III

By Captain

F.

Brinkley

579
.

CONTENTS

xiii

CHAPTER

IV
PAGE

Old

Foreign
in

Japan,

relations,

ships

in

607.

American

Japanese

Japanese

with

account

with

Perry's

Japanese

First

599.

coming,

prisoners,

nation's

idea,

628.

The

with

Korea,

Korean
631.

representative
of

of
with

1900,

the

China,
656.

of

of

the

and

insurrection,

of

the

Foreign

Events

of

Russo-Japanese

War,

First

of

and

in

Perry's

The

Korean

Foreign

of

radical

parties,

631.

The

636.

639.

The

of

foreigners,

Status

question,

interference,

ures,
meas-

Treaty

Development

632.

progress,

624.

government,

Formosa,

to

Finance,
643.

revolution,

representative

progressist

638.

the

Adoption

626.

essays

Steps

649.
654.

of

Expedition

628.

632.

prospects,

war,

Character

reformers,

parties,

wars,

the

of

623

623.

liberal

two

Commercial

641.

the

effects,

The

633.

Fusion

648.

its

significance

609.

Japan

627.

question

Japan,

651.

Samurai,

Russians,

changes,
of

Satsuma

637.

press,

early

Motives

government,

1890,

Trade

the

625.

Treatment

627.

640.

in

part

anti-feudal

of

expedition,

the

Dutch

American

620.

successors,

New

The

of

601.

Rescue

603.

view

and

English

Russia,

Perry's

Japanese

Perry's

CHAPTER

The

591.

witli

Commodore

60S.

618.
of

Portuguese,
contact

made

Japan,

account

586

the

by

seen

Russians

602.

waters,

of

as

China,

intercourse

620.

treaty,

Trade

597.

Japan

590.

Japan

650.

655.

national
645.

The
Chinese

of
tution
consti-

debt,
dom
Free-

rupture
crisis

of

657.

APPENDIX

Documents

I.
II.
III.
IV.

Constitution

of

Commercial

Treaty
AND

Prince

Treaty

Constitution

of

of

Japan

Offensive

Relating

History

Shotoku

Negotiated
the

Japanese

to

Empire
and

661
by

of

Defensive

Mr.

Harris

664

Japan

665
Alliance

between

Great

Britain
670

PART

XXV

THE

THE

TURKEY,
STATES,

CHIEFLY

J.

BLAREMBERG,
J.

UPON

BOWRING,

DARMESTETER,

H.

PURGSTALL,

R.

J.

E.

MARCEL,

J.

MORRIS,
J.

BAUD,

G.

E.

LARPENT,

W.

MULLER,

M.

WEBER,

J.

JIRICEK,
DE

CREASY,

DE

A.

DE

LA

LAVELEYE,

NITOBE,

I.

G.

O.

WOLFF,

WITH

C.

D.

ROSEN,

A.

RAFFENEL,

W.

RAM-

RUSTOW,

XENOPOL

CHAPTER

ON

NINETEENTH

THE

S.

HAMMER-

A.
M.

J.

E.

VON

LUTTKE,

ROESLER,

E.

IN

CHAVANNE,

GRIFFIS,

K.

J.

LAVISSE,

TOGETHER

TURKEY

J.

E.

LAMARTINE,

E.

RECLUS,

E.

W.

DE

G.

LANESSAN,

AUTHORITIES

BRTNKLEY,

FLATHE,

A.

JAPAN

FOLLOWING

HILDRETH,

JONQUIERE,

EASTERN

AND

THE

F.

T.

BALKANS,

MINOR

CHINA,

BASED

N.

THE

POLAND,

OF

HISTORY

CENTURY

BY

A.

VAMBERY
AND

SUMMARY

OF

EARLY

HISTORY

JAPANESE
BY

CAPTAIN
WITH

A.

A.

ALISON,
CAMPBELL,
W.

A.

BEER,

A.

D.

CANTEMIR,

DAY,
G.
H.

E.

J.

F.

ADDITIONAL

CITATIONS

BEVERIDGE,
V.

DESPIES,

C.

FINLAY,

J.
E.

GORST,

H.
P.

JOHNSTON,
LOUIS,
HURST,
E.

JOURNAL
T.

T.

R.

OF

H.

D'OHSSON,

R.

FLETCHER,
HERTSLET,

J.

SOBIESKI,
H.

DE

THOU,

I. YAMAGATA

C.

S.
A.

J. G.

D.

A.

HAM,
DUN-

FYFFE,

HUNG

HOWE,

T. J.

M.

LONDON

LAWRENCE,

W.

MARMONT,
NIHONGI,

C.

D.

BRINE,

COGOLNISEANO,

DOUGLAS,

MARSHAL

SAMUELSON,

J. A.

TROTTER,

K.

S. G.

RANKE,
J.

CLARKE,

JAMIESON,

G.

MURDOCK,

L. VON

L.

BOURCHIER,
S.

FRILEY,

0-0-GA\\'lITSI,

MOMMSEN,

RULHIERE,

D.
G.

M'CLATCHIE,

PLAUCHUT,
DE

J.

FROM

CHIROL,

LU-TSUEN,
H.

BRINKLEY

ROE,

R.

F. C.

M.

C. OGINSKI,

ROPELL,

SCHLOSSER,

F. VON

WALLACE,

TOTT,

H.

C. C

TIMES,
MED-

COPYEIGHT,

Bt

henry

1904,

smith

AH

THE

r!g".t3

TROW

WILLIAMS.

reserved.

PRESS

BOOK

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

CH.4PTER

EARLIEST

THE

the incessant

Amidst

decline

they

derived

are

located

were

kindred

on

influx of the Asiatic nations

both

sides

hypothesis,from

an

from

of

the

some

the Adriatic, and

Vistula

horde

All

that

the Elbe

from

long

of the

of the Poles.
^Vhether
likewise of Asiatic origin,

before

know

can

family

the

latter,or,

of the natives

we

part of the great Slavonic

formed

occasioned

the descent

trace

amalgamation

doubtful.

into

Europe, during the


migrations
by their

the

Sarmatians, who, though

from

the

barbarians, or

remain

and

Empire
vainly attempt to

should

arrival,we

POLAND

A.D.]

13S2

Roman

of the

OF

YEARS

[TILL

slow

which

the mouth

and

with

irruptionsof the
probable

stillmore

newcomers,

certainty is

stretched
of the

from

the

must

ever
for-

that

they

Baltic to

Dnieper
Borysvainly should we endeavour, from historic testimony alone, to
ascertain the originof this generic term
"slav," and the universalityof its
of the more
powerful tribes
application. Conjecture may tell us that, as some
in arms
Is glorious),
other
(itssignification
adopted it to denote their success
the same
enviable
to
tribes, conceiving that their bravery entitled them
the common
nation
denomiit likewise.
assumed
It might thus become
appellation,
of the old and
inhabitants, of the victors and the vanquished;
new
the more
readilyas most of the tribes comprehended under it well knew that
thenes).

As

the

cradle had

same

to

contained

once

people,indeed, as the Huns


remote
regions of Asia, and

(ancient

them.

Other

or

in

the

the

Avars, subsequently arrived

from

forciblysettled

places where

they
language ; hence the
which
has induced
the
Slavonic
nations
in
both
a diversity
diversity
among
But
the
of
their
writers
to deny
common
some
origin.
identity
as, in the
of
kindred
of
silence of history,affinity language will best explain the
nations,
indisbe more
and will best assist us to trace
their migrations,no fact can
more

introduced

considerable

modification

of customs
"

H.

w.

"

VOL.

xxrv.

and

of

THE

HISTOKY

OF

POLAND
[ca. 800

putable than

that

most

tribes included in the generic term


however
various
the
common
source,

of the

A.

D.]

"slavi"

the same
derived from
respective
in consequence
of their arrival,and whatever
changes were
produced
perioiis
by struggleswith the nations, by intestine wars, and by the irruptionof
and in speech. Between
the Pole and the
other hordes cUisimilar in maimers
and though it is fainter among
the
Russian is this kindred relation striking:
with
the
followers
of
their
and
from
incorporation
AttUa,
Hungarians
among
tlieir long intercourse with the Teutonic
from
the Bohemians
nations,it is
yet easilydLscemible.*
Of these Slavonic tribes,those which
occupied the countrj' bounded
by
the Oder
those
Prussia
and the Carpathian Mountains, by the Bug and
who were
located on both banks of the \'istula were
the progenitors
especially
were

"

"

Pole Ls not
The word
of the present Poles.
to have been originally
and seems
appliednot
region they inhabited;polska in the Slavonic
or

older than
so

much

the tenth

century,

people as to the
tongue signifyinga level field
to

the

plain.
RULEKS

E.\RLY

The

Prior to the ninth century


nation are not of ancient date.
of
tribes
multitude
independent of each other, and
splitinto a
known
by their respectivechiefs; no general head was
except in

Poles

they were
governed

as

of invasion, when

case

alone

combination

could

the country

save

yoke. Like all other people, however, they lay claim


that
us
respectable;their old writers assure

to

the

from

ciently
antiquitysuffi-

an

of the immediate
one
But the absurdity
colonised this part of ancient Sarmatia.
and
less
be
too
to
gant
extravasupported,
long
apparent
satisfied with assigningthe period of their incorporation
historians were
Lech I, who reigned,say they, about the middle of
as
a people to Leszek
or
better understood, even
As the laws of evidence became
the sixth century.
this era was
the
authentic
opening of Polish history
modestly abandoned, and

descendants
of Noah
of the claim was

three centuries
brought down
namely, to the accession
reserved for the Polish writers of our
A.D.
Finally,it was

of

Semowit,
day to
abstract another
century from the national existence,and hail Mieczyslaw I
the true founder of the monarchy .as
But though the severity of historical criticism has rejectedas fabulous,or
transactions
at least doubtful, the period antecedent
to Mieczyslaw I, many
is the only
credible.
admitted
of that
mdeed,
Tradition,
as
period are
be
garded
it
but
for
of
cannot
the
existence
wholly disreprecedingrulers,
authority
and
darkness
enable
first
of
beams
visible
the
its
us
time,
:
are
through
of
the
think
that
of
rulers
whatever
those
to perceive
we
existed,
some
may
recorded concerningthem.
For this reason
events
they may properlyoccupy
was

"

860

The

'

and

Lithuanians, thoufjh their histon-

Poles,

they

are

have

been

be

found

Slavonic,
originally

deemed

of

is

fact

Gothic, by others

so

closelyconnected

with

sufficientlyclear from
of .\lanic

descent.

that

their

to

the

three, but

suitable

lan^age. B^'some

Many Gothic words, mdeed,


of
the basis, however,
is none

if too young,
of the uncles
cliosen.
The
one
was
.\ges. What
ver"- clearlydefine"l in any country during tlie Middle
the propriety
of the divi.sion of rulers into tliose wlio held the

laws

always
seem

still more

monarchs

fined
con-

if at

elected

of succession

confirms
crown

was

not

stronclv

heredity and those


ie Valois, the Polish

by

by election is the fact that, previous to the time of Henri


harcdes rcgni Polonice,and that, from
the accession
of the
styled themselves
insisted on the disuse of the hereditarj"
title.
prince,the nobles in the pacta conventa

who

held

age;

Muscovites

of the

Latin
and Greek;
in their language, but more
something perhaps resembling the Finnish.
elected, but the election
During the reign of tne Jagellos the kings were
to one
family, which
wa-s
was
iiidisputatjly
hereditary; the eldest son

are

'

not

own

French

OF

HISTORY

THE

POLAND
[750-800

sacrificed to the

A.

D.]

gods, she threw

crueltv,having one day


her o^ii
of the Vistula and there perished.
the waters
.,,",,
of Cracus.
Again, it is said,the fickle
With this princessexpiredthe race
the yoke
multitude divided the sovereignpower, and subjectedthemselves to
l:"eenconfounded
have
evidently
; either
The
two
periods
of twelve palatines.
at

remorse

herself into

existed, or" an hypothesis,however, not very probable"


never
the power
have
tribes,it may
to the Slavonic
common
this form of government was
as
of
the
Piasts.
domination
the
Poland
to
in
admitted
prior
been the only one
effect of this partitionof power.
immediate
the
was
told,
are
we
Anarchy,
chiefs were
weak, mdolent, and wicked, the tyrants of their subjects
The new
were
In vain did the people groan ; their groans
and enemies of each other.
and their efforts to shake off the bondage they had imposed on

disregarded,

by the power of their rulers,who always


threatened.
their privileges
were
of the Himgarians,
invasion
increased
an
wretchedness
by
was
The general
and
who
inclmed to
the
were
Poles,
from the same
who had sprung
originAs
The
and
the
chiefs
people.
palatines,
profitby the dissensions between
too
the country which
they oppressed,were
to defend
whose
duty it was
their
of
vmpopularity,to
weakness, and still more
conscious of their own
action with the enemy.
Nothing but subjugation and ruin aprisk an
peared
averted by the genius of
both w^ere
to the dismayed natives, when

rendered abortive
themselves were
considerable
exhibited
encrgj- when

man.

one

but

Though

Przemyslaw aspiredto the glory of liberating


simplesoldier,

had the merit


One dark night,he adopted an expedient which
his country.
since
been imitated
has
and
which
recommend
never
least
to
it,
at
of novelty"
he
formed
barks
of
and
trees
the
branches
images
by any other general. With
stances
with lances,swords, and bucklers ; these he .smeared with certain subof men
render
the
illusion
and
of the sun
more
to reflect the rays
proper
striking. He placed these on a hill on the border of a forest directlyopposite

stratagem succeeded; the followingmorning


despatched to dislodgethe audacious few who
the excellence of their position. As the assailants
the
reflection ceased, and they were
the
surprised to find
plain,
approached
forms
of
The
fantastic
but
trees.
same
however, of
appearance,
nothing
and
discovered
distance:
it
armed
soldiers was
at a
imiversallybelieved
was
back
tenable
to occupy
that the Poles had fallen
a more
rians
post. The Hungaenveloped
pursued until,artfullydrawn into an ambuscade, they were
to

The

Hungarian

the

camp.
troops of the enemy
appeared to confide in
some

were

massacred.

and

the object of Przemyslaw;


was
now
scarcelyless extraordinarj'.He
of the slain Hungarians,
clothed some
armour
while another body of
and marched
them boldly towards
the enemy's camp,
destination.
circuitous
hastened
towards
the
same
Having
Poles, by
paths,
Panthe astonished
thus reached the outposts, the former suddenly fell on
added
fonvards
from
to
while
the
another
direction,
nonians;
latter,
rushing
In
horrors
vain
the bloody
of the scene.
did the invaders attempt a combined
defence; before the}-could be formed into anj'thinglike systematic
order they were
cut ofT almost
to a man,
notwithstandingindividual acts of
bravery which called forth the admiration of the a.ssailants.^
The
victor
rewarded
with a sceptre; the twelve
was
palatines were
deposed, and he was thus confirmed in an authorityundivided and absolute.
How

it

'

to

was

Of this

insure

the destruction

of the rest

attained by another stratagem


of his followers in the garb and

expeditionno

mention

is made

by

tlie

Hungarian writers; it is probably fabulous.

THE

EARLIEST

YEARS

OF

POLAND

[80O-815A.D.]
from
of Leszek I, which he assumed
to the celebrated
reverence
of Gnesen, he reigned with equal glory and happiness. Unhowever, for the natives,he left no children ; the palatinesarmed,
fortmiately,
others to seize on the
the restitution of their allegedrights,
enforce
to
some

the

Under

name

founder

But

the voice of the country, to which

experiencehad at
loudly
a
against partitionof sovereignty
length taught a
ceased
to
chiefs
the
a
common
that
interest;each laboured
pursue
assembled
for himself.
to fill
According to ancient usage, the people were
their
But
to choose,where
throne by
the pretensions
the vacant
suffrages.
of the candidates were, to outward
nearly balanced, and yet
appearance,
of an
the consequences
where
improper choice might be forever fatal to
the risk was
difficult. Where
so
was
great, they piouslyconcluded
liberty,
safer to leave the event
to the will of the gods than to human
that it was
foresight.
to be the prizeof victory.
A horse-race was
was
decreed,in which the crown
to artifice: the course, which
One of the candidates had recourse
lay along a
the banks of the Pradnik, he planted with sharp iron points,
vast plain on
In the centre, however, he left a space
and covered them with sand.
over
without
which he might pass
danger ; but lest he should accidentally
diverge
from it,he caused his horse to be shod with iron plates,against which
the
to promise success
to his
Everything seemed
points would be harmless.
discovered
by two young
as
roguishingenuity,when the secret was
men,
One of them
one
day amusing themselves on the destined course.
they were
silent through fear,the other through cunning. On the appointed day
was
the candidates arrived,the race
was
opened, and the innumerable
spectators
waited the result with intense anxiety. The inventor of the stratagem left
all the rest far behind him except the youth last mentioned, who kept close to
his horse's heels;and who, just as the victor was
about to claun the prize,
The
former was
exposed the unworthy trick to the multitude.
immediately
sacrificed to their fury; and the latter,
of his courageous
as the reward
conduct,
of his birth,was
invested (804)with the ensigns
notwithstandingthe meanness
of sovereignty[with the title of Lesko
II].
duke was
hmnble
The new
and rational enough to
enough to remember
He
with
the garacknowledge his low extraction.
care
preserved
religious
ments
in his lowly fortunes,and on which he often gazed
which he had worn
with
His temperance, his
greater satisfaction than on his regal vestments.
love of jastice,
his zeal for the good of his people,are favourite themes of the
power.

supreme

good lesson,declared

old

chroniclers.

Leszek

III

so

TSIO) inherited

the

of his father ; for though of his twenty-one sons


incontinency would scarcelybe considered a blemish

name

virtues
one

no

less than

only was

the

legitimate,

in a pagan
and a Slav.
brilliant reign,ennobled
in war
in
and wisdom
by success
his
his
dominions
to
subjectingall,
however,
peace,
sons,
among
the authorityof his lawful successor, Popiel I (815). Of this prince little is

After

beyond

known
After
a

short but
he divided

his jealousyof his brothers and


base and ignoblelife he was
succeeded

his addiction

by

his son,

debauchery.
PopielII,while yet
to

child.
The

fosteringcare

of the

to have been as
uncles,whose fidelity
appears
honourable,
rare
as
was
preserved the throne to the chief of their house.
But the princeshowed
them no gratitude; he was, indeed,incapableof such a
sentiment ; every day he exliibited to his anxious
feature
new
guardianssome
of depravity,which,with a commenflable
to conceal
prudence,they endeavoured
from
the nation, in the hope that increasing
would
tion.
reformabring
years
Their pious exhortations were
in vain ; he proceeded from bad to worse
;

it

POLAXD

OF

HISTORY

THE

[815-842

A.

D.]

the dissipated" with


"

drunkards, spendthrifts,
jesters. To correct one of his vices at
chievous
procuredfor him: the expedient failed;it had even a misleast,a wife was
avaricioas and malignant, and was
but
was
effect,since his consort
of her designs. On reachinghis
the instrument
too successful in making him
safe from his lust,
was
majority his passionsburst forth with fury; no woman
his
his crueltyat
His
his
from
extortions,
debaucheries,
man
no
revenge.
who
resolved
of
his
boimds
set
to
exhausted
the
to his
people,
patience
length
headed
his
who
ficed
sacriformidable
The
by
confederacy was
uncles,
excesses.
their
ambition.
To
dissolve
their
the ties of blood to
patriotismor
it,
he was
stimulated alike by his own
time to gratifyhis revenge,
and at the same
malignityand by the counsels of his wife. He feignedsickness,sent for his
with them, and poisoned them in the wine
his peace
uncles,as if to make
He even
carried his wickedness
which was
produced for their entertainment.
far as to refuse the rites of sepultureto his victuiis.
so
divine justiceprepared a fit pvmishment for this
But, say the chroniclers,
From
and
Jezebel.
the imburied
countless
Sardanapalus
a
corpses
sprang
of rats, of an
multitude
which
filled
the
size,
enormous
inmiediately
palace
In vain were
and sought out the guiltypair and their two
children.
great
numbers
In vain did the ducal family
advanceil.
destroyed:greater swarms
enclose themselves withhi a circle of fire ; the bomidarj'was
soon
passedby the
ferocious anmials, whicli,with unrelentingconstancy, aimed
and them
at them
alone.
They fled to another element, which availed them as little. The rats
followed them to a neighbouringlake, plimged into the water, and fixed their
teeth in the sides of the vessel,in which they would soon
have gnawed holes
sufficient to let in the water and sink it,had not Popielcommanded
the sailors
he associated with
and fornicators,"or

to land

him

shore as
on
and left him
to

on
soon

but

none

with

island

an
as

he.

and

mimics

at hand.
near
His attendants

In
now

vain ; his inveterate enemies


were
recognisedthe fingerof heaven,

to his fate.

neighbouringtower

fled
Accompanied by his wife and children,he now
the highestpinnacle: stillthey followed ;
; he ascended

neither doors nor


bars could resist them.
His two
sons
then the duchess,then himself,and so completely that not

were
a

first devoured,
bone remained
of

the four.
With Popiel was
the legitimaterace
of
extinguishefl
of the murdered
uncles remained, the eldest of whom,

royalty;but the sons


with"the aid of his
to
the
throne.
the
brother,aspired
Again
palatinesstepped forth to \indicate the ancient form of government.
The two partiesdisputed,quarrelled,
armed
their adherents
and, lastly,
to decide the question by force; but the
more
convinced
that a problem
enlightenedportion of the nation was
not
affectingthe happiness or misery of millions ought to be resolved in such a
Two
assemblies
were
way.
successivelyconsulted at Ivruswick,to discuss
the respectiveclaims of monarchy and oligarchy;but the forces,if not the
argument"5, of the two partieswere
so
nearlyequal that nothing was decided.
Both were
of arms,
when
preparingto try the efficacy
heaven, in pity to the
and miraculouslyfilled the vacant
people,again interfered,
throne.

FOUND.\TION

There

dwelt

in Kruswick

OF

THE

HOUSE

OF

PIAST

(842 A.D.)

but A-irtuous man, named


a poor
Piast
so
poor,
his wants
but scantilysuppliedby a small pieceof ground
were
which he cultivated with his own
that the blessings
hand", and so \artuous
of thousands
accompanied his steps. He had a wife and a son, both worthy

indeed,that

"

EARLIEST

THE

YEARS

OF

POLAND

A.D.]
[84:i-893
He

lived contented in his poverty, which he had no wish to remove,


had wisdom
from
enough to perceive that the state most
exempt
favourable
is the most
to virtue, and consequently to happiartificialwants
ness.
should be fii'stshorn of his locks
the time arrived that his son
When
of him.
since he

of hair and
Slavs

receive

name

"

invited,as was usual


On the day appointed

he

"

of great

custom

such

on

the pagan
antiquity among
his neighbours to the cereoccasions,
mony.

two
strangers arrived with the rest, and were
honourable
to the people. Piast laid before
the
with
so
hospitality
admitted
for
furnish
their
could
entertainment:
that all,he observed,
he
his guests all
which
the
w
ith
it
offered
would
but he hoped
was
spirit
little,
compensate
was

for the lack of good cheer.


both
when, lo a miracle!

They fell to the scanty stock of viands and meal,


were
multipliedprodigiously;the more
they ate
the tables groaned under the weight of the viands.
The
and drank, the more
abroad
with
Numbers
flocked
the
to
rapidity.
daily
was
spread
portent
his
a
nd
witness
the
miraculous
share
increase
to
house
to
hospitality
peasant's
of his provisions.
A scarcityof these good things at that time afflicted the place,through
"

"

the influx of
hastened to

so

thousands

many

who

met

for the choice of

government.

AH

entertained them with princelyliberality


eral
during sev"Who
fit to rule,"was
the universal cry, "as this
successive weeks.
so
holy man, this favourite of the gods?'' Prince and palatine desisted from
and joined their suffragesto that of the people.
their respectivepretensions,
Piast
so

Piast,who

unanimously elected,in the

was

great

was

dignity;but
year 842, to the vacant
that he would
accept the glitteringhonour
in his then humble
condition,had not the two identical

his reluctance

to

forever
remained
he found to be
whom
strangers,
two angels,or at least two
have

later Christian writers consider


him with a
blessed martyrs, again favoured
to the good of the nation.
ease
visit,and prevailedon him to sacrifice his own
the golden age of Poland.
No foreignwars, no domestic
The reignof Piast was
and contentment
commotions
within,
without, abundance
; but respect from
The horror with which
his wise,firm,and paternaladministration.
signalised

gods, and whom

of Popiel'sguUt and punishment made


him abandon
he regardedthe scene
a
the place of his birth and transfer his court to Gnesen, which thus became
second time the capitalof the country.
introduced
less glorious. He was
the first chief who
Semowit's
was
no
his
had
armies
time
into
Poland.
Before
the
of
fought
they
regulardiscipline
had
been
without order or system; their onset
impetuous, and their retreat
as

sudden.

their
to

own

in due
marshalled
them
He
will to that of their oflficers
; to

the force

which

rules it; and

whenever

array;
move

as

fortune

taught them
one

surrender

obedient
adverse, to consult

vast
was

to

machine

determined
union, in a
sians,
The Hungarians, the Moravians, the Rusof Popiel,and who
had insulted the country under the feeble sway
who
despisedthe inexperienceof the son of Piast,were soon taught to fear him

but in
safety not in flight,
concentrated
resistance.
vigorous,
their

had

closer and

more

satisfied with the terror produced by his


Semowit
for peace.
was
after
not
thirsted
conquest ; he loved liis subjectstoo well to waste
arms
; he
his only
Their welfare was
of
in
their blood
gratification a selfish ambition.
and

to

sue

nobles
who
Polish
visited Paris to offer Henry of ."^njouthe
"lis admiraieni
surlout,"
the Parisians.
to
extraordinary
spectacle
sceptre
The origin of tl)is
au-dessvs."
de chevevx
toiiffe
says De Thou, "les tetes ra.tees, n'ofrant qii'xine
with religion,but convenience
perpetuated it. Long hair, which
custom
miuht be connected
the destruction
in the heat of battle,often occasioned
of an enemy
could be seized by the hands
'

The

shaven

of Poland

of the

wearer.

of the

crowns
were

an

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

[893-968A.D.]

able

An

affection his only


captain,an
sovereign,his person was adored
patriotic
affable,
long revered after death.
during life,and his memory
imitated all his virtues
Leszek IV (S92),successfully
His son and successor,
all his glory to consist in
refrained from war.
This prmce
makmg
but one.
promoting the internal happiness of the people. His moderation, his justice,
however, not very acceptable
qualities,
his active zeal,his enlightenedcare, were
who
all
who
and
for
and
ferocious
placed
martial
longed
to a
people,
war,
a
nd
of
the
Of
the
same
in
disposition,
same
pacific
conquest.
greatness
of Leszek.
estimable virtues,was
Semomyslaw (921), the son and successor
of
furnishes
materials
this
the
no
honourable
For the same
prince
reign
reason,
satisfied
with
selfvirtues
be
mast
The
u
nobtrusive
for history.
tranquil,
favour
the
divine
of the
more
splendid
; only
approbation,and a consciousness
and mischievous
qualitiesattain mimortality. That men's evil deeds are
omyslaw,
in water, is more
than poetically
in brass,their good ones
written
just.^Semwhich
has not
{posterity
however, has one claim to remembrance
the father of Mieczyslaw, the first Christian duke
failed to recognise: he was
the authentic historyof the country.
of Poland, with whom
opens
reward.

their gratitudeand
statesman, an
enlightened
care,

I, BOLESLAW

MIECZYSL.\W

fifth

This

not
posterity,

the

from

prince of the
merely from

of the

new

revolution

the duke

When

strangers

were

of
of Piast is entitled to the remembrance
ruler
of
first
Christian
but
the
Poland,
being

house
his

with which he abolished


paganism and
He
faith throughout his dominions.

success

important

to

bloodshed

without

assumed

enforced the observance


who
could effect so

been

no

acter.
char-

common

sovereigntyboth he and his subjects


by name.
By the persuasionof his nobles,
Dabrowka,
daughter of Boleslaw, king of Hungary.
the reins of

even
Christianity,

be

accepted.

instructors,anil was
requiredto believe and

was

have

must

of
the hand
he demanded
Both father and daughter refased to favour
but both declared that if he would consent

proposal would

11

MIECZYSLAW

AND

I,

After

soon

near

with a pagan ;
the faith of Christ his

connection

to embrace

deliberation

some

made

so

he consented

; he

cured
pro-

acquainted with the doctrines which

the duties he

bound

was

to

practise. The

he

royal

maiden
the day which
to his capital(965),and
was
accordinglyconducted
witnessed his regeneration by the waters
of baptism also beheld him receive
another sacrament, that of marriage.
zeal with which

The

Mieczyslaw laboured for the conversion of his subjects,


of his own.
bines,
concusincerity
Having dismissed his seven
he issued an
order
for the destruction
of the idols throughout the
He appears
to have been obeyed without
nmch
country.
opposition.
While
he was
of the nation, he was
occupied in forwarding the conversion
it against the ambition
not unfrequentlycalled to defend
the jealousyof
or
his neighbours. In 968 he was
victorious over
the Saxons, but desisted from
of Otto I,whose feudatoryhe acknowledged
hostilitiesat the imperialcommanil

left

'

no

doubt

Solipiac (Histoire

princes.
that

by

of the

He

represents

their administration

even,'

ancient

de

Polognr)

them
was

chronicler

as

weak

has

totallymisrepresented

and

useless,

vigorous, active, and


of the

country.

truth, perhaps I might say carelessness,in

am

writer

fallen

as

and

the

character

slothful.

beneficial
at

On

of

these

two

the

contran,-,
is confirmed

in a very hijh decree,


loss to account
for this perversionof

justlyheld in

esteem.

EARLIEST

THE

YEARS

OF

POLAND

[9T3-999A.D.J

Otto II, he leagued himself with


Against the son of that emperor,
other princeswho espoused the interests of Henry of Bavaria; but, like them,
not only the title but the supremacy
he was
compelled to submit, and own
himself.

He encountered
formidable
a more
sian
competitor in the Rusthe
Vladimir
who
after
the
Greeks
Great,
duke,
over
triumphing
grand
several towns.
in 986, and reduced
The Bug now
invaded Poland
bounded
of
of
the
descendants
whose
henceforth
the western
Rurik,
conquests
object

of Otto, in 973.

to the very confines of Germany.


But Mieczyslaw arrested,
could
the
of
invasion
not
torrent
vantage
addestroy,
though he
; if he procured no
he
the Russian,
Vladimir
over
opposed a barrier which induced
to
which promised greater facility
of success.
aside to enterprises
His last
turn

was

to

push them

In this contest
against Boleslaw,duke of Bohemia.
assisted with auxiliaries furnished by the emperor
Otto III, whose
and by other princesof the empire. After a short but
he had won,
favour
the Bohemian, unable to oppose
the genius of Mieczyslaw,
destructive war
fatal to tlie peace of the two countries.
sued for peace ; but this triumph was

(989-991) was
expedition
he

was

nations M^hose descent,manners,


two
Hence the originof lastingstrife between
the same, and between
and language were
whom, consequently,less animosity
might have been expected.
But
contiguityof situation is seldom, perhaps never, favourable to the

harmony

which
Silesia,

of nations.

thenceforth

exposed

to

the

was

incursions

the frontier province of


the Bohemians, and

of

experiencethe curse of its limitrophicposition. Mieczyslaw died


regrettedby his subjects.

and

I, surnamed

Dabrowka,

ascended

Chrobry,
the ducal

or

the

throne

to

versally
999, uni-

of Mieczyslaw
son
"lion-hearted,"
in 999, in his thirty-second
year,

of his people.
his infancy this princehad exhibited
and an
capacity of mind, undaunted
courage,

amidst

doomed
in

(999-1025 A.D.)

BOLESLAW

Boleslaw

Poland, was

the acclamations

From

of
qualities

a high order
great
ardent zeal for his country's
early the favourite of the Poles,
innumerable
acts of kindness
to
"

affable,generous, he was
still further gained by
individuals.
Unfortunately,however, his most splendid qualitieswere
tralised
neuhis
immoderate
by
ambition,which, in the pursuitof its own
cation,
gratifiit occasioned.
too often disregardedthe miseries
The
fame
of Boleslaw
reached
the ears
of Otto III, that emperor,
having
then in Italy,resolved on his return to Germany to take a route somewho was
what
circuitous,and pay the princea visit. He had before vowed
a pilgrimage
hallowed
remains had just been transto the shrine of St. Adalbert, whose
ported
He
received
from Prussia
to Gnesen.
was
by Boleslaw with a magnificence
which
his esteem.
No
surprisedhim, and a respect which won
his devotions performed than he testified his gratitude,
were
sooner
or
perhaps
consulted his policy,by elevatingthe duchy into a kingtlom,which he doubtless
intended should forever remain a fiefof the empire. Boleslaw was
solenmly
anointed
by the archbishop of Gnesen ; but the royal crown, it is said,was
To bind still closer the alliance between
placedon his head by imperialhands.
the two
princes,Rixa, a niece of Otto, was affianced to the son of the new
returned home
of St. Adalbert, which
he
with an
arm
king. The emperor
and a
probably considered as cheaply procured in exchange for a woman

glory. Humane,
whose

title.

affection

he

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

10

[999-1018 A.D.]

The

king

proved

soon

his

long allowed to wear


they could not ha-\-e been
not

was

that

honours

new

placed on

unmolested; he

worthier

brow.

His

the Bohemians, who


enemies were
longetlto grasp
that country, who began
duke
of
disconcerted
the
Silesia. Two
triumphs
easy
him
for allies. The
same
disgracestillattended his arms; his
to look around
his capitaltaken, with himself and
laid waste, his town.s pillaged,
fields were
first and

most

his eldest

son

inveterate

; the

loss of

of liberty,
and
sovereignty,

of his eyes, con\Tnced

soon

he had provoked. For a time his


terrifican enemy
him, when too
victor
but
the generosityor policyof Bolesof
the
;
country renuiined the prey
of the fallen
tlic
tlucal throne to Ulrich,the second son
law at length restored
Even
of the Polish arms.
alarmed
at the progress
chief. All Germany
was
formed to humble
the
Henry of Bavaria, joinedthe confederacynow

late,how

emperor,

the

Boleslaw.

prideof

Superiornumbers

chased

him

from

Bohemia, dethroned

the elder brother, the lawful heir,to the vacant


dignity.
often
the interests of Ulrich ; but, though he was
to espouse
often not indeed defeated,but constrained to elude the
as

Ulrich, and elevated


The

king returned

successful,he

was

of the

force

combined

but

tlirough Boleslaw

empire. Ulrich
through Henry,

did at
whose

length obtain the throne,not


he strengthened by his
cause

adhesion.
Peace

was

frequentlymade

thereby enabled
frontier;but

to

none

during these

obscure

contests, and

rej)iess the incursions of his enemies


could be of long continuance,where,

on
on

the

king was

other parts of his


both sides,
the love

In one
by ambition.
passionscarcelyequalledin intensityeven
of his expeditionsBoleslaw penetratedas far as Holstein,reducing the towns
all Germany with the deepest consternation.
and fortresses in his way, and filling
His conquests, however, were
but transiently
held; if he found it easy
to make
them, to retain them in oppositionto the united efforts of the princes
armies
than he could raise. He fell
of the empire requiredfar more
numerous
of his son
back on Silesia to repairthe disasters sustained by the arms
Mieczysof a separate force.
law, whose talents were
inadequate to the command
To recount
the endless alternations of victoryand failure during these
would
obscure contests
exhibit a dry record
dry as the most lifeless chronicle
of the times.
It nuLst be sufficient to observe that what littleadvantage was
gained fell to the lot of Boleslaw until the Peace of Bautzen, in lOlS, restored
peace to the lacerated empire.

of

war

was

"

But

After

the most

the

famous

death

of the

of Vladimir
his sons, the

wars

of Boleslaw

who

w-ere

had

with the dukes

of Russia.

his
Great,
imprudently
of
eldest,Sviatopolk,prince
Tver, endeavouring
among
the other principalities
to unite
under his sceptre,was
expelledthe coimtry
forces of his enraged brothers.
He took refuge in Poland,
b}'the combined
and imjjloredthe a.ssistance of the king. Boleslaw
immediately armed, not
nmch
of Sviatopolkas to regainpossession
the cause
of the provto avenge
so
inces
which
had
Vladimir
from
wrested
Mieczyslaw. He marched
against
laroslav,who had .seized on the dominions of the fugitivebrother,and whom
he encountered
the banks of the Bug.
on
For some
time he hesitated to pass the river in the face of a powerful
but a Russian
soldier from
the opposite bank
enemy;
one
day deridinghis
he
into
the
with the most
water
corpulency, plunged
intrepidof his followers,
and the action commenced.
It was
obstinatelycontested, but victory in the
end declared for the king. He pursued the fugitives
to the walls of Kiev,which
he immediately invested
and took.
Sviatopolkwas restored,but he made an
the Kievans
to masunworthy return to his benefactor; he secretlyinstigated
sacre
the Poles,whose superiority
he envied, and whose
annihilated
presence
estates

the

divided

HISTORY

THE

12

OF

POLAND
[1026-1034 A.D.]

fitted him rather


discovered
that his temperament
royalty,and it was soon
of southern Asia than for the iron regionof Sarmatia.
courts
for the luxurious
laroslav,the restless duke of Kiev, was the first to prove to the world how
He rapidlyreduced some
Poland had suffered by a change of rulers.
fortresses,
carried
doubtless
cious
have
his feroand
would
desolatcil the eastern
provinces,
to

arms

who

stanilard and
The

had
capital,

the

not

the Poles, without a signalfrom their king,


of the invasion, flocked to the national
Sardanapalus to march againstthe enemy.
the risk of an action ; with immense
to run

the progress
compelled this second

watched
(iui("tly

duke, however, had

no

wish

he returned
in the conto liLsdominions
sciousness
prisoners,
that
his
of perfectimpmiity. Mieczyslaw,thinking
by
appearance
in the field he had done enough for glory,led back his murmuring troops to his
one
capital; nor did the sacrifice of his father's conquests draw one sigh,even
serious thought, from the confirmed
voluptuary,who esteemed every moment
loss of time and life
abstracted from his sensual enjoyments as a lamentable
he
resolved
than usual devotion
to
that
more
was
repairby
a loss,however,
of Odin, the purple juiceof
to the only deities he worshipped. For the mead
no
praisetoo
Bacchus, and the delightsof the Cytherean goddess he deemed
incense
too
exalted,no
precious.
of sensualityhe was
From
at length rudely awakened, not
this dream
by

spoil,antl

multitude

of

"

that of the Moravians, whose


countries
his
the rev(;lt of the Bohemians
or
father had rendered,for a short time, tributaryto Poland
; not by the reduction
of his strongest fortresses,
nor
even
by the escape of whole provincesfrom his

of his
feeble grasp, but by the menaces
lines in front of his palace,antl insisted on

people,who displayed their martial


his accompanying them to crush the
reluctantlymarched, not to subdue,

He
widespread spiritof insurrection.
idle displayof force which
but to make
an

he knew
how
The
not
to wield.
forniitlable
be
assailed
the
Moravians
to
were
easilyescaped
;
his unwillingpursuit,and sufferetl him to wreak
his vengeance
if,indeed,he
of
few
miserable
such a sentiment
such
was
on
a
or
on
capable
villages,

Bohemians

too

"

"

As the enemy
stragglingpartiesof their body as accident threw in his way.
no
longer appeared openly, he naturallywished it to be believed that none
existed,and his discontented troops were
again led back from the inglorious
He now
scene.
tion
vexahoped to pass his days in unmolested
enjoyment ; but
the Pomeranians
vexation!
His first impulse was
revolted.
to treat
on
with his rebellioas subjects,and grant them a part at least of their demands,
he courted ; but this disgraceful
as the priceof the ease
expedient was furiously
his
third time forced him
this
to the field. In
nobles, who
a
rejectedby
he
three
expedition was accompanied by
Hungarian princes,who had sought a
from
the violence of an ambitious
kinsman.
refuge in his dominions
Through
antl the valour of the Poles, victorydeclared for him.
their ability,
With all
his faults he was
since he conferred
not, it appears,
incapable of gratitutle,
"

"

both

the hand
valiant

of his

daughterand

of the three

the government

of Pomerania

on

Bela, the

princes. Now he had surelydone enough to satisfy


of his people. The Bohemians, the Moravians, and
the pugnacious clamours
Boleslaw
the Saxons, whom
the Great had subjugated,were,
indeed, in open
and successful revolt; but he could .safely
ask the most
martial
of his nobles
chance
what
existed of again reducing those fierce rebels. And
though his
he
wise
the
would
blame
might
apparent enough, no
man
prudence
co\yardice
which
declined to enter on a contest
where success
could scarcelybe considered
possible.
But Mieczyslaw was
indifferent to popular opinion. To avoid the grim
his
visagesof
nobles,which he hated no less than he feared,he retreated wholly
most

EARLIEST

THE

YEARS

OF

POLAND

13

[1034-1036A.D.]
from

society,and, surrounded

himself
such as

restraint to

without

by

few

companions in debauchery, abandoned

his favourite

The

excesses.

consequences

were

this wretched
might be expected.Already enfeebled in the prime of life,
voluptuary found his body incapableof sustainingthe maladies produced by
mind
still less able to bear the heavy
continued intemperance,his exhausted
which oppressed it. Madness
terminated
load of remorse
ensued, which soon
in death.
intermixture
Fortunately for humanity, there are few evils without some
Idle
and
the
If
was
of good.
cowardly, dissipated,
Mieczyslaw
despicable,
when he appeared sensible of the duties obligatoryon his
moments
there were
station.

To

Poland

him

was

indebted

each presitled
over
by
palatinates,
speedy and effectual administration
bishopric.
a new
THE

for the distribution

local

of

of the

country

into

judge,and

consequentlyfor the more


justice. He is also said to have fomided

interregnum;

casimir

experiencethe fatal truth,that any permanent


weak, or contemptible,is beyond all
tyrannical,
government, no
to
anarchy. Mieczyslaw the Idle left a son of an age too
measure
superior
Rixa
tender to be intrusted with the reins of the monarchy, and his widow
accordinglydeclared regent of the kingdom and guardian of the prince.
was
imable to control the haughtinessof chiefs who despised
But that queen
was
of all Germans, too,
and who detested her as a German
the sway of a woman,
She added
the most
hated, as belonging to the archducal house of Austria.
towards
her own
to their discontent
by the evident partialityshe showed
whom
is
in
of
said
numbers
flocked
share
the
Poland.
of
it
to
spoils
countrymen,
without
the
followed
the
redress
these
were
on
one
on
other;
side,
Complaints
until a confederacywas
formed
succeeded by remonstrances, then by menaces,
the dismissal
to procure
by the discontented nobles, whose ostensible object was
seize
the supreme
of foreigners,
but whose real one was
to
on
authority.
were
expelledthe kingdom, and with
They succeeded in both : all foreigners
them the regent. Whether
Casimir,her son, shared her flightor immediately
beheld both in Saxony, claiming
followed her is uncertain, but Europe soon
Conrad
II.
the protectionof their kinsman, the emperor
drawn
The picture,
even
by native historians,of the miseries sustained by
and
the country after the expulsion of the queen
prince,is in the highest
There
no
law, and consequently
degreerevolting.
was, say they,no authority,
for
contended
the
obedience.
Innumerable
and
no
parties
supreme
power,
but
until
numbers
exterminated.
not
the strongest naturallytriumphed,
were
tribunal to which the disputantscould appeal,no chief,no
As there was
no
the sword only could decide their pretensions.
council,no house of legislature,
brief: a combination
stillmore
to hurl the
The triumph was
powerful arose
in turn,
successful party from its blood-stained pre-eminence; and this latter,
the victim of a new
became
association,as guiltyand as short-lived as itself.
of provincesasserted their independence of the
Then
the palatines
or governors
The whole
self-constituted authorityat Gnesen.
cursed
country, indeed,was
lawless
of
w
ho
rule
local
made
the
an
sovereigns,
exterminatingwar
by
petty
and
each
other's
each
territories
with
much
on
as
other,
ravaged
impunity as
had
One
who
been
Masos,
cup-bearer to the late king,
greater potentates.
seized by force on the country between
the \'istu]a,
the Narew, and the Bug,
which he governed despotically,
and which
from him,
to this day is named
Poland

was

now

doomed
how

to

matter

"

Masovia.

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

14

[1036-lMO

A.D.]

the generalrisingof the peasants, whose first


But a stillgreater evil was
the petty tyrants that oppressed them,
themselves
on
to revenge
objectwas
in aU times
of the attempt, were, as must
but who, through the very success
incited to greater undertakings.
and in all placesbe the case, only the more
beautiful the

However

gradation of ranks which

law

and

lished
estab-

have

custom

admire
class will not
it,but will assuredly
in
whenever
in
the
rise higher
scale,
opportunity holds out a
to
endeavour
backed
of
laws
Hence
the
by competent
necessity
prospect of success.
the
multitude.
Let the barrier
of
authority to curb this everlastingtendency

society,the

it will

be

soon

down

thrown

favoured

more

to

make

way

orders
for

be

weakened,

once

tremendous

the most

of

of society,
level all that
the landmarks
will sweep
away
valuable,and leave nothing but a vast waste, where the evil
that

inundations, one
is noble

the

from

separates the mob

which
and

lowest

or

fittheatre for further conflict.


of Poland
during the universal reign of
Such, we are told,was
became
of
from
ministers
The
plunderers
righteousjustice,
peasants,
anarchy.
Armed
of
vices
all
the
human
infected
nature.
with
and
and murderers,
were

passionsof

find

may

men

the state

the country, seizingon all that was


valuable,consuming all that
be carried away,
not
massacring old and young;
violatingthe women,
slain
ravished in the depths of the
at the altar,nuns
priestsand bishops were
had never
To add to horrors which
cloisters.
before,perhaps,been paralleled
scoured

bands
could

of foreigninvasion, and that,too,


Predislaw, duke of Bohemia, sacked
Breslaw, Posnania, and Gnesen, consuming everj'thingwith fire and sword;
he passed
made
advanced
the saVage laroslav, who
another
a desert as
on

Christian nations,came
among
in the most
revoltingforms.

along. Had

not

the former

dominions, and had


own
he had amassed as much
be

captives(to
longer been

sold

as

not

the scourge

On

been

one

side

by preparationsof war
thought proper to return

plunder as could be carried


slave.s)
as

his followers

away,

could

and

guard,

home

made
Poland

when

as

many

had

no

Her
she was
little better than a desert.
.smoking.ruins,and her fields nothing but the furrows left by

nation.

Even

againsthis

recalled

the latter

now

cities exhibited
had
Countless
thoasands
been
"the
massacred;
plough of desolation."
had
thousands
fled from the destroyingscene.
Those
who
remained
more
rather
had littlehope that the present calm would
the
evil
was
continue;
power
exhausted
now

looked

than

spent.

forward

to

But

the terrific lesson had

the restoration

been

lost

them

; they
of
monarchy as
only means
of
An
curse
anarchy.
assembly
not

on

the

of the

averting foreigninvasion, and the heavier


convoked
was
by the archbishop at Gnesen.
All, except a few lawless chiefs
who
hoped to perpetuate a state of things where force only was recognised,
voted for a king; and, after some
an
deliberation,
overwhelming majority
tiie recallof Prince Casimir.
the princeto be found ?
was
A deputationwaited on Queen Rixa, who
decreed
But

where

No

one

knew

the

placeof

his retreat.
reveal it.

was
lengthpersuaded
intervened: Casimir
had actuallytaken
unexpected difficulty
the cowl in the abbey of Cluny.' The deputieswere
not dismayed ; they proceeded
threw themselves
to his cloister,
at his feet,and
besought him with
his country: "AVe come
tears to have pity on
unto
thee, dearest prince,in the
of
the
all
name
bishops,barons,and nobles of the Polish kingdom, since thou
alone canst restore our country and thy rightful
heritage." They prayed him
them good for evil,
to return
and drew so pathetica pictureof the woes
of his
native land that he acceded to their wishes.
He allowed an applicationto be

But

here, too,

to

at

an

['RfipelW denies the authenticityof

tliis legend.]

YEARS

EARLIEST

THE

POLAND

OF

15

[1040-1058 A.D.]

from his monastic


engagements, who,
nobles
and
PoUsh
the
clergy,absolved
exacting
He
his vows.
accordinglybade adieu to his cell,and set out to
from
received with the
he was
the expectationsof his subjects,by whom

made

IX

Benedict

to

after
him

to

disengagehim
from

concessions

some

gratify

of joy, and justlyhailed as their saviour.


the Restorer, proved himself worthy of the confidence
reposed in him by his people; no higherpraisecan be given him than that he
His first care
to repairthe
was
to the difficultiesof his situation.

demonstrations

enthusiastic

most

Casimir, surnamed

equal

was

long afflicted the country. The great


by persuasion,others by firm but mild acts

had

evils which

so

he reduced

to

obe-

of authority ; and,
(lipnce some
other.
The affection
each
to
he reconciled them
difficult,
what
more
was
his task
him
rendered
borne towards his person and the need which all had of
of the nobles
submission
indeed easy, but certainlypracticable.The
not
less involved in the
no
occasioned that of the people,whose interests were
"

position
there was
and happiness. Where
so
good a disrestoration of tranquillity
for a basis, the superstructure could not fail to correspond. The
rebuilt and
repeopled,industry began to flourish,the laws to
towns
were
brute
despair
their empire over
force,and hope to animate those whom
resume
had

driven
Nor

to

recklessness.

this

was

of

the power

in his

princeless successful
politic

foreignrelations.

formidable
closelycemented by his

fiercest and

laroslav,the

most

To

ciliate
con-

of his

enemies,
marriage with

he proposedan alliance to be stillmore


His offer was
siderable
accepted,and he was also promised a cona sister of the duke.
him
in
assist
Prussian
of
auxiliaries
to
reconqueringSilesia,
body
Pomerania, and the province of Masovia, which still recognised the rebel
Masos.

adventurer
gave him more
defeated
by the
signally

This

Though
another

army,

chieflyof pagan

king,he had

yet

Prussians, much
Casimir

previouslycommanded.

had

trouble than would

was

for

have

address

anticipated.

enough

to

assemble

than

numerous

more
a

been

any

he

discouraged;his

moment

his successes, and he apprehended that,even


should victory again declare for him, he would be left without troops to make
At this time lie is said to have looked back
head againsthis other enemies.
ness
But this weakwith sincere regret to the peacefulcloister he hatl abandoned.
forces had

been

weakened

even

by

the
to thoughts more
on
worthy of him : he met the enemy
gave way
occasion
of
him
afforded
of the Vistula,when
contest
an
a sanguinary
like
He
the
meanest
his
valour
less
than
his
fought
ability.
no
displaying
soon

banks

was
soldier,

of

severelywounded,

follower.

But

in the end

and
his

was
arms

saved
were

from

destruction

victorious

by

the devotion

fifteen thousand

of the

the fierce

rebels lay on the field; Masos was


glad to take refugem Prussia,by
he was
inhabitants of which
publiclyexecuted as the author of their calamities.
mia
BoheThe rest of the reignof Casimir exhibits littleto strike the attention.
restrained from
was
disquietinghim, rather through the interference of
Silesia was
valour.
dered
surrenhis allythe emperor
Henry HI than by his own
him
tribute
and
his
paid
to him ; Prussia
;
acknowledged
superiority,
and Hungary sought his alliance. But
signal
tranquillised,
acter
his
which
those
inferior
to
personalcharas
were
advantages,they were
be
state
that
his
Convinced
can
and influence procured for
no
country.
still
is
not
more
wise the laws that govern
it,where morality
happy, however
of his peoiile,
by
powerful,he laboured imlefatigablyto pui-ifythe manners
extended
education, and by his
religious
teachingthem their duties,by a more
own
example as well as that of his friends and counsellors. For the twelve
Pomerania

was

these

monks

whom

he

persuadedto

leave their retirements

at

Cluny,

to

assist him

POLAND

OF

HISTOKY

THE

16

[1058-1073A.D.]

subjects,he founded

monasteries,one near
zealouslyCracow, the other on the Oder, in Silesia. Both establishments
and
the
decent
instruction
more
his
diffused,
was
widely
views;
promoted
of
minds
the
rude
the
made
of
inhabitants,
the
on
w
orship
jniblic
splendour
have
from
paganism, an impressionwhich could never
not yet fullyreclaimed
his
death
this
excellent
Before
prince
been produceclby mere
preaching.
one
could congratulatehimself that he had saved millions,and injured no
in the moral

reformation

of his

two

of a purer system of manners


individual ; that he had laid the foundation
; that
of
his
His
the
restorer
the regenerator no less than
he was
country.
memory
is stilldear to the Poles.

II

BOLESLAW

(1058-1082

A.D.)

the Bold, was


only sixteen when
II, sumamed
that
before
But
period he had
long
government.

Boleslaw
reins of

he assumed

the

exhibited

proofs
inseparablefrom

extraordinarycapacity,and of that generosityof sentiment


the more
useful
elevation of mind.
Unfortunately, however, he wanted
he
which
those
of his deceased father;
possessedwere
splendidindeed,
qualities
the sparks of an insatiable ambition
them
lay concealed,which
but among
requiretl
only the breath of opportunity to burst forth in flames.
That
opportunity was not long wanting. A few years after his accession,
three fugitiveprincesarrived at his court, to implore his aid in recovering
None
indeed of the three had any well-groundedclaim to
their lost honoure.
of their birth by misconduct
the privileges
had
forfeited
since
all
sympathy,
but the "protectorof unfortunate
of their own;
princes" was a title which he
most
favourably received.
coveted, and all were
of Bohemia, had
Tlic first of these,Jaromir, brother of Wratislaw, duke
allured
the
of
the
Episcopal throne of
by
prospect
early entered the church,
witli
which
set a restraint
became
a profession
disgusted
Prague ; but he soon
he left his cloister,
his worst
and ambitious of temporal distinctions,
passions,
on
of the world, but was
soon
compelled by his
plunged into the dissipations
to gain
brother to return
to it. He escaped a second time, and endeavoured
wild
in
his
subvert
the
of
but
to
Wratislaw;
authority
attempts
supporters
in Bohemia, he threw himself
perilled
finding his freedom, if not his existence,
of

the

into

which
to resume

to the

disastrous

was

brought

of Boleslaw.

arms

The

result

was

Bohemians,

war

but

to

by the interference of the Germanic


his former vocation, and to bound

mitre; the

marriage

between
which an

princes.

the two
end was

Jaromir

his ambition

was

within

of A\^ratislaw with

the sister of the Polish


to these martial people.

countries,

length
persuaded
at

the limits of

king secured

tlie blessingsof peace


in favour
of B^la,prince of Hungary, who
The second expedition,
aspired
of his brother Andrew, was
less successful.
Andrew
to the throne
no
was
defeated, and slain in a wood, probably by his own
domestics, and B^la was
crowned
This was
wards
all. Seven years afternot
by the conquering Boleslaw.
for

time

he

B61a, who
on

again
had

invaded

been

Hungary,

killed in

tlie royal guest.


Solomon, the son
of the emperor
Henry III.

influence

of the

exiled

prince.

Solomon

occupieda positionso strong by

the interests of Geisa,the son of


had tumbled
the violence of a storm
of Andrew, had
been crowned
by the

to espouse

hut which

nature

Again

was

he

joinedby numerous
tisans
parHungary, but he there

fled into lower


as

to

In
defy the force of his enemies.
the kingdom, some
prelates

consternation at the evils which impended over


the appropriatetask of effecting
undertook
an

accommodation

between

the

THE

EAKLIEST

YEARS

OF

POLAND

17

[1078-1076A.D.]

contendingprinces.Through their influence an assembly was held at Mofo,


attended by the rival claimants; and it was
at length agreed that
was
should retain the title of king; that Geisa and his brothers should be
Solomon
put into possessionof one-third of the country, to be governed as a duchy;
should be indemnified by both for the expenses
and that the Polish monarch
to be crowned
he had incurred in the expedition. The reigningking was
anew,
and to receive the ensignsof his dignityfrom the hands of Geisa.*
his
But the most
splendidof the warlike imdertakings of Boleslaw was
Russia.
His
ostensible
the
of
to espouse
object was
cause
expeditionsinto
"I am
that prince,"said he, "by the blood
Iziaslav.
obliged to succour
Unfortunate
which imites us, and by the pityso justlydue to his misfortunes.
than ordinary mortals.
If calamities
to be commiserated
princesare more
exist on earth,they should not be allowed to affect such as
must
necessarily
This show of generosity,
exalted for the happiness of others."
are
however,
had
it
with
the
its
due
of
his
not
was
cause
him,
weight
only
though
arming.
which
his predecessors
had held in Russia and
The recovery of the possessions
of the domains which he conceived he had a rightto inherit through his mother
and his queen (likehis father,
he had married a Russian
the aim
was
princess)
He
he avowed
to his followers.
accordinglymarched againstUcheslav,who
had expelledIziaslav from Kiev ; both were
of laroslav,
who
had comsons
mitted
of dividinghis dominions
the fatal but in that period common
error
his children,
and therebyopening the door to the most
unnatural of
among
which

contests.

within a few leaguesof Kiev.


The
martial appeartwo armies met
ance
mien
of the Poles
struck
and undaunted
terror into Ucheslav, who
He had not gone far before his pusillanimity
fled from his tent.
made
secretly
him
in
his
he
blushed
and
returned.
even
own
despicable
Again was
eyes;
The

he

seized with
and his army,
it surrendered

panic fear;he fled with all haste towards Polotsk,


Kiev
head, disbanded.
was
invested;
of
Iziaslav; Polotsk followed the example,
authority

deprived of its natural


the

to

the

inhabitants

the

same

first contrived

but Ucheslav

plunged in

the

Boleslaw remained
time at Kiev,
some
his temperament and the loose morals of
He was
not, however, wholly unmindful

to escape.

which
alike inclined him.

to
dissipation

militaryfame, since he forsook the luxurious vices of that cityfor the


subjugationof Przemyslaw, an ancient dependency of Poland.
Probably he
time have amplifiedhis territories by other conquests, had
would at the same
into Hungary to succour, as before related,the son
he not been summoned
of his

of the deceased
On

the

a.

that

of
pacification
the

on

vengeance

Bel

of

brothers

kingdom he
whom
Iziaslav,

returned
to Russia, to inflict
had
they
again expelledfrom

Though he was resolved to restore that prince,he was no less so to


He speedilysubjugated the whole of Volhimake
him tributaryto Poland.
fortune proved inconstant.
nia, with the design of having a retreat in case
Such precautions,
however, were
useless;in a decisive battle fought in the
duchy of Kiev, he almost annihilated the forces of the reigningduke Vsevolod.
and
Kiev
was
again invested ; but as it was well suppliedwith provisions,
the
his
it
defiance.
set
at
stillbetter defended
inhabitants,
by
long
power
Perhaps Boleslaw,who was impetuous in everything,and with whom patience
have
raised the siege,and proceeded to
unknown
word, would soon
an
was
less tedious conquests, had not a contagiousfever suddenly broken
out among
Kiev.

'

Bonfinius

is

unwillingto

indeed, condescends
and

influence
H.

to

of their monarch.
W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

in the Hungarian
he
honour
Boleslaw much
war;
him. The Poles have perhaps here exaggerated the

allow

mention

scarcely,
exploits

HISTORY

THE

18

OF

POLAND
[1076-1079 A.D.]

the

and driven
besiejijod,

remained
were
and ailmitted

too

few

the greater portionof them


to

dream

from

the

city.Those

who

of defending it any longer;they capitulated,


itself.
the fury of the plague had exhausted

the victor just as


Iziaslav was
restored,and the other provincesof the dukes given to his children.
Boleslaw
might have held them by the rightof conquest, but he preferred
behind
than
rather
enemies
him; he preferredhaving these
friends
leaving
territories tributaryto him, and dependent on him as sovereign paramount,
with his dominions, and thereby subjecting
them at once
rather than incorporating
himself
to the necessityof perpetuallyflyingto their
and successors
Even
protectionagainst the inevitable strugglesof the Russians for freedom.
would
he
have
be
either
must
this advantage he must
transient,or
perceived
seldom
and
have
had little sagacity. Ambition, however,
Boleslaw,
reasons;
in belie\ingthat for him
from
his great success,
might almost be justified
reserved a fortune peculiarto himself.
was
of
to the Kievans, the affability
The generositywith which he behaved
and a mien
his manner,
trulyroyal soon rendered him a favourite with them.
than
Ere
his former
ardour.
He plunged into dissipationwith even
more
t
hen
his
i
mitated
his
meanest
his
s
o
ample
exofficers,
followers,
successfully
long
of
Russian
and
Polish
both
the
statements
to
historians,
that,according
the only objectof old
all serious business seemetl suspended,and pleasurewas
from
Pole
and
Muscovite.
of
and young,
Iziaslav,
gratitude no less than
make
the
residence
of
his
benefactor
to
as
agreeableas
policy,endeavoured
On one
he could.
occasion,when desirous of a visit from Boleslaw, he offered
marks of gold as the royal horse should take steps from
to the king as many
able
the palace of the king to that of the duke
a distance,
we
are
told,considerenough to enrich the monarch.
jects.
The crueltyof the king is said to have sunk deep into the hearts of his sub"

doned
he abanto which
believingthat the excesses
that
His
character
effect.
produced
his regal
outwardly at least had changed; his industry,his love of justice,
Hiswtuous
had
fled.
counsellors
and
none
were
were
dismissed,
qualities,
his person
his orgies. To increase
but such as consented
to share
retained near
laid
the general discontent, impositions,
were
arbitraryand enormous,
on
an
already burdened
people.
Had conduct such as this been practisedby almost any other sovereignof
Poland, the popular indignation would haA'e been appeased only by his deposition.
But the son
of Casimir, independently of his former
merit and of his
splendid deeds in war, required to be treated with greater indulgence. His
the prayer
of his subjects. Such was
petuosity
the imreformation, not his ruin, was
of his disposition,
and such the cruelties he had practisedsince his
fatal residence at Kiev, that Stanislaus,
bishop of Cracow, was the only man
whom
mentions
history
enough to expostulatewith him on his
courageous
There

is

himself

more

reason

after his return

for

to Poland

"

"

excesses

and
the

to urge

the

necessityof amendment.

Mild

and

even

affectionate

of this excellent

prelate,the only effect which it had was


him the persecution of the king. But persecutioncould not influence
to draw
on
of his good purposes
and so strong in his sense
of duty.
a man
so conscious
He returned to his exhortations ; but findingthat leniencyhad no good result,
he excommunicated
the royal delinquent. Rage took possessionof the soul
as

was

manner

of Boleslaw.

Stanislaus had now


to one
recourse
in the storehou.se of her thunders : he

of the last bolts which

the church

held

placed an interdict on all the churches


of Cracow
at all times more
violent than just,and in the present
a measure
have
to
not
other
effect
than to harden
case
likely
any
impenitence. Now
"

OF

HISTORY

THE

20

POLAND
[1083-1089

which valued
selfishness,
Iwiindless generosityto a pitiful
concerned.
its ow-n
was
gratification
as
except in so much
human
of
nature.
the disgrace,
at another
the pride,
was

THE

I, SURNAMED

^-LADISLAW

a year
for the

disappearanceof Boleslaw and his


have
a head
; perhaps it would
incursions of two neighbouring powers,

without

the latter of whom

then

throne

raised to the

reduced

In

Cracow.

son
A\'ladislaw,

(10S2-1102

CARELESS

After the

of

no

son

the state

time

he

A.D.)

remained

so

much

the Russians

and

remained

D.1

thing

or

person
At one

A.

the nobles

great consternation

Casimir,and brother

almost

longer but
the Hungarians,
of the unfortunate

Boleslaw.
The

first act

of Wladislaw

was

to

despatch a deputation to Rome

to procure

in consequence
The churches were
opened,
a
be
Christian
should
ranked
Poland
again
and permission given that
among
allowed to reign
\MadisIaw
was
nations; but the royaldignitywas withheld.

reversal of

as

duke,

but

no

the interdict.

prelatein Poland

dared

to

anoint

him

king. It

cannot

but

times, that the chief of a great people should have


perhaps
incurred the humiliation of submitting to the papal pretensions
; but
whose
fate a deep mystery
of his brother, over
^^ ladislaw expected the return

surpriseus,

in

these

he
a titlewhich
hang, and had no very strong wish to assimie
trous
disasThe
be
to
was
however,
example,
compelled
resign.
might
than two hundred
for the countr}' ; during more
years the regaltitle was
could the rulers of Poland, as dukes, either repress anarchy at
disused ; nor
conunand
home
or
respect abroad so vigorouslyas had been done by the kings
their predecessors.
should return or not, Wladislaw, sensible that he
whether
Boleslaw
But
in
his
and perpetuate his
had a powerful party
interests,resolved to marry,
of
Andrew, king of Hungary,
authority in his offspring. Judith, daughter
of
the
duclK-ss
Poland.
selected as
As, however, in two years from her
was
of
and his
both Wladislaw
arrival this princessexliibited no signs
pregnancy,
were
apprehensive that she was cursed with barreimess, and no less so
clergj'
which such a misfortune
was
of the consequences
might produce. Recourse
of heaven ; prayers,
had to the interference
employed
alms, pilgrimages,were
advised
her to implore the intercession
of
in vain, until the bishop of Cracow
had done wonderful
St. Giles, who
Pilgrims with rich
things in this way.
Languedoc, where
accordinglysent to a monastery in Lower
presents were
his days. Her prayers were
heard ; for who
that saint had spent and ended
which
lously
miracuthat the son
she afterwards
forth
could doubt
was
brought
the
her?
Her
child
vouchsafed
christened
but
to
was
Boleslaw;
did not long live to enjoy her happiness.
mother
Soon after his marriage Wladislaw
surprisedhis subjectsby the recall of
this step was
his nephew, Mieczyslaw. By some
imputed to magnanimity,
by others to policy. Certain it is that the young
prince was very popular in
to fear for the prospects of his
Hungan,', and the duke might have reason
infant
should
the interests of the exile be espoused by that country.
son
this be, he received
However
and,
Mieczyslaw with much
apparent cordiality,
his arrival,procured him the hand
in four years from
of Eudoxia,
a Russian
than
he had ever
a
greater idol in Poland
princess:but the prince became
fold
been in Hungan,', and the apprehensionsof the duke naturallyacquired threein this state when
of the sudden
death of
strength. Things were
news
Mieczyslaw was spreadover the country, and caused a sincerer national grief
was

believed

to

hereafter

EARLIEST

THE

YEARS

OF

POLAND

21

[1089-1096A.D.]
felt since

the

loss of Casimir.
That
his death had been
the generalimpression,and suspicionpointed to the duke as the
ested
was
murderer, merely because no other man
su[)posedto be so deeply interin his removal.
of blood; on
not
Wladislaw, however, was
the
a man
remarkable
beyond any prince of his age for the milder
contrary, he was
better foundation
than suspicionmust
virtues
of humanity; and some
be
than had
violent was

been

ever

before impartialhistory will allow his memory


to be stained
with so
dark a crime.
the misfortune
of Wladislaw
It was
that,during the greater part of his
dominions
the
his
to
incursions of his fierce neighbours;
were
exposed
reign,
that
he
neither
the
heavier
had
still
and a
one
vigour nor the talents to repress
found

The

Russians

the first to revolt ; the

conquests made by Boleslaw


the Bold were
greater rapiditythan they had been gained. Before
his intenthe duke could think of recoveringthem (ifsuch, indeed,was
tion),
ever
the Prussians,a people more
less stupid,perhaps,
savage, though much
them.

were

lost with

the ancient

than

reluctance he
enabled him,

Muscovites, prepared

marched
rather

or

to

invade

his dominions.

The
against them.
steady valour
his general,Sieciech,to triumph

great

these pagan
barbarians.
But no
sooner
the forests of Prussia than the natives again rose, massacred
the
which
had
their
been
left
in
of
and
m
garrisons
fortresses, joined
pursuit the
An
obstinate and bloody battle ensued
of the Netze,
Poles.
the banks
on
which
of the enemy,
arrested the advance
but so weakened
the invaders that
they were
compelled to return in search of fresh reinforcements.

bravery

of

With

his followers
the undisciplined
over
did the victors
of

retire from

these (chiefly
Bohemian
mercenaries), they again directed
the Netze, and assailed the strong fort of Nackel on
the bank
river ; but on
this occasion,we
seized with an unare
accountable
told,they were
dread : they stood so much in fear of an irruptioninto their tents
wild defenders of the fort that they could scarcelybe persuaded to

Having gained
their march
of that

by

the

to

of repose.
snatch a few moments
Every bush, every
to their alarmed
imaginationsseemed peopled with

tree,every

rocky height

and
the terrific enemy;
it
had
when
the
covered
one
night,
plain before them with these visionary
beings,they left their tents to run the risk of an action. The besieged,in the
mean
time, penetrated to their tents, which they plundered and set on fire,
the lightattracted to the place. The
and massacred
all whom
loss of the
Poles in this most
that they were
ingloriousscene was so severe
compelled to
To veil their cowardice, they averred
retreat.
driven
that they had been
back

by supernaturalmeans;

that armies of spectres had arisen to oppose


plea,it was generallybelieved; the pagans were
be
in
the powers
of darkness
to
with
thought
league
; so that in the following
when
the
honour
of his arms,
not
Wladislaw
returned
vindicate
to
a
year,
them.

Absurd

few wondered

as

was

their

successful ; Prussia and


temerity. This time he was more
fortune
intention
of revoltingwhenever
submitted, but with the
them
with
the opportunity.
presented
at

his

Pomerania
The
of that

of the

wars

duke

with

Bohemia

were

Bretislaw, duke

less decisive.

Henry, in a
displeasurewith Wladislaw, had a few years before pretended to bestow
his father
which
the possession
of the Polish crown,
on
rightsinvolvingeven
Henry, as lord paramount, claimed the power of transferring invaded Silesia,
and wrapped everything in flames.
reprisalswere
By the duke's command
in Moravia, a dependency of the Bohemian
made
Pomeranians
The
crown.
country, resolved

to

claim

the

rightswhich

the

emperor

fit of

"

"

advanced
to the assistance
fortress in Silesia. They

of Bretislaw
were

reduced

and

threw

themselves

by Boleslaw,

son

into the

strongest

of Wladislaw,

who,

HISTORY

THE

23

POLAND

OF

[1095-1098

though only in his tenth

year,

began

to give indications of his future

A.

D.]

greatness.

by Siecieeh,the Pohsh general,but the


army
glory of the exploitbelonged only to the prince. It is certain that from this
time jealousy took possessionof the general'sheart, and that he did all he
whom
his mfluence
could to injurethe prince in the mind of Wladislaw, over
indeed

The

was

conunanded

he exerted solelyfor his own


tage,
advaninfluence which
an
the dissensions
of the people. Hence
the
detriment
often
to
very
which
began to trouble the peace of the duke" dissensions,too, in which
another individual w^as destined to act not the least prominent part.
had a natural son
Before his marriage with the princessJudith the duke

was

without

rival

"

and

depravity is represented as in the highest degree


Sbigniew, whose
The
to the kingdom.
became
and who
youth,
a dreadful
revolting,
scourge
he had been grosslynegindeed,owed little gratitudeto a parent by whom
lected.
he had been sent to a monFrom
astery
village,
a peasant'shut, in a mean
the cowl.
intended he should assume
it was
in Saxony, where
During
of Siecieeh,to whom
the
his seclusion in the cloister the tjTannicalconduct
forced a considerable
and the rewards of sovereignty,
the cares
duke abandoned
ment
and seek a more
of Poles to expatriatethemselves
number
tranquilsettleBretislaw
With the view of disquieting
in Bohemia.
Poland,
persuaded
he drew
from
of Sbigniew, whom
the
the cause
these emigrants to espouse
of
The
of
him
the
Silesia.
for
hope
crushing
sovereignty
monastery to procure
of their
of one
the haughty favourite,and of livingin peace under the sway
chief.
them
made
native princes,
readilyjoin the standard of the new
to the gates of BresAt the head of these men,
Sbigniew boldly advanced
of which
he knew
As his
to be unfriendlyto the favourite.
lau, the governor
avowed
minister,the
objectwas merely to effect the removal of an obnoxious
Wladislaw
advanced
to support his authority:
city at length received him.
of
and
collected
an
Prussians,
again took the field. The
Sbigniew fled,
army
of Siecieeh,his
father conquered; the rebellious prince fell into the hands
whom
thrown
into
he
was
a
dreary dungeon; but the
by
greatest enemy,
the
counterbalanced
incursions
of the Bohemians, who
by
advantage was
whom
the duke was
too timid or too indolent to repress ;
ravaged Silesia,and
and ere long the bishops procured the liberation of Sbigniew,whose influence
they well saw would soon annihilate that of the detested favourite.
than pardoned ; he was
The
raised to the highest
youth, indeed,was more
named

associated

honours, and
which

with

his

brother

Boleslaw

in

the

command

of

an

despatched against those inveterate rebels,the Pomeranians.


army
The two
brothers,however, disputed and effected nothing, when \Madislaw,
at the prospect of the civO wars
alarmed
which might arise after his decease,
took the fatal resolution of announcing the intended
division of his states
his
Boleslaw
two
he promised Silesia,
the provincesof Cracow,
between
sons
: to
Sendomir, and Sieradz,with the title of duke of Poland ; to Sbigniew, PomeThis experania, with the palatinatesof Leuszysa, Cujavia,and Masovia.
dient,
which
he adopted in the belief that it would
tention
prevent all further conwas

between

example,
even

as

we

threatened

the
shall

of the worst
the source
princes, became
troubles; the
hereafter perceive, proved fatal to the prosperityand

the existence

of Poland.

united.
Both
burned
for the
time, indeed, the two youths were
destruction of Siecieeh,and each had need of the other to secure
the common
a
object. With the troops which they had obtained to oppose
pretended
invasion of the Bohemians, they forced the feeble and
infirm ^\^adi.slaw to
For

exile his favourite to a distant fortress.


But
they besiegedthe place. Wladislaw, by means

this did not

even

of

satisfythem ;
threw himself
disguise,

EARLIEST

THE

YEAES

POLAND

OF

23

[1098-1105 A.D.]

His unnatural
the fate of his favourite.
had
sons
the army
and, what was more, the hearts of the Poles in their favour; nor
their arms
until the odious minister was
banished
the
would
they lay down
their
submitted
to
then
parent.
they
country ;

it,resolved

into

During the

share

to

this feeble duke's

of

months

remaining

few

life Poland

was

frequentlya prey to the


governed by the two princes. Its frontiers were
the
valour
of
Boleslaw
chastised
Prussians
their presumption.
and
Pomeranians
;
and
indeed
boundless
his
ambition
his
restless;
was
As for Sbigniew,
disposition
from

he

was

slender,and

his abilities were

but

he foimd

which

meditatingthe

it hard
of

means

his weakness
to

betrayed

There

escape.

is

him
to

reason

him

him

from

to him

as

the instrument

long enduring
however
a fault,

believe

weakening, if not of supplanting,his brother,


his crhninal designs.
suspended for a moment

when the death of the aged duke


been a
to have
AVladislaw deserved a better fate. He appears
monarch.
and benevolent
That his weakness
and a patriot,
a mild
rendered

uations
into sit-

of

the iron

others,and
labours

Christian
of mind

his

infirmityof body prevented


of war,
can
scarcelybe attributed
his
to
proved
subjects. Even for

disastrous both
of his dominions
between

his children
fatal more
the fatal division
as
an
for
evil
in
the positive
it produced
this case, though
example to others than
that evil was
great he had precedentsenough, not only in the earlyhistory
"

"

of Poland

but in the

BOLESLAW

neighbouringcountry

III,

SUENAMED

THE

of Russia.

(1102-1139

WRY-MOUTHED

A.D.)

the last rites paid to the deceased


duke
than
Sbigniew
Scarcely were
from
and
from
show
what
the
had
his
nation
to expect
perversity,
began to
him
of
mischief.
had left
He
the imprudence which
means
forcibly
any
at Plock,which, however, the authorityof the
the ducal treasures
seized on
archbishop of Gnesen compelled him to divide with his brother Boleslaw.
nation
He hoped, too, to usurp the provincesand title of that prince,whose assassibe conceived
he had probably planned ; and his rage may
on
learning
Russian
about
to marry
that Boleslaw
a
was
princess,to perpetuate the
branch
of
in
the
the
ing
family. Instead of attendlegitimate
hereditarydignity
he proceeded into Bohemia, and at the head of some
the nuptials,
troops,
furnished him
by the duke of that country, he invaded Silesia. But his
feared
him
abandoned
who
neither respected nor
and
him, soon
followers,
could march
their homes, before Boleslaw
to the defence of that
reprisalsin
province. The latter despatched one of his generals to make
of his marriage feasts he himself hastened
Moravia, and after the conclusion
But they fled before him, and
the presumption of the Bohemians.
to humble
returned

left him

to

nothing but

the satisfaction of

layingeverythingwaste

with fire and

sword.

Though Sbigniew had

thus

his disposition
was
signallyfailed,

to remain
to suffer him
long at peace
In the Pomeranians, whose
spiritwas

either with
in many

too restless
his brother.
to his own,

of

the intention
retreating
appeared on their frontiers,
its departure. Boleslaw, however,
and of emerging from their recesses
on
of Colberg. The
took a circuitous route, and fell by surpriseon their town
place was valiantlydefended,and the duke was obligedto raise the siege.
decisive : the barbarians
fled before
A second
expeditionwas not more
constrained
head a third time againstnot only
him.
Soon he was
to make
he
to

instruments.

found ready
their forests whenever

They armed
large Polish

with

his country or
respects kmdred

force

THE

24

OF

mSTORY

POLAND
[1105-1108

duke

brother,but the Bohemians, the cause


he had espoused. The latter retreated; their cowardice

since

it rendered

them

and

his rebeUious
his

too

success

furiouslyassailed Belgard. The


and children appeared
women
the heads
on
hand and
a

ashamed
into Pomerania

marched

A.

D.)

exiled

him,

and
defended with great obstinacy; even
the walls to roll stones or pour boilingpitch
duke
undaunted; with a buckler in one
was

easy.

now

placewas
on

The

of the Poles.

He

of whose

in the

other, he hastened

of

planks,and

of the gates,

passed
ponderous barrier
with the fury of a demon.
Boiling water, pitch,stones, missUes,fell on him
and with them made
in vain : he forced the door, achnitted his soldiers,
rible
tera
neither
desistingonly
slaughterof the people,sparing
sex, and
age nor
over

from
No

battle-axe

the ditch

the

by

means

when

carnage

people in Europe, not

long

their hands

to

one

assailed the

tired with

were

the

murderous

exceptingthe Russians, have shown

even

work.

themselves

The fall of this town


followed by that
the Poles.
was
as
and by the submission
of the whole country.
less considerable,
exliibited another proof of his fearless intreIn this expeditionBoleslaw
pidity.
He had been invited to pass a few days at the house of a noble in
church.
the country, to be present at the consecration of a new
Whilst there
he set out earlyone morning for the chase, accompanied by eighty horse.
He
He
thousand
Pomeranians.
three
d
rew
was
suddenly enveloped by
tranquilly
so

vindictive in

of four others

war

no

his

by his heroic little band, speedilyfought his way


sabre,and, foUowed
This was
which encompassed him.
ing
not all : disdainthrough the dense mass
and again passed through them.
he turned round on the enemy
to flee,
His followers were
reduced
to five; j'et he was
now
foolhardy enough to
This time, however,
plunge a third time into the middle of the Pomeranians.
he was
well-nighpaying dear for his temerity: his horse was killed;he fought
the point of falling,
when
of his officers arrived with
foot, and was
on
one
on
and
extricated
him
from
his
horse,
thirty
desperatesituation. Is this history,
or

romance

Sbigniew,disconcerted

throughthe duke

at

the

success

of

Kiev, father-in-law
have no other interests,
no

of his

brother, now

of Boleslaw.

He

sued

for

pardon
readilyprocured it

than those
other friends or enemies
in leaguewith the Bohemians
this very moment
he was
He had scarcelyreached his owti
to harass the frontiers of Poland.
territories
when, on Bolcslaw's requesting the aid of his troops, he refused it with
and Pomerania
expressionsof insult and defiance ; he knew that both Bohemia
on

engaging to

of his

brother. Yet

arming

in his

at

The

With
out.
worn
a
patienceof Boleslaw was
and
Kiev
he
invaded
the
ritories
terHungary
of his brother, whose
strongest places he reduced with rapidity;all
forsake
iron
the
to
were
ready
yoke of a capricious,
sanguinary, and cowardly
tyrant. Sbigniew implored the protectionof the bishop of Cracow, and by
the influence of that prelateobtained peace, but with the sacrifice of all his
He was
too restless,
possessionsexcept Masovia.
however, to remain
long
convoked
quiet ; so that, in the followingyear, an a.ssemblyof nobles was
to
deliberate on the best means
of dealingwith one
who violated the most
soloaths with impunity. It was
resolved that he should be deprived of
enm
were

considerable

body

cause.

of auxiliaries from

Masovia, and forever banished

from
Poland.
At this time Boleslaw
not
was
engaged in a serious war
only with the
Bohemians
but with Henry Y, emperor
of Germany, who
espoused their
interests. He was
victorious: but, like the enemy,
having occasion to recruit
his forces,he abandoned
the field. Hearing that "thetown
of Wollin
in Pomerania
had

when

he

revolted, he
was

marched

suddenly assailed

to

in his

reduce
rear

by

it.
a

He

troop

had

invested

of the

the

place,

natives,whom

he

EARLIEST

THE
[1108-1114

YEARS

OF

POLAND

25

D.]

A.

of these
One
several prisonersremaining in his hands.
flight,
and
it
then was
was
refused to raise the visor of his helmet ;
forciblyunlaced,
discovered
Sbigniew! A council of war was assembled, and the traitor was
condemned
to death ; but he was
merely driven from the country by Boleslaw,
who
warned
him, however, that his next delinquency nay, his next appearance
should be visited with the last punishment. But Gnievomir,
in Poland
time before emchiefs,who had some
of the most
braced
powerful Pomeranian
one
and
both
had
had
to
now
Boleslaw,
abjured
sworn
fealty
Christianity,
not so fortunate as that
and joinedthe party of Sbigniew,was
his new
religion
of the Polish army
barbarous
hewn
to piecesin presence
a
outlaw ; he was
effect
fierce
the
had for a time a salutary
on
pagans.
act, but one which
who
which
followed with the imperialists,
In the war
were
always ready
of the empire,
which
refused to acknowledge the supremacy
to harass a power
at the same
which they hated and dreaded
time, nothing is more
deserving
made
than the heroic defence
of remembrance
by the city of Glogau against
shared in the toils and the
The
and children
of Henry.
the power
women
from
the walls, his works
often
driven
the
of
The
was
men.
glory
emperor
often
and
he
vowed
but
he
demolished, the breaches
as
returned,
repaired;
At length both sides
leave the place until it fell into his power.
would never
the condition that if Boleslaw
did not
on
agreed to a suspensionof hostilities,
whom
to
should
be
surrendered
within
five
it
to
relieve the place
Henry,
days
delivered.
hostageswere
The
Polish duke was
not far distant ; but he was
waiting for the arrival of
to

put

soon

"

"

"

aid he durst not


from
Russia
and Hungary, without whose
his reinforcements
the inhabitants
to hold
force of the empire ; he exhorted
attack the combined
that he would hang
out at the expirationof the period limited,assuringthem
them

if

they

The

surrendered.

time

expired; the
moved

refused

citizens

his

placing in

the

front

to fulfil

the

between

Germans
in the

plain
cavalryharassed
took place.

them

his

Irritated at the

armed, and

in

in the very
on

horrible

between
hand

of

; but

in the

on
carnage
the emperor

the

end
and
his

Poles

emperor

the Germans

gave

were

duke

unable
; the

son

to

so

Bohemians

or

the

much

sieged
be-

both

expedient:
Henry

cause
as

he had

weakened

annies

by

arrived

on

he

had
seen,
foretheir
the

It was
risked a battle.
stoutly
the
committed
Poles
and
a
way,
flee.

latter,who

Wladislaw

diabolical

Henry,

pursued until

the

as

no

Bohemians,

The
of that emperor.
returning to their homes.

as

succeedingdays
generalengagement

Peace
was

was

soon

after made

widower, receivingthe
(or Agnes),the one

that of Christina

perpetuallyengaged in war,
frequently
more
Pomeranians, or, as was
was

His own
ambition was
as often the cause
He
the restlessness of the enemy.
indeed, to have
appears,
far elated with his successes
to adopt a haughty, domineering tone
as

the case, with


of these wars

been

them

several

chief for whose

the other daughter,of Henry.


sister,
During the followingfour years Boleslaw

either with

to

recourse

tent

such

Adelaide, and

then

had

of the Bohemian

slowlyretreated ; the
desertion,
vast
plainbefore Breslau, where
contested

held

subjectsin the city. For


their intrenchments,but

delay,he

assassination

insisted

now

his

were

the ramparts, and

and

himself

as

procured the

legionsto

the

walls,
indignant Henry
the sentiments
of nature
Not
even
hostages he held.
affected them so powerfullyas their hatred of the German
yoke and their apprehensions
of Boleslaw
their missiles,
beheld with indifference
the
; they threw
deaths of their children transfixed by their own
hands, and again forced the
Boleslaw
the walls.
to retire from
now
approached ; he enclosed
imperialists
The

their engagements.

both
as

at the same

time.

HISTORY

THE

26

OF

POLAND
[1114-1129 A.D.]

towards

his

he had

Yet

neighbours
many

tone

"

which

to

they

were

great traits of character; he often

duke; and

(juishedBohemian

brother, who
plotagainst his peace.

his exiled

he

ceased

never

far mastered

so

even

never

behaved

either to

wilhng to
nobly to

his aversion

importune for his

as

submit.
the

van-

to recall

return

or

to

of one
the very reverse
that
Sbigniew made a triumphal entry into Poland
his
who
considered
criminal.
man
ungrateful
Every
pardoned
a
depravity,and the irascible disposition
character,his insolence,his incorrigible
In a few short months
the fatal temiination of his career.
of the duke, foresaw
his
of
and Sbigniew was
incessant
Bolcslaw
courtiers,
yieldedto the
arguments
"

became

assassinated.
During the

to stiflehis
succeedingyears of his life Boleslaw endeavoured
by such works as he hoped would propitiatethe favour of heaven.
to convert
Having quelledrepeated insurrections m Pomerania, he undertook
His efforts were
it to the true faith.
to a certain extent
successful,
not, perhaps,
of
of Otto,
his
much
the
preaching
ecclesiastics,
through
especially
so
which he expended in disposingthe
bishop of Bamberg, as through the sums
minds of the rude but avaricious chiefs to the doctrines of Christianity.Many
the new
towns
religion.For a time Stettin stood out ; but
publiclyembraced
least
the
the golden argument, or at
promise of an exemption from imposts,
conversion.
in most
Idols were
brought about its
placesdemolished,churches
erected, priests
ordained,and bishops consecrated.
Still the voice of inward conscience
spoke out too loud to be silenced,and the
to the usual
unhappy duke had recourse
expedient of the times. He built
and monasteries,tasted, subjected himself to rigorous acts
of
churches
in
with
the
and
the
and
the
staff
of
shrines
\-isited,
a
garb
pilgrim,
penance,
Not only did he thus honour
of several saints.
the relics of St. Adalbert
at
and
the
of
St.
of
tomb
it
but
is
said
he
ventured
Gne-sen,
Stephen
Hungary,
a long and
on
painfulpilgrimageto the shrine of St. Giles in Languedoc, the
of whose
intercession
had been so signallyexperiencedby his mother.
efficacy
he
relaxed
his
the severe
austerities he had unposed ; with
not from
On
way
feet he daily stood in the churches,joiningwith
naked
the utmost
fervency
in the canonical hours, in the penitential
tion
psahns, and all other offices of devoaside to repeat his prayers or offer
; at everj' chapel or oratory he turned
gifts; he relieved all the poor he approached, and wasted himself with vigils.
On reachingthe end of his journey he practisedstill greater austerities;
during
fifteen successive
days he lay prostrate before the tomb of St. Giles. Such,
his abstinence,
his contrition,his humility,that the monks
indeed, was
were
visit
he
his
edified
himself.
He returned
as
as
by
safelyto his country, lightened,
in his own
mind
at least,of no
small burden
of his guilt,and purified
in
the
of
his
in some
completely
subjects. If his reformation
was
eyes
respects
mistaken, it was certainlysincere,and charitymay hope availing.
mortification
But
bitter than
a
could
more
religiouspenance
any which
remorse

inflict awaited

him.

Until

invariablysuccessful.
Pomeranians

Hungarj',

to

banks
'

from

!iii

in which
of

; he

had

gained signaltriumphs
a

old

Polish

alliance
both

tlie Baltic.

by

historie.s lead

(obscurely hinted

engaged

to act

the Russians. i
It was
his
now
the
and
defeated
was
on
surprised
vastlysuperiorforce of Hungarians and Russians :
of fortune.

reverse

of the Dniester

Tlie

four years of his death his arms


almost
were
had repeatedly discomfited
the Bohemians
and
humbled
the pride of emperors
had
twice
dictated
laws
;

and
with

to meet

turn

within

He

over

He

Bolesl.aw into Denmark.


This
is a fable arising probably
him and Nicholas, the
at) between
of that kingdom,
usurper

in concert

in

subduing the wild inhabitants

on

the southern

coast

THE

28

OF

HISTORY

POLAND
[1139-1146 A.D.]

geniture.
authority independent of his will as affectinghis rightsof primoHis discontent was
powerfullyfomented by the arts of his German
consort, who incessantlyurged him to unite under his sceptre the dissevered
portions of the monarchy. Her address prevailed. To veil his ambition
an
under the cloak of justiceand policy,he convoked
assembly of his nobles
To them he exposed, with greater truth than eloquence,the evils
at Cracow.
which had been occasioned in former
periodsof the national historyfrom the
and he urged the restoration of its union as
division of the sovereign power,
the only measure
capable of saving the country either from domestic treason
convinced
not
from
by the arguments
foreignaggression. But they were
or
his
deemed
to
ambition
whose
of one
superior
patriotism;those
they justly
but
they modestly urged the
arguments, indeed, they could not answer,
sanctity of his late father's will,and the obligationunder which he lay of
observingits provisions.
decisive measures.
to more
Disappointed in this quarter, he had recourse
He firstexacted a heavy contribution from each of the princes. His demand
the
resistance to it. With
excited their astonishment, but they offered no
raised
but
hired
he
sian
Rusthus
not
acquired
only
troops,
summarily
money
from
their
in his design of expellinghis brethren
auxiliaries to aid him
of

ance

cnterofl,and, as no defence had been


these
unfortunate
victims of fraternal
reduced;
soon
organised,were
held
In vain
which
still
for Henry.
the
violence fled to Posnania,
only place
vain
his
less
his
i
n
did
than
did they appeal to
affection,
they
justiceno
the heart of the haughty Agnes, whom
endeavour
to bond
they well knew to
A deaf ear
offered to their supplicabe the chief author of their Woes.
was
tions,
Their

appanages.

territories were

soon

and

and
This

they

that their banishment


from
given to understand
expulsionfrom their possessions.
bishop
a
deep impression on the Poles. The archof the deprived princes. Uszebor, palaespoused the cause
tine

were

would

even

follow their
arbitrary violence made

the country

of Gnesen

Sandomir, raised troops in their behalf. The views


beyond their expectationby a tragicincident. Count
of

far

of both

were

aided

Peter, a nobleman

of great riches and influence,who had been the confidential friend of Boleslaw
the Wry-mouthed, and who lived in the court of Wlatlislaw,
inveighedboth in
and
of
the
the
duke.
But
his opposition
measures
as
public
privateagainst
it did not wholly destroy his favour
confined to speaking,
with the latter.
was
One day, both being engaged in hunting, they alightedto take refreshment.
As they afterwards reclined on the hard,cold groimd (itwas
the winter season),
Wladislaw
observed : " We are not so comfortably situated here,Peter, as thy
"
"
wife now
is,on a bod of down with her fat abbot Skrezopiski!
No," replied
the other ; " nor
intended more

of your page Dobiesz ! "


Whether
either
dom.
a jestis doubtful, but the count
paid dear for his freeThe
incensed Agnes, to whom
the duke communicated
the repartee,
contrived to vindicate herself in his eyes; but she vowed
the destruction of
the count.
She had him seized at an
thrown
into prison,
entertainment,
and deprived both of his tongue and eyes.
The
burst forth in every
Uszebor
direction.
popular indignationnow
defeated the Russian
the Pomeranians
auxiliaries;
poured their wild hordes
as

yours
than as

in the

arms

Groat Poland:
the pope excommunicated
because through
the princess,
her he was
disappointedof the aids ho solicited against the infidels;and the
dreaded doom
hurled at the head of the duke by the archbishop of
same
was
into

Gnesen, the staunch

advocate

defeated,and forced to
who
indignantsubjects,

of the exiled princes. Wladislaw


himself was
Thither he was
refugein Cracow.
pursued by his
would
probably have served him as he had done Coimt

take

EARLIEST

THE

YEARS

OF

POLAND

29

[1146-U74A.D.]

abandoned
both sceptre and consort
and fled
precipitately
the emperor
to implore the aid of his brother-in-law,
Conrad.
ruin she had all
the captive of the princeswhose
fell; Agnes became
Cracow
their contempt as much
mean
but effected. Her
supplicationsmoved
as
She was, however,
and cruelty had provoked their hatred.
her ambition
conducted
the frontiers of the duchy, and told to rejoinher
over
respectfully

Peter, had he
into Germany

not

kindred.

By the princesand nobles,Boleslaw,the eldest of the remaining brothers,


unanimously elected to the vacant dignity. The new duke had need of all
was
and he possessed both in no
his talents and courage
ordinary degree to
of
his
situation.
difficulties
his
brothers
in their
the
meet
By confirming
and
their
he
even
increasing
territories, effectually
respective appanages,
gainedtheir support ; but he had to defend his rightsagainstthe whole force
of the exiles. In a personalinterview,
of the empire,which espoused the cause
of Conrad, who was
too honest
to oppose
a
indeed,he disarmed the hostility
whose
conduct
he could not fail to approve;
but Frederick
man
Barbarossa,
of that emperor,
less scrupulous,or more
ambitious.
A
the successor
was
resolution of the diet having summoned
the Polish duke to surrender his throne
to Wladislaw,or acknowledge his country tributaryto the empire, he prepared
to defend his own
dignityand the national independence.
Aided
his
he had so religiously
by
brothers,whose privileges
respected,
whose welfare he had constantlyendeavoured
and by his subjects,
to promote,
he feared not
the result,though an
and
overwhelming force of imperialists
Silesia.
Had he ventured,however, to measure
Bohemians
rapidlyapproached
with the formidable
arms
Barbarossa,neither the valour of his troops nor the
would
have availed him much; but by hovering about
goodness of his cause
the flanks of the enemy,
by harassing them with repeated skirmishes,and,
the comitry through which they marched, he conabove all,by laying waste
strained
"

them

to

sue

and
Silesia,

have

"

for peace.

that

The

Barbarossa

conditions

should

be

that Wladislaw

were

furnished

with

should

three

hundred

Polish lances in his

The

he could

the interference

divided

latter it was
did

approaching expeditioninto Italy.


possessionof the province;but through

take

his three sons, who


among
for it to Duke
Boleslaw.'

homage
subsequent exploitsof

The

indeed, he reduced

Boleslaw

held it as

former

died before

fiefof

Poland, and

less successful.

were

of the

In

one

pedition,
ex-

the

with revolting
Prussians,who, not content
since the death of Boleslaw the Wry-mouthed, had abolished
ever
Christianity
drawTi
and returned to their ancient idolatry
; but, in a second, his troops were
and
into a marshy country, were
there surprised,
almost annihilated.
This
of the slain was
blow to Poland ; among
the number
was
a severe
Henry, the
duke's brother,whose
and Lublin
became
the
now
provinces of Sandomir
of Casimir.

appanage
add

To

the
generalconsternation,

to the

of Wladislaw

sons

demanded

the

inheritance

of their father; the whole nation, indeed,began to despisea ruler


had
suffered
himself to be so signallydefeated by the barbarians.
who
By
Casimir
invited to wrest
the sceptre from the
was
a powerful faction of nobles
hands
'

which

the latter of these

From

it is not
writers
as

certain

pretend.

Bohemia

are

that

Fortunately for

held it.

conditions, and the


altogether so
was

tliat Poland

It is certain

itself.

Serrit

et

that

the

former

sword

held

over

had

the virtue to

histories,
testimony of the German
independent of the empire as the national

concurrent

unanimously

term

the

country

as

tributary

sictti Boemia,
snb tributo imperatoriw majestatis,
in the time
Another
of Barbarossa.
authority adds

words
who
of Helmotd,
wrote
Boleslaw, before he could obtain peace,
a

his brother

ipsa (Pnlonia)

the

feet and

Boleslaw

his head.

This

was

obliged

is incredible.

to

approach

the

emperor

with

naked

OF

HISTORY

THE

30

POLAND
[1174-1178A.D.]

istic
rejectwith indignationthe alluringoffer; and he himself,with his characterever,
address, succeeded in pacifyingthe Silesian princes. His reverses, howhim
and the little consideration shown
by his subjects,sank deep into
To his surviving son, Leszek, he left the
his death.
his heart and hastened
of Masovia

duchies

and

Cujavia; but,

in

devolved

of Poland

the government

conformity with the order


on
Mieczyslaw (1174).

of settlement,

his outward
gravity and his affectation of prudence, had
the Old ; and the nation, on his accession,believed it had reason
But appearances
to hope a wi.^e and
are
proverbially
happy administration.
other.
He
than
had scarcelyseized the
and
so
deceitful,
gravity more
any
reins of government
before his natural character,which it had been his policy
unfolded
itself to the universal dismay of his people. His cruelty,
to cover,

prince,from

This

been surnanied

avarice, his distrast,his tyranny made

him the object alike of their fear


dragged before his inexorable
spies; were
tribunal for fancied offences; were
oppressed by unheard-of imposts, which
collected with unsparing vigour; and were
to sanguinary laws
subjectetl
were
from
and
his
alone.
death
caprice
Confiscation,
imprisonment,
emanating
his

hatred.

and

They

beset with

were

of his government.
the instruments
The people groaned ; the nobles,whose
privUegeshad increased Inversely
them
with the decline of the monarchy, and whose
pride made
impatient of
murmured
the
execrated
whose
exactions
one
clergy
a
superior, openly
;
tliem.
At length the archbishop of Cracow, after vainly
on
weighed even
endeavouring to effect his reformation, and employing, like the prophet of
were

old, a strikingparable to convict him of his injusticefrom his own


lips,
Cracow
the first to throw off
was
joined a conspiracy formed against him.
followed by the greater part of the kingdom,
its allegiance
; the example was
of defending his rights
and with such rapiditythat before he could dream
his brother Casimir was
proclaimed duke of Poland (1178 a.d.).*

PROGUESS;

NATION.\L

EXTINCTION

OF

THE

DYNASTY

OF

THE

PIASTS

the youngest brother of Boleslaw


Casimir was
IV.
It was
not ambition
that induced him to take possessionof the throne from which Mieczyslaw was
ejected,for, on the contrary, he even
requested to be allowed to resignit to
This offer was,
him, pledginghimself to the voyavods for his better conduct.
to their
however, refused,the Poles not being willingto trust themselves
the only fruit of the negotiationwas
the proof of Casimir's
disposition.
generous
He
with the Russians,though not of sufficient
was
engaged in various wars
Poland
in
all
to
to
merit
detail
he
dered
renwhich, however,
;
consequence
himself
conspicuous for clemency and benevolence, "smoothing the
of war, and
which
his sword
had
rugged brow"
binding up the wounds

former

mild

tyrant, and

and

made.

and

The followinganecdote is given as an admirable


of this amiable
benevolence
prince: " He was

all the money


of one
struck
the prince a
He

fled

am

blow

immediately

condemned

'I

of his

not

to

lose

on

from

his

who, incensed
nobility,
the ear,

in the

heat

illustration of the mildness


one

day

justice,but, being pursued

head.

said he,
surprised,'

The
'at

generous

the

at

play

and

won

his ill fortune, suddenly


of his uncontrolled
passion.
at

Cashnir

and

overtaken, was

detennined

otherwise.

gentleman's conduct; for, not having


he should attack
fortune, no wonder

it in his power
to revenge
himself on
her favourite in me.'
After these generous

words

he revoked

the sentence,

11178-1191A.D.)
the

returned
as

that

31

he

alone

perniciouspracticethat

faulty,

was

might

example, a
of the people."

his

encouraged,by

he

POLAND

declared

and

his money,

nobleman

OF

YEAKS

EAELIEST

THE

terminate

in the ruin of hundreds


indeed a father to his subjects: he viewed the oppression
This princewas
and
not
the serfs with
though it was
an
of the nobles over
eye of sorrow;
of Polish societyby emancipating
to change the constitution
in his power
them
them
and making
perfectlyindependent,what he could do, he tlid,
in

him

He

sceptre.

and
qualities
people.
His

they

faults,but

had

He

his virtues.

was

And

e'en

that

of

lover

virtue's

to

remembered,

deposed, but
the

five years

revived

side.

therefore

even

claim

one

appellationwhich

by

he

his

more

subjects

of

deserving of it

it

bestow

to

on

and

be

to

had

until

Wladislaw

reforming his mind

by

He

authority. The
preceding princes in the year

the

not

worthy

in 1306.

been

in his

reinstated

was

one

throne

the

on

occurred

nothing

which

III

'

determined

were

himself

rendered

succeedingreigns in

after

Poles

friend of the

the Just.

"

we

the

bounty the ostentation of


duty and equity,and, unlike

enviable

and

rare

find Wladislaw

been

title had
but

that

the Polish

of his noble

his

not the result of fear, nor


clemency was
from
swerved
pride. Like Aristides,he never
he has
him, he tempered right with mercy;
to

and

peace,

left behind

swayed

kind.
conciliating

His

than the Athenian


him
bestowed
on
After several

has

He

ever

lost in the number

almost

failingslean'd

his

cruelty.

wanton

monarch

were

of the most

were

manners

from

amiable

of the most

character

the

strict laws

by

protectingthem

regal
1296,
he

character

had
as

prince.
opportunity he had
enemies and
defence againstnew
This militaryorder had obtained
infestingthe northern frontier.

in its
of his country was
less than the Teutonic
knights.

meriting well

of

first

The

invaders

no

"

in

Prussia,and

were
continually
accompanied Frederick
in 1188, being left by his
of Germany,
to the crusades
Barbarossa, emperor
salem,
at length formed
by Henry, king of Jeruwere
death without
a commander,
into a religious
and martial order,called the knightsof St. George. This
afterwards
required
title was
changed to knights of St. Mary. They were
a
nd
Christian
defend
the
to
be
noble
of
promulgate
religion,
to
parentage,

it to the utmost

settlement

The

of their power.
to them
bull addressed
extent

Germans

who

In

year

the

1191

Pope

Celestine

III

under the title of the Teutonic


knights
a
the
of the Hospital of St. Mary
Virgin. In the beginning of the thirteenth
that
the condition
allotted to them, under
century Kulm, in Prussia, was

granted them

they

junction,
only against their pagan neighbours. This inPrussia
set at naught ; after conquering all Polish
however, was soon
tory,
called)and buildingMarienburg, they invaded the Polish terrinow

should

(as it is
and

turn

their

overran

the

Wladislaw, when
and

protectionof

arms

greater part

they had
the

of Pomerania.

been

church,

soon

the pope as out of the pale


After several
inroads.
last
effort was
and
a
superior, great

denounced

by

checked

their

always
battles,in which the Poles were
made, but stillfortune declared againstthe Teutonic knights; for,according
the field,
left dead on
of them
were
to the Polish historians,four thousand
Wladislaw
slain
taken
e
ither
thousand
besides thirty
or
captive.
auxiliaries,
in his power
the order; but, at the sacrifice of
to exterminate
had it now
'

Sumamed

Loketiek

on

account

of tiis diminutive

stature, meaning but

an

ell in

height.

THE

32

HISTORY

OF

POLAND
[1333-1347 A.D.]

and
territory,
policy,he contented himself with taking possessionof his own
down
them
a
by
treaty.
binding
Having thus fought the battles of his country, he returned, to obtain the
However, to give the cerewhich his subjectscould no longer refuse.
mony
crown
ambassador
sent
Wladislaw
to Rome,
to
an
the sanction of religion,
of
liberal
than
to
the
a
sum
words,
perhaps by
money
persuade
pope, more
the
confirmation
This
with
his
bemg
obtained,
it
authority.
ceremony
ratify
of coronation

performed with

was

great

shortly transferred

Death, however,
Casimir, in

the

pomp

in the

diadem

from

cathedral
his head

at
to

Cracow.
that of

he gave these mstructions


his
on
year 1333, to whom
for
honour
If you have
death-bed :
or
regard
reputation,
your
your
any
order and the marto yieldnothing to the knights of the Teutonic
quis
take care
the ruins of your
to bury yourself under
of lirandenburg. Resolve
the

his son,

"

them
the portion of your heritagewhich
they
and
children.
to
responsible
people
your
your
you
possess,
would be
such an example of cowardice, which
Do
not leave your
successors
the splendour of the finest reign.
sufficient to tarnish all your virtues and
the traitors; and, happier than your
Punish
father,drive them from a kingdom
for
with
for
stained
the
where
them,
they are
pity opened an asylum
'"=
blackest ingratitude.
ratlier

throne

and

abandon

than

for which

CASIMIR

to

arc

(III)

THE

GREAT

(1333-1370

A.D.)

no
Notwithstanding the dying injunctionsof his father,Casimir made
from
the
Teutonic
his
dominions.
The
to
reason
knights
expel
attempts
with any prospect of success.
the war
his inability
to carry on
doubtless
was
its difficulties:the Bohemian
not without
His situation was
king still aspired
of
his
in
interests of that
the
two
Polish
the
were
to
own
throne;
palatines
of
the
the
the
and
internal
state
monarch
kingdom,
nullityof the laws, the
;
which
evils
o
f
loudlycalled for reparation.
insecurity property and persons, were
monks
with these enterprising
Peace
was
indispensableto the reforms he
garian
at length concluded
meditated; it was
through the mediation of the Hunking, but on conditions deeplymortifying to the nation.
Cujavia and
Casimir
of Doljrzyn were
for himself
the territory
restored; but
renounced
The
and
Kulni, Michalow, and Pomerania.
successors
clergy,the barons,
the equestrianonler,long refu.sed to sanction
so
unexpected a concession ; but
them
that no better terms
the arguments of the king convinced
could be procured,
and they reluctantlyconcurred.
of abuses,Casimir first applied his attention
In his proposed reformation
which threatened to dissolve the frame of society. The highways were
to one
infested by numerous
partiesof robbers, chieflydisbanded soldiers,who plundered
alike travellers and peasantry, and long defied punishment. Many of
them
doubtless
were
protected by certam
nobles,whose interests in return
they zealouslyespoused. They were
now
pursued to their last hiding-places,
brought before the tribunals of the country, and punished with inflexible
were
towns
severity.The scaffolds of Cracow and the provincial
continuallysmoked
with
the blood of the guilty. His severitynot only struck a salutaryterror
into the h("arts of the lawless,
but impressed the whole
nation with a high

idea

of his

of his
custom

vigour.

lengthaspiredto the noble ambition


people. He found the laws barbarous,but
that their abrogation or improvement was

Casimir

at

of
so
a

becoming the legislator


by time and
work
of great delicacy.

sanctioned

EARLIEST

THE

YEARS

OF

POLAND

33

[1347 A.D.]

admmistered
them a less evil ; their sentences
the judges who
were
were
venal ; corruption had seized on all,
or
accordingto equity,but capricious
from the princelypalatineto the lowest link in the judicial
To frame
chain.
in their character and of universal
a
he
body of laws uniform
application,
convoked
at Wisliza a diet of bishops,palatines,
and other magiscastellans,
trates,
and, in concert with the best informed of these, he digesteda code
thenceforth to be received as obligatoryand perpetual. It was
which was
in
two
Their
books, one for Little, the other for Great Poland.
comprised
could
the
whole
be
in
as
on
an
good as
expected
provisionswere
age when
when
and
feudalityreigned undisputed,
little understood.
civil rightswere
They
Nor

not

^,,-"

to the

secured

less than

peasant, no

to

the

nobles, the possessionand the rights of


property, and subjected both, in an equal
nals.
to the same
penaltiesand tribumanner,
In

other
respects the distinction
orders
two
the
was
strongly
Hitherto the peasants had been
slaves to their masters, who
adscripti
gleboc,
of life and death over
had power
them,
allowed
not
and were
to change owners.

between
marked.

now
abolished; every serf
Servage was
the ground, or in
employed in cultivating

declared

colonisation,was
of
privileges
were

not

there
serfs

the

peasant ;

entitled to the
the peasants

but

still chained
by a personal,though
dependence. Of this order
territorial,
two
were
: those who, as
descriptions
could
do
previously,
nothing without
master's permission; and those who,

their
born
as

free

made

or

so, could

industryto whatever

master

offer their

they pleased.

of the latter class


Yet even
free as
one
he would
be thought who, by his agreement
with
his feudal
superior,could
migrate to another estate with or without
"

"

that superior's
permission,was affected by
the system. If he sued another at the law,
and sentence was
pronounced in his favour,
his lord shared the compensation awarded.
The

murderer

of a peasant paid ten marks


the
to
lord,the other five to the

Pole
(Thirteenth

Century)

The reason
familyof the deceased.
that
of the
the
time
as
apparently so arbitrary,
regulations,
was,
peasant, so long as he remained on his lord's estate, belonged to that lord,so
in
any injuryinflicted on him which mterfered with his labour, or diminished
his death he
felt
the
other
his
must
be
the
o
f
by
by
industry,
profits
;
any way
of the estate; the lord then, as he
left his family chargeableto the owner
in the injury,had a claim to share also the compensation. The
participated
those who
could not migrate as they pleased,and whose
peasants not free
the
to
families were
same
subject
dependence were yet entitled to a share of
to purfrom
the profits
their
qualified
arising
industry,and with these were
chase
five went
of these

"

"

fore
On
their freedom.
their decease their effects devolvetl,not as heretoill-treated
If
their
but
their
kindred.
to
to
themselves,
lords,
surviving
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

HISTORY

THE

34

OF

POLAND
[1347 A.D.]

their masters, they could


the
freed
estate ;
aspire
remove
as free peasants to another
peasant could even
to the dignityof a noble.
Money, or long service in the martial retinue of the
in war, or royal favour, could procure that distinction.
great barons, or success

and

if their wives

or

The

importance

of

persecuted by

several orders
of
The murder

the

carefullygraduated by

was

consideration.

under

daughters were

free

peasant

the

by ten
language,recently

correct
peasant recentlyennobled, or, in more
of a gentleman, fifteen marks; of a common
the privileges
(Anglice,gentleman),thirtymarks; of a baron or count, sixtymarks.

marks; of
admitted

code

redeemed

was

noble

to

distinctions in

time

gradually ilisappeared
; all were

in the

merged

These
common

thenceforth
noble was
noble ; every
the
equal ; but the more
it
t
he
laboured
the
line
of
in
to
confounded
niore
itself,
deepen

designationof
order was
demarcation

between

itselfand

the inferior order of

peasants.

In

the

ing
follow-

in favour
of the latter by
reigns,indeetl,the salutary regulationsmade
them
potic
over
a destlisregarded.The nobles again assumed
prince were
which
a
jurisdiction
rightly
authority,and arrogated to themselves
period,this
belonged to the local magistrates. Until within a very modern
The
lord
of
his
for
Poland.
the
soil
held
in
court
subsisted
vassalage
judicial
the trial of his peasantry as confidentlyas any judge in the realm ; in capital
of the palatinal
the jurisdiction
courts.''
cases, however, the culpritlay within
chain
of
treaties
he
wanted
and he
whole
life of this king was
The
a long
;
he
have
with
all
hostile
before
could
the
start
obliged to
was
powers
peace
which
he
had
the
aim
of
his
life.
He
made
did not, however,
great work
at any
conclude peace in a frivolou.s and lightway
price; on the contrary, he
wisely hesitated as long as it was possiblebefore he gave his last word, for

this

it difficult to ask

sacrifice before it had comprehended


The treaty of Kalish in
left his hands
free so that he could
a little later,
1343, and
his
task
of
t
he
internal
great
reconstructing
organisationof his kingdom.
begin
he
inherited
from
had
The
father
his
realm, but an incoherent
was
no
country
of
the
complexity
provinces dependent upon
personalityof the king. For
he found

that

the

do

it would
that of Bohemia

so

country
for its

to make

benefit.

own

realm a soul had to be infused into it,and the soul


this country to become
a
In
is
law.
of states
place of the crumbling exercise of the totteringlaws of
he

usage

the written

constitutional laws.
institutions with no violent hand

put

time-honoured

proceeding; on

the

He

touched, however, these

; success

never

such

crowns

development, and towards


space
all the state
the
the end of his life assembled
factors and explained to them
the tendency of his
meaning of his actions and endeavours; he expresses
whole life and the aim of the next future in the followingwords:
"The
same
under
it is
various
otherwise
not
to
one
people
sovereignought
enjoy
rights,
a

contrary,he allowed

for

similar to that monster


with several heads.
It is therefore useful for the
in what province." Casimir
state if it proceedsaccordingto one law, no matter
from
far
from
himself the fact that the equalityof
however,
disguising
was,
the
elements
the
all
for the patriarchal
state is suitable for nomads
fomiing
"

of

conditions
such

as

wished
it could

the nations

Casimir

"

but

could

endeavouring
it,the community had reached
indeed

was

be

never

to

make

such

practisedin
Poland.

And

cultured
even

pointof development

state

if he
from

had
which

advance
but not go backwards.
discover
in
And
here we
inclination to imitate his German, Bohemian,
and
Hungarian
line of his house
neighbours in the feudal system. He forces the Masovian
his liegemen,enters
for some
to become
into
time with Wladislaw
the White
a
nd
his
similar
death-bed
northern
of
relationship,
a
on
bequeaths a great part
Poland
to his grancjson
Casimir of Stettin,
One perceives
as
a feudal tenure.

Casimir

an

THE

36

OF

HISTORY

POLAND
[1347-13.56A.D.]

; another,the duke

; both

of Oppelen
of Masovia
reproached
in prejudiceof the male descendants
of
partiahty to a foreigner,
his house.
Fortunately for his views, they opposed each other with so much
of avoiding
animosity that, in the enil,both adopted his propositionas a means
of a defeat.
But though they thus united in the election of
the shame
atlvantagefrom it. The sceptre of
Louis, they resolved to draw their own
than justicepermitted,they
more
rigorously
never
swayed
Casiniir,though
of iron,after the long impunity they had enjoyed during two
felt to be one
afterwards
Some
centuries.
they sent deputies to Breda, to inform
years
with
the wishes of their king they had conin
Louis that, though
curred
compliance
should
his
free to make
in
election, tliey
yet consider themselves
certain concessions.
He
choice of any other prince if he refused them
was
with the offices of the state;
other foreigners
not to invest Hungarians or any
from
he was
to
to declare the Polish equestrianorder exempt
contributions,
and
in their utmost
to support their retinues
confirm them
even
privileges,
in his warlike expeditions. The
Hungarian king had the weakne-ss to comply
with these and other demands, and thereby to forge chains for his successors.
between
the nobles
Hence
the originof the pacta conventa, or the covenants
elect
framed
to
covenants
for
and the candidate
exclusively
they proposed
of
and
and
for
detriment
alike
the
their own
benefit,
king
peasantry.
nominate
him

the duke

for his

"

Casimir

was

of peace.

man

War
when

he desired not, yet he never


shunned
the voice of his nobles demanded
it.

forced upon
it was
it when
him, or
with them ;
to engage
Both he and they,perhaps,feared the knights too much
the Silesians (now subject to the Bohemians), the
but he triumpheil over
Volhinia
and Podolia,
Russians, the Lithuanians, and Tatars; he subdued
of Brescia and Beltz. These successes, with the alliance
with the palatinates
rendered him formidable
of two princesso powerful as Louis and the emperor,
from their cruel
neighbours,and deterred his enemies of Pomerania
aggressions.
of this prince were
sullied by some
But
the great qualities
He
excesses.
and
much
addicted
to
to
drunkenness,
women.
was
immoderately so
Long
he had dishonoured
the daughter of an Hungarian
before his father's death
to

his

of his wives (and


of her friends. To none
noble, and fled from the vengeance
of fidelity.After the death of the princessAnne,
he had three) did he dream
he married
her
Adelaide, a German
princess; but her jealousy,and still more

reproaches,incensed
of intemperance was

him

so

much

that he exiled her to

fortress.

His

career

became
headstrong. He soon
of a Bohemian
all his arts, however, failed to seduce,
enamoured
lady, whom
declared she would
and who
yieldonly to marriage. (How his engagement
to be set aside, we
with Adelaide was
informed ; perhaps he had the
not
are
her that he had obtained a divorce.) He feigned to comply;
art to convince
but instead of the bishop of Cracow, whom
to perform the cereshe wished
mony,
and who.so authorityshe conceived
would sanction the act, he substi
tuted a monk
(the abbot of Tynieck), who assimied the pontifical
robes,and
thus became
a
participatorin the most detestable of deceptions. Her he
named
he had
discarded, to make way for a Jewess
soon
Esther, by whom
the paradise of the
two
sons.
During this concubine's favour Poland was
Israelites ; the privileges,
indeed, which at her entreaties he granted to them,
in force
remained
the cause
long after his reign, and, no doubt, was
why
have
for
continued
this
to
so
reganl
they
kingdom with peculiar
ages
many
After Esther, or perhaps
affection,and to .selectit as their chief residence.
find
with
multitude
of
His licentiousness
favourites.
a
her,we
contemporary
he
established
bounds
knew
w
hich
he
filletlwith frail
no
a regularseraglio,
;
thenceforth

the

more

EARLIEST

THE
"1356-1370

A.

YEAES

OF

POLAND

37

D.]

bishops murmured, but dared not openly reproach him ; the


A priestof Cracow
at length had the courage
expostulated,but in vain.
pope
into
the Vistula,his fate
him ; but as he was
to reprove
quickly thrown
and
deterred others from
imitatinghis temerity. Age effected what reason
After his union with a third wife (a Piast),
had attempted in vain.
religion
for his amours
less notorious
he became
; and as the fire of lust expired before
influence of age, his subjectshad the consolation of findingthat
the chilling
safe from pollution.
and daughters were
their wives, sisters,
occasioned
Casimir's death was
by a fall from his horse while hunting.
had he not turned a deaf ear
to the
The accident might not have been fatal,
his
is
cherished
To
this
his
his
of
advice
by
day
coimtry,
physicians.
memory
which justlyregardshim as the greatest princeof a great line. Of his genius,
in improving the condition of
his success
his love of justice,
his patriotism,
must
not
his
his
best
the
but
acts are
his people,
splendidqualities
comment;
of
his
the
lustre
vices which
not only sully
blind us to his vices
character,
of a people with whom
have had a perniciousinfluence on the minds
but must
and
in that age usually strong.
of religion
not
the obligations
morality were
During the reignof this last male princeof the house of Piast,the Flagellants,
sect of enthusiasts,so called from the rigourof their self-inflictions,
a numerous
naked to the waist, wore
entered Poland from Hungary ; they went
crosses
on
ing
two
their lower gannents, and entered every town
by two, with caps descendcaused
their breasts and backs the wounds
to their eyes, and exhibiting
on
the
Twice
and
their
merciless
once
during
night,did
a
day,
whippings.
by
sometimes
in
this
horrible
the
themselves
inflict
churches,
penance
they
upon
in the public cemeteries, vociferatingthe whole
time, "Mercy!"
sometimes
Saviour's passion,they would
After which, joiningin a song alludingto our
mud ;
or
suddenly throw themselves on the ground, regardlessof stones,flint,
then pass from one
to another, saying, God
of their lay preacherswould
one
forgivesthee thy sins !" Thirty days' continued sufferingthey considered a
for sin ; hence they dispensedwith the sacraments, which
full atonement
they
removed
this
obtained
and
by
were
being
guilt
abrogated,
penance
taught
grace
that most
Christian of truths, without
alone.
They took in a strange sense
of these madmen
The
there
be
remission."
of
blood
success
can
no
shedding
h
ad
instances enough
not
in making proselyteswould
we
incredible,
appear
fanaticism"
and
and
how
times
in our
those,too, of the worst
easilyheresy
be
the
kind
propagated among
vulgar. Hungary, Poland, Germany,
may
overrun
by the Flagellants.They
England, were
Italy,France, and even
playing
disthem
who
considered
as
by those
were
long treated with respect even
their
found that
zeal than knowledge; but, in the end, it was
more
and women
roamed
Men
vices were
togetherfrom kingdom
superiorto both.
made
while thus publiclyenduring so severe
to kingdom; and
a
discipline,
ample amends for it in secret ; they lived in the worst speciesof fornication.
scouted by the very popuUntil their knavery was
discovered, and they were
lace,
endeavoured
them.^
to
and
princevainly
repress
pope
beauties.

The

"

"

"

"

"

LOUIS

(1370-1382

A.D.)

heirs,his sister's son,


Casimir,there being no immediate
called to the Polish throne.
Louis, king of Hungary, was
the sovereignof another kingdom, the Polish nobles, appreAs Louis was
hending
jects,
that their interests would
be compromised to those of his other subhim agree to certain stipulations
made
they would
as a safeguard before
On

the death

of

THE

38

HISTORY

POLAND

OF

[1370-1382 A.D.]

to take

allow him
been

formal

people. In
form, being made

This

constitution.

bond

C""iventa,imd

Pacta

obligedto

king

"

corner-stone"

his

and

the alterations made


oath ever
to the monarchs
on
of
conditions
required Loui.s

The

resignall
and

the crown,
could not

in fact

the

between

to be administered

of Poland.

had always
authority.
precedingkings,but it

of the

subject to

"

Charta

accession

There

monarch
to preserve
oath, binding the new
it became
the present case
something more

of

matter

mere

the

on

coronation

of his

the interests
than

of this kind

form

some

merely

was

possessionof the insigniaof

were

as

called the
has

"

is the

tinued
con-

Magna

follows: He

was

before

annexed

of his officers or

the benefices

them

make

since,and

domains

of the extensive

rightto most

of the Polish

subjectswas
by the diets

starostas,whom

to

he

consultingthe senate, or assembly of nobles. He


without
not to exact
was
any personalservice,to impose any taxes, or wage war
with
the
of
the
lords
Nor
he
interfere
their consent.
to
over
was
authority
of the king was
thus limited to little more
than that
their .serfs. The power
of a guardian of the laws.
Louis
agreed to these demands, but his conduct afterwards proved that
with
intention
He
fixed his residence
of observing them.
not
it was
an
entirelyin Hungary, and, regardlessof the complaints of the Poles, filled all
the principaloffices with Hungarians. Great disturbances
ensued, and the
of
of
made
the
Polaml,
discord,
taking
advantage
frequent
neighbours
removed
author
of
these
death
the
troubles
incursions.
however,
Hajipily,
Louis terminated
after he had reigned twelve years, and, having no male heirs,
the dynasty of the Piasts in the year 1382.
the foundations
of all the most
In this first period were"laid
important
and
Polish institutions,
its laws,diets,
not only political
orders,
establishments,
but those of learningalso.
The
formed
into a regular code
by Casimir;
laws, we have seen, were
without

remove

first assembled

Wladislaw

his nobles

in

diet in the year

1331, and

Casimir, followed his example. These convocations


assemblies of one
formed
order, but were
by the kings on
of

balance

of

between

power,

the

nobles, for
The

that

miles

commercial

time

they

indeed, had
well

as

and

nobilis

classes

consisted

obtained

elsewhere.

enamoured.

with

fortyother

with

high

that

the

at

Jewish

merchant

of

on

industrious
of

portance
small im-

no

styled

were

of the

most

since
great privileges,

to any

foreignersand

in his time
The

Europe.

commerce

of

horseback,

one

The

Jews.

ready

II

was

cities in
this

distinction

granted them a charter


to them
by Casimir the Great.
their favour by Esther, a young

Cracow

marriage

is

fought

admitted

not

possession of

the

This

who

synonymous.

were

Boleslaw

idea of

sedulouslyflid

were

chieflyof

protectionwjis extended
princewas interested in
was

least those

at

the very

cessor,
suc-

merely
principle

aristocracy,consistingof the influential


who
possessed the title of noblemen, but,

barons
nobles, and the numerous
in fact,constituted a separate interest.
; all the army,

his

not

were

of the

latter

at

people,

in Poland,
money
in 1264, and the same

as

It is said that this

Jewess, of

Hanse

towns

whom

he

in alliance

exchange, still standing,impressesus

of this age, thus intrusted to the Jews.


So
avail
of
their
themselves
people
advantages,

Casimir's

granddaughter, Elizabeth, Wierzynck, a


Cracow, requested the honour of being allowed to make

the young

bride a marriage present of 100,000 florins of gold,an immense


sum
time, and equal to her dowry from her grandfather.
With
regard to the learning of this period, we first meet with the monkish
between
the years 1110 and 1135.
historian,Gallus, who wrote
His histoiy
at that

commences

in

825,

and

extends

to

1118.

According

to

the

custom

of his

THE
11382

A.

order,

he

bishop

of

of

the

of

Just,

in

learning

and
Urban

and

see,

origin.

Casimir

and

Cracow,

the

the

bad

in

wrote

same

Casiniir
Polish

EARLIEST

POLAND

OF

YEARS

39

D.]

the

such

eminence

estimated

1347.

had

it, in

This
the

history

attempts
which

its

1364,

It

was

regulated

in

attained
to

any

the

short

time

mysteries
the

to

of

University
in

of

diocesan

the

in

the

imitation

Cholewa,
also

was

wrote

conduced

the

equal

He

penetrate

most

of

professors
as

to

Matthew

by
writer

latter
1160.

year

foundation

the

was

in

about

followed

was

Kadlubek.

circumstance

Poland

Great,

his

in

He

verse.

born

was

and

But

Latin
Vincent

of

of
the

promotion
Cracow,

that

time

universities

of

of

that
of

by
Paris,

Pope

Europe,

CHAPTER
ZENITH

II
DECLINE

AND

[1382-1696

death

speedilyfollowed by troubles raised chieflyby the


to claim his rights. Semowit, duke
Sigisnuind advanced
of Masovia, and a Piast,also aspiredto the throne ; a civil war
desolated several
The
latter
have
united
the
provinces.
prince might
suffragesin his favour
exhibited
he
not
had
great ferocity,
rashness,impatience,and other qualities
the
sufficient to tlisgust
Poles with his pretensions. The
factions at length
should be offered to Hedwig, youngest daughter of
agreed that the crown
the late king, and granddaughter of Casimir
the Great, on condition that she
of
whom
her subjectsmight
should accept as husband
the
one
princes
any
her.
As
this
in
her
to
fourteenth
was
princess
only
propose
year, the deputies
treated with her mother, Elizabeth.
That
however,
being bent on
queen,
of her eldest daughter, Maria, to whom
the succession
the Poles had sworn
to
obedience, had recourse
policy. She accepted the throne, indeed, for
the
the princesswas
that
the
to undertake
too young
Hedwig ; but, on
plea
of
duties
she despatched Sigismund to act as regent, in
onerous
government,
be able to reconcile the people to his authority. Her
the view that he would
failed ; he

stratagem
months

new

effect; Hedwig
at

that

Among
on

beauty
tender
them

was

to inform

sent

was

The

was

nobles.

turbulent

two

of Louis

A.D.)

(1382-1386

HEDWIG

The

A.D.]

even

that

election

allowed
if

would

in

of

princess,her

this
and

Poland,

above

the duke

the country (his ravages

of

and

all her

to

Hedwig

be

arrived

age,
was

not
her

made.

the

enter
was

This

country

given

not

menace

had

never

and

senger
mes-

nation

the

in

desired

at Cracow.
immediately crowned
her
discernible
virtues,
even
affability,
was

crown,

soon

brought

her

Masovia; but the evils his ambition

had

the

to

ceased

since

the

death

of

many
had

suitors.

brought

Louis) caused

ania,
rejection. The most powerful was Jagello,son of Gedymin, duke of Lithuand his proposalsmost
nation.
He
offered
not only
advantageous to the
the Christian
to introduce
faith into his hereditary
to abjure paganism, and
dominions
but to incorLithuania, Sarnogitia,and a portion of Russia
his

"

"

40

AND

ZENITH

DECLINE

41

[1382-1386 A. D.]

and even
to reconquer
with the Polish crown,
Silesia,
it. His preand the other territories formerly dependent on
tensions
intervened
instantlysupported by the whole nation ; but a difficulty

porate these dominions

Pomerania,
were

to blast its fairest hopes.


the queen, she had long loved and been affianced to William,
his elegantform, his pleasingmanners,
She remembered
duke of Austria.
and,
her
he
shown
in
had
her
affection
and
tender
above
the
she
childhood,
all,
Her
could not avoid contrastmg him with the rude,savage, uncomely pagan.

threatened

which

Young

as

was

what passed in her mind ; they knew, too, that she had
arrival of Duke
the
her day and
written
William; they watched
a
nd
her
like
her
within
her own
a
kept
letters,
prisoner
night,intercepted
he
lover
not permitted to approach her.
arrived
her
She
was
palace. When
but once
to bid him
wished to see him once
a last adieu ; in vain.
Irritated,
she one
day seized a hatchet,with which
or
perhaps desperateat the refusal,

subjectswell knew
to hasten

"

"

the duke, and it was


to break open her iron gates to admit
not
This was
forced to desist from her purpose.
that she was
a
difficulty
in
of
be
wondered
her
to
at
of
the
ings.
feelone
passionscarcely
strong
paroxysm
blessed with an understanding remarkably clear for her
But she was
she perceived the advantages that must
accrue
years : in her cooler moments
her
from
to her people
acceptance of Jagello; and, after a few violent struggles
with nature, she resolved to see the formidable
to
barbarian,and, if possible,
He arrived,and did not displease
she felt for him.
subdue
the repugnance
of Wladislaw
dear to the Poles
His baptism by the name
her.
a name
his marriage,and coronation followed. "
Through the marriage of Hedwig with JagelloLithuania and Poland were
This
immense
accession to the
united under
crown."
an
one
duchy was
from
extended
of
Poland.
It
Poland
the west,
on
geographicalmagnitude
and
Livonia
the
from
the
the
on
east,
Dnieper or Borysthenes on
beyond
The Lithuanians
and Samogitians,who are different clans of the same
north.
generallybelieved to have sprung from a different stem from
origin,are now
the Poles.
They spoke a language widely dissimilar to the Polish or the
in a
Their religion
Russian.
was
a singularmedley of itlolatry
: they believed
and all-wise spirit.
called
the
whom
or
they
omnipotent
god
Jupiter,
supreme
of Perkunas
They worshipped the god of thunder under the name
; they paid
of
also
there
maintained
the
who
to
harvests;
were
a
god
priests
homage
of
fire
in
honour
the
sacred
of
the
a
Parni,
were
sons
seagod
continuallyfeeding
called Ziutz.
was
Trees,fountams, and plantsall came
; and their flamen
in for a share of their veneration.
They had sacred serpents called Givoite,
As to their government,
in
believed
o
f
etc.
and
guardian spirits bees,cattle,
it was, like that of all other barbarous
nations,despotic; and the nobles were
and more
Rinless numerous
tyrannicalto the lower orders than in Poland.
the title of
gold was the first who imited the various provinces,and assumed
she threatened
without

"

grand duke

of Lithuania

"

in 1235.

the ducal throne.


He wrested
the Russians.
He divided this
himself the sole possessor.
between
his sons, but Olgerd made
dukedom
him
in
of
his
thirteen
succeeded
When
1381.
raised to the
Jagello,one
sons,
of
throne of Poland, he appointed his cousin,Witold, to the government
In

1320

we

find

the famous

Gedjonin

Volhinia,Severia, Kiev, and Tchernizov

on

from

Lithuania.
This

province did

readilycoalesce with Poland as was


expected.
the people very docile disciples
; for, though the Romish
not

so

Jagellodid not find


disseminated
faith was
partially
of a bishop,the districts which

in Lithuania

had

been

proper,

and

Vilna made

subject to Russia

had

the seat

long adopted

HISTORY

THE

42

OF

POLAND
[1434-1444 A.D.]

obstinatelyadhered

to their tenets;
the doctrines of the Greek
church, and
of the Christian
modification
the Samogitiaiisrefused to accept any
though the episcopalcity Miedniki was built at this time, they
religion
; and
strange and wild superstitions.In
clung firmlyfor a long period to their own
and
the latter part of this reign (in 1434), however, the union of the Roman

while

took

churches

Greek

adopted

placeat the

of

-convent

ritual,but the Greek

the Roman

Florence, and

the

allowed

clergywere

bishop of Kiev
of
privilege

the

marriage.
the political
union effected without opposition. The Lithuanian
their serfs bj' their conof
afraid
nection
were
losingtheir ascendency over
with the less despotic PolLsh barons; and
Witold, urged on by the
Sigismund, who was jealousof the growing ])ower of Poland, revolteil,
emperor
and was
making preparationsfor his coronation,when he suddenly died in 1430.
Jagelloestablished the Polish law on a firmer foundation in the diets of
to the code of Wislica,which
1422 antl 1423, and gave an additional sanction
Nor
nobles

was

Casimir had begun. To him the Poles are indebted


individual is to be imprisoned until convicted.
no

for their famous

law

that

he was
obligedto fightas well as preach and legislate;
ments
reign eonthiuallyoccupied in checking the encroachhi a great battle at Gruneof the Teutonic knights. He defeated them
obtain
wala in 1410, and they were
to
happy
Having thus laid
peace m 1422.
This

in the

monarch

Wladislaw,

son,

greatness, he died in 1433.

of Poland's

the foundation
His

was

early part of his

of Poland

not

was

much

than

more

nine

years

old when

the

His mother
and some
of the nobles
placed on his head.
his guartlians during his nonage.
were
Scarcely had he escaped from his
The descendant
pupilage,when he served his maiden
campaign against the Turks.
of Osman, not content
with their conquests in Asia, had crossed the
Hellespont to lay low the totteringeastern empire. They ravaged Transylvania
and a great portionof Hungary, and, the Hungarians opposing them in
on
vain, conferred their crown
Wladislaw, who immediately took the field.
headed
Murad
the Moslem
and Wladislaw
the Poles; an experienced
army,
thus pittedagainst a boy. But the battle is not always to the
warrior was
crown

was

if exhausted
as
; like a spent wave,
feeble attack on that Polish army.
The
and were
of 30,000 men,
obliged to sue
with mutual
oaths,and Wladislaw
was
he
which
had so nobly defended.

strong

But

this

with victory, the Turks


made
but a
Moslems
defeated with the loss
were
A treaty was
for peace.
concluded

presented with the Hungarian

crown

only urged him, like the gamester, to try the chance of


were
nothing, oaths were
nothing; the pope's legate,
who
accompanied the youthful king,produced his authority,and silenced all
But the Turkish swords, which before were
blunt with
scruplesof conscience.
another

success

Treaties

cast.

service,were

now

the banner
of
the Poles were
perfidy. Thus
A.D.,

an

event

whetted

THE

The

with revenge,

and

for

once

the Moslem

crescent

was

justice. Murad
regained his laurels on the plainsof \'arna;
anfl
fell a victim
^\'ladislaw
rashness and
routed,
to his own
this
Polish
perished
king,in his twenty-first
young
year, 1444
which spared the lives of many
thousands
of human
bemgs.

DEFEAT

OF

THE

TEUTONIC

KNIGHTS

reign of Casimir IV, who succeeded his brother,forms a brighterera


fate seems
history. His predecessor's
to have given him
a distaste
und
for the dangers of war,
the early part of his reign was
passed in rather
in Polish

HISTORY

THE

44

OF

POLAND
[146S-1496A.D.]

adopt the form of representation


in
which
had become
almost universal
Europe. Dietines,or Colfor the
had long been held by each of the palatinesin their palatinates,
loquia,
and
of justice,
these now
administration
began to appoint deputies for the
of time every
In the course
district
of the public business.
management
in
two
to a
sent
and
assumetl
the same
at
deputies
length,
1468,
privilege,
of
convened
debate
the
to
This
first
diet
tliet.
on
propriety
was
general
have
of
which
Teutonic
the
the
we
already
knights,
war
against
renewing
the conclusion.
The system, however, was
only gradually introduced.
seen
to a deputy,
of the provincesrefused to give up their rights
The nobles of many
of
this
tenacious
in
and Regal Pru.ssia,
privilegethat it
was
so
particular,
of
nobles to
has reserved, even
to modern
sending as many
times, the power
ing
accordbound
to act precisely
the diet as it pleases. The deputiesalso were
a

hundred

to

thousand

horsemen

the instructions

of their

obliged the Poles

constituents,and

to

the nobles

their custom
of generalmeetings,or confederations,when
The towns
also at this time enjoyed the elective franchise.

Casimir, having

kingdom,
and

thus

extentlingits

spent nearly forty-eightyears


its

in the

required.

service of his
its constitution,
of his thud

enemies, framing

conquering
territory,
left it
arts and learning,

it with
civilising

stillmaintained

occasion

to

the

care

John Albert, 1492 .\.d.


Good fortune and faction raised .John .Albert above his two elder brothers,
him
in hLs elevation.
The latter of these
but courage
and policymaintained
cardinal virtues in a king was
not, however, always exhibited in the present

son,

He
counsels.
had admitted
Italian,Buono
Accorso, formerly
an
his tutor, into his confidence,and showed
much
deference to his opinions.
According to his advice he attempted to lessen the preponderance of the

monarch's

scale.
nobilityin the political

The plan was


prudent, and if it could have
till the tiers-etat was
their power
withheld
sufficiently
and
with
its
Poland
wealth
undue
arts
to
counteract
mflucnce,
strengthened
like
i
n
have
balanced
might,
England,
enjoyed a firmly
constitution, which
the dissentient ranks are so well adjusted that disorder and its remedy are
been

effected

and

always produced simultaneously.


the
Albert impoliticly
was
gave publicityto a design in which concealment
which
principalrequisiteto insure succe.ss.
Unfortunately,a circumstance
after the disclosure rendered
the king still more
an
happened .shortly
object
of suspicion to the nobles.
The
Polish troops were
buscade,
waylaid by an amof
during a campaign against the Wallachians,and a great number
sword.
This
the
to
nobles, who almost entirelycomposed the army, were
put
ery,
event, coupled with the king'sdenouement, engendered a suspicionof treachand made
the nobles the more
the
their
not
to
alert,
on
only
preserve
intrench
but
of
and
to
those
the
the
The
nian
Lithuaprivileges,
on
king
people.
in their opposition to the king's
strenuous
nobles, in particular,
were
exclusive than those of the
design; their principleshad always been more
Poles,but the danger which threatened their privilegesunited both in the
From
this time we
date their despotism over
the serfs,
common
cause.
may
who, not having alliesin the conmiercial classes,
were
obligedto submit quietly.
The influence of the trading clas.seswas
checked
In the
by two causes.
first place,every gentleman who had a hoase and a few acres
of land could
of nobility;hence none
eigners,
but the lower order, or forenjoy all the privileges
in
would
mercantile
the
towns
were
pursuits; and, secondly,
engage
composed chieflyof German
Armenians, who had
strangers,Jews, and even
been long considered almost out of the pale of the law, and could not be admitted
the
of
to
naturalisation. From
this time, therefore,
rights
we
may

ZENITH

AND

DECLINE

45

[1496-1525A.D.]

originof the exclusive influence of the nobles ; they became resolute


their serfs ; the commercial
in maintaming arbitraryauthority over
class weru
included in the proscription
of rights,being interdicted
by the diet in 1496
from
becoming proprietorsof land or possessors of church preferment.
from
But
what Albert
unintentionally pulled down
one
part of the constitution,
amends
for having thus weakhe rebuilt in another; and to make
ened
of the people,he fortified their jurichcal
the political
rights. In
power
fixed regulations,
submitted
to more
his time the law courts
and corwere
ruption
and oppressionof the people exposed and punished.
In the reignof his successor, Alexander, who
to the throne in 1501,
came
The
still
debased.
the crown
was
more
king was prohibitedfrom raisingany
the
of the diet. This law, called
the
without
consent
revenue
asing
or
money
is
said
have
been
to
Statutiim Alexandrinum,
passed to check Alexander's
whose
he
All
art
was
prodigalityto musicians, to
passionatelyattached.
the Polish laws were
revised and
corrected at this period by the chancellor
the code is named.
Laski,after whom
date the

THE

When
a

bed

REIGNS

OF

Sigismund

of

Faction

roses.

SIGISMUND

rose

not

to

and
in

was

into

be

routed

great

the

intimidated;

soon

the Russian

measure

Polish

army,

SIGISMUND

AUGUSTUS

the wounds.
defeated the

the Polish

But

sear

he

to

rather

the

which
artillery,

among

monarch

Lithuanians,who

auxiliaries of the rebels.

owing
or

OF

the

it required a powerful and


with resolution to
and perseverance
was

AND

throne,in 1507, he found that it was not


up againsthim as a many-headed monster, and
to decapitate the ever-growing heads
long arm
to

came

their Bohemian

The

was

latter

had

volted,
re-

success

introduced
now
allies and
fellow

subjects.
Albert, marquis of Brandenburg

nephew of Sigismund, had been


with the
hope that his connection
be
the
of
their
interest.
No
means
might
advancing
sooner
all allegiance
he invested with this authoritythan he renounced
to Poland,
was
to his liegelord Sigismund. He was, however, soon
and refused to submit
This
brought to obedience,and obliged to resign his authority as master.
the knell of the Teutonic
was
now
resignation
knights; they were
deprived of
all standing ground in Prussia,and were
obliged to retire to Marienthal,in
Franconia.
The Poles were
thus delivered from one
but littledid they
enemy,
that
the
whom
the
vacated
to
imagine
they appointed
authority,
successors,
would
Prussia
eventually be their destroyers. Sigismund formed eastern
into a duchy in 1525, and intrusted it to Albert as a fief. Polish or western
hence called Pi,egal
Prussia was
it from the duchy.
Prussia, to distinguish
But
when
the king had quelled all foreigntroubles,he found others at
elected master
Polish kings

home

of

more

of the Teutonic

insidious and

less tractable nature.

His

wife, Bona,

was

the

intrigues
; she had obtained a complete ascendency over
of her husband, who
the mind
than a puppet which played
was
now
no
more
her own
The
summoned
at
nobility,
b
eing
by the king to assemble
game.
Leopol or Lemberg in Galicia,obeyed his orders,but it was to make imivensal
and
the administration.
This confederation
complaints against the queen
in
imitation
of
the
in cases
who
of public
they styled Rokosz,
Hungarians,
assemblies
held
their
in
the
of
the city Pesth.
Rokosz, near
plain
emergency
The confederation
of very stubborn
not formed
was
materials,for they were
all dispersed,
we
are
told,by a shower of rain. This assembly and protest,
prime

mover

of these

and

order,in the

UISTORY

TUE

46

POLAND

OF

[1535-15S9A.D.]

of much

in themselves,were
trifling
but too often
precedent which was

however
times.
No

had
Sigismund Augustus, the son of the preceding monarch,
formed
against him, because he had
throne,than factions were
of the diet.
The object of his
and concurrence
without
the consent

the

married
choice

he

it

his constancy
this
own

might

him

cost

the

to

great

no

quence.
conse-

his father's
Firm

crown.

death,

in his affection,

break

not

kingdom.

secretlybefore

coming

on

iiol)le of

Lithuanian

he would

to his vows,

faithful

of

contracted

been

marriage had

publiclyacknowledged

and

their

Radziwill, widow

Barba

was

This

to

and

sooner

ascended

but

importance as estabhshing a
obstinatelyimitated in following

his iloinestic ties,although


did not, however, come
contest

The

of the nobles to
the attention
for the king dexterouslyturned
crisis,
and h("ard no more
interests,
objectionsto his marriage. But Sigismund

did

the

long enjoy

not

for in the

happiness which

domestic

death

of si.xmonths

course

GROWTH

made

OF

him

he

well

so

deserved,

widower.

POLAND

vate
entirelyfrectl from war, but he found time to cultiIn
this
Livonia
and
Courland
arts
reign
very successfvdiy.
annexed
The order of the knights of Christ, having
to the Polish crown.
were
founded
in 1202
the same
the Templars, was
statutes
as
by the bishop of
Riga, who conferred on them the rightto a third part of Livonia,which they
also conand convert
and this grant was
to conquer
to Christianity,
were
firmed
The first grand master
w^as
Winno, who denominated
by the pope.
the order Ensiferi.
In 123S they formed
a solemn
compact with the Teutonic
Livonia
and
knights and adopted their statutes.
They reduced
Courland,
and in 1521 purchased their independence of the grand master
of the Teutonic
order.
The Reformation
began now to spread in Livonia, and greatlyweakened
the power
of the knights. At this time they had
imprisoned the bishop of
and
mas.sacred the envoj's whom
he sent to demand
Riga,Sigismund's cousin,

Sigismund
the

not

was

of peace

the relea.se of his kinsman.

Sigismund

arming

was

wreak

to

of

Moscow, provoked

to

tiefend

this

sued
themselves,
Livonia

Russians.

grand master,
bound

at

to furnish

infantry,and

was

for assistance

invested

was

step, invaded

surrendered

was

when, dreading the

them,
on
vengeance
formed
alliance with
an

encounter, they submitted, and

with

to

the

Poland.

Livonia, and

czar

knights,not able
Sigi.smund,who repelledthe

from

Poland

1561; and

in

of Courland

duchy

The

the

the king as his vassal with two hundred


allowed
not
to maintain
than
more

as

Kettler, the
fief.

horse

He

was

five hundred

or

five hundred

regular

troops.
The

in which

war

of the
ment

Polish
under

of hostilities the
nobles

and

diet of both

czar

to

that

in 1569

provinces

Poland

to

the union

at

is

Masovia.

desired
Lublin.

should

central

town, and

even

At

invaded
of their

Lithuania
It

was
was
was

countries

in Poland

led to

the

This

Polantl

to

agreed

that

should

proper

nor

meet

The

subjectsbut
was
readily

concluded
definitely
united

solidation
con-

conmience-

Lithuania.

fellow

be consummated.

arrangement

neither

the Russians

Lithuania.

the a.ssistance

government.
representatives of \)o\\\ these

and

victorious, and

was

march

the

with

engaged

was

between

and
laws, privileges,

of
l)()sod
which

refused

the condition

granted,
same

Sigismund

union

the

in

diets
at

the

under

com-

^^'arsaw,

Lithuania,but

in

ZENITH

AND

DECLINE

47

[1473-15?2 A.D.]

THE

The

ADVANCED

CIVILISATION

OF

genius of Copernicus,the great

POLAND

UNDER

of

precursor

THE

JAGELLOS

had

latelyshone

citizen of

Cracow, had

Newton,

forth,
"

velut

Luna

inter

ignes

minores.

born in 1473 at Thorn, where


his father,a
was
settled after the accession of Polish Prussia to Poland.
He

At

the age of nineteen


pursued his mathematical

he
sent to the Universityof Cracow, where
he was
Adam
Zaluzianski
studies under the noted Brudzewski.
is the Polish Linin
this
work
and
entitled
Methodus
same
a
published
Herbaria, in
age
naus,
he exhil)its his sexual
of
which
There
plants.
were
arrangement
perhaps

printingpresses

more

there

than

this time

at

in Poland

other

than

there

have ever
been since,
the time.
There were
Cracow
alone there were

of

country
Europe
they printedbooks, and m
chief circumstance
which
supported so many
printing
the libertyof the press, which
houses in Poland at this time was
allowed the
not pennitted
publicationof writingsof all the contending sects which were
to be printedelsewhere.
the Poles less advanced
Nor were
in that most enlightenedfeelingof civilisation,
toleration.
When
almost all the rest of Europe was
religious
deluged
with the blood of contending sectaries ; while the Lutherans
were
perishingin
hundred
thousand
the
a
Germany, while the blood of above
Pi-otestants,
of persecutionand
victims of the war
the horrid massacre
of St. Bartholomew,
virate
was
crying from the ground of France against the infamous Triumand the hypocritical
Catherine de' Medici; while Mary made
England
and even
the heart of the VirginQueen was
a
fieryordeal of persecution,
not
entirelycleansed of the foul stuff of bigotry,but dictated tlie
burnings of the
and
opened an asylum for the persecuted of all religions,
Arians, Poland
in his own
allowed every man
to worship God
Rul"Mosques,"
way.
says
raised among
churches and synagogues.
hiere,c were
Leopol has always been
the seat
of three bishops,Greek, Armenian, and
Latin, and it was
never
inquiredin which of their three cathedrals any man, who consented to submit to
of government,
the regulations
went
to receive the communion.
Lastly,when
into
inimical
the Refonnation
states
was
rending so many
factions,
Poland,
without
the two
proscribingher ancient religion,received into her bosom
sects."
allowed
All partieswere
of the press; the Catholics
new
a perfectliberty
printed their books at Cracow, Posen, Lublin, etc., while the followers
of the Confession of Augsburg published theirs at Paniowica,Dabrowa, and
Szamotuly ; the reformers, at Pinczow, Brzesc, Knyszyn, Nieswiez ; the Arians,
or

were

eighty-threetowns
The
fiftypresses.

m
any
where

at

"

Rakow

at

and

and

Zaslaw,

and

the

Greek

sectarians

in

Lithuania,

at

Ostrowo

Vilna.

In

1540
than

it

was

ascertained that there


Christian merchants

not

were

five hundred

in the whole

of Poland

and

more
manufacturers, while there
three
thousand
hundred
who
two
were
Jewish,
employed nine thousand
in
artisans
six hundred
working gold, silver,etc., or manufacturing cloths.
In the reign of Sigismund Augustus the Jews
were
prohibitedfrom dealing
in honses or keeping inns.
Such was
the state of his kingdom, when
Sigismund
died in 1572.
With
this monarch
ended the line of kings of the house

of

Jagello.

Having thus arrived


a

brief view

on

the tract

at another
we

have

era

in

our

travelled

historical
over.

Under

narrative,let us cast
the dynasty of the

THE

48

HISTORY

OF

POLAND
[1573-1573 A.D.]

lasted

Jagellos,which
and

and

dimensions,

186

Poland

years,

its constitution

had

had

attained
arrived

also

its
at

perfect growth
equal maturity.

jewel has since been stolen from the crowm, tillit has become but
There being no
third order whom
the
a simple badge of officialdistinction.
archy
kings could raise up against the nobles, which would have rendered the monthere
limited,but shielded it from total subjectionto the aristocracy,
the
make
in
but
alternative
to
a
as
perfectdespotism
no
government
was
This
the
shall
to
was
as
we
attempted,
Russia,
regal authority.
preser\-e
who
it had not sufficient genius or
undertook
see, in after years, but the kings
and the aristocracyhad attained too great an
ascendency by
perseverance,
forces of the kingdom
the diet and confederation.
Besides, the chief militarj'
to the regal
not
over
were
composed of a distinct order, who might be won
their
the
retinues; nor had
side, but of the nobilityand
king that powerful
being at the disposalof the diet,
engine, wealth, in his power, all the revenue
which
composed of the aristocracy. Under these circumstances the king
was
of the future monarchs
could only be
one
a judge," as
expressed himself,
and the state that anomaly, a republicof aristocrats.
Jewel

after

"

THE

CROWN

Sigismund'sfuneral bell was

PRIZE

OF

the tocsin of

COMPETITION

in Poland.

out
Being withmale
the crown
to his subjects
a
which
them
occasioned
much
for their disposal,a trust
perplexity. The
whom
hatl sjjrung up that spiritof equality and jealousy
nobles, among
which had so intrenched on the regal authority,would not bend to a rival of
in late
their own
them
order; and with the same
feelingwhich has made
the
and
of
to
rather
submit
treacherous
interference
domineering
foreign
years

heir, this last of the

than

powers

bear

thc^ypreferredto

any
look

stretch
abroad

or

for

anarchy

Jagellosrestored

even

appearance

king.
prizeof competitionfor foreignprinces,and
a

The

of

Polish

power
cro^Ti

in

their peers,
became
a

thus

it stillpossessedsufficient tations
tempcandidates ; for besides the opportunity that a monarch,
to have many
with extraneous
forces,might have of extending the authority,there

backed
remained

of

still many
the

Poland, and
interests

the enclosures
important privilegeslike interstices between
neighbouring potentates now
began a strugglefor
ing
length the unhappy country became the prey of their conflict-

laws.
at

The

in addition

to

the evils of civil dissension.

the death of Sigismund, the


During the interregnum which succeeded
the authority devolved
at such
archbishop of Gnesen, on whom
times, convoked
the diet to debate on the choice of a new
In
this meeting, which
king.
held in 1573, the laws were
was
passed which regulated the elections. The
made
John
motion
by
Zamoyski, representative of Belz, in Galicia, that all
the nobles should have
voice in the nomination, was
a
carried,and it was
In this diet also the
agreed that they should meet in a plain near Warsaw.
coronation oath, or pacta conventa, was
re\ased.
The principalarticles were
have
been
since administered
the same
to the kings-elect,
as
ever
stripping
of all active power,
the monarch
and
making the crown
elective,
requiring
of the diet every
two
regularconvocations
They bouncl him also to
years.
observe perfecttoleration of religious
themselves
principles,
promising among
dissidenles de religione),
well for themselves
(inter nos
their
as
as
posterity,
of diversity
to take up arms
account
in religioustenets.
on
never
The Roman
Catholic, however, remained the state religion,
and the kings were
bound
to be
of that professionof faith.

ZENITH

[X573-1575A.D.]
nobles
The

DECLINE

AND

49

Warsaw, anned, and with all their


whom
Several candidates
were
nominated, among
were
of retinue.
pomp
of Austria, and Henry, duke of Anjou,
Maximilian
Ernest, son of the emperor
of Catherine de' Medici, and brother of Charles IX, the reigningking of
son

accordinglyassembled

at

sent
the successful competitor,and an embassy was
The latter was
France.
refrain from
We
at full
cannot
the decision.
inserting,
to Paris to announce
given of this Polish deputationby an eye-witnessthen
length,the description
Paris
:f"
at
living
"
when we saw
these
the generalastonishment
to express
It is impossible
and
but
fur
in
our
ambassadors
quivers;
long robes,
caps, sabres, arrows,

the sumptuousness of their equipages,


excessive when we saw
admiration
was
the scabbards of their swords adorned with jewels,their bridles,saddles,and
and dignity
and the air of consequence
horse-cloths decked in the same
way,
by which they were distinguished.One of the most remarkable circumstances
in Latin, French, German, and
in expressingthemselves
their facility
was
familiar to them
their vernacular
Italian. These four languages were
as
as
them
who
could
rank
at
of
two
court
There
answer
men
were
only
tongue.

They
in Latin, the baron of Millau and the marquis of Castelnau-Mauvissiere.
of
French
the
honour
the
to
nation,
had been commissioned
expressly support
sadors)
to blush at their ignorancein this point. They (the ambasthat had reason
taken
would
have
much
that
with
one
so
purity
spoke our language
for
Loire
and
the
than
of
banks
the
Seine
educated on the
them rather for men
the
inhabitants of the countries which are watered by the Vistula or
Dnieper,
which

put

courtiers

our

to

the

blush,who

knew nothing,but were


mies
eneopen
their guests questionedthem, they answered

that when
blushes."*^

of all science ; so

only with signsor

was
Henry called to the throne,and he who was engagedat the very
took the oath
of his election in fighting
againstthe Protestants now
tantly;
relucsectaries. He accepted the crown
of toleration to all dissenters and
the
all
for
to
Poland, this
was
king'sdeparture
ready
for, although
honourable
the
of
However
did
to
set out.
not hurry
object his voyage,
prince
had
reached
Poland than he was
he
it
exUe.
But
he regarded
sooner
as an
no
throne.
of the French
informed
of the death of his brother and the vacancy
Not
choosing to forfeit his hereditaryrightand the substantial authorityof

Thus

moment

the
swerve

of France,and
knowing that the Poles would not allow him to
him to reside in Poland, he took the singular
bound
from his oath, which
and leave the country by stealth. He was
resolution to abscond
taken
overa few
leaguesfrom Cracow by one of the Polish nobles,but resolutely

crown

refased to return.
This singularand

of which
imexpectedevent renewed the factions,some
of Austria to the throne,but were
at last obligedto yield
called Maximilian
chose Anne, the sister of Sigismund, and Stephen
to the oppositeparty, who
Bdthori,duke of Transylvania,for her husband, 1575 a.d

THE

REIGN

OF

BATHORI

(1575-1586

A.D.)

and high talent,


having raised
princewas possessedof rare qualities
violence
dom
and
his
to the dukewithout
the
least
or
collusion,
valour,
by
called spontaneously to the Polish
of Transylvania;and he was
now
Nor did he degenerateafter his exaltation,vanquishingthe Russians
throne.
of
at length concluded
in a series of battles. Peace was
by the interposition
and
from
the
legate
Possevin,the Jesuit,
pope.

This
himself

H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

50

[1575-1576 A.D.]

This
Poland.

was

imagining he
the

care

years,

the

Their
was

of the

into
introduction
an
and
for its learning,
Bathori,
of his people,intrusted to them

the Jesuits

which
circumstance
gave
then noted
only
was

order

actingfor the improvement


Universityof Vilna, which he had just founded.

however, showed

them

in, a

different character

very

Succeeding

in Poland

from

teachers and peacemakers.


But the most
politicact of this king was the addition to the strength of
proved
imand introducingan
the nation effected by establishing
a standing army
Cossacks
under
the
some
also
military
brought
discipline.He now
tribe called
It was
that Cossack
order.
Zaporog (Cosaci Zaporohenses) that was
thus rendered serviceable to Poland.
They

inhabited,or rather frequented,the islands


of the Dnieper, which
formed
swamps
a barrier
against their warlike neighbours.
first
In the reignof Sigismund I they were
and
Polish
armed
the
a
Tatars,
against
appointed their
officer,Daszkiewicz, was
and

but

governor,

no

further notice

was

taken

tillthe time of Bathori.


absurd
and monstrous
The
descriptions
and
which
their manners,
of this people
have been fully
founded
on
were
rumour,
credited by modern
WTiters; and Voltaire,
of them

lists,
fabuof the greatest among
one
does not fail to magnify the wonders.
shall endeavour
to throw a littleclearer

who

is

We

from
two
of this tribe,
manners
old authors of credit. The Cossacks were
the southern borderers of Poland, and, like

lighton the

all other

people similarlysituated,were
continuallycarrying on an irregularand
predatory war; hence their name, which
also
Ukraine
implies plunderers. The
frontier country, and

means

in

time all its inhabitants


were
"
Cossacks.
were,"
They
says
"
only a militarybody, and not
National

CosTuirB

Polish

as

some

have

them

imagined. We

better

than

to

the

cannot
'

of

course

designated
Chevalier,
a
nation,
pare
com-

Francarch-

formerly established in France


They made periodical
by Charles VII."
advanced
expeditionsevery season
against the Turks, and have even
in the islands
within two
was
leagues of Constantinople. Their rendezvous
of the Dnieper, and when
winter approached they returned
to their homes.
They generallymustered five thousand or six thousand men ; their boats were
sixty feet long,with ten or twelve oars on each side,but this must be imderstood only of their war-boats.
ers'

naval

The

other author

whom
shall quote was
who lived at that period,
we
one
the command
of the Cossack
troops, no less than the
Sobieski.
the subject
father of the famous
Even
then, it seems, they were
"I will describe,"says
fable.
of curiosityand
he, "their origin,manners,
and

frequently had

and

customs, which

They

are

I am
nessed.
acquainted with by hearsay,and have myself witcriminal refugees
chieflyof Russian origin,though many

HISTORY

THE

52

OF

POLAND
[15S7-1626 A.D.)

religionof Luther
of

government
declare

ever

Roman

before

himself

since the time

of

Gustavus,

Catholic,as Sigisnmnd
he

ascend

could

groundless,for his very first acts


accompanied by a
religion He was

fears

was,

Polish

the
were

bad

apprehensive of the
and as he was
obligedto

were

throne.
omen

Nor
for the

popish legate,by whose

were

their

Protestant
advice

he

Catholic chapel in every


Roman
town, and
to be crowned
by the pope's deputy. This was
the king attempted to enforce his will with
borne with impatience; but when
of discontent was
raised to the shout of rebellion,
Polish troops, the murmur
of
to
the
and all the attempts
trample down the Swedes to obedience
king

that there should


determination
his
expressed
demanded

of

were

be

avail.''

no

his attention at this time to Russia, where was


being
of the false Dmitri.'
Incited by an ambition
enacted the farcical romance
to conquer
Russia, and encouraged therein by the Jesuits,he invaded the
of his murdered
the avenger
subjects."i
as
countrv', ostensibly

Sigismund turned

grandfather of Sobieski,who, as his son-in-law


Zolkiewski, the maternal
the troops,
made
both chancellor and grand general,commanded
wTites, was
his
took prisoner Vasili Shuisky, the new
and entering Moscow
czar, and
king'sson, Wladislaw, was set on the throne,and thus Poland
He was, however, soon
deposed,
was
once
disposerof the Russian crownn.
Zolkiewski had the honour
him.
did
reinstate
to
and Sigismund
not attempt
in his train.
with a Russian czar
of enteringWarsaw
of Sweden,
his plan of regainingthe crown
Sigismund had not abandoned
of Germany, and
and with this view he joined with Ferdinand, the emperor
The
assisted him against the voyevode of Transylvania,who opposed him.
in alliance with
the sultan, and
a
urged him to make
Tran.sylvanianwas
The

brother.

the

of
under the power
at that time was
diversion on the side of Moldavia, which
The
had invited the Poles to his assistance,
the Turks.
palatineof Moldavia
of Russia, marched
and accordingly the famous
Zolkiewski,the conqueror

into that countrj' with


Cossacks and Moldavian

eight thousand regulartroops, and irregularforces of


The
refugeesamounting to about twenty thousand.
Turki.'ih army
of
and
numbered
was
Tatars,
chieflycomposed
nearly seventy
thousand.
Zolkiewski, notwithstanding the disparityof forces,obliged the
and his
Tatars to give way ; but being almost abandoned
by his auxiliaries,
littleband being reduced to littlebetter than five thousand, he was
obligedto
retreat.

Like all experiencedgenerals,Zolkiewski


could play the losingas well as
and an eightdays' march
in the face of a ntmierous
the winning game,
army,
u.sed to irregular
have requiredsome
tactics and management.
warfare, must
Historians

this retrogrademovement
of the ten thousand,"
to " the retreat
doubt
Polish
the
if
he
had
boasted
Greek
no
a
grand general,
have
narrative
made
wonderful
as
as
a
tongue and a Greek sword, would
But Zolkiewski was
the troops
to suffer a different fate,for when
Xenophon.
the Dniester
had reached
they were
panic-struckat the sightof the enemy,
in
di-wrder. " Zolkiewski," says the Polish historian James
and fled
Sobieski,/
compare

and

.Emilius, disdained to siir^-ive his defeat, and, with the same


marked
his life,
he fell fighting
for his country, and covered
His
wounds, on the banks of the Dniester, near
the town
of Mohilev."

"like Paulus
valour which
with
son

same

was

had

taken

grave,

prisoner,but both bodies


this inscription
:
Exoriare

were

redeemed

and

buried

with

For

an

account

aliquisnoslris

of the false Dmitri

see

ex

ossibus
Volume

uUor.

XXVII,

pages

224-229.]

in the

AND

ZENITH

DECLINE

53

[1636-1635A.D.]

urged their descendant Sobieski to exact retribution


was
only the signal for fresh war; the sultan now
headed his troops in person, but was
eventuallyobligedto make peace.
thus engaged m the south, the Swedes
While the Poles were
were
making
of Sweden,
inroads in the north. Sigismund had not quietlygiven up the crown
he stillcherished the hope of recovfruitless,
but although his exertions were
ering
Polish king found
an
it. The
Adolphus, who
opponent in Gustavus
withstood
not merely the Poles,but almost
the throne, and who
was
now
on
least
the
Catholic
at
all continental
part. Livonia, the point of
Europe,
of war.
After some
the
the
seat
between
two
kingdoms, was
trifling
junction
in
laid
to
took
the
field
and
G
ustavus
siege Riga. This town
1626,
struggles,
in six weeks, and the Swedish
surrendered
king drove out the Jesuits,who
But Sigismund was
its perpetualtormentors.
too stubborn
to be taught
were
of resisting
not see in him anything
the great Gustavus
the inutility
; he would
but a young
hot-headed
competitor, and not the determined
champion of
of the
Battle lost after battle increased the demands
the Thirty Years' War.
also the
Swedes, and lessened the power of the Poles. The Polish king was
dupe of the courts of Vienna and Madrid, whose interest it was to make him
from
the rest of Europe, and in consequence
divert Gustavus
they promised
with money
and troops. These
to assist him
never
promises were
kept, and
the
file.
The
of
continued
to
ever,
Sigismund
obstinately gnaw
city Dantzic,howitself very
Swedish
admiral
defended
the
was
vigorously;
killed,and
of
ill-fortune at
Gustavus
obliged to raise the siege. But the continued run
length opened the eyes of the Poles to their own
follyand the treacheryof
and Sigismund was
their pretended allies,
happy to make peace for six years,
by which he resignedLivonia and part of Prussia, in 1629.
Ever
the dupe of the
Sigismund terminated this reignof trouble in 1632.
in his perfectconfidence,he lost one
ened
Jesuits,who were
kingdom and weakThis voice from the tomb
This
from the Turks.

another which
unfortunate
was
so
as
the land of toleration,
the
was
now

to continue
scene

of

under

his power.
religious
contest, and

Poland,
the
isfaction
dissat-

General
deprived of all placesof trust and power.
and
the
nobles
had
formed
confederation
a
resulted,
against their
in
in
but
not being very
resolute,
1607,
king
they failed
carrying their point.
In 1609 these confederations
authorised by law.
The spiritof contention,
were
however, stillcontinued to divide house against house, and the father
againsthis son ; intolerance added to the serf's chains and put an embargo on
the effects for which Poland
indebted
Such were
to Sigismund
commerce.
was
actual injury,but sowed
He not only committed
fresh seeds by intrusting
IIL
"He
to the Jesuits.
had, in short,"says a French writer,"two
great power
w
hich
occasion
generally
faults,
great misfortune : he was very sillyand very
Protestants

were

obstinate."

Some

time after the accession

throne, died
the Swedes
Stumsdorf.

Gustavus
to

policy,Poland

them

OF

DECLINE

of Wladislaw

Adolphus, which

event

VII,

son

of

enabled

Sigismund, to the
Poles to oblige

the

their conquests and


make
firmer peace
in 1635
at
a
all the acts of the new
good
king been dictated by the same
would have been saved much
loss of strengthand influence.

resign

Had

The Polish nobles


different from the state
make

PERIOD

were

jealousof the independence

of their

of

the Cossacks,

so

serfs ; the Jesuits could not bear to tolerate


in their adherence
to the doctrines of the Greek
church, and longed to
them Catholics ; the king perhaps was
swayed by both reasons, so that
own

HISTORY

THE

54

OF

POLAND
[1635-1649

A.

D.]

dom
the sovereign,
nobles, and Jesuits all united to prune the almost lawless freethis
time
be
dated
from
but useful tribe,and
their
of that wild
may
ordered forts to be erected
the Polish
interest.
Wladislaw
alienation from
in the Ukraine
to awe
them, and the Cossacks armed in defence of their right,
but

were

the

In

defeated.

their hetman

and

victors

full liberty,
was
Ukraine
to be

defiance

to
a,s

many
withdraw
soon

serfs.

treaties,the

Poles

their

troops and

restore

butchered
villainously
after this,binding

made

the Cossacks

to

their

of forces in the
the number
; the diet ordered
state of
that they should be reduced to the same
Polish nobles seemed
to imagine that oaths and

broken

and
increased,

subjectionas the

of

prisoners. A compact

other

The

all
binding with uncivilised people,for they committed
and
them, both personal
general;at length an act of
on
and they were
drove the Cossacks again to rebel,
intolerable injustice
obtaining
their tyrant, Wladislaw, in 1648.
when
death
carried
off
advantages
many
succeeded
the former
But
by another: John Casimir, younger
bigot was
the throne
called to occupy
mir
Casibrother of the late king, was
just vacated.
education, and character, and the pope gave
was
a Jesuit
by principle,
ties that he might assume
him
hat, to free him from his religious
a cardinal's

engagements were
kinds of outrages

the

not

crown.

this king the Cossacks


as
were
badly treated as under his predecessor.
Casimir connived
Polish nobles continued
to oppreiss them, and
roused them to
act of villainy
at the injustice;
at length,however, a notorious
in
of some
influence
the Ukraine, was
revolt.
Chmielnicki, a man
deprived
Under

The

and resentingthe oppression,


governor,
that officer as a tyrannicalupstart.
The
his
of
imitated
the
the
incensed
\nolence
other
Polish
at
resistance,
governor,
nobles, carried off Chimielncki's wife,and set fire to his house, in which his
drew
his sword
his wife's
to
infant child perished. Chmielnicki
revenge
of a small tract of land
asserted his right and

by the Polish
taunted

and
his child's death, and joined the rebel Cossacks,who
made
him
about
this time that Casimir
the
leader.
It was
to
came
throne, and
the
that
CossacLs
the
he
refused
to
were
feeling
aggrieved party,
prosecute

honour
their

but endeavoured
to conciliate them
confirming him in his office. The Cos.sack
the war,

by w'ritingto the hetman

and
his forces, and
in progress;
but the nobles,confederating
at the instigation
negotiationswere
with the .sword.
The
of the aristocrats,
put an end to these pacificmeasures
Cossacks taught the Poles that they could defend their own
libertyas well as
chief withdrew

that of their former allies and present oppressors.


The rebel forces left behind
of blood and devastation.
them a wake
advanced
into Poland, and even
They
invested the king in his camp
The Co.ssacks were
at Zboro.
credulous,and,

believinga people who had deceived them so often, consented to negotiate.


It was
then agreed,in 1649, that they should have the free use of their privileges
and religion.
This treaty did not sati.sfy
the nobles, who were
both foiled in their undertaking
and humiliated
to pay
by their defeat;they therefore determined
no
attention to it than the preceding agreements.
Before the end of the
more
its intention of reducing the Cossacks
to obedience.
year the diet announced
Casimir made
the expeditionquite a crasade,and received a sacred helmet
from
and sword
His preparations were
Pope Innocent X.
on
as
great a scale
if he designed the subjugationof a powerful nation, instead of a few thousand
as
the Co.ssacks ; besides an army
of 100,000
rebels,as they denominated
nobles,he assembled a body of 50,000 of the foreigntroops who had fought
in the Thirty Years' War.
The hetman, not terrified at this giganticarmament,
allied himself

with

the Khan

of tlie Tatars, and

encountered

the Poles.

ZENITH

AND

DECLINE

55

[1651-1667 A.D.]

Victory declared

in favour

but the hetman


Submission

had

despotism

of the oppressors,

yet sufficient

the Cossacks
to obtain a peace

and

resources

were

persed;
dis-

in 1651.

distasteful lot,and happily cannot


under any
a
duty by the strictest treaties or vows, according to
the well-know^l principle
of moral
philosophy,that improper promises are not
binding; so thought the Cossacks without the aid of a system of ethics,and
in 1654.
submitted
to the Russians
Alexis was
then czar; he gladly received
his new
omission
which the
subjects,and, assigningas a pretext for war
an
in one
made
armies
into Poland, one
Poles had
of his titles,
marched
two
to

be made

circumstances

towards

Smolensk,

While

and

arming
would

crown,
when

one

the Russians

was

enemy

the other towards

Kiev.

ravaging the east, another


the north.
Casimir,who sunk
were

on

not

is

resign the

and

armed

Gustavus

only

Casimir

from

in defence

the burden
of
of
that
Sweden
another,
;
this time, appointed her cousin, Charles

of his

et cceteras

two

less formidable

familypretensionsto

Christina,abdicatingabout
Gustavus, her heir,he protestedvehemently against the
and

no

beneath

succession.

Charles Gustavus
marched
pretext for declaringwar.
with 60,000 troops ; discontent and revolt increased their number
made

it

the

and

Swede

entered

Warsaw.

and Charles Gustavus


Silesia,

was

Charles

right; and perceivingthat Ln one of the letters


used after his titles,
instead of three,
were

The
master

contemptible John

into Poland
with

Casimir

Poles,
fled to

of Poland.

But the nobles were


soon
disgustedwith their new
tyrant, and in 1656
in
Casimir
confederated
a
nd
the
Galicia,
joined
they
confederacy. Fortune
smiled

of
favourably: Alexis, jealous of the growing power
his troops, and even
the hetman, who
had received an
Casimir,was satiated with revenge, and retired to the Ukraine.
obliged to retrace his steps, and Casimir reached Warsaw
again.

still more
Sweden, withdrew
from

envoy

Charles

was

The

pretendedthat

It is
between
declared
The

Prussia

and

Treat]!of Oliva

Charles

Gustavus

(1660

now

a.d.)

proposed a partitionof Poland


the kingdom, the czar
from
the conqueror
his design.

Austria, but, fortunately for

against Sweden, and diverted


Brandenburg concluded a treaty of peace at Wehlau, on the
September, 1657, satisfied with obtaining the independence of Ducal
the danger was
Austria offered assistance,
now
over, and the Treaty
concluded
the 3rd of May, 1660, between
on
was
Poland, Prussia,and
and
Casimir resigned all pretensionsto the Swedish
ceded
crown,
It must
not be forgottenthat the et cceteras of the king of
to Sweden.
title were
arranged to his satisfaction in one of the articles of this
war

elector of

19th of
Prussia.
of Oliva
Sweden.
Livonia

Sweden's

treaty.
Thus

was

Casimir

freed from

this terrible

to forestall the fate of his unfortimate

of Oliva

was

which
coalition,
But

had

before

threatened
the

kingdom.
Treaty
all parties,
concluded, the Poles,insteadof conciliating
passed a
even

of whom
had sided with Sweden,
decree in the diet against the Arians,most
a
nd
death.
Another
and persecutedthem with confiscation,
exile,
rupture also
broke out with the Cossacks ; the haughty nobles infringedon the treaty they
in 1658, and
the Ukraine
to Russia.
with them
again submitted
has seen
them
keeping guard at the
then," says Salvandy, "Warsaw
gates of her palace."
tinguished
The
John Sobieski disPoles kept the Russians
at bay, and the famous
himself in these campaigns, but they wore
obligedto make peace in
1667.
By the treaty, Severia and the Ukraine on the east of the Dnieper were

had

made

"Since

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

56

[16C7 A.D.]

ceded

Russia; the Cossacks

to

to

of

tlie free exercise

have

to

were

states, ready

of both

doniinion

(Zaporogians) were
serve
againstthe Turks
their rcUgion.
in its internal policyas in
to

be

under

the

joint
required,and

when

its foreign
relations;
reignwas as unfortunate
the king was
entirelyat the mercy of his queen, his mistresses,and the Jesuits.
invasion
had urged the necessityof
Many of tlie nobles during the Swedish
who
be
able
to fighttheir cause, and
the
throne
to
might
successor
choosing a
become
wLsh
to
the
far
to
hereditary. The
monarchy
went
as
so
many
but
Louise
exerted herself
the
Marie,
was
proposed by many,
queen,
emperor
the
in
Cond6
and
diet of 1661
French
succession
the
the
to
insure
prince,
to
;
This
miconstitutional
made
the
proceeding prothe king himself
proposal.
duced
This

great

nmrmurs

revolt

of serioas

the nobles

among

thas

were

; the diet

harassed

which

sown

dissolved,and

was

the seeds

Casimir

during the rest of


remarkable
words, which

this diet Casimir


pronounced these
of Poland:
been construed
have
as
a singularprophecy of the dismemberment
have to fear the disbe a false prophet, in stating that you
membermen
"I hope I may
his

In

reign.

almost

to

Mstula.

the

and

Poland

Greater

the

aggrandisement of both
and

Cracow

to

had
but

the

which

as

far

(Moscus

as

house

et

the rivers

show

that

will turn

of Austria

adjacent palatinates." Rulhierec


solution

natural

more

Russians

The

Prussias.

mysterioas treaty

the
a

Russi)will attempt to
Bug and Narew, and
The
elector of Brandenburg will have
a
design on
will
a
nd
for the
contend
palatinates,
neighbouring

of the republic. The


grand duchy of Lithuania

the

seize

its attention

pretends that Casimir

in his eye when


he spoke these propheticwords,
of the question is found in the letters before mentioned,

the

apprehensions Casimir

expresses

were

not

fined
con-

to him.

by trouble,took the resolution of resigningthe sceptre


He had been told
habit.
resuming his religious
could not end but with his reign,and
the diet that the calamities of Poland
addressed
that diet in the followingwords :
Casimir, worn
he could

which
in

he

People

op

out

not

Poland

wield and

If

is

hundred

two

now

and

eighty

years

that

you

have

been

is past, and
mine
is going to expire.
ancestors
by my family. Tlie reign of my
of the cabinet, and
the weight of age;
the cares
by the labours of war,
oppre.ssed
and solicitudes of a reign of more
than
with the burdens
I, your king and
twenty-one
years,
into your
hands
what
the world
above
all things, a crown;
and choose
esteems
father, return

governed
Fatigued

six feet of earth, where

for my

throne

After

his abdication

he

I shall

retired to

sleep in

peace

France, where

with

he

my

was

fathers.

made

abbot

of the

of St. Germain-des-Pr".

monastery

in this king'sreignthat the libentm


of the deputies
veto,or privilege
in
all
the
firstassumed
the form of
diet,by a simple dissent,
proceedings
stop
"The
of
leaven
custom.
and
legal
superstition
bigotry,"says Rulhiere,''
began to ferment and blend itselfwith all the other vices of the constitution ;

It

was

to
a
"

they
was

then

then

became
united, and their junction defied all remedy. It
clo.sely
that in the bosom
of the national as.semblies sprmig
up this singular
which, under the pretext of making the constitution
more
firm, has

anarchy
all sovereign power.
The
destroyed in Poland
right of singleoppositionto
generaldecrees,although always admitted,was for a long time not acted upon.
There remained
but one
step to complete the destructive system, and that was
in 1652
under
taken
the reign of John
A
Casimir.
Polish noble, named
his contemporarieshave denounced
Sizinski,whom
to the indignationof posterity,
havingleft the diet at the period allotted for its resolutions,
and by
his voluntary absence
of any unanimity, the diet
preventing the possibility

ZENITH
[1667-1668A.D.]
considered that

it had

precedentso absurd
effects.
pernicious
There

can

be

AND

opinion on

only one

He
And
He

no

realms

and
did not
wars,
back
to lose them

(save debates

reigned

king'sreign; he
Solomon," nor can

this

Polish

made

New

and

57

lost its power


by the desertion of this one deputy." A
imitated
could not fail to have the most
but so easily

rather than that of "The


"whole of the assertion that

His

DECLINE

in most

in Warsaw's

deserves
we

agree

any

acter
char-

with

the

gain
again,
diet)

unseemly quiet.
"

unseemly quiet,"
reign,unfortunatelyfor Poland, was anything but an
another proof of the bad effects of engraftingthe sceptre on
has added

the crosier.
The introduction

by Bdthori had a great effect on the progress


curious,however, count up 711 Polish authors in
The
Polish language became
fused
more
generallydifin Lithuania,Galicia,Volhinia,etc., where
formerly the Russian was
close intercourse which
commenced
with France
the prevalent dialect. The
of
of
administration
John
Casimir
introduced
the
unfortunate
during
many
in
of civilisation;
inns
the comforts
was
were
improved
Poland,
travelling
into generaluse.
But sadly did
built on the high roads,and carriagescame
in
this
incursions
of
the
The
Swedes, Cossacks,
learninglanguish
stormy reign.
the libraries,
broke up all literary
and Tatars swept away
merce
society,and comof the Jesuits

The
of learningin Poland.
the reignof Sigismund III.

shared

the

THE

fate.^

same

UNWILLING

diet of convocation
to render

MICHAEL

assembled

now

abdication

IS

MADE

to elect

KING

henceforth

(1668 A.D.)

successor

to Casimir.

Its

in Poland."
illegal
three : the prince of Cond6, supported
to the throne were
The candidates
by the primate and the great barons ; the princeof Neuburg, an ally,or rather
XIV; and Charles of Lorraine,a prince in the interests
a creature, of Louis
first of these candidates,however
The
of Austria.
illustrious his exploits,
could not be acceptableto a nation which
detested alike the tyranny and arrogance
of the French
asters
but too well the dismonarch, and which remembered
inflicted on the republicby one of that nation
of
Valois.
Henry
Though
of the crown,
the grand marshal
Sobieski,left the fields on which he had
hitherto reaped his laurels to swell the partisansof Cond6, the cause
was
hopeless; vast bodies of anned nobles flocked round the kolo,and insisted that
should be excluded.
the Frenchman
The contest, which
now
lay between
the French and Austrian
interests,
promised to be ruinous,and to end in blood ;
of each were
the adherents
nacy.
nearly equal in number, and perfectlyso in obstiOne morning, however, before the great dignitaries
had arrived,and
while the electors were
ranged round the plain,under the banners of their
t
he
respectivepalatinates, cry of a Piast proceeded from that of Russia, and
obscure
an
prince,Michael Korybut, was proclaimed by those immediately at
The
hand.
echoed
by the electors
cry spread with electric rapidity; it was
of the other palatinates,
who
this
nomination
by
saw
an
unexpected
escape
from the greatest of all evils
civil war.
As the senators
approached, they
were
surprisedat the universal clashingof sabres, and the howls of approbation
which
of Michael.
accompanied the name
They were
compelled to join

first act

was

"

"

HISTOKY

THE

58

POLAND

OF

[1668-1669

resounded

Michael!"

A.

D.]

with

"Michael!
in the vast chorus, and
deafening
In less than two hours he was
acclamations.
proclaimed king of Poland.
of the ruthless Jeremy,
the son
was
Prince Michael Korybut Wisniowie(,'ki
Infirm in body and weak in
for his persecutionof the dissidents.
infamous
so
he saw
that if he
influence,because without courage and riches,
mind, without
was

in his

pursuit.

shall

plain.

He

was

had

which

been

evade

begged

would

to declme

afterwards
the

proffered

received with howls of "Most


serene
fled from the
his horse and precipitately

reign!" he mounted
pursued, brought back, forced to accept
prepared for the successful candidate, and

the
to

pacta

conventa

promise

before

of homage he
multitude,
outrageous demonstrations
seek to
that
he
would never
intended to insult his incapacity,
of the wealthier
To relieve his extreme
duties.
poverty, some

were

his

were

he

whose

assembled

the

well knew

in his eyes

\\'ith tears

his entreaties

when

dignity;and
king, you

scapegoat for the hostile factions,both

the

made

now

unite

new

furniture,
immediately filled his empty apartments with household
before been
and his still emptier kitchen with cheer, to which he had never
of contempt than
there was
In these studied attentions
accustomed.
more
when
the
in
The
of good nature.
was
diploma of his
complete,
mockery
barons

of

boast

the proudest
expresi?edthat he was the sun of the republic,
the
of
the
line
who
left
of
Piasts,the
greatest
princes,one
mighty

it

elevation
a

was

the
or
Jagellos,

Vasas

far behind

him.

OF

WE.\KNESS

MICHAEL

REIGN

of his reign Michael


fication
the commencement
began to experiencemortiwithout.
within and danger from
Though the public treasury was
the Cossacks
and Tatars were
when
empty, though Poland had no army, even
and their proconsecutive
diets
invade
two
were
to
dissolved,
her,
preparing
ceedings
of
the deputies
the
Then
the
veto.
nullified,
quarrels
by
consequently
introduced
not
unfrequently decided by the sword
quarrelswhich were
for
other
than that
well
for
all
the
as
laws, as
authority
a perfectcontempt
hostile
the
in
The
vain
reconcile
strove
force.
monarch
to
of brute
poor

With

"

"

timid or too prudent to use threats


were
benefices
had at first
distribution of crown
as
by
disregarded,even
Without
allied with his interests.
decision,without vigour,without money
of commanding
respect from
or
troops, and consequently without the means
factions

he
such

his entreaties

too

was

"

"

the

he was
the scorn
of his subjects,
or
jestof all. A resolution was soon
any one
of royalty. The
turbulent
this phantom
taken
to dethrone
primate Praswhich was rendered stillmore
fonnidable
the soul of the conspiracy,
mowski
was

accession of the queen


Eleanor, an Austrian
of
and
obtaining a divorce,
procuring the elevation
the prince of Lorraine
had long been her lover

by

the

"

against
for

husband

her

another,

succeeded,she

beloved

king.

for

It was,

despisedone;

throne

the view
of

one

of

who

in

she

fact, but

and a
another conspiracy,the object of which
there was
to transfer the queen
was
and the sceptre to a French
prince. Thus one faction neutralised the other;
but in the end one
of them
would
doubtless
have triumphed, notwithstanding
the adhesion of the small nobles to the reigningking
adhesion, however,
an
was

sure

of

husband

the

scrupled not to plot


lord
exchanging one
failed
the
and whether
or
plot
throne.
Fortunately for Michael,
"

and

princess. In
to

"

the royal person, but solelyof hostility


to the
drowned
for a
had
the
barons
not
of
loud
warlike
notes
preparation
great
of the rebels.
the noisy contentions
moment
not

the result of attachment


"

to

THE

60

HISTORY

OF

POLAND
[1GT3-1674 A.D.]

grand vizier did not wait for the hostile declaration : followed by his
At the head of near
forty thousand
imperialmaster, he crossed the Danube.
Sobieski opened a campaign
auxiliaries,
Poles,Lithuanians, and German
men,
sent, the

of the world.

in the annals

His

plan was to
advancing through Moldavia; to
and fall on Hussein, another Turkish general,who with eighty thousand
return
side of the Dniester,
held the strong positionof Kotin, on the Moldavian
men
he hoped, would
of
these
two
destruction
Kamenets:
the
leaders,
to
opposite
to be

destined

and

meet

forever

annihilate

memorable

Kaplan Pasha,

who

was

and enable him to contend with the sultan


lead to the fall of the latter fortress,
in person, should the monarch
persistin advancing.
The
of
his
troops, however, especiallyof the Lithuanians,who
mutiny
and who
refused to
that he was
exclaimed
leading them to utter destruction,
him
with
into
unknown
Hussein.
to
advance
begin
an
country, compelled
the
them
march
and
A\'ith difficulty
he prevailedon
to pass
to
Dniester,
on
that Paz, the Lithuanian
generalso stronglyfortified,
joinin the meditated assault ; but he had done
of troops, that with
handful
in preceding campaigns with
such wonders
a
he persuaded
40,000 he thought nothing impossible. Paz, his personalenemy,
while the grand assault was
commenced
to co-operate, and the bombardment
ber,
preparing. Fortunatelyfor the Christian arms, the nightof the 10th of Novemfell
the
of
snow
unexampled severity;
profusely,and the
one
1673, was
fatal
the
of
them from warm
most
still
to
blasts
more
besieged,
were
piercing
of
the
11th
Sobieski
led
th"
the
On
climes.
Asiatic
attack; ere long
morning
in the heart of
renewed
his lance gleamed on the heights,and the strugglewas
vain
the
did
endeavour
In
to prolong
the Turkish mtrenchmcnts."
janissaries
enfeebled portion of
it ; they fell in heaps, while the less courageous
or
more
the enemy
sought safetyin flight. The bridge,however, which connected the
of the river was
in the possessionof the Christians,
and thousands
banks
two
; he

Kotin

the Turkish

found

hetman, refused

perishedwhile
40,000

endeavouring
Moslems

of the

at first to

to

swim

over.

the

lay on

now

The

plain,or

was
now
terrific;
carnage
floated in the stream, and an
saved; the fortress of Kotin

booty fell to the victors. Poland was


and
capitulated. Kaplan Pasha retreated beyond the Danube ; Moldavia
declared
for the republic,
and would perhaps have been incorporated
Wallachia
been
recalled from his career
of conquest
with it,had not the grand hetman
by an important though not an unexpected event.
other
than
the death
of Michael, who
This was
no
expired at Lemberg
(Leopol)the night before the great battle of Kotin, while on his way to jointhe
His demise
was
longed for a prince
very agreeableto the Poles,who
army.
capable of restoring their ancient glory. Let him not, however, be judged
with
undue
than his misfortune, while
no
more
severity;his feebleness was
his intentions
were
good. Though without vigour of understanding,he was
learned; he was
accomplished, and even
acquainted with several languages,
his own
to literarypursuits. Knowing
and addicted
incapacityto rule so
him ascend the throne ; and if his reign
fierce a nation, compulsion alone made
the reason
has been sufficiently
was
disastrous,
explained. On the whole, he
rather
be
should
than condemned.
pitied
immense

MICHAEL

Though,
than

it had

republic,no

on

been
one

IS

SUCCEEDED

the death

of

BY

JOHN

Michael,

the

(III) SOBIESKI
number

(1674 A.D.)

of candidates

was

greater

the state of partiesin the


any preceding occasion, from
could doubt that the chief strugglewould be between
those of
on

ZENITH

AND

DECLINE

61

[1674-1676 X.D.]

and

empire. The dukes of Lorraine and Neuburg were


again proposed
:
was
zealouslysupported by a queen lover ; the latter by the
and promises of Louis.
(The electors had long been sufficiently
alive
money
value
of
their
to the
votes.) That a stormy election was
apprehended was
the szopa, or wooden
evident from the care with which
pavilionof the senators,
fortified.
The
the plains was
was
on
exceedingly picturesque:
appearance
eve^y^vhcrewere seen small bands of horsemen
exercisingtheir daring feats ;
dished
some
tilting;some
running at the ring; others ridingwith battle-axes branof the szopa, and with loud hurrahs inciting
to the entrance
the senate
to expedition;others were
decidingprivatequarrels,which always ended in
were
listeningwith fierce impatience to the harangues of their
blood; some
their condemnation
leaders, and testifyingby their howls or hurrahs
or
the
of
the
At
distance
white
tents of the nobles,
a
approval
subject.
appeared
resembled
which
an
amphitheatre of snowy
mountains, with the sparkling
of the Vistula and the loftytowers
of Warsaw.
waters
The
of the Lithuanians
hostile;perhaps they had some
was
appearance
the
of Sobieski,with whom
to
nomination
their hetman, Paz,
reason
suspect
had long been at variance; certainlythey seemed
resolved to support the
who
in the mean
time had arrived
Austrian to the last extremity. Sobieski,
from Kotm, proposed the princeof Cond^, another candidate ; whether
in the
the
hope that such a propositionwould succeed, or with the view of distracting
for his own
different partiesand making way
is not very clear. He
elevation,
found, however, that the princewas no favourite on the kolo ; and his persoon
sonal
a harangue in supfriend,Jablonowski,palatineof Russia,commenced
port
of his pretensions.The speaker,with great animation, and not without
that
the republiccould expect little benefit from any of
eloquence,showed
the candidates proposed,and insisted that its choice ought to fall on a Piast ;
above all,capable of repressingdomestic
on
anarchy, and of upholding
one,
of its arms, which
had been so lamentably sullied during the two
the honour
God bless Poland !
precedingreigns. The cry of A Piast ! a Piast !" and
from
the Russian
and was
speedilyrose
immediately echoed by
palatinate,
he proposed
thousands of voices. Seeing their minds
thus favourablyinclined,
of Slobodisza,of Podhaic, of Kalusz
and Kotin ; and the cry
the conqueror
All the palatinates
of the crown
with "Sobieski forever !"
met
was
joined
the Lithuanians
in the acclamation
entered
their protest against a
; but
Piast.
the grand duchy was
Fortunately for the peace of the republic,
not, or
did not long continue, unanimous;
Prince
Radziwill
embraced
the cause
of
Paz
withdraw
his
at
to
the crown
was
length
persuaded
unavailingopposi;
tion,
and John III was
proclaimed king of Poland.'
Before the new
king would consent to be crowned, he undertook an expedition
of the
to rescue
Kamenets, Podolia,and the Ukraine from the domination
if
To preserve
to
add
to
IV
Moslems.
and
Muhamed
these,
them,
possible
France

the

the former

"

had

taken

the field with

who

contended

"

formidable

with

the

Porte

Kotin

anny.
for the

"

covites
retaken, the Mus-

was

possessionof the

provinceson
expelledfrom the Ukraine, and several Cossack fortresses
carried; but here the sultan, thinkinghe had done enough for glory,returned
entered
the scene,
and with great rapidity
to Constantinople. John
now
on
retook all the conquests that had been made, except Kotin, and reduced
to
the

Borysthenes were

"The

In the
such

pacta
article

only

as

conventa

that
have

signed by

offi'-es should
worn

their

this

be

honours

king

conferred
three

into Lithuania:
it had
decreed
before been
A pension was
to be paid to Queen Eleanor.

differed
on

little from

native

nobles

generations.
that

every

Every

those

only,

of his

it

third

third diet should

was

year

predecessors.
added, and on

he

was

to

pass

be held at Grodno.

HISTOEY

THE

62

OF

POLAND
[1676-1678 A.D.]

the left bank of the Borysthenes. But this


most
on
diversified : the wicked desertion of Paz,
be
doomed
to
sufficiently
his Lithuanians
to a winter
was
averse
campaign, prevented the
forced him to
completing the subjugationof the Ukraine, and even

obedience

of the Cossacks

scene

was

who

with

king

from

of the Tatars,
of Turks
and Tatars : twenty thousand
new
army
signallydefeated at Zloczow ; and the little fortress of Tremanian
bowla made
a defence
bravery. The Lithuworthy the best ages of Roman
soldiers being compelled by their countrymen
to rejointhe king, that
of victory. The Turks were
defeated at
monarch
again entered on the career
with
of
and
loss
the
Kamenets.
to
were
Soczawa,
pursued
great
ramparts
the exception of that fortress and of Podhaic, which
had
With
they
stormed,
before

retreat

however,

Poland

were

the invaders.

free from

was

Sobieski,
having

thus

nobly earned

the

where

cro'mi

of

kingdom which he had


was
performed with
accustomed
joy. At the
a

his coronation

often saved, returned to Cracow,


than
the
but with far more
the accustomed
pomp,
of 30,000, and an
diet assembled
this occasion, a standing army
dinary
extraoron
of three times that number, were
decreed; but nothing more
was
one
Other
defenceless as before.
done, and the republicremained
salutaryproposals
submitted
as
conspicuous in governby the king, whose talents were
ment
in the field,
The fate of the republic,
had no better success.
however
as

so

it

might
not

was

be
to

From

Turks

and

delayed by monarchs

so

enlightenedand

so

conquerors

great as he,

be averted.

these

harassmg cares John was


Tatars, amounting in number

Pasha
by Ibraham
enough
significant

of

Damascus,

of his

talents

whose
and

summoned
to
surname

character.

invasion of the
and
commanded
210,000,

by

almost
of

new

Shaitari,or
The

Polish

the

devil,was
king, with his

handful of 10,000, was


compelled to intrench himself at Zurawno, where he
His fate was
well defended by sixty-three
considered
was
piecesof cannon.
to his aid,
as decided ; all Poland, instead of flocking
perhaps even by himself
for his deliverance.
For twenty days the
hastened
to the churches
to pray
"

"

cannonading continued- its destructive

havoc, occasionallydiversified by still


destructive sorties from the camp.
The advantage rested with the Poles,
thinned by their very successes
but they were
that their situation became
so
The
Tatar
knew
who
that the Muscovites
khan, however,
were
desperate.
that
waste
of
the
Ukraine
to
Doroszensko, the feudatory
laying
part
subject
of the Porte, and were
for peace.
clamoured
It
territories,
menacing his own
more

proposed by the pasha, but on the same


humiliatingterms as those of
The enraged Sobieski threatened
Buczacz.
who should
to hang the messenger
in future bring him so insulting
a proposal.
Hostilities recommenced;
without
provisionsor
though the Poles were
his dismayed ranks,
ammunition, he scorned to capitulate. He rode among

was

reminded

them

that he had extricated


than
them from situations even
worse
and gaily asked whether
have
suffered
his head was
to
likely
AMien
the Lithuanians
threatened
to desert, he
by the weight of a crown.
"
"
will
Desert
who
alive
I
remain
in
dead
But
to remain
!
replied,
only
or
his camp
and
drew
his
he
from
safe:
issued
was
no
it,
one
longer
morning
up
handful of men,
now
thousand, in battle array as tranquillyas
scarcelyseven
if he had legionsto marshal.
at this displayof rashness
Utterly confounded
the present one,

"

of

cried out, "There


is magic in it !"
a cry in which
at a bravery which
Shaitan, devil as he was, joined. Filled with admiration
his imagination,the pasha sued for peace on less dishonourable
exceeded
ditions.
con-

or

the

the Turks
confidence,

"

restored
By the treaty two-thirds of the Ukraine was
remaining third being in the power of the Porte ; the questionas

to

Poland,

to Podolia

ZENITH

AND

DECLINE

63

[1678-1683 A.D.]

discussed

be

to

was

The

restored.
but

comment

on

conditions, indeed,
favourable

such

that

Constantinople;

at

the

resounded

valour

than

be

king.
with

also
prisoners,
hostages,etc.,were
the dignity of the republic,
procured at such a crisis is the best
below

were

could

ones

of the

all

This

was

the sentiment

of all

Europe,

his

praises.
followed by the prolongationof the truce with Muscovy.
This peace
was
of the latter so advantageous as could have been
the conditions
Neither were
fortresses were
Three
desired.
restored; but Severia, Smolensk,
insignificant
in the iron grasp of the autocrat.
In
Kiev, and other possessionsremained
them
the king have endeavoured
from
it : without
to wrest
vain would
money
no
or
slightblessingthat he
troops, with anarchy also before his eyes, it was
from
able to preserve
day to day the independence,nay, the existence,
was
of the republic.
unable
to undertake
During the four followingyears the king was
any
of
the
for
the
lost
expedition
possessions.Though he convoked
reconquest
diet after diet in the hope of obtainingthe necessary
suppliesfor that purpose,
fatal
dissolved by the
veto ; for the same
he could
diet after diet was
reason
he recommended, to
the adoption of the many
not procure
salutarycourses
banish anarchy, to put the kingdom on a permanent footingof defence,and
the laws.
His failure,
to amend
indeed,must be partlyattributed to himself;
since,great as he was, he appeared as much alive to the aggrandisement of his
and he
own
family as to the good of the republic. There can be littledoubt
be
for
it
had
that
he
the
meditated
to
of
praised
means
long
ought
renderingthe
in
his
but
caution
with
the
little
he proceeded
which
crown
hereditary
offspring
;
of his queen, a French
in this great design,and the criminal intrigues
woman
influence
him
whose
of little principle,
over
was
unbounded, roused the
jealousyof the nobles,especiallyof the Lithuanians,and compelled him to
ministrat
prudence, as well as more
suspend it. Had he shown more
firmness,in his adand within his palace,his objectmight have been attained,and
of his family.
Poland preservedfrom ruin,under the sway
John Sobieski had always belonged to the faction or party in the interests
to that of Austria; but there was
of France, and, consequently,averse
one
L
ouis
the
in
he
which
would
XIV.
As
not
Christian
perfidious
a
gratify
thing
inextinguishable
hostility
knight and a noble Pole, he had vowed
againstthe
the
in
of
his
his
Moslems
maternal
deepened by
a
feeling,
case,
memory
who
had
all
his
his
under
the
and
sword
brother,
perished
grandfather, father,
band
and
he
with
the
could
Porte
not
of the misbelievers
consequently
againstthe empire. While the Turks were arming for the invasion of Germany,
his alliance was
eagerlysought by Louis and Leopold : he entered into a treaty
To this turn in his policyhe was
offensive and defensive with the latter.
said,
been
not
to have
a little disposed by the
perhaps injuriously,
promise of an
of some
archduchess
for his eldest son, and by the resentment
insults shown
to his queen.
by the grand monarque
which

more

ever

"

"

"

"

THE

But

the

money

great obstacles
was

soon

Austrian
French
and

he

RELIEF

of Louis
the

and

ratification

OF

VIENNA

the

(1683 A.D.)

venalityof

of this

the Polish

treaty by the

barons

diet.

opposed

conspiracy
set on foot,the objectof which
was, either to turn the king from the
him.
to dethrone
or
cause
Fortunately the correspondenceof the
with
ambassador
of Paris fell into his hands,
the unprincipledcourt
enabled
to frustrate the criminal design. To escape
was
detection.
to

HISTORY

THE

64

OF

POLAND
[1683 A.D.]

conspiratorsvoted

the very
for

made

great campaign.

war

with

It

was

time.

for

the

and
infidels,

Vienna

was

preparationswere
by 300,000
dastardlyLeopold had
invested

Kara Mustapha, the vizir ; the


after messenger
the
to hasten
despatched messenger
Germany looked to him as its saviour, and Europe as
departure of Sobieski.
of Christendom.
the bulwark
Having beheld at his feet the ambassadors
of the empire and the nuncio of the pope, he left Cracow, August 15th,with a
small
body of Polish troops, and without waiting for the Lithuanians; the
chief part of his army,
amounting in all to about thirtythousand men, he had
rendezvous
under the walls of Vienna.
ordered
to
previously
in a worse
situation than he
The king found the affairs of the imperialists
made
had
The Turkish
had conceived.
a practicable
artillery
breach,and the
in momentary
of the capitalwere
terrified inhabitants
expectation of an
their
assault.
One
despair was
changed to joy, as they
evening, however,
of
the
Polish hussars
their
the
the
on
telescopes
perceived from
appearance
invested with the chief
heightsof Kahlenberg. Sobieski was enthusiastically
of the Christian army,
command
consistingof Poles, Saxons, Bavarians,and
had been his rival as a canwho
One
didate,
Austrians, amounting to 70,000 men.
the duke of Lorraine, gave
a noble
example of magnanimity by this
submission, and by zealouslyco-operatingin all his plans. On the morning of
the mighty strugglebetween the Crescent
and
September 12th commenced
the Cross.
Throughout the day the advantage rested with the Christians,
of the Turks
unbroken.
the
remained
Towards
but the vast masses
nightfall
of the vizir,
whom
he
Polish king had fought his way to the intrenched camp
in
seated
coffee
with
a magnificent apartment
perceived
tranquillydrinking
Turks

Tatars,under

and

retreated

to

his two sons.


Provoked

Linz, and

at the

With
known

verse

of

"

tuo

da

Sobieski ! Sobieski !"

time

certainlyknew

now

"Allah!"
The

"

of

Israel's

cituum, sed nomini


of

sight,he

the loud war-cry

forward, followed by an intrepidband.


and his piousrepetition
of the well"Non
Domine
nobis,
exernobis, non
prophet king,

among

gloriam !"

caught
that
the

of their character,they made


a
the ground ; six pashas fell with
of his

once

formidable

the prey of the


hero of Christendom

became

The

Te

Deum

for the

host.

"

for Poland!

ears

of

infidels

"

the

was

hero

king

The

; the vizir

Turkish

them

and
fled,
with

victors ; not only Germany, but


hastened
to the cathedral of St.
of this memorable

first
Christians.

enough!"
bravery

sure

to

; their

with

Shouts

for the

the

but, true

In vain

camp,

with

was

is with

extreme;

vigorousstand.
them

Moslems, who

the

dreaded

khan,

that of "Sobieski!"

united

was

the

this

the Tatar

exclaimed

consternation

rushed

God

the

ranks

him

strewed

the remnant

its immense

riches,
saved.
Europe, was
to
Stephen
joinin a

day.
painfulto dwell on
subsequent conduct of Leopold. Instead of
claspingthe knees of his saviour with joy,and of blushingat his own cowardice,
the king with coolness,
he met
with insult. His empire was
saved,
nay, even
need
of further aid, he took care
and as he had
further
to exhibit
no
no
gratitude.His behaviour astonished no less than incensed the Poles,many
of whom, without their king'spermission,
returned to their homes
; but Sobieski,
with the rest, proceeded into Hungary in pursuitof the fugitive
Moslems.
By
he freed most
of that
two
and Strigonia,
at Parkan
subsequent victories won
his successes
kingdom from the foot of the invaders, and would have extended
far beyond the Danube, had not the Lithuanians
to
joinhim and his
delayed
Polish troops insisted on returningto their country.
of findingthat one
On his arrival he had the additional gratification
of his
had
obtained
combined
in the Ukraine
some
over
a
signalsuccesses
generals
solemn

It is

success

the

[1683-1686 D.]
of Turks
army

DECLINE

AND

ZENITH

65

A.

one

hospodar of Wallachia,
repubUc.

and

disposedto the views of the

better

elevated another

dethroned

Tatars; had

and

THE

OF

CHARACTER

DOUBLE

SOBIESKI

of this Christian hero,posterity


whilst pursuing the splendidsuccesses
he purof his policy,
at the blindness with which
blush at the weakness
sued
followed the counsels of his
the aggrandisement of his family;implicitly
of Leopold,who, when
his
despicablequeen ; and trusted to the protestations
when
that
aid
hesitated
at
was
aid was
never
furnished,
promises,and,
required,
promised to his
Though the archduchess
never
thought of performing them.
But

must

him to
the elector of Bavaria,the unperiallure of assisting
in
his
to become
a permanent
subdue Wallachia,which was
sovereignty
family,
all apprehensionson
To be freed from
again armed him againstthe Turks.
the possessionof
to that power
the side of Muscovy, he forever confirmed

resignedto

was

son

Smolensk,Siewierz,Tchernigov,and the greater portionof Kiovia, with Kiev,


but
the capital. These
indeed,he could not hope to recover;
possessions,
the
excited
and
have
t
o
forever,
indignation
them,
justly
resigned
voluntarily
when
of many,
especially
they found that the czarina Sophia refused to perform
conditions to which she had agreed to join the generalcrusade against
for these conreturn
to pay
the republic200,000 rubles m
cessions.
the Porte, and
"

Having

fortythousand

raised about

men,

king entered
expeditionhad
the

into

Wallachia,

effect,owing
partlyto the exceedingdryness of the season, and to the consequent sufferings
of the contingents promised
and partly to the non-appearance
of his army,
He
but
not without
and
the
loss,both from
hospodar.
returned,
by Leopokl
it for

to conquer

one

of his

But

sons.

the

no

from
the activityof the Turks in his rear,
but partly
him.
A second expeditionwas
dared
attack
not
who, however,
had
and
successful ; in fact,the infirmities of age had overtaken
impaired
him,
his bodily vigour. His failure,however, in both
less than
his mental
no
which
control ; in
he had no
over
owing to circumstances
expeditionswas
neither did it dim the lustre of his martial fame.
unlike than
could be more
Sobieski in the field and Sobieski
No two men

the

alreadyassigned,and

reason

the greatest,in the latter


he was
: in the former
He was
justlydespisedfor his tame submission to his
To her he abandoned
all but the load of administration;
worthless queen.
all
become
venal
her creatures filledmost offices in the state; all,too, were
relates
this subject,
The bishop Zaluski,on
conferred on the highestbidder.
such a shameless
anecdote
characteristic of the court where
an
sufficiently
Cracow
The
of
rich see
transaction could take place.
being vacant, the queen
"
that you
I wager
with your sincerity
one
day said to the bishop of Kulm,
at

palace of government

his

the meanest,

of

men.

"

the prelateaccepted the


Of course
bishopricof Cracow."
Zaluski
challenge,and, on being invested with the see, paid the amount.
himself
equally reprehensible.
opened a way to the royal favour by means
tions
with a medicine-chest,togetherwith a book of direcHe presentedthe queen
for employing them, valued
ducats : she received it with
at a few hundred
alone

will have

the

contempt. The
ring, and
fortune
On

one

Denhov

offer of
two

of the

Her

of

altar,estimated

crosses

at

her
gratified
about

equal
giver.
temper was
the king had promised the great seal
the latter triumphed.
course

occasion
:

silver

diamond

XI. W.

VOL.

XXIV.

10,000

crowns,

avarice, and

of

made

uable
val-

the

disinterestedness.

to

her

to

Zaluski ; the queen

to

THE

66

HISTORY

OF

POLAND
[1686-1696

"You

are

"

friend,

intimate

demands

queen
live

me

if

with
I

with

I know

me.

Vienna

It

be

influence

in

scrutiny

by

side

also

; so

had

last

from

might

be

she

felt

on

no

regret

1696.

hours

the
of
her
for

that

beyond
"

had

sickly,

in

there

scene

she

seized

on

with

James,

him

exclaimed,

death!"

my

; but

confirmed

treasures,
a

Zaluski

to

occasioned

mind

his

pitching
attracted

spoke

abruptly

avenge

conduct

subsequent

philosophical

prospect

he

many

it.

scene,

He

it

against
had

he

in

or

had

one,"
to

if

to

which

the
twice

seriously

decree

natural

distempered

nervous,

Prince

from

no

or

he

relinquish

mystery.

"

influence

once

but

literary

and

frame,

when

son,

Is

was

in

son,

palace

disrespect;

the

to

fine

taken,
"

Her

eldest

it.
and

bitterness

This
dreadful

Scarcely
renewed

that

showed

loss.

last
was

wherever

whole

his body

his

he

queen.

passed

his

on

That

certain;

persuaded

migrated

body.
his

he

serve
pre-

eldest

much

dishonoured.

is

wrapped

he

and

on
were

not

and

marked

severe

as

could

wife

little

of

such

on

have

to

with

him;

he

was

he

were

and

of

the

was

allow

greatest
in

do

enemies

disgrace

expected

on

were

old,

of

bringing

Korybut,

too,

agitated

out

with

Sobieski

the

Kotin,

have

up

who
his

notwithstanding

he

Sobieski

mind

raving

breath

quarrels

died

to
not

laughter,
what

subject

him

man

prevent

treated

which

and

which

in

sobs

fixed

her

last

be

not

Michael

Sarmatians

mercury

the

suspicion

John

of

the

suffering

but

but

ventured

The

from

lavished

friends,

His

heavy

not

will

should

the

raised
he

not

often

was

Sometimes,

of

dose

the

word

she

Podhaic,

prince

form

whenever

abdication,

of

such

money

could

dignity

of

more

days

like

whilst

was

her

public

to

wishes,

Slobodisz,

should

creatures.

could

he

interregnum

he

her
who

were

design

attention.

intense

of

that

measures

daughter-in-law,

traitor!"

the
the

tent,

victor

she

the
make

to

power

given

me

expose

what

his

importunity

chancellorship

to

do

n.]

A.

claimant,

the

has

She

the

well

the

queen,

to

or

quarrels,

contemplation.

of

of

French

his

of

senate

descend

to

enemies,

his

you

me

surprise
his

family,

own

full

"tyrant!

The

be

what

have

only

wife.

too

let

with
"

my

me

this

much

her

and

In

entertained

his

that

unnatural

their

during

wives

disposal

nobles.

ditl
to

his

in

or

his

either

anywhere.
invited

by
likes;

will

that

of

mother-in-law

words

wish

you

of

diets,

many

peace

by

you

Can

matter

the

unpalatable

nor

to

cannot

every

the

disappointed

the

king

with

her

that

regret."

extreme

and

refuse

convinced

am

she

that

wretchedly

or

the

rights claimed

the

everything

and

remain
and

of

tranquilly

another,

said

ignorant,"

not

independent
one

comparison

of

the
in

king
greatest
the

of

Poland.

His

characters

regal

annals

in

of

enemies

royal

his

could

biography,

country.^

He

THE

68

OF

HISTORY

POLAND
[1697-1700 A.D.]

by
bishop

elected

archbishop declaringConti

the
their cliffcrent partisans,

kuig,and
informalityof

notwithstanduig the

of Cujavia, Augustus. But


with
Saxons
to be said to the ten thousand
the latter election,nothing was
of his kmgdom
whom
he canie
to take possession
acknowledged king,
; he was
unanointed.
and the princeof Conti sailed back to France
the

essentially
requisite
yet been crowned, a ceremony
anxious
that it should take
authority,and he was
locked
in this;all the regaliawere
even
difficulty
place. There was some
up
The
in the keeping of officers in Conti's interest.
in the treasurj'at Cracow
law forbade
laughed at locksmiths
breaking open the doors, but the Saxons
the archbishop should
that
also
broke
down
the
wall.
It
and
was
necessarj'
in
other
interest
he
also
the
the
but
was
; the diocese was
perform
ceremony,
There
stillanother
and
therefore declared vacant,
ment
impediwas
newly filled.
and the
the funeral of the late king ought to precede the inauguration,
But

had

Augustus

invest

to

not

full

with

him

"

"

"

tuted
substibut the Saxons
of Conti's party at Warsaw:
and the elector proclaimed
solemnised
the coronation
was
king under the title of Augustus II.' It was observed that the king fainted
during the formalities,as if his heart failed him at thought of the charge he
in the hands

was

corpse

and
effig}',

an

himself.

taking on

was

This
laid the

election

forced

yoke
of

on

of the

period
foreignarms.
this

After

the first of the

was

the necks

Poles, and

Poland
The

always
and

czar

them

received

her

the

of Sweden

king

kings

which

of events

series
disgraceful
at last rendered

men.
bonds-

mere

under

the

pulsion
com-

offered to

even

support the present election ; but Augustus found that he and his Saxons were
battles.
sufficiently
strong to fighttheir own
The
requiredAugustus to dismiss his own
troops; but he
pacta conventa
not
to subjectswho
too prudent to trust himself
were
was
yet reconciled to
This was
"usurpation,"and looked about for a pretext to retain them.
fied.
satisreadilyfound ; he employed them againstthe Turks, and the Poles were
But
this war
ended by the Treaty of Karlowitz, in January, 1699,
was
ment
by which treaty the Poles regained Kamenets, but gave up their encroachin Moldavia, etc., and the king was
pation.
obliged to find them another occuThis also too soon
itself.
presented

his

.AUGUSTUS

Sweden

was

under

now

AG.UXST

C.\MP.A.IGN

the government

of

SWEDEN

minor, and

as

Poland

had

long looked with a lingeringeye on Livonia, which had been ceded by the
Treaty of Oliva, in John Casimir's time, he thought it would be a favourable
taking
junctureto attempt its recover}' ; and the service of the Saxons in that underthe Poles forgivetheir intrusion.
He attempted it entirely
would make
his

at

o\\Ti

risk, without

oppositionto
him

told

the

king

rightsof nations
"

of

some

judgment,

and

the
their

that
of

the

says

representations.The

his attack

Sweden

on

equity,which

the

which
historian,

in fact

Poles, and

of the

concurrence

was

bishop
a

who

gross

had

in direct

crowned

violation of

Almighty would not


to be dictated
seems

fail to

by

the

the

punish
spirit

of divination.

His

first attempt was


not
engaged Peter the Great, czar

willinglyinto

so

of

the* plan; he wished


'

The

successful

Russia,
to

first .\ugustus was

as

had

and
anticipated,
Peter

to

found

he

assist him.
port on the east

Sigismund

Augustus.

entered

he
very

of the Baltic;

THE

EXTINCTION

OF

KINGDOM

C9

[1701-1702 D.]
A.

Ingermanland,the

northeast

of

Livonia, seemed

justadapted for it,and


for his share of the enterprise. The
thought
pay
very
meeting took place on the 26th of February, 1701, at Birzen, a small town
in the palatinateof Vilna in Lithuania.
Swedish
But Charles,the young
monarch, although only eighteen,was not
victim
of such flagrantinjustice.He was
the tame
to be made
apprised of
He
had
their designs and chose to anticipatethem.
routed the Russians
at
Moscow
in the preceding year, and made
Narva
tremble.
But justice
even
animated
by the example of their youthfought for him, and his soldiers were
ful
it would

he

These

hero.

Livonia, and

in

The

Dvina.
bulwarks

protect the

to

face,lit largefires
the river,concealed

himself,which was
at being only the

He

the Russian

destroyers."

czar

Birzen

as

few

ruin some
The

He

"

then

terrible,
marched

the banks
of the
on
up to them
and
difficult
but
to pass,
Charles
spot
large boats to be prepared with high

caused

and

observing that the wind was in the enemy's


the smoke, spreadingalong the banks
of
He directed the passage
his operationsfrom the Saxons.
effected in a quarter of an hour, and he was
much
mortified
men,

of wet

; and

straw

fourth to land.

rallied his troops and


town
where

He

did not stop till he arrived at Birzen, the


he
had planned the expedition. He felt,

He

called

savages

came

at the

wide

river was
very
to be daunted.

never

well

the troops whom


dreadful, untamable

were

insolent,enraged,
against the Saxons
was

part

him

where

conqueror,

months

routed

the Saxons.

Augustus

and

the

ing
owned, a satisfaction at entermonarchs
had
leagued
conspired his

the

before.

of Charles'

approach was
nearly as agreeable to most of the
Augustus ; they considered him as their champion
The primate wrote
ish
to the Swedagainstthe tyrannicaland intrudingSaxons.
king assuringhim of this feeling;and Charles expressed himself as the
of their sovereign. Augustus was
friend of Poland, although the enemy
aware
the Saxon
of this,and dismissed
the
of
to
favour
his
regain
subjects.
troops,
Poles

This
both
which

news

it

as

terrible

was

step had

to

the desired

he could

effect for

heart, pretended

partiesat

not

check

; and

of the influential
that most
This
death.
adherence
to

to

time

the

the

rouse

the

people were
to
palatinesswore
their falling
monarch

dissensions in Lithuania
unfortunate
That
province had been divided

once

more

into

two

primate,

traitor

as

he

to

was

king'sawakening popularity
gratified
by the concession
defend their sovereign to the
when
was
daily increasing,
so

severed

the bond

of union.

contending factions ever since


the death
of Sobieski; and
so
high that the contest
party spirithad run
became
The family of Sapieha, the great general of Lithuania,
quite a civil war.
and
that of Oginski, the great standard-bearer,were
the leading
interests.
in Lithuania,Sapieha was
As long as the Saxons
remained
tected
profrom
the violence of Oginski,who
backed
was
by most of the nobility;
but after their departure he and
his adherents
left exposed, so that
were
make
their
their only alternative
the
Swedes
to
was
protectors. LTnder these
circumstances
Augustus could offer but little oppositionto Charles,and a
I
sent
to the Swedish
monarch, with proposals of peace.
deputation was
"

will make
at

the

usurper,

The

same

peace at Warsaw,"
time
he added

and

his

that
not

Capitulationof Warsaw;

Augastas
him.

Saxons, and

But

he

felt that all

was

yet fought up

the

was

he

young
came

againstthe

but
to

firm

make

warrior's
war

on

answer;

and

Augustus,the

Poles.

the Dethronement

of Augustus

(1702 a.d.)

lost,and that his kingdom had departed from


against fortune; he had privatelyrecalled his

OF

HISTORY

THE

70

POLAND
[1702-1704 x.T".]

could, mustered
himself in that

he

the

all

then assembling
troops
found
men.
Auga-^tus now
twentj'-fourthousand

Saxons, and

thrust

all kings who

which

in

dilemma

themselves

upon

nearly
perplexing
people by
best only

Poles,at
into ardent enemies
cohvcrted
in his cause,
by this recall of
lukewarm
were
While
engaged in marching from palatinateto
the Saxons.
Augastus was
his partisans,
Charles pushed on imopposed to Warsaw,
palatinateto canvass
the 5th of May, 1702.
first
the
on
Augustus,
which capitulated
on
summons,
his
the
marshalled
plain of Ivlissow,and waited for the
however,
troops m
Even
his army
doubled
now
arrival of the Swedes
to fightfor his cro^\-n.
of
who
the
that of Charles, but the Poles,
it,did not
composed
greater part
vain
did he rally
willingly.Augustus indeed fought bravely; but in
engage
Fortmie
still fro'mied on
the
times they again recoiled.
his troops: three
force

always

are

at

perioddeservedlyplaced.

some

The

Polish monarch, and he fled towards Cracow.


An accident favoured his escape, and prolonged the struggle
: Charles had
a
in
six
and
detained
bed
weeks
fall from his horse as he was
was
him,
pursuing
his
his march.
good ase of this respite,reassembled
Augustus made
on
and
rebellion
thinned
another
but
discontent
for
and
battle;
prepared
troops,

oppositionto the formidable invader,


and began to
consenting to raise to the throne James
enemies
Against such numerous
Sobieski,the eldest son of their late monarch.
for difficulties
resistance could be offered ; protractionof the war
was
useless,
no
I have
"Should
to stay here fifty
only stimulated the Swedish hero.
the king of Poland."
years," said he, "I will net go till I have dethroned
the
fled
therefore
to
however,
precautionto secure
Saxony,
taking,
Augustus
ranks:

his

the

further

dreaded

Poles

fall into his will,in

the persons

Sobieski

of James

THE

The

throne

for

was

DISPOS.VL

his brother

OF

remained

who

should

undetermined

Constantine.

POLISH

THE

being thus vacated, it


time

some

and

CROWN

for Charles
be

the

to

fillit ; but

chosen

person.

he
His

him
tary
to step into it himself,but fate,in the shape of milicounsellors advised
him
first
fixed
diverted
from
that
He
on
design.
Alexander,
glory,

Sobieski's third son.


Alexander, however, wished only for the enlargement
of the lihidinem
of his brothers and to revenge
them, having none
dominandi,
in vain that the king of Sweden
and
and it was
the nobles entreated him to
The neighbouringprinces,says \'olchange his mind; he was immovable.

taire,knew
twenty-two

whom

years
refused it.

who

But
as

not

kingdoms

Alexander

to admire

gave

do not

Sobieski.

most, the king of Sweden, who

the

away

crown

of

Poland,

longgo begging,and
AVhen

Charles

told

all men
young

or

the

are

at

the age

of

princeAlexander,

not

so

Stanislaus

disinterested

Leszczjuski,

the Polish deputy, that the republiccould not be delivered from


its troubles
without an election, "But whom
said
"now
James
Stanislaus,
can
we
elect,"
Sobieski are
and Constantine
The
looked
with
an
captives?"
king
ej'e of
and thought to himself,"Thou
art the man!"
scrutiny at his interrogator,

He, however, deferred that

answer

until he had

further

examined

his young

-protege.
Stanislaus
was

crown

succeeded.
with

was

descended
and

treasurer

He

added

societyboth

at

to

home

from
illustrious Polish family: his father
an
palatineof Posnania, to which latter office his son
innate talent the polishof education
and commerce
and abroad.
"Stanislaus
Leszczynski,"said one

THE

EXTINCTION

OF

KINGDOM

71

[1704 A.D.]
"

of the grand treasurer of the crown, is regarded


son
A happy faciHtyof manners
the honour of our country.
makes
him
win his way
and
to all hearts."
He was
at the same
time
courageous,
and
had
mild in his disposition,
In fact,
a
prepossessingappearance.
very
of his

contemporaries, the

amongst

Charles

us

as

much
struck with him that he said aloud he had never
so
seen
fit to conciliate all parties. He was
also sufficiently
hardy and
inured to service to pleasethe rough king m that respect ; and after the conference
the Swedish monarch
who shall always be
exclaimed," There is a man
was
king of Poland.
my friend !" and Stanislaus
a

man

was

so

But the formalityof election was


ing
observed,although it was, in fact,nothbut a ratification of Charles' choice.
other
candidates
also
were
Many
and
Stanislaus
the
most
was
nominated,
though
popular among
them, as
of the lord of the ascendant,the primate Radziejowski
well as the nominee
of his youth. "What?"
said Charles.
objectedto him, ostensiblyon account
is not so young
"He is too young," answered
the primate. "He
as
myself,"
repliedthe king,impatiently,and he sent the Swedish count Horn to Warsaw
Horn
to enforce the election.
resistance from the
met, however, with some
independent Poles. "Are we assembled," said one of the nobles,"to act in
for the ruin of Poland, whose
concert
glory and safetydepend wholly on the
of the people and
freedom
the libertyof the constitution?
Let our
pendence
inde-

be our first care, then let us think of an election. Shall we call that
revolution legitimate
which springsfrom fear of being hewn down by the troops
of armed
who surround
and insult the dignity of the republic
us
foreigners,
with their presence?"
Several nobles,roused by this appeal, entered their
check the election,
but this trifling
protests,which, according to law, would
opposition was
disregarded,the Swedes
shouting, "Long live Stanislaus
and the election was
tution
Leszczynski,king of Poland!"
registered.The constibut Augustus was
was
certainlyinfringedby the Swedish influence,
not a fit person
to complain of unconstitutional
acts.
Stanislaus was
seated on
the throne and enjoying the honeyno
sooner
moon
of royaltyat Warsaw, than the alarm-bell sounded, and Augustus, with
of twenty thousand
an
Saxons,was seen marching to regainhis capital.
army
The citywas
and
with his family,
the
new
unfortified,
king was obligedto flee,
to their protector, Charles.
of dethronement
The work
now
was
done over
had not lost any of his
again. The Swedish monarch
overtook
Augustus unexpectedly in Posnania, and a battle was

to

be all

activity;he
fought at
consisted almost
entirely

Punitz,on

the borders of Silesia. The Saxon


army
of foot,whereas
all cavalry. The Saxons
the enemy
formed
themselves
were
into solid bodies,presentingon all sides a hedge of bayonets. The Swedish
cavalryin vain attempted to break their ranks ; the Saxons stood their ground
tillnightfall,
although inferior in number, and made good their retreat. This
was
certainlyno contemptiblespecimen of the mOitary talents of Augustus,
to be given to the skill of
although a great portion of the credit is of course

Schullemburg.
The

Saxon
army
the banks

retreated,and

again on
his hands, as they were

of the Oder.

the Swedes
Charles

followed

and

overtook
them
into
fall
they mast

now
imagined
unprovided with pontoons or boats to effect the passage,
but in this he was
mistaken.
Schullemburg passed his whole army over
during the night with a very trifling
loss,and Charles himself was obligedto
that "to-day Schullemburg has the better of us."
own
Notwithstandingall this display of courage and tactics,Augustus could
not
to Saxony.
Charles,
support his fallingfortune, and again withdrew
tired of having to fighthis battles over
again so often in Poland, resolved to

OP

HISTORY

THE

72

POLAND
[1704-1708

put

Augustus

country.

easilyappoint a
submitted

to
to

to set

at

jis

the conditions

the

of

crown

Augustus
hearing how

Charles

king. To
unposed.

avoid
These

war

king

could

these consequences
were,

off all treaties

break

to

D.1

resign all

againstSweden,

as

he
tensions
pre-

and

Sobieskis.

Peter

severely he

was

under
the treaty. The Russians
and
of Charles
in the absence
rallyingpoint for the adherents

idle; he felt much

aggrieved
knowledge, but he forgave him
already punished by the hard conditions of

the Great
capitulatedwithout

had

that

new

by

tremble; the Swedish

to

A.

into their

Intervention; the Flight of Stanislaus

time

mean

Poland; to

Russian

on

began

now

elector

new

libertythe two

In the

occasional excursions,

to the Saxons'

end

an

own

carryingthe

not

was

his

tlie command

of Menshikov

Augustus, who

overran

Poland

in

were
Saxony, forming a
ex-king and plundering the opposite
a
as
vanquished province than
party. In fact Peter treated Poland more
ables
allied state, ravaging, levyingcontributions,and carryingoff all the valuan
The
that Stanislaus and Charles were
he could lay hantls on.
news
and obligedhim to
returningfrom Saxony soon
put a check to this injustice

of the

retreat.

fate of Stanislaus was


so
completely dependent on that of Charles
of
the
also
the historyof the former.
latter
is
The Swedish
that the history
his
in
the
who
had retired into
Poland, pursued
czar,
hero, leaving
protege
The result of this
Lithuania, although it was in the month of January, 1708.
singularcampaign forms one of Fame's commonplaces :
The

"

When

dread

Pultowa's

fortune

left the

day,
royal Swede,

once
strippedCharles of the title of Invincible,the hard earningsof nine
laus
years'victories,drove him to seek an asylum in Turkey, and dragged Stanis-

at

the Polish

from

throne.

hearing this unexpected

Augustus,
immediately returned to
news,
the cliadem in spiteof his oath.
The pope'sdispensation
Poland and resumed
the perjury; Polish
sanctioned
the new
favoured
inconsistency
revolution;
of Russia confirmed
and the victorious arms
in
all. Stanislaus knew
it was
on

vain

to

and
resist,

retired to Swedish

Russians, Saxons,
the contest.
to

did not

wish to shed blood in a useless struggle


; he therefore
He defeniled that province against the united
Pomerania.
Poles, and Swedes, and Augustus wished to put an end to

Stanislaus

satisfythe newly

merely answered

agreed

raised

to all the

abdicate,but Charles' consent


The
Swede, "proud though

to

king.

"

persuasions,

If my

required
desolation,"
be king,I can
be effected by
was

in

friend will not


try what could
"
and " risking
a personalinterview,
to abdicate a throne
more," says Voltaire,
than he had done
to ascend
undertook
travel
in
to
it,"
disguisethrough the
midst of his enemies
to Charles'
in Turkey.
retreat
He
stole one
evening

soon

from
the

make

the

another."

Swedish

Stanislaus

army
lines with

enemy's
dangers reached

which
a

determined

he

to

coimnanded
in Pomerania, and traversing
under
the name
of Haran, after many

passport

He
Jas.sy,the capitalof Moldavia.
here styled himself
a
major
service,not knowing that the king was at that time far from
the Porte.
On
this hint the suspicionsof the
a good understanding with
officer were
Turkish
awakened, who, being acquainted with the ex-king's
saw
by description,
through the disguiseand arrested him.
person

in Charles'

THE

OF

EXTINCTION

KINGDOM

73

[1708-1717A.D.]

"Tell

when

the inflexible Swede

him," exclaimed

he

heard

him

of his hension,
apprefortune
will soon

with Augustus; assure


to make
peace
when
to be verified,
about
the Turks,
This prediction seemed
of the Swedish
stimulated by the intrigues
monarch, took up arms
againstthe
Russians,and investingPeter on the banks of the Pruth obligedhim to make
"never

change."

that

in
capitulation

famous

Poland, and

troops from

which, Charles
kingdom.
besides

great complaintswere
countermand

1714

to

be

he

bound
all his
to withdraw
affairs of that government;
unmolested
to his own
return
was

in the

interfere

insured

an

out of danger than he forgothis


was, however, no sooner
Poland
reinforced them.
of withdrawing his troops from

Peter

instead
to

was

By this

1711.

never

about

this

them, but stillkept


returned

Charles

made
to

Sweden,

encroachment,

them

and

on

at the

the
same

and

confines
time

the

czar

oath, and
In

1712

pretended

of Lithuania.

In

Stanislaus,resigning

many,
pretensionsto Poland, retired to the little duchy of Zweibriicken in Gerwhich was
presentedto him by the king of Sweden, who possessed it by
there tillhe was
He remained
inheritance.
deprived of it by Charles' death,

all

four years

later.

AUGUSTUS

IS

AGAIN

KING

monarch
was
a pretext for retainingthe Saxon
tented
this
did
not
excuse
satisfythe justlydiscontroops
Poles ; they avenged the insults and ravages
of these intruders by the
of them.
This
the declaration
of open
hundreds
lives of many
was
war
nobles.
the king's troops and the confederated
between
Augustus in vain
and after his army
had been almost annihilaied
opposed his infuriated subjects,
the czar
for assistance.
This induced
the confederates
to negocalled upon
tiate,
concluded
and under the terror of a Russian
between
was
army
peace
and his people in 1717.
the monarch
The

of the Swedish
But even

return

in Poland.

agreed that the Saxons should leave the kingdom, and this
time the Polish army
accordinglykept. At the same
was
engagement
decreased
under
the
to eighteen thousand
pretence of curbing the
men,
influence
of the two
most
a
grand generals. This was
perniciousstep to
of
its
almost
extended
defence
the independence
Poland, as it
entirelyto the
who
could never
"pospolite,
compete with the largestanding armies which were
now
kept up by its neighbours. "Imprudent nation!" exclaims Rulhiere,'^
when
which allowed itself to be disarmed
at the very moment
new
dangers
almost
about to threaten
were
it; which
solelyintrusted its defence to the
of the pospolite,
all the other nations of Europe
convocations
at a time when
had discovered the inutility
and abandoned
the use of that mode
of protection
It

was

then
was

"

!"
In the

time Peter had obtained all the Livonian


mean
territoryhe aimed
embrace
the
schemes
of
the
Swedish
to
and
minister to enter
was
willing
at,
into a treaty with Charles,to re-establish Stanislaus,make
a descent
on
land,
Engand in fact become
the arbiter of Europe. The conferences
carried
were
on

with

tremble.

the
His

Augustus
greatest secrecy, but sufficient transpiredto make
minister, Fleming (with or without his master's concurrence),

French
off Stanislaus
miscreants
and bring him
to carry
employed some
This he thought would be a bar to the inimical designs
prisonerto Dresden.
of the allies. The
villains were
discovered and taken before the ex-king as
assassins,expecting summary
punishment; but the beneficent and philosophic
Stanislaus reproved them mildly.
What
injuryhave I done you, my
"

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

74

[1718-1726 A..D.]
"

said he.

friends?"

And

if none,

why

should

attempt

you

life?

my
live and

Were

become
take away
to retaliate I should
yours, but I forgiveyou;
This was
are
better."
aphorism, "We
amply avenged
acting up to his own
to pardon," and
gives him a stronger claim to the title
by having the power
of beneficent philosopherthan all his writings,
were
they a hundred
times,
more

voluminous.
The

king

publiclydisclaimed

of Poland

all

knowledge of the plot,but


that time

for itself. At

it had

the

we

effect

plead
at any
to Fleming's shoulders, and
rate the
in
The
death
of
scandalised.
minister
not unjustly
Charles, 1718, broke
was
which
threatened
the alliance,and averted the danger
Augustus. Such was
the only gainer,while the
the termination
of the attack on Livonia
; Peter was
king of Poland had been dethroned,plundered of his treasures in Saxony, and
his power,
and
had recovered his crown
only by breaking his oath,sacrificing
Russian
almost
a
mere
viceroy.
becoming
Poland now
enjoyed for some
years a state of comparative peace, but it
The
be
in
1726
disturbed
seemed
to
by disputes about Courland.
likely
under
the
been
fief
held
of
the
Poles
since
had
ever
as
a
1561,
duchy
express
mu.'^t leave

of

his

protestationto

the
.sjiifting

of

onus

censure

extinct it should revert to


the old
in this year (1726),taking into consideration
Poland.
who in fact no longerheld the reins of government,
age of the childish duke"
that

conditions

The

having

been

when

the

line of succession

was

diet held

deprived of them

had

married

the

late duke

by Anne,

who

was

"

determined

the niece of Peter the Great

it to the kingdom, and


this the
to divide it into palatinates. But
accordinglysent commissioners
Courlanders
and elected Count
stoutlyresisted,
Maurice, of Saxony (Marshal
election that pleased neither
Saxe), natural son of Augustus, their duke
an
the Poles nor the Russians, and was
the
set aside,the duchy remaining imder
of
of
Russia
tillthe
death
Augustus.
power
The
diet held a debate on another singularevent, which at the time
same
threatened
to be of some
importance. Nearly two years before this time
the Jesuits were
making a public processionwith the host in the streets of
scholar of the order insisted that the children who
Thorn, and some
young
were
present should kneel. This they refused to do, being Lutherans, as were
of the inhabitants
most
of the city,and a scuffle ensued.
The
offending
taken into custody, and his order,highly incensed,imperatively
Jesuit was
his release,
demanded
which
and
being refused they attacked the citizens,
blood
shed
both
sides.
The townspeople,enraged at this breach
on
some
was
of their privileges,
broke open
the Jesuits' college,
plundered it,profaned all
the objectsof worship,and among
other impietiesmistreated an image of the
Virgin.
The Catholics of Poland, fired at the profanation,immediately came
to
the diet almost infuriated with fanatic zeal. A commission
was
appointed,
with absolute power
to examine
into the business and punish the impiety. It
in vain
the Lutherans
was
pleaded their grievances;the magistrates were
for not
other
citizens
capitallycondemned
exerting their authority,seven
suiTored the same
and
numbers
banished
fate,
were
imprisoned. Three
or
accused
of
the
throwing
persons,
Virgin'simage into the fire,lost their right
and
the
whole
citywas deprived of the freedom of publicworship. The
arms,
persecuteddissidents carried their complaintsbefore all the Protestant princes;

and

to

annex

"

and

Prussia,Great
Augustus began

executed,and the
and patience.

Britain,and
to

poor

Sweden
in their behalf.
interested themselves
intervention of force ; but the threat was
not
Lutherans
left to digesttheir troubles with prayer
were

fear

the

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

76

[1733-1736 A.D.]

An

of Ma^covitos

army

arrived

in the

neighbourhood of Warsaw;

and

at

the party
inn in the depths of a forest,
vilhigeof Kainenets, in a wretched
interests proclaimed Frederick Augustas king
of nobles opposed to the French
At Tarnowitz,
the elector left Saxony.
the 9th of November
On
of Poland.
and
entered
the
to
h
e
triumphant
the
Silesian
swore
conventa,
frontier,
iMcta
on
The Muscovite
he and his (jueen were
solemnly crowned.
into Cracow, where
troops pursued the fugitiveStanislaus to Dantzic, where that princehoped to
from France.
until the arrival of the promised succours
Though
make
a stand
slender
avail
him.
The bravery
it
to
that
too
aid arrived from
was
coimtry,
him
to withstand
a
of the inhabitants,however, enabled
vigorous siege of
he stole from the
when
the city was
five months:
compelled to capitulate,
narrow
place,and in disguisereached the Prussian territories after many
the

escapes.

receivingthe oaths of the Dantzickers and assistingat the diet of


pacification the only diet which, during his reign,was not dissolved by the
Fretlerick Augustus ap{)earedto think he had done enough for his new
veto
himself
entirelyto his favourite occupations of
subjects,and alxuuloned
of
To
business
sion:
descriptionhe had a mortal aversmoking or hunting.
every
After

"

"

to his minister.Count
the government of his two states he abandoned
in idle pomp
resemble
him
and dissipation,
to
Briihl. The minister, indeed,strove
obtained
unbounded
and by that means
him; an
ascendency over
cised
ascendency,however, which w;us rather felt than seen, and which he who exerThe king had not the capacity,or would
it had art enough to conceal.
of disconanother source
tent
be at the jjains,
not
to learn the Polish language
favourable
the forests of Saxony were
to the
to the people. But
more
Poland
h
ad
the
than
those
of
of
more
royalsports
royal
; Saxony, therefore,
"

presence.*^
POLITICAL

From
from

the
of

for

point of view we may consider the conditions of Poland


and social or
eighteenthcentury, from the political
generalmental and moral point of view, we always gain the impression
irremediable decay, the germs
of which had certainly
already existed
whatever
middle

the

during

DECADENCE

an

of the

considerable

time

in tlie life of the nation

been

and

its realm, but which had


the
of
two
reign
Augustuses from

completelydeveloped only during


family (1697-1763).
After the unhappy times of Jolm Casimir,when
the republicwas
already
the danger of being dissolved,
it had again under the leadershipof
near
the

the Sa.xonian

?uite
ohn Sobieski

shown

itselfto the world

gloriousundertaking,the deliverance
fruitless.

It

as a power.
of Vienna
from

But
the

even

Sobieski's most

Turks, had remained

like the last brilliant ray of the setting sun ; and when
this
into his grave,
there were
buried with him, if not actually
Poland's liberty,
of which
he used
often and so proudly to boast,at least
so
the national independence and power.
The very beginning of the Saxonian
period was characteristic and full of

king

was

was

lowenvl

important consequences

for the positionof Polanil in her affairs both at home


the
For, on
whole, Frederick Augustus had only obtained his
accession to the thronethanks to his not having spared
for bribery
money

and

abroad.

"

"

to

his at

troops, and
the
on

having

once

above

beginning,so
the throne

any

entered

the country with

all to the support


was

had

of

some

thousands

Austria,Russia,and

the continuation.
The
also to try to keep him

same

powers

there.

Rome.
that had

Without

of

gallant
And

as

placed him

the victories of

THE

[1733-1763A.D.]
Peter the Great

ruler,after

the

died,the

over

Charles

his abdication

decision

to the

EXTINCTION

of the

XII

KINGDOM

77

he would

hardly have returned to Poland


of Stanislaus
Leszczj'nski.When

in favour

of his

in favour

arms

OF

son

latter.

due

was

The

nation

to Austria

itself had

and

Russia, and

declared

as

he

cially
espe-

itself by

an

overwhelming majority in favour of Stanislaus Leszczynski,but abandoned


him after a short and powerlessresistance because they had, in the firstplace,
the well-exercised and disciplinedRussian
and
capable of resisting
no
army
and
the
other
the
of
Saxonian
the
general summons
because,on
hand,
troops,
did
with
sufficient
and
not meet
nobility (PospoHte niszenil)
sympathy
heard
one
Already during the election of the first Saxonian
encouragement.
the words :
They could have enough kings,without shedding their blood for
"

of them."

one

that as the influence of Russia in Poland


was
increased,
consequence
All circumstances, the state of the
independence of the republicwaned.
of Poland, were
able
favouras well as the inner conditions
generalEuropean politics
for the next
for Russia.
Austria, united with Russia
decade, had no
in
her
Warsaw
France
could
do
it
and could not
to
not
at
reason
first,
;
oppose
XV
wish
do
it
since
Louis
had
the
Austro-Russian
to
afterwards,
even
joined
alliance againstFrederick II."
The

the

STATE

OF

POLAND

UNDER

AUGUSTUS

III

Augustus III,without possessinghis father's great qualities,


displayedthe
stubborn
generosity. He also,as his father did, forestalled his most
In appearance
he walked
enemies by conferringbenefits upon
them.
in the
let
remain
he
all
around
the
throne
the
of
manifestations
same
footsteps;
civilisation that his father had collected there,but there was
inherent
nothing
in his taste for luxury. It was
only through a habit acquired by education
that he ruined himself by splendour,without caring for it,by paintings,
without
In the pomp
of his court
there was
knowing anything about them.
no
element of gallantry,
and the king,of great personal beauty, kept an inviolable
his wife,the ugliestprincessof her time.
to the queen,
But
fidelity
this beauty, so strikingin the prince'sfeatures at first glance,vanished
at
the slightest
closer inspection
then
there
indescribable
an
appeared
quality
;
same

of

without character
unless it
was
; his silent and sad countenance
with
and
limited
somewhat
His
mind
that
was
was
so
stamped
pride.
lazy
he had never
been able to learn the language of his country.
His sole passion
for the hunt ; and the queen,
left his side,followed him
at it
who never
was
from early dawn
in open
chair,braving with him all the inclemencies of the
coarseness

In this sole and

seasons.

the two

states

of

Saxony

alone
govern
of fact all the cares
of

occupation he pretended to

constant

and

Poland, but as a matter


to a favourite,who
was

abandoned
clever enough to make
were
this monarch
believe
that
it
he
himself.
was
always
exercising
Count Briihl,an indefatigable
of
huntsman
because this was
means
a sure
and
all
his
at
skilful
pleasing
sports,
master, an agreeablecompanion,
games

government

man

who

had

spent his

anything else but

entire

courtier.

life at court

It

to this

was

and

become

minister,was

but rather his


high position,
without being based on
of merit, let the conduct
foundation
any
fall little by little entirelyinto the hands
Never
of the minister.
servile respect shown

princethan
perpetualassiduity,
always at his
a

never

king'schoice that raised Briihl


favour, which, growing from day to day
not

the

that which

side in the

Briihl rendered

of affairs
was

his master

more

with

or
passingentire
hunting forest,

OF

HISTORY

THE

78

POLAND
[17"3-17G3 A.D.]

mornings in his
up
seeinghim.

day

to

let his eyes

than

notes

funds, and

it had

fall

the

do-nothing prince

his minister

on

without

It was
always the
"Yes, sire."
money?"
satisfythe capricesof the prince,which each

something dffcrent, Briihl loaded

were

more

I any

in order

But

saying a word,

and

smoking

Briihl,have

"

response.

same

without

presence

antl down

walked

while

in Poland

the
he

state

bank

auctioned

of

Saxony with

off all the

offices

great affairs of
intrigue and double

general politicsin
of the republic.
brought
of
underhand
dealing that is so
Europe that spirit
his
before
master, engaging in society
often
acquired at court; cringing
weak
and
perfidiousin affairs,and always
by his grace and gentleness,
of
The excesses
the most
luxury of all kinds that he indulged
superb of men.
in would
exaggerated in a novel, but the truth passes all description.
seem
after they had
of the Romans
despoiled Greece and
LucuUus, the wonder
of some
day to the managers
great spectacle
Asia, Lucullus, who loaned one
have
seemed
of his coats, would
five thousand
nearly naked and bare to the
He
Saxon minister.
pretended that this mad- magnificencewas not his own
but
only seemed to flatter one of his master's foibles. In fact
personaltaste,
attached
by indolence to a simple and secluded life,took pride in
Augustus,
fastidious
"Were
it not for my
a minister.
profession,"
being served by so
let
for
the
most
said Briihl,"he would
want
me
things." And this
necessary
but the
vainest,most superb of men, was nothing in the midst of all the pomp
For a long time it was
vilest of flatterers.
never
suspected that a secret
pietymingled with all a courtier's passionsin the minister's soul,but one day
their way
into his inner
made
two
apartments, and
strangers indiscreetlyHe

were

astonished

to

see

to

him

his knees, his face to the floor,before a table


ceremonies.
Briihl got up in great haste

on

lightedlike a tomb
said to the
and

the

funeral

during
intruders, After giving my entire day to my temporal
to eternity."
master, I must
give a few moments
Count Briihl,in the first place minister of Saxony, was
nobody in Poland,
where
excluded from all offices ; but as soon
were
as by his influence
foreigners
he had begun to disposealone of all favours, he boldly
the king'smind
over
in a lawsuit
passed himself off as a Pole and found means
purposely raked
have
the
false
to
This
became
court
a
recognise
a
judgment
genealogj'.
up
for fortune to shower
riches and dignities
him.
means
upon
The master
and favourite had no other political
system than one of entire
occasion
seized every
to gain the
dependence upon Ru.?sia. They skilfully
of
that
court.
Did
the
smile
goodwill
a
they
man,
emperor
upon
young
had
in
become
were
carefullyinformed of the fact. The riband of Poland
the
first
of
manner
some
degree Russian honours, and the first signof budding
influence at Petersburg. From
Warsaw
all the news
of Russia
was
faithfully
to other
sent
like the capitalof a distant
courts, and for the empire it was
one's
province. A few Poles grieved at this degradation,but as to make
and one's family'sfortune had become
own
the universal occupation in this
reign,the majority sought favour at its source.
They travelled to the court
of Russia ; the vile intrigues
of the Russian
saw
courtiers were
preserved at Warin anecdotes

useful

to

the

secure

by the

"

for

the

ambitious.
skill of his

instruction

of the

j^oung

nobles, and

as

science
himself

Briihl

applauded the policy;he believed


negotiationsin whatever influence the czarina

sessed.
pos-

The high chancellor Bestuzhev


made
of him
subordinate
use
as
a
in
the
minister's
general affairs of Europe, and profitedbv the Saxon
spy
deference to sell to him the Starosties and Polish offices in oppositionto him,
and

many

design upon

people have thought that the Russian


Poland

than

to

sustain his credit bv

prime minister had


the.se sales.

no

other

THE

EXTINCTION

OF

KINGDOM

79

[1733-1763A.D.]

The
forests

king preferredto reside


of his electorate

in Dresden
better

were

rather than in

adapted

for

Warsaw, because

hunting

than

those

the

of his

he was
not obliged to hold court
kingdom, and because, hating all ceremony,
Polish traditions
It was
at Dresden, as
compelled him to do at Warsaw.
dancers and Italian singers
in Saxony that he maintained
troops of French
the Polish
and ruined himself in wild prodigality. And
as
at great expense,
ministrydisplayedno energy except in the king'spresence, and the diet and
without
the king's convocation, his long
could not meet
council of senators
The
law which
absences left the republicin complete inaction.
obliged the
him
the
back
of this
two
at
of a diet every
convocation
eve
brought
years
that
assemblies
these
and
he
anxious
should
have
was
always
a
period;
the confidence
as
a proof of
happy issue,because he regarded their success
after several
But
the Poles had
given him.
stormy sessions,there was
found
member
whose
solved,
some
oppositioncompelled the diet to be disalways
and the king,accustomed
to this misfortune,seemed
easilyconsoled
to Saxony.
favourable for a return
when the season
was
always in
Diu-ing the thirty years of this reign the nation assembled
the

vain, and

frivolous

most

king of Prussia relates


few
diet,and his partisans,
The

how
in

pretexts

were

sufficient for

day Augustus was


number, not being able
one

these

ruptures.

trying to dissolve the


to find

some

apparent

all their evil intentions,the king looked through


motive under which to cover
ancient regulationforbiddingany
the Polish laws, and there discovered
an
artificial
considered
be
to
matters
light. He wrote to his supporters to
by
session
into
the
night and have candles brought in.
get them to prolong some
He

was

obeyed.

cried that

The

the law

was

in the assemblage. Some


candles arrived ; great uproar
being violated; others that the old order of the diet

of providing for
holds all the means
protestedagainst the validityof a diet
Let us imagine the simplestheritage
where the laws were
openly broken.
without
left for some
and
master
government; everything would fall
years
of the greatest kingdoms of Europe remained
to ruins: and one
thirtyyears
There
existed no
without any sort of administration.
to
legitimatepower
look after the collection of taxes and the condition of the troops. The high
from the public funds while the state was
treasurers enriched themselves
poor
The great generalswere
and in debt.
less.
powerful,but the republicwas defenceThe
dreaded, but the policewere not maintained,
great marshals were
All largeaffairs
and the chancellors were
acts.
reproached with signingillegal
in confusion.
No ministers were
sent
to foreignpowers.
were
There
was
one
irregularity
especiallywhose fatal results touched everybody's
pockets: the mints had been closed in 1685, to await the first session
of the estates in order that they might during that interval consult with the
projectedregulationof coinage. But
great Prussian cities concerning some
the dissolution of the diets always prevented these regulationsfrom
being
and the mints stillremained
considered,
unopened. Foreign money,
becoming
from day to day, had only an arbitrarycirculation,
and there
more
necessary
unable to
coins of small value for domestic trade.
The republicwas
were
no
authorised
remedy the difficulty.The king felt himself sufficiently
by the
pressingnecessityto have Polish coins struck off in Saxony, and in his eagerness
to gain by the operation he set neighbouring sovereignsthe dangerous
them.
example of deteriorating
In the midst of a long peace
the nation plunged into effeminacy,made
a
duty of imitatingthe luxury of the court, and this foolish luxury disguised
the true state of the kingdom under an
apparent prosperity. The people,
is

changed, that the arbitrarypower

while
itself,

in the

tumult

nuncio

HISTORY

THE

80

POLAND

OF

[1733-1763 A.D.]

that is to say

day

their

increase

compelled to

were

each

the slaves,became

wretched

more

because

increase

the

owners
land-

of

by
work, which
majority of the noblemen, ruined

revenues

they put upon the luifortunate beings. The


horses, and were
or
by a vain display of wealth, no longer had either arms
to the defence of their country.
not, a.s in former times, always ready to march
and whoever
of the nobility,
would
Henceforth
there were
no
more
inspections
would have
made
himself
have proposed to re-establish them
needlessly
pected
susat

Thus

court.

all the abuses

of the

strange government

were

felt at

once."^
VERSUS

rOXIATOWSKI

THE

THE

CZARTORYSKI

For ten years two


representedat their head by the greatest
great parties,
another
with one
in Poland
families of the land, had ciuarrelled
the Poniatowski and the Czartoryski. For a long time the latter had maintained
secret
"

relations
and

with

enjoyed

the

With

favour.

royal house,
of royaJ
sufficient insight

fulness

a
a

in

regard to the defects of the


organism of the state, the leader
of this house
hand

as

indeed

offered

his

strength to the royal

of a
By the formation
power.
confederation,with the king at
the way
the heatl,
would
be made
smooth
for laying the fomidation
of healthier conditions.
Already
and
hmidred
a
thirty senators
had
joined together,when, by
the advent
of the count
De Broglie,the whole undertaking gave

(1752).

way

importance of

II, Augustus

Po.niatowski

Augustus

III

to

the

secure

meant

(1739-1798)

influence

and

this

family were
in Vienna, and

undervalued

not

Stanislaus

The

gave
same

council.
differences

his support
the well-

to

Later
with

on,

sonal
per-

the

all-

Briihl turned
powerful minister
the Czartoryskiinto the camp
of the opposition. The
horn
of plenty of
fell into the lap of the Poniatowski.
royal favour now
During the last years of the reign of Augustus III, the conviction of the
sad and almost inconsolable state of the republicwas
deeply rooted in wide
and the necessitywas
circles,
recognisedfor a great reform.
Only about the
means

the views

differed.

regeneration of the
of freedom, of which
what
and

the

this so-named

maimer

there

nation

would

The

Poniatowski

and

from

within,and

with

republicwas

their adherents
that

wished

stillthe

preservation
yet perceptiblein

proud. It is not
patrioticparty thought to attain this great aim;
be great difficulty
in proving and
in significantly
so

indeed
of reform
the work
had made
itselfclear.
the rupture between
the Czartoryskiand the royal house

siiowingthat

Since
the leader
directed his attt"ntion to Rassia,with whose help he hoped to abrogate
wrongs,
and also in the future to be enabled,according to his
thought, to clirect the
choice of a king./

THE

OF

EXTINCTION

KINGDOM

81

[1745-1763A.D.3

MACHINATIONS

RUSSIAN

more
clearlyprove the absolute dependence of the republic
empire than the fact that though Frederick Augustus, in
virtue of his rightsover
Courland, permitted his third son, Charles,whom
to elect for their sovereign,
to accept
the states of that duchy had ventured
would
he
nor
the precariousdignity,his timiditywas
ludicrous;
absolutely
woidd
the
choice
assured
that
be
until
the
to
the
agreeable
permission
grant
of that princess,
Elizabeth.
But Peter III, the successor
refused to
empress
in
of
the
Duke
fear
Charles, who,
precipitately
acknowledge
consequences,

Nothing

could

the northern

on

In his contempt for the


of events.
condescend
would
not
to acquaint Frederick
czar
even
republic,the new
Augustus with his accession. So completely did he consider Poland within
however
his policymight
his grasp, and in reality
a province of his empire
of national
to permit a little longer the show
induce him
independence

Courland

fled from

to

await

the

course

"

"

that,in a treaty with the Prussian monarch, he insisted on three great objects:
of his own,
after the
a creature
(1) the election of a Piast,and consequently
death of Augustus; (2) the protectionof the dissidents against the declared
fief of the imperial
will of the diet; and (3) the possessionof Courland
as
a
crown.

the great focus where


the rays of Polish
Petersburg,in short,was
natives
ambitious
resorted
concentrated,and where the more
intriguewere
of the republic.
the imperialconfidants,the dignities
to obtain, by flattering
from
perious
imthe northern
an
metropoliswas
Every intimation,however slight,
the feeble king and his servile minister ; and not on them
on
obligation
alone,but on the great body of the nobles,who had lost all sense of the national
to St. Petersburg
dishonour, and who transferred their homage from Warsaw
without shame or remorse.
these
was
unprincipledPoles,none
more
Among
beth,
conspicuousthan Count Stanislaus Poniatowski, who, in the reign of Elizaformed a criminal intrigue
with the grand duchess Catherine ; and who,
favour
of
the connection, was
his
by
as
taught to regard the Polish crown
St.

The

own.

in

Turkey,

father of this adventurer


had been the confidant of Charles XII
and
had
been singularly
favoured by that monarch.
"Charles,"

how
to distinguishyour
count, "knew
of your son, whom
I may
one
day raise,
Charles himself."
The confidants of the two lovers had
perhaps,above even
littledoubt
that, when the grand duchess was seated on the imperialthrone,
she would
contrive to set aside her husband, and bestow both her hand
and
whom
she
had
resolved
to
the
place over
republic. Finally,
sceptre on one
the Muscovite armies traversed the kingdom, whether
the Germans
to oppose
the Turks, or to support the plotsof their avowed
or
adherents, with perfect
of court
and diet.
impunity,and in contempt of the humble supplications
It must
not, indeed,be concealed that the republichad a few true sons,
who endeavoured
the nation to a sense
and to arm
to rouse
of its humiliation
it againstthe interference of its neighbours. At the head of these was
Brawrote

the archduchess

merit; I also

can

to

the

old

distinguishthat

nicki,
grand generalof the crown, who belonged to no faction and who aimed
only at the redemption of his country. But his efforts could avail little
whose
dissensions were
againstthose of two rival factions,
espoused by the
of
Polish
nobles.
The
Radziwills
and the
aided
the
great body
court,
by
laboured
the
to preserve
ancient privileges
of the republic in other
Potockis,
the
abuses
which hafl brought that republicto its present deplorable
words,
state ; and the Czartoryskis
to establish an hereditarymonarchy, the trunk of
"

H.

W.

VOL.

XXIV.

THE

83

OF

HISTORY

POLAND
[1763 A.D.]

which

would

be not
The

Poniatowski.

Frederick
caase

Augustus

of the latter

was

but

their kinsman

naturallymore

the young

count

acceptableat

the

after the elevation of Catherine; and the


Petersburg,especially
ordered to protect it,in oppositionto the king,and,
generalswere

of St.

court

Mascovite

to the whole nation.


were,
She ordered
less decisive with respect to Courland.
Catherine II was
no
of her troops to take possessionof the duchy in favour of
fifteen thousand
Biron, who had been exiled by Peter and recalled by her. At a meeting of
which
members
the feeble king presided,some
had
the senate, indeed,over

if need

disputethe rightsof Biron, and to insist on the restoration of


Charles; and, what is still stranger, they prevailedon a majority to adopt
resolved to cite the Muscovite
sentiments.
the same
They even
governor
this was
than the empty
before the tribunal of their king. But
no
more
of cowards, who hoped to obtain by blusteringwhat
they dared not
menace
A
of
declaration
the
force.
czarina
and the
thundering
attempt by open
towards
the
of a few Muscovite
frontiers
movement
so
appalled them
troops
that they sought refugein the obscurityof their sylvan abodes; and the king,
abandoned
his minister
with
to return.
Briilil,
precipitately
Poland, never
Duke
who
had stood a six months'
With no less speed diti
Charles,
siegeby
the Muscovite
It is true,
troops, follow that exemplary pair to Dresden.
boldness

the

to

of her troops in Lithuania ; that


arrested the march
indeed, that the empress
she found cause
to fear the determined
oppositionof the lesser nobles; and
that she resolved to wait for the king'sdeath before she proceeded to declare
and secure
the throne vacant
the elevation of her former lover : but her purpose

her to delay its


immutable; and if her moderation
was
or policyinduced
her power
too well to distrust its eventual
execution, she knew
accomplishment.
to make
However,
assurance
doubly sure," she sought the alliance
"

of the Prussian

she publiclyarranged a portion of the policy


king,with whom
in
nation.
adopted
regard to this doomed
more
mortifyingto the Czartoryskisthan this stroke of
policyon the part of the czarina.
They had long planned the depositionof
Frederick
Augustus, and the forcible elevation of their kinsman, and their
vexation
knew
bounds
at the delay thus opposed to their ambitious
patience.
imno
The young
who had traitorously
boasted that
count, in particular,
the last hour of the king was
that Poland
about to enter on new
was
come,
like a madman
behaved
the
but
he became
destinies,
on
able
tractoccasion,
more
the
of
Frederick
on
learning
indisposition
Augustus. The death of that
princerestored him to perfectequanimity.
Though under Frederick Augustus Poland entered on no foreignwar, his
sian
reignwas the most disastroas in her annals. While the Muscovite and Prusarmies
traversed her plains at pleasure,and
extorted
whatever
they
pleased;while one faction openly opposed another, not merely in the diet
but on the field; while every
national
assembly was immediately dissolved by
tlie veto ; the laws could not be expected to exercise much
authority. They
in fact, utterlydisregarded;the tribunals were
were,
derided, or forcibly
overturned,and brute force prevailed on every side. The miserable peasants
vainly besought the protection of their lords,who were
either powerless,
or
indifTerent to their complaints; while thousands
expired of hunger, a far
greater number
sought to relieve their necessities by open depredations.
of robbers, less formidable
Bands
only than the kindred masses
congregated
of soldiers,
under the name
infested the country in every direction.
Famine
aided the devastations
of both ; the population,no
less than the wealth of
the kingdom, decreased with frightful
rapidity.
that

afterwards
was
Nothing could be

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

84

[1TG3 A.D.]
to the effect that the diet of convocation

cause,

be held

signed a declaration
troops
so long as foreign

could not

present.

were

opened, but under circumstances deeply


posted in the squares,
troops were
humiliating
and at the ends of the streets leadingto the place of deliberation;while the
in number, had
thousands
the
of the Czartoryskis,
some
armetl atlherents
but
the
halls
of
the
the
to
the
house,
not
avenues
only
audacity to occupy
then
in
the
senators
Of
the
Warsaw,
only
eight
and
fifty
senators
deputies.
proceededto the diet,which was to be opened by the aged Count Malachowski,
the signalfor the comhis staff
mencement
marshal on the occa-^ion. Instead of raising
it
held
this
downwards,
of proceedings
resolutely
intrepidman
less courageous
while his no
companion, Mokronowski, conjured him, in the
had signed the declaration,not to elevate it as long
who
of the members
name
As the speaker
controlled the free exercise of deliberation.
the Muscovites
as
concluded
by his veto, a multitude of soldiers,with drawn sabres, rushed
May, however,

the 7th of

On

to

it was

The Muscovite

the nation.

"

"

of
the marshal
the tunmlt
For a moment
hushed, when
was
towards him.
the symbol of his office.
of departing with
diet declared his intention
of the Czartoryskisexclaimed, in a
Immediately a hundred armed creatures
still
.staff!"
cried Mokronowski, in one
"Raise
"No,"
menacing tone,
your
"
endeavoured
the
soldiers
to
louder ; do no such thing !
piercethrough
Again

the

"

the crowd
"

on

of

deputies,to lay their

Mokronowski,

retract

death

certain

!"

"

victim

low,

while

several voices

longer masters

are
no
your veto ; we
Be it so !" repliedhe, as

he folded his

exclaimed,

; you

are

arms

in

rushing
tion
expecta-

iliefree ! "
read in the energy
of his look,and could
The elevation of his purpose
was
who began to hesitate in their
into the assailants,
not but strike a deep awe
bring
they reflected that their bloody deed must
design;especiallywhen

catastrophe;

of the

"

Twill

all Europe againstthem.


inevitable disgraceon their cause, and perhaps rouse
he was
called on to resignit into other
As the marshal refused to erect his staff,
"
Never
hands.
! " repliedthis noble
cut off my
octogenarian: " you may
take
life
I
marshal
elected
but
as
am
a
hand, or you may
by a free people,
;
my

by

free

peopleonly can

little doubt
whose

name

Mokronowski

deposed.

wouUl

I wish

have

to

been

followed
historyconceals, clo.sely

his

leave the

sacrificed,had

not

heels,exclaiming at

man,

every

for General
Gadomski
!"
atlmirable display of firmness led to no
corresponding result.
of the diet had resolved to have no share in
Though two hundred members
this lawless force,and left Warsaw
for their respectivehabitations, those who
the creatures
remained
of Muscovy and the Czartoryskis,
scarcelyeighty in

step,

"

Make

that

I be

"

place ! He was
side
surrounded
ferocious
soldiers
and
on
by
deputiesresolved to prevent
every
his egress.
exclaimed,
Seeing him thus violentlydetained, Mokronowski
"Gentlemen, if a victim is wanted, behold me; but respect age and virtue !"
the younger
At the same
of these heroic patriotsforciblyopened a
moment,
for
whom
the
in conducting to the gate. The
he
succeeded
marshal,
way
undaunted
deportment of both seemed to have made its due impressionon the
members, who opposed no further obstacle to their departure. As they passed
through the streets,however, they were
exposed to new
dangers ; and there is
so

way

this

But

"

number

but the
were
marshal
wa-s

encouraged to betray the liberties of their country.


speedilyelected,and measures
passed in this illegal
assembly alike injuriousto freedom and tranquillity.The dissidents were
deprived of the few remaining rightsleft them by former persecutors; the
Prussians were
also forbidden
to as.semble at the diets, otherwi.se than
by
deputies and these to be few in number.
No folly,surely,ever
equalled
"

Another

"

more

THE

EXTINCTION

OF

KINGDOM

85

[1763-1768A.D.]

tant
who, in such a desperatesituation,laboured to alienate an imporportion of the people from the government, at a time when the most
required to avert the threatened
perfectharmony and the closest luiion were
other things they exhibited a little
destruction of the republic. In some
of the measures
sense.
common
They abolished the veto, making the success
of
the
the
not
on
unanimity,
suffrages;and
on
majority,
depend
proposed
title of the
the
elector
of
the
in
long
disputed
Brandenburg
they recognised
and
of
of
Prussia.*
the
diet
election
opened
August
27th,
on
Finally,
king
declared
Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski
the 7th of the followingmonth
was
king of Poland.
that of

men

AUGUSTUS

STANISLAUS

The first acts of Stanislaus


Not
his elevation.
only were

were

almost

the abolition

arbitrarypowers of the grand marshals


introduced
enlightenedregulationswere

of
sufficient to efface the shame
of the veto
confirmed
and the

and
into

hetmans
greatlyrestrained,but
of the country
the commerce

the finances of the state ; the arts and sciences were


encouraged,especially
could
related
The
to
not obtain the rights
war.
dissidents,however,
as
the
representationsof the Muscovite
they claimed, notwithstanding
tented
whose
the alert to protect the disconever
on
ambassador,
sovereign was

and

such
which

and
to

been

see

to

her

weakened

in no dispositheir confederations.
But the czarina was
tion
to the king had
long
imperialwUl thwarted ; her attachment
and she could not behold,without anxiety,
by new favourites,

urge

the
she

of the Poles
changes introduced into the constitution
changes which,
was
sagacious enough to foresee, must, if permitted to take effect,
declared to
entirelyfrustrate her views on the republic. Her ambassador
"

the diet that these innovations


be abandoned
and the ancient usages
must
restored.
The assembly was
confederations
compelled to give way, especiallyas numerous

by the small nobles,no doubt in the pay of Catherine,


of the
felt by the humblest
the same
member
object. The conviction
equestrianorder that he by his singleprotest could arrest the whole machine
of government
was
a
privilegetoo gratifyingto self-love to be abandoned
Hence
without
reluctance.
little difficultyin nullifying
Muscovy had
to the republic,
measures
which, however
advantageous and even
necessary
less prized by the majority of the nobles
than their own
monstrous
were
were

formed

for

immunities.
It must

this dictatorial interference of


it was
In
the diet of 1767-1768
opposition.
several senators, especiallyby two bishops and

not, however, be supposed that

Muscovy was
courageouslydenounced
by
intended
two
to deter all
was
temporal barons; but the fate of these men
others from followingthe example : they were
arrested by night,and conveyed
into the heart of Muscovy.
Liberty of discussion had long been forbidden
had produced little effect,
by the haughty foreigners
mere
menaces
; but, as
to the astonishment
of all Europe, unblushing violence,and that too of the
evident
odious description,
most
hereafter to be employed.
It was
now
was
that nothing less than the entire subjugationof Poland, than its reduction to
of these heroic
a provinceof the empire, was
resolved.
The forcible removal
of
of
the
the
ancient
anarchy.
champions independence was to secure
triumph
admitted

without

'
They also recognised the sovereignof Muscovy
as
supporting the claim of the czarina to the dominion
provinces possessed by Poland.

"

empress
over

Red

of

all the

Russia

and

by
Russias," therethe other

sian
Rus-

HISTORY

THE

86

OF

POLAND
[1770-1773 A.D.]

OF

P.AJITITION

FIRST

THE

(1772 A.D.)

REPUBLIC

THE

appallingthe fate of these men, it had not the effect designed


the patrioticand the bold to a more
determined
of
few
A
confederation
influential
nobles was
a
opposition.
in Podolia, of which
the avowed
formed
at Bar, a little town
to
object was
and
dethrone
the
to
free the country from
creature
foreigninfluence,
poor
But

however

by its framers
and effectual

who
on

it roused

At the same
time
the Turks
the nation.
declared war
four
which
lated
A memorable
the czarina.
struggleensued,
during
years desoever
the fairest provincesof the republic. But unassisted patriotism, howarmies of Russia ; the small
determined, could do littlewith the veteran

dishonoured

so

annihilated one
An attempt of the conby one.
federates
king by violence did no good to their cause.
Finally,
stances
tlie Turks
unsuccessful,the Muscovites
everywhere triumphant; circumwere
which
led to a result hitherto unprecedented in history the partition
of the republicby the three neighbouring powers.
this abominable
It is not difficult to fix the period when
projectwas first
with
it
what
entertained,or
originated. Notwithstanding the cautious
power
of
Prussia
in
of
his memoirs, there is reason
the king
language
enough for
its author, and that the subject was
first introduced
to
inferringthat he was
Catherine, in 1770, by his brother Prince Henry. More than twelve months,
hcjwever,elapsedbefore the two potentates finally
arranged the limits of 'their
on
respectivepretensions;and.although they agreed,without difficulty,
anteeing
guareach
other's claims, would
Austria calmly witness the asurpation?
If the Poles themselves
not easy to reduce,what
were
hope of their subjugation
would
remain, should they be supported by the troops of the empire?
That
be permitted to share the spoil. Unscrupulous, however,
must
power
she refused to be the first to mention
Catherine
often
such a project
as
was,
of
Vienna.
the
Frederick had less shame.
to
court
After some
hesitation,
the Austrian
acceded
court
to the alliance.
The
treaty of partitionwas
It must
be supposed that
signed at St. Petersburg,August 5th, 1772.
not
these monstrous
made
without some
show of justice. Both
were
u.surpations
Prus.sia published elaborate expositionsof their claims on
Austria
and
the
countries
invaded.
In neither case
have these claims either justiceor reason
bands

of the natives
to carry

were

off the

"

to

support them.
AN

ACCESS

The

they

body

thus allied were


powers
forced a diet to sanction

OF

POLISH

PATRIOTISM

not satisfied with


the dLsmemberment

the

success

of the

of their violence ;
The great

country.

of the

deputies,however, refased to attend this diet of 1773; the few


of Russia, the mercenary
chieflycreatures
betrayers of the
national independence. But among
the.sefew, nine or ten showed
considerable
in defence of their privilegesnone
intrepidity
much
Thaddeus
so
as
;
Reyten,
deputy of Novogrudok, who from incorruptible,
daring integrityhas been
surnamed
the Polish Cato.
As unanimity could not be expected, wherever
true patriot was
to be fomid, the foreigners
one
laboured
to change the diet
into a confederation,
where the great questionmight be decided by a majority
of votes.
To prevent this was
the great end of the patriots
: each
deavoured
party ento produce the election of a marshal
from
themselves;
among
who

since

did

were

the powers

oppositionno

with

which

slightobject.

that officer

was

invested

made

his support

or

THE

EXTINCTION

OF

KINGDOM

87

[1773-1778 D.]
A.

of the members, they could not tamely


Russia, forced on them, and they exclaimed
be their marshal.
Poninski
that Reyten should
immediately adjourned the
diet to the followingday, and retired into the king'sapartments.
Reyten
also,after exhortinghis countrymen to firmness,declared the sitting
adjourned.
Thus
passed the first day. Throughout the night the gold of the three
ambassadors
traitors made.
The following
was
lavishlydistributed,and more
hall
of
the
both
marshals
resorted
but
neither
would give
to
as
day
assembly ;
and
the
done,
nothing was
sittingwas
again adjourned. Seeing no
way,
prospect of imanimity,Poninski drew up the act of confederation at his own
hotel,and sent it to Stanislaus to be signed. The king repliedthat he could
of his ministers and senators.
The
not
legallysign it without the consent
of the ambassadors, however, soon
menaces
compelled the weak creature to
accede to the confederation
body was debarred from the hall
; but that illegal
of deliberations by the intrepidReyten, who, with four companions, persisted
in keeping possessionof this sanctuary until he saw
the confederation
held
air.
of law was
As longer opposition,where
the very shadow
in the open
residence, with the
disregarded,would be useless,he returned to his own
coasolation
of
that
he
almost
the
was
melancholy
reflecting
only one who had
the torrent of intimidation or corruption. After his departure the
withstood
and a permanent council was
established,
which,
partitiontreaty was ratified,
under the influence of the Russian
ambassador, governed king and republic.
During the few followingyears Poland presentedthe spectacleof a comitry
The calm
exhausted
alike by its own
dissensions and the arms
of its enemies.
laws
have
and
would
have
could
been
was
a blessing
unusual,
salutary
any
the
most
been adopted by the diets. Many such, indeed, were
proposed,
the emancipation of the serfs;but the very proposition
signalof which was
received with such indignationby the selfish nobles,that Russian
gold
was
to defeat the other measures
with which it was
not wanted
accompanied
was
the suppressionof the veto, and the establishment
of an hereditarymonarchy.
which
laws
The enlightenedZamoyski, who
had drawn
code
of
a
up
involved this obnoxious
a sacrifice to his patriotic
provision,was near falling

Corrupted as

see

one

were

Poninski, a

great number
of

creature

"

zeal.
The

Diet

of

1788

justiceor policycould effect was at length


In the memorable
diet which
brought about by the example of the French.
opened in 1788, and which, like the French constitutional assembly, declared
itself permanent, a new
constitution was
tioned
solemnly sancpromulgated, was
received by the whole
by king and nobles,and was enthusiastically
But

what

nation.
to

the

no

consideration

It reformed

burghers

veto, and

and

declared

of

the vices of the old constitution

peasants
the

throne

"

offered

new

existence

the fatal
destroyed
in
house
of
the
Saxony. It had,
hereditary
the
limited the royal authority,so as to make
"

all

with
confederations,

however, two great faults: it


The elector of
the nation.
too late to save
king a mere
cipher,and it came
fied,
ampliSaxony refused to accept the crown, unless the royalprerogativeswere
and Catherine
resolved to destroy both it and the republic. The
king
of Prussia,indeed, announced
his entire satisfaction with
the wholesome
changes which had been introduced,and pretended that he had nothing so
much
at heart
the welfare of the nation and the preservationof a good
as
understandingwith it ; but he renewed his alliance with the czarina, the basis
of which was
a second
partitionof the republic!

HISTORY

THE

88

OF

POLAKD
[1788-1793 A.D.)

THE

SECOND

PARTITION

(1793

A.D.)

the leading discontented


to form
Poles
first object of Catherine was
call
in
her
and
the
to
ance
assistconfederation
to
new
constitution,
destroy
a
The confederation
of Targowitz struck
to re-establish the ancient laws.
the
but
bold
with
ardour.
Resistance
with
more
inspired
the nation
terror,
and
the
invested
dictatorial
with
king was
unanimously decreed,
was
powers

The

into

for the

national

triumph

fall with

or

promised to take the field in person, and


people. Yet, in August, 1792, a very few weeks
patriotism,he acceded to the infamous
confederation,

defence.

He

even

his

after this ebullition of


ordered his amiies to retreat, and to leave the country open to the domination
of the Russian troops. His example constrained all who had property to lose ;
imder arbitrarj^
the enjoyment of their substance
since all preferred
ment
governThe
Russian
exile.
to independencewith
or
troops entered
poverty

the ancient chains; the Prussian


king followed
of
the
second
reduction of
his
the
career
spoliation
by
began
admitted
diet
assembled
A
but
at
Dantzic.
were
bers
memwas
none
Grodno,
as
except such as had opposed the constitution of 1791
none, in fact,but
The feeble Stanislaus
the slaves of the czarina.
was
compelled to attend it.
converted
into a diet of confederation,the better to attain
the
It was

the

kingdom
example,

and
and

restored

"

of the members
it was
for which
convoked; yet some
were
intrepid
the territories of
on
enough to protest against the meditated encroachments
did they desist until several were
the republic
arrested,and the remainder
; nor
The Russian
which
with Siberia.
had hitherto
threatened
occupied
troops,
had exercised a strict surveillance
the approaches to the hall of assembly, and
into
introduced
this
now
over
suspected person, were
sanctuary
every

ends

of the laws.f^
the Targowitz confederates
to become
Soon
were
aware
been the tools of foreigncovetousness, and that the empress
of the old condition with all abuses
the re-establishment
and

that
had

they

had

demanded

only
perversity,

that on the ground of the dissension,


venality,and party rage of the Polish
nobles she could attain her egoisticaims more
at the entry
surely. When
Catherine
of the Russian
to
awaken
the
that
the republic
belief
sought
anny
would
in its integrity,
be maintained
she only wished
of Poland
to keep
so

of the neighbouring powers.


For there is no doubt
the beginning she had planned the union of the two
provincesof
Volhinia and Podolia
to the Russian
empire, and had thought to jom the
remaining lands to a vassal state under Russian sovereignty.

down

the

covetousness

that from

The positionand inclination of the land after the victoryof the Targowitz
favourable
towards
confederates seemed
the carrj'ing
of this plan. She
out
thought that Prussia and Austria could therefore get their indemnification
of France
the expense
on
in the west
the German
arms

at

feared

that

and

the

two

the

other side of the Rhine.


It was
only when
did not obtain the success
hoped for,and it was
demand
their share
in the
neighbouring states would

indemnification

for their arduous


efforts with
the sword
against
of
monarchical
the common
that she gave
principles,
enemy
thought to a
such as she had suggestedformerly in a confidential note to
second partition
Subow.
Prince

booty

The joy of the Poles over


the victoryof the French
and the unconcealed
hopes of the assistance of the old friend made the empress
anxious; it was
only in the union of the three Eastern powers that she believed herself to have
firm guarantee against the propagation of revolutionaryideas as well as
a

HISTORY

THE

90

POLAND

OF

[1793 A.D.J

of the French
the Mstula
on

end

shall

We

war.

had

soon

the passage

on

what

see

of

anns

ings
a laming effect the proceedtime
taking place at the same

the Rhine.
could
How

on

in
who
hand
and hand
the two
were
great German
powers,
worked
the
and
different
tendencies
other
had
and
on
against
place
results and success
! In Petersburg
at arms
another, obtain satisfactory
one
irresolution and reservation
prevailed. Whilst the cession of the Ukrainian
and Lithuanian
imperiouslyrequested and obtained from the
provinceswas

the

one

demands

diet,the Prussian
lovers

expressedby

of rank

upheld

were

with

ambitious

and her
that the empress
further
under their protectionand make
no
Peter Biron, to whom
that Duke
embittered
in

the government

of
acquisition

the

The

wish

was

itself,
empier
partition. The electoral noble,

the

father Ernest

had

John

left

1769, granted the municipalityfurther rightsand rendered


feudal lands available to the citizens,
joined those equal to

in

in Poland

him

little energy.

Polish nobles and Lithuania


take the entire
favourite, Subow, would
and

the

same

offer.

The

almost

attempt

meant

interference

All e.xerted themselves


to take up the yoke of Russia
the autocrat.
so
of
the
certain
their
and
interests.
be
all
to
more
own
satisfying
passions
as
did not refuse to try and separate the cause
of Russia from
that
Catherine
and
directed
to
of Poland; her ambassador
was
only as a "just
tial
imparappear
with

between

mediator"
Sievers

demanded

her intentions"

more

towards

Poland

and

money

in

Russia
case

and

to

"

proceed with moderation."

the empress

should

desire to

"

increase

Poland.

Thus
the affair draggeilon for weeks; the committee
of the diet sought
ambassador
evasion and the Russian
only gave an apparent support. It was
only when Prussia, after the reconquest of Mainz, made preparationsto turn
towards
its arms
the East, that the Russian
thought it advisable, so
empress
of the treaty
into the jointliability
to avoid warlike developments, to enter
as

of

and
partition,

disposethe Poles towarcls


accomplish
negotiations. Then followed the
famous
"silent sitting" of the diet at Grodno.
After having locked the
of
hall under pretext
the
a
proposed attempt on the king,and surrounded
castle with soldiers,
the ambassador
compelled the assembly to authorise the
committee
to sign the treaty of partition with Russia
drawn
up by himself;
then when
difficultieswere
followed
new
was
raised,the first violent measure
by another.
After four deputies,who
had especiallydistinguishedthemselves
in the
oppositionagaiast Prussia, had been arrested in Grodno by Russian soldiers
and taken away
as
prisoners,Sievers had the palace again surrounded
by
and compelled the diet,assembled
soldiers,
under the presidencyof the king in
the closed hall,to listen to and grant the demands
AVhen a deep
of Prussia.
silence reignedover
all and no vote for or againstwas
after midnight,
heard,finally,
the deputy Count Ankwicz
The
declared that "silence was
consent."
marshal
to the diet then asked
in the hall,
three times of those assembled
"Does
the diet authorise the commission
to ratifythe treaty with Prussia
unconditionally?"
As all again remained
he declared the resolution as unanimously
silent,
agreed.
The scene
would indeed have been great and tragically
sublime,as it has
often been represented,
had not later discoveries proved that the whole thing
understood
was
an
comedy ; that the deputies,so as to keep up an appearance
before the people,had previouslyarranged the "silence" and had received
their reward
for it in ringinggold. Ankwicz
and Bielinski received a conit,antl with

now

Sievers received

earnestness

to

instructions

the

to

EXTINCTION

THE

OF

KINGDOM

91

[1793 A.D.]

from Russia ; the protest which some


tinual income
deputieshad raised against
of
of the diet from
the members
the force used did not prevent the majority
taking part in the festivities and banquets,by which the Prussian and Russian
of pacification.
ambassadors celebrated the fortimate ending to their work
in

play

"The

long
intrigue."
By the second

historical

an

historian of the present, "which

tragedy,was

treaty of partitionRussia
4,500 square miles with more

Poland, over

east

remarks

Grodno,"

considered

was

reallyonly
received
than

province of
inhabitants;
provincesof Posen,
increase

"

and

as

so

their
with

to

impotent king,a
Russia
by which

treaties with

without

the
the

strange

any

the unanimous
would

or

Poles

could

permissionof

accept it

at

all times.

vassal

state, in which

value than

and

troops

form
were

into

no

to

the

union

have

So that the treaty should

or

the

appear

could

keep away from the


money
took place,October
14th, 1793.
Republic" of Poland became a complete

induced

were

alterations

no

nation, those deputieswho

of the whole

From

Russian

introduce
the empress,

the Russian

and

power,

agreement

not

of

Thus the "EverlastingUnion"


this time on the " Illustrious

diet.

million

to the republicof Poland.


independence from these poor remains and
a new
perpetualcouncil was reinstated,
treaty formed

rightof invading the kingdom


not

of land
a

1,000

rob the last traces

administration

as

than

miles."
square
third of its former district remained

Scarcelya
And

so

the fertUe
three million

besides the townships of Dantzic and Thorn, the


Prussia,
Gnesen, Kalish, antl other provinces of Great Poland, an
with its remaining possessions
united to South Prassia
of more
inhabitants

for

great piece of

the word

by

to

of Catherine's

ambassadors

was

of

that of the

king.
all humiliation,
Augustus suffered all mortification,
he
and all insults. Susceptiblelike all weak
the rehearts,
public,
wept over
and instead of taking decisive steps he gave
himself up to childish
"9
complaints.
more

Lelewel

says,

"Stanislaus

THE

The

Poles have

attempt

REVOLT

"

proverb,

to take his shirt he will

OF

You

may

THE

PATRIOTS

stripa Pole to his shirt,but if you


Although they have not precisely
kept it in their eye as a principleof

regainall."

verified this,they seem


always to have
action ; they have always submitted
in the first instance to the greatest aggressions
wonderful
with
indifference and docility,
but have generallymade
the
determined
resistance to the finishingact of tyranny.
"The
most
proud
Poles" might be expected to find the yoke of subjugationmore
gallingthan
any

other nation in the world ; it


to rule,and cherish
was

business

their

stilla country of
loftyfeelings.Those

was

nobles,men
who

were

whose

only

too devoted

now
dering
wanlibertyto stay to witness their country'soppressionwere
in foreignlands, but wherever
carried
with
went
they
they
them hearts which
still yearned for their homes, although they could not find
and
enjoyment in them without independence. Dresden
Leipsicwere
any
the chief placesof refugefor these patriots,among
whom
Potocki,Kollontay,
the most
Malachowski,Mostowski, and Kosciuszko were
conspicuous. They
in rash
were
not, however, willingto sacrifice the lives of their countrymen
and useless struggles,
but waited for a favourable
juncture to unsheath the
sword once
in Poland,
But their fellow patriots
more
againsttheir oppressors.
who were
feelingmore
keenly the pains of tyranny, were
more
impatientand
obligedthem to hasten their plans,"and thus,"says one who was enlisted among

to

outcasts

HISTORY

THE

92

OF

POLAND
[1793-1794 A.D.]

rash
the most
first formed
at Warsaw,

issue

of

enterprisethat
them, "they left to Pro\'idence the
and
the revoThe design was
could be conceived."
lution
of four persons
forming the active body.
regularlyde%'ised a commission
Their agents were
spread all over the kingdom ; the plotwas speedilymaturing,
stalled.
have become
and would no doubt
general had not the explosion been forehad

Igelstrom,who

Sievers,and

succeeded
immediate

power,

the

on

reduction

invested

was

of

the

with

Polish

plenary

fifteen
army
it
consisted
of
about
divided
this
time
thirtythousand,
men.
the surinto small bodies, scattered in different parts of the kingdom imder
veillance
council
The
Russian
of the
was
obligedto obey
permanent
troops.
This
the signal for throwing off
issued the orders.
was
the mandate, and
the
the gallingyoke. A strict correspondence had been carried on between
Cracow
fixed on as
Poles abroad and their brother patriotsin Poland.
was
insisted

to

At

thousand

consent
placed the noble Kosciuszko
point of junction,and unanimous
had sent two
saries,
emishead of the confederacy. The patriotsof Warsaw
who had retired to Leipsic,
and
in September, 1793, to this great man,
and
communications
with Ignatius Potocki
he then commenced
Kollontay.

the

the

at

satisfied with report, Kosciuszko


went
to the frontier of Poland, that he
he
then
forwarded
his companion Zathe
of
ascertain
state
feeling;
might
His report was
undiscovered.
yonczek to Warsaw, where he stayed ten days
Not

"that the members


their only connection
"

of the

zealous,but

conspiracywere

"with the army

too

enthusiastic ; that

through Madalinski, Dziahmski, and

was

subalterns."
Kapustas, however, a banker of Warsaw, made himself
in
instrumental
preparing the minds of the people for the grand attempt
very
proposed; and Madalinski pledged himself to risk all if they attempted to

few

obligehim to disband his brigade.


be
The approach of such a man
Kosciuszko
to the frontier could not
as
T\Taile
had
Kosciuszko
inters-iew
secret.
at
an
Zayonczek was
Warsaw,
kept
of two
thousand
with Wodzicki, commander
Cracow, and the
troops, near
of a Russian
circumstance
colonel stationed there,but fortunately
to the ears
came
Kosciuszko
diately
was
apprised of the event, and, to lull suspicion,immeretired to Italy.
from
arrival of Stanislaus and the Russian
ambassador
at Warsaw
the signalfor fresh persecution. Arrests daily took place,and
was
this time
of the chief senators, was
Mostowski, one
imprisoned. .About

The
Grodno

Zayonczek returned
he

of the

one

was

from

of it,and knowing
king being aware
and
informed
the Russian
design,
the patriotwas
ordered to leave the kingdom.
the

emigrants,suspected his

minister,in

consequence
Madalinski
was

stationed

Dresden, and
of which

first to

the

draw

the

sword

of

rebellion.
with seven

He

was

himdred
Pultusk, about eightleaguesfrom Warsaw,
cavalry; and on receivingthe order to dLsband the corps, he refused, and
declared it was
in arrears,
months
two
unpossibletilltheir pay, which was
at

advanced.

was

set

out

made

for

After
this,which occurred on the 15th of March, 1794, he
Prussian territory,
Cracow, ha\'ingpreviouslytraversed the new

several

and exacted
prisoners,

KOSCTDSZKO

Kosciuszko
have

advised

late to debate.

was

aware

NAMED

of this bold

caution, knew

more

He

contributions.

hastened

from

the

DICT.\TOR

step, and, though he would


die

was

Saxony,

cast, and that it was


the
reached Cracow
on

probably
now

too

night of

EXTINCTION

THE

OF

KINGDOM

93

P794 A.D.]

the 23rd

March, where
receive him, and

ready to
The garrisonand
Kosciuszko,

and

deed

the

on

all the
a

body
followingday was

Wodzicki, with

of

at

troops

took

Cracow

of insurrection

drawn

was

of four

hundred

men,

was

proclaimed generalissimo.
the oath
of allegianceto
this great
up, by which

custom, in great
appointed dictator, in imitation of the Roman
man
command
he
had
the
of the armies,
His
absolute;
was
emergencies.
power
and
civil.
He was
and the regulationof all affairs political
conmiissioned,
will.
however, to appoint a national council,the choice being left to his own
nominate
but
he
to
be
subordinate
also
to
a successor,
was
He was
empowered
was

to the

national council.
before

confidence

fullyand

unscrupulouslyreposed by a
expectationsbetter grounded
born of a noble,but
Thaddeus
Kosciuszko
than in the present instance.
was
Lithuanian
not very illustrious,
family,and was early initiated in the science
In his youth his affections were
at the militaryschool of Warsaw.
of war
of the marshal
of Lithuania,but
the
to
a
lady,
daughter
firmlyengaged
young
married
to another,
his fate to see his love crossed,and his inamorata
it was
He
went
to
Lubomirski.
then
and
his
return
Prince
France,
on
applied to
refused because
he was
Stanislaus for a militaryappointment, but was
a
Stanislaus
whom
hated.
Kosciuszko
favourite of Adam
Czarioryski,
sought
The British colonies of
to dispelhis disappointment in the labours of war.
then throwing off the yoke of their unnatural
America
were
mother-country
that of justiceand
and
dear to the heart of a
their cause
one
was
liberty,
Pole.
Kosciuszko
served in the patriotic
ranks of Gates
young, proud-spirited
the
latter
to
and Washington, and was
appointed aide-de-camp
great general.
crowned
the strugglein the New
World
with success,
he returned
When
was
he
for
his
exertions.
where
found
field
his
to
an
own
equallyglorious
country,
rank
of
in
under
Poniatowski
the
He held the
major-general
Joseph
campaign
office he had been
have
raised by the diet,and we
of 1792, to which
already
he then gave
of what
what
to be expected from
a gloriousearnest
was
seen
him, had not his ardour been checked by the king'stimidityand irresolution.
Seldom

nation

in

was

so

singleindividual; and

never

so

were

"

VICTORIES

The

first acts of the dictator

OF

were

KOSCIUSZKO

to issue

summonses

to all the nobles

and

all the

make
a property-tax, and
requisitearrangements
of his little army.
prudence dictated with regard to the commissariat
of about
four thousand
at the head
On the 1st of April he left Cracow
men,
of
with
in the direction
of whom
anned
most
were
scythes,and marched
than thrice their own
more
a body of Russians
number,
Warsaw, to encounter
ordered
which he understood
were
againstthem by Igelstrom.
the enemy
the 4th of April,near
encountered
The patriots
on
Raclawice,a
miles
The battle
northeast
a
bout
Polish
the
to
six
of Cracow.
or seven
village
but
in
declared
five
lastf-d nearly
favour of the Poles; three
hours,
victory
and a
Russians
thousand
being killed,and many
prisoners,eleven cannon,
confirmed the wavering patriots,
standard
taken.
This success
and accelerated
the development of the insurrection
throughout the kingdom. In vain did
the king issue a proclamation,by order of Igelstrom,denouncing the patriots
of the country, and directing
the permanent council to commence
as the enemies
them
of these dependentsof
the
tame
submission
legalproceedingsagainst
;

citizens;to impose
which

'

degree.

Polish

or

German

mile

is

nearly equal

to

two

French

leagues,of twenty-five to

THE

94

OF

HISTORY

POLAND
[1T!M A.D.]

"

to

increase

the

irritation of the

patriots. The state


minister
is thus described by the Russian
of Pohind
himself,in a letter of the
at Petersburg,and
to the secretary of war
16th of April,addressed
intercepted
by the Poles :
which musters
about eighteenthousand
The whole Polish army,
strong, is
the
of
in complete rebellion,excepting four thousand, who
garrison
compose
in.surrection
The
its progress
Warsaw.
is
strengthens every moment,
I
in
and
its
of
success
am
terrifying.
myself
expectation seeing
very rapid,
the confederation of Lublin
advance, and I have no hope but in God and the
of my
to follow the
sovereign. Lithuania will not fail,
certainly,
good cause
etc."
example,
On the same
day Igelstromordered the permanent council to arrest above
He
he named.
also issued
distinguishedpersons, whom
twenty of the most
the Polish garrisonof Warsaw.
his orders to the grand generalto disarm
The
the appointed day, as the most
favourable
to the design,
18th of April was
of the population would
Easter eve, and most
since it was
be at
a festival,
doors ; the Russian
to be stationed at the church
mass.
Strong guards were
to seize the powder magazines and
arsenal,and the garrison were
troops were
In case
of resistance,the Cossacks received
then to be immediately disanned.
the villainous orders to set fire to the city in several placesand carry off the
king. The design,however, fortunatelytranspiredon the very same
day
formed.
that it was
Kilinski,a citizen of Warsaw, di-scovered the plan, and
the patriotsthat Russians, in Polish
informed
the
to form
uniforms, were
stationed
In confirmation
at the churches.
are
guards which, on the festivals,
he assured
them
that one of his neighbours,a tailor,
of his account
at work
was
the disguises. A privatemeeting of the patriotsimmediately took place,
on
in which
it was
it by unfurlingthe standard of insurdetermined
to anticipate
rection
the 17th.
The precipitancyof the plot did not admit
of much
on
to be
organisation
step was to seize the arsenal,which was
; the only concerted
the signalfor the insurrection.
At four in the morning a detachment
of Polish guards attacked the Russian
of
the arsenal and the powder magazine,
picquet,and obtained possession
to the populace. A most
obstinate
and
and distributed arms
bloody battle
took place in the streets of Warsaw, which
continued
interalmost without
mi.ssion during two
days. But notwithstanding the superiorityin number
of the Russian
troops, amounting to nearly eight thousand, the patriotswere
This glorioussuccess
victorious.
without
much
not obtained
was
bloodshed;
above two
thousand
two
of the enemy
and
hundred
killed,
were
nearly two
taken
thousand
The
took
most
prisoners.
sanguinary affray
place before
which
defended
with
four
and
of
Igelstrom'shouse,
was
cannon
a battalion
But
could
withstand
the
of
Poles
the impetuosity
infantry.
nothing
; Igelstrom
he made
offers to capitulate.
narrowly escaped to Krasinski's house, where
The king exhorted
the people to suspend their attack ; in the pause, while
the patriotswere
expecting Igelstrom's submission, he escaped and fled to
the Prussian
which
Warsaw.
But
the patrioticspiritof
was
near
camp,
the Poles on these gloriousdays was
honest
unalloyed by a particleof selfish or disto a proclamation demandingthe restitution even
feeling
; in obedience
of this lawful plunder of Igelstrom's house, and
issued three days after the
the sterling
to
event, all the bank notes were
brought back, and even
money
of 95,000 ducats of gold. Many striking instances
the amount
of disinterestedness
elicited by this proclamation,but the following must
be
were
not
in
the
crowd.
A
soldier
him.self
the
at
passed over
private
presented
treasury
with 1,000 ducats of gold which had fallen into his hands, and for a long time
Igelstrom only served

EXTINCTION

THE

OF

KINGDOM

95

[17SM A.D.]

for his

reluctance that he
honesty; it was with extreme
he desired in
a
ducat, repeatingthat he found all the reward
accepted even
the pleasureof servinghis country and performing his duty.
to the castle,where
On the 17th the people crowded
they found General
and Zakrzewski, who
had formerly been presidentof the city
Mokronowski
The latter was
reinstated
in his
under the constitution of the 3rd of May.
and
the
unanimous
was
acclamation,
general
appointed governor.
post by
of the old body of patriots,
and had signali-sed
himself
Mokronowski
one
was
of
1792.
established
executive
in the campaign
a
They
provisional
council,

refused any

reward

consisting of twelve

besides

themselves.

The

council

declared at
without
reservation
the act
to
of
their first meeting that they subscribed
insurrection of Cracow;
they also sent a deputation to the king to testify
time prudentlyexpressed their intention
their respect to him, but at the same
but
Kosciuszko.
The dictator immediately
of obeying the orders of none
their arms
ordered all the inhabitants of Warsaw
to lay down
at the arsenal
to

persons

any disturbances.
Lithuanians
did not longdelay to

prevent
The

night of

the

23rd

of

April

obey

the call of their Polish brethren

Jasinski,with

three hundred

soldiers and
hundred
attacked
the
Russian
at
Vilna, and, after a
citizens,
some
garrison
of the scene
of carnage
left masters
at Warsaw, were
of the city.
repetition
on

the

THE

TIDE

TUENS

AGAINST

THE

PATRIOTS

A
not
imiformly favourable to the good caase.
Fortune, however, was
Prussians
entered
the
thousand
of
of
Cracow
body
nearly forty
palatinate
and effected a junctionwith the Russians
near
Szczekociny,and the king of
Kosciuszko
Prussia arrived in a few days to head them in person.
advanced
with sixteen thousand
regular troops and about ten thousand
peasants to
the defence of Cracow; and, being ignorant that the enemy
reinforced
were
The
by the Prussians, found himself engaged with a force double his own.
of
of
June
took
the
6th
the
Poles
lost
on
:
Szczekociny
place
engagement
but
in
made
their
retreat
about a thoasand
without
order,
good
being
men,
council,says :
pursued. Kosciuszko,in announcing this affair to the supreme
"We
have sustained a trifling
loss,compared with what we have caused the
have
in good order, after a cannonade
of
We
effected our
retreat
enemy.
Another
of
the
suffered
similar
three hours."
defeat near
a
body
patriots
Kulm, three days after ; and to complete the climax of misfortune, the cityof

Cracow

fell into

the hands

of the Prussians

on

events, followingin such rapid succession,began


and

the

and

to

15th.

These

untoward

of
depress the spirits

the

exclaimed
that these reverses
were
and were
caused by traitors,
greatlyto be attributed to the negligenceof the
in not
individuals who
crowded
the
punishing the numerous
government
threatened
exhibit
the
deeds
Warsaw
of
revival
of
the
to
a
bloody
prisons.
Mountain
butchers of the French
revolution.
On the 27th of June a young,

Poles;

violent

the

seditions

demagogue inflamed the passions of the rabble with a bombastic


he ascribed the recent
and
harangue on the treachery to which
reverses,
urged the necessityof checking it by making an example of the persons now
in custody. On the followingday they went
in a crowd
to the presidentto
demand
execution
of the unfortunate
the immediate
prisoners,and being
This
refused,they broke open the prisonsand actuallyhanged eightpersons.
anrl almost
indiscriminate
with difficultystopped
disgraceful
butchery was
by the authorities. Every true patriotlamented
deeply this blot on the
hot-headed

OF

HISTORY

THE

96

POLAND
[1794 A.D.)

glory of

their revolution,and

none

more

than

the humane

and

upright Kos-

have passed at Warsaw,


tragicscenes
"See," said he, "what
! The populace have indulgedin unpardonable excesses,
punish severely. The day before yesterday(the 2Sth) will be an

ciuszko.

before ray eyes

almost
which

ible
indelrevolution ; and I confess that the loss of two
stain on the history of our
than that unfortunate
done us less harm
have
day, which our
battles would
in
unfavourable
of
to
make
will
us
an
lightin the eyes
use
enemies
represent
"
of
and
ordered
strict
the ringleaders
He
of all Europe !
a
investigation, seven
I must

hanged.

were

this time, but


his intention
into Little
to march
an
army
on
the frontiers of Galicia
Poland, " to prevent by this step all danger to which
of the states
might be exposed,as well as to insure the safetyand tranquillity
entered Poland accordinglywithout
of his imperialmajesty." The Austrians
of Austria had
emperor
the 30th of June he announced
The

preserved a neutralityup

opposition,but offered not the least molestation to


before"
however
peaceful,was only like a "shadow
time the Prussians and Russians
which
of three leagues from
at the distance
It was
here that
place called Pracka-Wola.

In the

at

mean

to

the Poles.

The

invasion,
"coming events."
continued
saw,
to approach WarKosciuszko
was
encamped,
of

one

of his brothers

in arms,

him

of this portion of his gloriouscareer,


recortled the events
found
of this great man
in his camp
The picturehe draws
sleepingon straw.

is an

interestingview

says

Count
The

and

who

trees.

will

never

who

has

enemies
had no

has

of the hero who

"from
Oginski,''

upheld the

Kosciuszko's

frugalrepast which
be effaced from
my

made

tent

"
fate of Poland.
We passed,"
to a table prepared under some

about a dozen guests,


of this great man
memory.
presence
of all Europe: who
the terror
of his
was

we

here, among
The

excited the admiration


and the idol of the nation; who, raised
his country and
but to serve
ambition

to

the rank

fightfor

of

it; who

generalissimo,
always preserved

an
wore
unassuming, affable,and mUd demeanour; who never
any
mark
of the supreme
authoritywith which he was invested ; who
distinguishing
of coarse
contented
with a surtout
cloth,and whose table was as
was
grey
in
plainlyfurnished as that of a subaltern officer,could not fail to awaken
sentiment
I
of
and
which
have
cerely
sinadmiration,
veneration,
me
esteem,
every
felt for him at every period of my
life."
continued
towards
to advance
The enemy
Warsaw, and encamped near
from
the
sand
Wola, a league
city. They were
fiftythousand strong, forty thouand ten thousand
Prussians
Russians.
The cityhad been hastily
fortified
of the insurrection,
and with the protectionof Kosat the commencement
ciuszko's
resisted all the enemy's attacks.
The first serious combat
army
the 27th of July, and was
took place on
repeated on the 1st and 3rd of
the towTi, but not a house
August, when the Prussians attempted to bombard
ing
was
injured. On the 2nd, Frederick William wrote to Stanislaus recommendhim
his influence to induce the inhabitants to surrender,to which
to use
tlie king of Poland
answered
that it was
in his power
while
not
to do so
Kosciuszko's
between
Warsaw
and
the
The
lay
same
army
spiritof
enemy.
did
animate
all
not
the
it
is
Poles
but
however,
patriotism,
satisfactory,
though
;
to find that the defaulters in the
apparentlysingularon the firstappearance,
were
who in Poland
chieflyrich capitalists,
at that time had
men
g jod cause
scarcelya thought beyond stock-jobbing. But these malcontents formed only
a small
portionof the people,and were
obligedto cherish their opinionsand
wishes
in secret.
the 16th of August General
On
Dombrowski, who had
advantage in skirmishes with the Russians at Czerniakow,
latelyhad some
attacked them a second time, but was
obliged to retire. This was followed

HISTORY

THE

98

POLAND

OF

[1794

A.

D.]

the frontiers of

her general,Suvarov, to march


Turkey
towards
AVarsaw, and on the 16th of September he attacked a body of the
at Krupczyce, a littlevUlage to the eiist of Brest-Litovski,and
Polish army
the following
renewed
this latter place. The attack was
towards
on
drove them
and
the
when
were
forces,
overpowered
by
superior
patriot"s
many
day,
from

lution,ordered

taken prisoners.
defeat laid open the road to Warsaw, so that Kosciuszko
This imfortunate
He proceeded to Grodno,
advance
to support the flying
to
obliged
was
army.
he
Mokronowski
commander
of
the
Lithuanian
and having appointed
army,
headed
the
with
who
the
of
Suvarov
returned
to prevent
Fersen,
junction
were

other Russian

corps.
THE

FALL

OF

KOSCIUSZKO

attacked Fersen,
the decisive day ; Kosciuszko
10th of October
was
Maciejowice. The battle was bloody and fatal to the patriots
; victory
with
minute
forcement,
reinantl
who
a
Poninski,
was
expected
was
wavering,
every
made
not arriving,
Kosciuszko, at the head of his principal
officers,
of the enemy.
He fell covered with wounds,
a grand charge into the midst
killed or taken prisoners. His inseparable
and all his companions were
friend,
The

near

The great man


the latter number.
the amiable poet, Niemcewicz, was
among
ing
the
dead
but
he
at length
was
recognisednotwithstandlay senseless among
;
of
his
and
found still breathing. His name
the plainness
uniform,
was
the Cossacks,some
had been
commanded
of whom
now
even
respect from
going to plunder him ; they immediately formed a litter with their lances to
treated
ordered his wounds
to be dressed, and
carry him to the general,who
him

with

the respect he merited.

As

soon

as

he

was

conveyed to Petersburg,where Catherine condemned


end hLs days in prison. Clemency, indeed,was
not
who

able to travel he was


this noble patriot to
to be expected from
a

had

murdered
her husband.
of
of Kosciuszko's
the
termination
The news
was
gloriouscareer.
his captivityspread like lightningto Warsaw, and everyone
received it as the
of the country'sfall. "It may
announcement
incredible,"
appear
says Count

woman

Such

"

Oginski,''but

attest

can

what

I have

certifywith

of witnesses
and what a number
miscarried
at the tidings;many
fell into fitsof madness
which
some
in the streets wringing
were
seen

seen,

that many
women
me,
seized with burning fevers ;
invalids were
after left them ; and men
and women
never
can

their hands,

beating their heads against the walls,and exclaimingin tones of


the country is lost !'
despair,'Ko.?ciuszko is no more;
In fact the Poles seemed
all paralysedby this blow; the national council,
to Kosciuszko,but they despairedof
indeed,appointed WawTzecki
successor
able
withstand
the
to
and
limited their hopes and exertions
being
Russians,
from
taken
to prevent Warsaw
being
by assault, for which purpose
they
ordered the troops to concentre
the
near
city. They fortified Praga, one of
the suburbs of Warsaw, which was
separated from the city by the Vistula,
and was
most
exposed to attack.
was
Every individual,indiscriminately,
employed in the works.
Suvarov, hearing that the king of Prussia was
"

advancing towards

mouth,
on

and

Warsaw,

hastened

with

did
forced

not

choose

the 26th of October before Praga, and


The batteries of Praga mounted
more

garrisonwas
November

drove
than

of the flower of the


ordered
an
assault,and

composed
Suvarov

to have

his prey

taken

marches, joined Fersen, attacked


them

their intrenchments.
and the
cannon,
the 4th of
On
carried
fortification was
into

hundred
Polish army.
one

the

of his
the Poles

out

OF

EXTINCTION

THE

KINGDOM

99

[1794-1795A. D.]

after

the butcher

fighting. Suvarov,

hours' hard

some

Ismail,a

of

fit general

and his very name


the head of the assailants,
an
Eight thousand Poles perishedsword in hand,
a barbarous
announces
carnage.
itants.
and the Russians having set fire to the bridge,cut off the retreat of the inhaband children,
Above
twelve thousand
townspeople,old men, women,

imperialassassin,was

for

blood, and

in cold

murdered

were

the whole

hours

Praga, inhabitants

council,findingthat Warsaw
the 6th of November;
on

The

to

fill the

as

well

could

iniquityand

parts, and

different

houses,

as

not

of

many

of their

measure

place in four

fired the

barbarity, the Russians


of

at

was

be defended

the soldiers

any

were

in

few

of ashes.

heap
longer,capitulated
obliged to lay

the Russian
troops entered the city. The authors of
refused to disarm, had quitted
the revolution,the generalsand soldiers who
killed or dispersed,and
were
pursued
by
Fersen,
but,
being
many
Warsaw,
their arms,

down

and

the 18th.
the rest surrendered
on
All the patriotsof consequence
in the prisons of
immured
were
Potocki,Mostowski,Kapastas, and

treatment, however,

not

was

so

Petersburg,
Kalinski

cruel

of

fell into the hands

who

as

were

it has

sent

or

among

been

the Russians

Siberia.

Ignatius
captives. Their
frequentlyrepresented;
to

the

where he
prison,for instance,was a comfortable suite of rooms,
beguiledhis time with reading and drawing; Potocki was equallywell lodged,
This
his windows.
himself with gazing at the passers-byfrom
and amused
of
"We
article
of
the
observance
exact
capitulation,
indeed,
an
was
not,
'
promise a generalamnesty for all that is passed," but it was the very acme
towards
of Russia's conduct
of honour, compared with the general tenor
Kosciuszko's

Poland.

FINAL

THE

PARTITION

king of Prussia,as vengeful as

The
in power,

less merciful even


those who

was

judge
they were

and

as

to

to

punish

than
had

OF

the weak

POLAND

and
He

Suvarov.
concerned

been

generallyare when
appointed a commission
bad

in the

insurrection,as

if

tunate
unforso
too, who were
subjects. Many patriots,
resses
doomed
to pine in the forthands, were
of these.
of Glogau, Magdeburg, Breslau,etc., and Madalinski
was
one
of the patriotsin her prisonsof Olmutz, thus consumAustria buried some
mating
the triumph of barbarism.
of Poland
On the 24th of October, 1795, the treaty for the third partition
bona

fidehis

own

fall into the Prussian's

Prussia and Austria, as to the


concluded, but the arrangement between
.settledtillthe
21st of October, 1796.
limits of the palatinate
of Cracow, was
not
was

By

last partitionRussia
this third and
acquired the remaining portion
the rightof the
and a great part of Samogitia,part of Kulm
on
obtained
the greater part of the
Austria
and
the rest of Volhinia.

of Lithuania

Bug,
and Lublin, with a part
palatinateof Cracow, the palatinatesof Sandomir
of the district of Kulm, and the parts of the palatinatesof Brest, Polachia,
and
Masovia
which
lay along the left bank of the Bug. Prussia had the
of
the
portions
palatinatesof Masovia and Polachia on the rightbank of the
in
Lithuania, part of the palatinateof Troki and Samogitia, which is
Bug;
of the Niemen
the left bank
forming part
on
; and a district of Little Poland
the Vistula, the
of the Piliga,
of the palatinateof Cracow.
Thus
the banks
Bug, and the Niemen marked out the frontiers of Russia, Prussia,and Austria.''
The republicwas
thus erased from the list of nations after an existence of
'

Sixth

article of the

capitulation.

OF

HISTORY

THE

100

POLAND
[IT'.IS-ITOSa.D.]

Perhaps

centuries.

ten

near

earth

peopleon

no

have

shown

more

personal

victories.
But how
the Poles ; their historyis full of wonderful
could
valour or the most
chivalrous
littlethe most
splendidmilitarysuccesses
but too well seen.
That
of society h;xs been
avail with such a vicious frame

bravery than

after
(forPoland had none, properlyso called,
and
without
without
finances,
ing
dependJagellos),
army,
ill
tumultuous
levies,ill disciplined,
existence year after year on

country without

the extinction
for its

government

of the

paid, should so long have preserved its independence in


the powerful nations around, and with a great portionof its
hostileto its success
inhabitants,whom
ages of tyranny had exasperated,
"
all
of the most
is one
astonishingfacts in
history.

armed, and worse


defiance,too, of
own
"

"

WITHOUT

KING

COUNTRY

bassador
kingdom; the Russian amformal
cation
abdiof
act
Grodno,
signed a
dred
hunthe 25th of November, and acceptedan annual pensionof two
on
him
the
three
with
insured
to
thoasand
by
ducats, which was
powers,
of
the promise that his debts also should be paid. On the death
Catherine,
he ended
to Petersburg,where
which happened in November, 1796, he went
life on the r2th of February, 1798.
his unhappy and dishonourable
the most
the world
and
uncharitable
Harsh
is, even
unworthy and
as
from
of
either
warmth
merciful
few
find
some
so
as,
degenerate generally
them ; and it would be strange if Stanislaus
to defend
heart or fellow feeling,
had not some
panegyrists. But disagreeableas is the office of the moral
the character of Stanislaus,being wound
up with the destinies of a
censor,
Stanislaus stands in the usual predicament
nation, ought not to pass by unnoticed.
admirers
between
of kings and
flattering
prominent personages,

Stanislaus Augustus

obligedhim

and

detractors.

severe

where

to

The

good and take


of arrivingat
readiest mode
the presumption of the truth
evil with

left without

thus

was

to go

the

he

the
in such a case, is to measure
between
them; but this,though the
a
result,is not the surest,since it proceeds on
ments.
stateboth of the favourable and unfavourable

usual
the

course,

mean

merely speculative,
panegyrists
further in their praisesthan to give him
of this unfortunate
no
king venture
credit for good intentions in policy,and to plead his patronage of learning
With
for his political
and the arts as a palliation
regard to the first
errors.
weakness
it may
be remarked
that moral
or
imbecilityis no more
excuse,

the present instance


data on
since there are abundant

the estimate

In

admissible

as

an

excuse

for

which

to

than

error

need

not

be

The

calculate.

recklessness

of

warmest

character, since the

The second plea requiresmore


equallyconstitutional as the former.
in
the advance
is
attribute
It
to
to Stanislaus
customary
investigation.
while
but
in
his
itself
and
education
which
'.nc"d
reign;
decidedlye'
learning
latter is

admit his talent and taste for the triflesof literature and art, which is the
lectual
that can
be proved, we must
observe that the grand impetus to intelutmost
He
not
certainlyspent not
improvement was
given by Stanislaus.
considerable,but contracted great debts, which
only his revenue, which was
twice paid by the state; but
it was
were
mostly on frivolous writers,bad
we

painters,and
of education

women

liberal

that

those

inquiryis

to be

sums

were

attributed

expended.
to

The

progress

coadhis jutors,
appointed by the

Konarski

and

of education
anil th(" cotnmission
also, which was
in for a share of the credit.
Poniatowski, indeed,patronisedgreat
in literature and the arts ; but the effect of such patronage is at best of

diet,comes
men

loose
and

THE
[1798

A.

doubtful
so

benefit,

mixed

that

"no
of

cultivate

even

OF

little

have

KINGDOM

only
"hell

is

of

his

paved

the

101

which

to

only

the

wished

it misfortune

good

for
!"

he

truth

his

of

and

he

assertion,

happiness

would

remind

of

the

my

being

Rulhiere"^

by

he

that

only
particularly to

the

highest

not

was

that

no

sequence."
con-

of

one

the

monarch

effect;

unfortunate

an

his

the

intentions."^

character;

deny

cannot

such

said

attached

that

but

been

luxury,

he

assume

produce

to

has

in
of

character,

negative

It

arts

annihilation,

admit

always
with

nature,
could

suited

might

all

of

this

comitry's
more

is of

patron

of

notoriety.
strength appeared

patron

the

of

love

panegyrist

been

caused

no

objects

of

causes

merit
and

vanity

his
though
censor
Oginski,'' "I have
have

the

magnanimity,
becoming
His

could

and

witli

up

thought

chief

EXTINCTION

D.]

as

country,

royal

and

recorded

criminal

by
and

that

IV

CHAPTER

RESTORATION

PARTIAL

FINAL

AND

DISSOLUTION

[1796-1863 A.D.]

republicafforded ample scope for the exercise


of France, the parliament of England,
:
with eloquent invectives
abounded
and
the press of both countries
against
of
The
of
violence
the
troubled
state
the perfidious
partitioningpowers.
did
interfere
to
not
permit any power
affairs,however, throughout Europe
in behalf of the oppressed. Every prince was
too intent on
securing his own
the impunity
Hence
preservationto dream of breaking a lance for another.
the three potentates proceeded to fill their prisons with not only
with which
had distinguishedthemselves
tho.se who
during the recent struggle but with
such as either ventured
to complain, or were
saspected of dissatisfaction
even
of things. The inhabitants
of the great towns, especiallyof
state
at the new
armed,
the three most
rigorouslydisinfluential,
^^'arsaw,Cracow, and Vilna, were
and formidable
of
everywhere ready to
garrisons foreign troops were
The

of

of the Polish

extinction

declamation
political

crush

all attempts
if the cry

at

Sweden,

two

insurrection.

of

But

present, other

the tribunes

vengeance

countries

were

Pru-ssia,felt their

and

the countries

any

measure

which

that

the

confederation

the French

republic.

This

was

not

enemies

of the Poles
to

formed

directoryto

of the

were

were

and

vain

revolution.
turned

now

for

To

France

aid, both

to

A
gratifytheir resistle-ssfeelingof revenge.
offered
of which
at Cracow, the members

sacrifice their fortunes


a

conquerors
If Turkey

it.

aggrandisement of Rassia, Austria,


sensiblyto oppose it by arms, France
influence pervaded were
ready to combine in

French

was

resound

to

the

with

too

might distract the

Italy,therefore,the eyes
their independence and
recover

where

the

at

feebleness

own

and

to

made

soon

equally alarmed

powers

and

secret

smothered

was

offer
102

hundreds

and

lives at

the first call of

of the warlike

nobles

con-

PARTIAL

AND

RESTORATION

FINAL

DISSOLUTION

103

[1796-1801A.D.]

tinued,notwithstandingthe strict surveillance observed by their new masters,


In purto Paris.
from
their bondage, and proceed to Venice
or
to escape
suance
their leader,Dombrowski, and
the
between
of the compact made
Italian republics,
in aid of the new
and
formed
directory,Polish legionswere
ready to act wherever the French government might require. Their pay and
to be furnisheil by the Italian states ; that of Lombardy
subsistence were
was
the firstto hire their services. They preservedtheir native uniform and arms,
of
Gli uomini
liberi
the revolutionarycockade ; and their motto
but assumed
with
the
how
harmonised
which
showed
spirit
completely they
sono
Jratelli
That both the directors and Bonaparte held out
shook Europe to its centre.
the prospect of their comitry's restoration is well known; but their
to them
credulitymust have been equal at least to their hopes, or they would never
of reliance on the promises of a people by whom
have placed the shadow
they
confined
had been so often
chieflyto
betrayed. Their martial prowess
of the republican cause.
Their
Italy contributed greatly to the success
amounted
But
to some
number
thousands, and their valour was unabated.
of
the
hero.
distrust
the
fair
to
soon
republican
were
professions
they
taught
of
entrance
to the congress
When
anxious to preserve,
an
by his influence,
"that
the
Rastatt for a Polish representative,
they were
coolly answered,
hearts of all friends of libertywere
for the brave Poles ; but time and destmy
alone could restore them as a nation."
well ; if the time
Hope seldom reasons
of regenerationwas
deferred,might it not arrive perhaps at no distant
render
favourable
would
period when a more
conjuncture of circumstances
should refuse to urge their claims ?
it impossiblethat the French
government
So thought the Poles, who stillcontinued
imder the banners
of the republic.
unvaried
The same
pictureof services performed, and of hopes deceived,
of the Polish legionswith France.
is exhibited throughout the connection
for in no
Their adherence
could it be called their
to a foreign cause
sense
and
be
own
so
explained only by the
steadfastly
devotedlymaintained,can
resistless passion of the Poles for militaryfame : to them the battle-field is as
much
the deep to the Englishman. Though, during the absence
a home
as
of Bonaparte in Egypt, they were
exterminated
literally
by the Austrians and
Russiaas,they repaired their losses with astonishingpromptitude : in 1801
Their blood flowed in vain : in every
to fifteen thousand.
they amoimted
in winning, themselves
which
their
valour
had
been
instrumental
and
so
treaty
of
their
the
of
were
hopes,
forgotten. Seeing
disappointment
country
many
after
the
of
Luneville
bade
adieu
the
French
to
them,
(1801),
service,
peace
and returned to their own
country, where an amnesty had been recentlyproclaimed.
A considerable
entered into the
some
number, indeed, remained:
service of the king of Etruria; others departed on
the ill-starred expedition
to St. Domingo ; and the few who
survived returned to their country after the
formation of the grand duchy.
While the Poli.sh soldiers were
thus exhibitinga useless valour in foreign
The condition of
climes,their countrymen at home must not be overlooked.
the inhabitants varied according to the characters of the sovereigns under
whom
they were
placed. The aim of Prussia and Austria was to Germanise
their respective
portions,and graduallyto obliterate every trace of nationality.
laws and usages;
the lahguage of the
Each, accordmgly, introduced German
schools
and
of
the
Germans
alone were
public
German;
public acts was
intrusted with publicemployments.
Russia pursued a more
or a more
politic
policy: with the view, perhaps,of one day extending her Polish posgenerous
sessions,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

The presershe strove


the inhabitants to her government.
to attach
vation
of the Lithuanian
statutes,the influence in the general administration

THE

104

OF

HISTORY

POLAND
[1801-1806 A.D.]

possessedby the native marshals elected in the dietines of the nobles, the
sion
in the native tongue, and the admispublicationof the acts of government
rendered the condition of Russian
of the people to the highestdignities,
much
less gallingthan that of the portion subjected to either of the
Poland
agement
Since the accession of Alexander, especially,
great encournational
of
branches
both
the
to
industry
great
given
An
and to the diffasion of education.
imperialukase of April 4th, 1803, had
the Universityof \'ilna ; and in no case
conferred extraordinaryprivileges
on

other powers.
had been

two

had the czar


neglectedany opportunity of improving the temporal or moral
condition of his new
subjects. The conduct of Austria in this respect was less
the plea a true one, no doubt, but not sufficient to justify
liberal. Under
of the students of Cracow
too revothat the spirit
was
lutionary
a measure
so arbitrary
erable
to consist with a monarchical
government, she destroyed that venthan four centuries had supported
which during more
seat of learning,
"

"

the
a

and the
religion

civilisation of Poland

though

and

in lieu of it she founded

duced
college at Leopol, the jealousregulationsand vigorous surveillance introstudents.
into that seminary were
not likelyto fillits halls with native

enviable.
of the people in other
the circumstances
respects more
in her endless wars
with the
had served as a granary
to Aastria
where
of
had
been
her
losses
and
men
repaired,was now
exhausted;
French,
have
that the nobles of this province the richest,perhaps, in Poland
so
into
which
from
the misery
not
even
they were
yet been able to recover
Nor

were

Galicia,which

"

"

Those
of Polish Prussia were
plunged by the exactions of the government.
indulgence; but though the state was rapacious,
scarcelytreatetl with more
their enterprisingspiritand the superior facilities they enjoyed for commerce
neutralised
the severityof their imposts,and rendered
their condition
of the inhabitants
In all the three, the minds
of comparative comfort.
one
freed from
all apprehension on
accounts
were
political
; government
tions
prosecuhad
long ceaset' ; the general amnesty had covered all anterior events

with the veil of oblivion.

NAPOLEON

TOWARDS

POLICY

POLAND

Such was
the condition of the Poles when the French emperor
endeavoured
attach them to his interests by loudlyproclaiminghimself their restorer
of the yoke under which
the breaker
they groaned. That sickness of heart
occasioned
to turn a deaf ear
to his summons;
by hope deferred caused many
but the majority, electrified at the promise of approaching freedom, flew
to

"

eagerlyto arms, and devoted themselves,with heart and hand, to the will of
The
brilliant campaign of 1806
the victory of Jena and the
Napoleon.
advance of the French into Poland to oppose the formidable masses
of Russians,
who
of future success,
seemed
earnest
appeared as the allies of Prussia
an
sure
a
pledge of approaching restoration. Polish regiments were
organised
with amazing rapichty. To increa.se the general enthusiasm. Napoleon was
unscrupulous enough to proclaim the near
approach of Kosciuszko; though,
but a few months
before,that general,who knew his character,hatl refused
his views
in other words, to deceive the stillconfidingPoles.
to espoase
On
the 27th of November
he entered
Posen
in triumph; the followmg month
"

"

"

Warsaw

received hiin with no less enthasiasm.


The inhabitants of the latter
stillmore
sion
commisoverjoyed when he proceeded to organise a supreme
of government
which
hailed
measure
the
a
as
they
disseveringof the
last link that bound them to Prussia.
His purpose
announced
was
; his armies
were

"

HISTORY

THE

106

OF

POLAND
[1809-1S12 A.D.1

and
regainedtriumphant possessionof that capital,
They considered that what their own
every side.

right to retain,and

they regarded

had

arms

hievitable

as

their enemies
on
won
they had a

humbled
the

incorporationof these

soon
undeceived; they were
They were
conquests with their infant state.
tween
and half of their other conquests, beto retain a foot of Galicia,
not allowed
Four
from
wrested
them.
and
the Austrian
AVarsaw
frontier,was
departments Ci'acow,Radom, Lublin, and Siedlce were indeed incorporated
"

"

"

witli the

grand duchy:

but

this

advantage

was

poor
loans

compensation

for the

cibly
been forhnmense
which
had
and
which
for
lives
been
the
wasted,
misery
raised,for the
class of the inhabitants.
afflicted every
lated
Militaryconscriptionhad depoputheir to^vns; the stern agents of despotism the despotism not of the
sacrifices which

had

been

made

for the

"

which

had

"

Saxon

king, but

of

Napoleon

had

hostile armies

country that the

Tiad carried

laid waste

state

could

produce of the soil,and


the
was
utterly exhausted
usual contributions,and a royal

away
their plains. So

"

not

reckon

on

the

the

and mechanical
classes.
agricultural
of
the view
opening
campaign. Napoleon, m
had
his
usual
Poles
in
his
t
he
to
recourse
behalf,
arts, and, strange
interesting
The reflecting
but, alas !
to say, with his usual
success.
portion,indeed
We
be
deluded
few are
how
are
they in any nation ! scorned to
again.
said a rough old soldier,"when
services are
our
required. Is
flattered,"
such as do not
But
the mob
Polantl always to be fed on hope alone?"
of the
from
the representations
were
persuatled,
think, be they high or low
speedily to be restored in
imperialagents, that their ancient republic was
from
the czar, and Galicia
all its glory; that Lithuania
to be wrested
was
deluded
Austria
for
while
the
exchanged by
Illyria.Yet,
people were meeting
for their a])proachinghigh destinies;
while the French
at Warsaw
to prepare
hailed
while
the abbe de
their
was
as
enthusiastically
regenerator;
emperor
his
added
fuel
the
to
flame, a secret treaty with
authority,
Pradt, b}'
patriotic
Francis
had
the emperor
again guaranteed the integrityof the Aastrian possessions

decree

exempted

Previous

from

them

the

the

to

Russian

"

"

"

"

"

in Poland.

But

it

was

secret, and

his purpose

was

realised

at

his

than eighty thousand


eration
Poles took the field,
while a generalconfedof the nobles
declared the republicrestored, the act of declaration
being signedby the Saxon king,in wliose house the hereditarymonarchy was

voice

to

more

be vested.

At

the

same

time

all Poles in the Russian

in the
participate

service

were

recalled

liberties
joyfulevent, and, if need were, to seal their new
Tliis intoxication,
witli their blood.
of
short
however, was
duration; the
of
Polish
him to Vilna,
the
to
which
had
followed
reply Napoleon
deputation,
left them no room
to liopefor his aid. He exhortcnl them
to fightfor their own
assured
them
that if all the palatinatescombined
independence,
they might
rea.^onablyexpect to attain their object, and added, "I must, however,
inform
the integrity
of
guaranteed to the Austrian emperor
you that I have
his states, and that I cannot
sanction any projector movement
tending to
disturb him in the po.ssession
of the Polish provinceswhich
remain
to him."
So nuK'li for Galicia.
As to Lithuania, which he was
to
treat
an
as
expected
ally,and to unite with the ancient republic,he not only considered it,but
proclaimed it,a hostile country, and ravaged it with impunity. Thus the
received an avowedly open
Lithuanians
instead of an allyand a friend.
enemy,
Both people hail abundant
to
their blind credulity. This perfidy
reason
curse
unknown
to the Polish troops,who were
was
advancing on the ancient frontiers
of iMuscovy, or they would
surelyhave forsaken the cause.
It is useless to dwell on the valour displayed by the deluded Poles in this
disastrous expedition. The work
of Bonaparte
the formation
of the grand
to

"

PARTIAL

RESTORATION

FINAL

AND

DISSOLUTION

107

[1813-1815A. D.]

destroyed; the king of Saxony, who had adhered to his cause


duchy was
both of it and a portion of
with extraordinaryfidehty,was
strippedat once
his hereditarydominions
again took possessionof the towns
; the three powers
which they had held previousto the invasions of Bonaparte, until a congress
had
taken a prominent part in the war
of all the sovereignswho
against the
other
should
of
to
decide,
assemble,
Europe
common
among
matters,
enemy
"

on

the fate of the country.

THE

ALLIES

AND

POLAND

Bonaparte the attention of the allied sovereignswas


The re-establishment
of the
by the state of Poland.
not merely an act of justice
to a people
was
kingdom in all its ancient integrity
in the historyof the world, but it was,
fall is one
of the darkest pages
whose
the securityof central Europe
desirable towards
of all objects,the one
most
But
for
dom
the
ambition
of
the
czars.
Poland, a great portionof Christenagainst
for
misbelievers
but
the
northern
have
been
the
to
her,
subject
might
;
wild
hordes
have
their
into
the very
would
probably long ago
poured
emperors
and
which
had
heart of Germany ; the nation
been,
might again become, the
bulwark alike of civil and religious
freedom, could not faO to be invested with
the interest of rulers,
and the
interest of the very highestorder. Public opinion,
The
sympathy of the governed called for the restoration of injuredSarmatia.
and of policy was
side of humanity, of justice,
powerfully advocated
by
France and England ; their able plenipotentiaries,
Talleyrandand Castlereagh,
to actual hostilities,
did all that could be done, short of having recourse
to
could
both
attain this European object. But neither power,
nor
combined,
contend
with success
interested in the partition.
against those which were
exhausted
France was
by a restriction within
by her long wars, and weakened
than a handful
her ancient
limits ; England could have furnished no
more
of troops, nor could all her wealth have hired mercenaries
niuncrous
sufficiently
her in throwing down
the gauntletof defiance to two such
to justify
or brave
militarynations as Prussia and Muscovy. To the honour of the Austrian
he not only disapproved the projectedunion of the late duchy with
emperor,
he expressed his desire for Polish independence, and even
but
his
Russia,
of
territories
make
the
to
surrender
his
to
a portion
o^vn
new
willingness
dom
kingmore
respectable. At this juncture,however. Napoleon escaped from
in the approaching
Elba ; and Alexander, findingthat his aid was
indispensable
.After the fall of
powerfullydemanded

able,not indeed

contest, was

to

make

his

own

terms, but

to insist on

measure

he had

long meditated : the union of the grand duchy, as a separate kingtlom,


with his empire. Not less effectual was
his policywith the Poles themselves.
By persuading them that his great object was to confer on them a national
existence

and

they

would

done

those of

could do

was

liberal

he interested them so
institutions,
armed
to support those views

have
willingly

far in his
as

they

views, that

had

so

often

Napoleon.
things,all that France and England
claim
existence
for the whole body of Poles,and to
national
to
a
In this state

of

Their representations
freedom.
were
stipulatefor their political
powerfully
Francis, who again expressed regret that Poland
supported by the emperor
could not be re-established as an independent state with a national representation
of its own.
and to
Owing to these energeticappeals to his liberality,
the influence of publicopinion so widely diffused by the political
press, the
showed
autocrat
the concessions
reluctance to make
no
required. Pru.ssia
less willing. The result was
formed
solemn
was
no
a
by the three
engagement

HISTORY

THE

108

OF

POLAND
[1S15A.D.]

national

existence
political
proper

By

respectivePolish subjectsa
regulatedafter the form of
of the respectivegovernments might think

their
in concert
to confer on
and national institutions
re[)n'sentatioii,

partitioning
powers

each

which

grant them.
the celebrated Treaty of Viemia
to

the

foUowing bases

were

tioned
solemnlysanc-

1. Galicia and

the salt mines

of Wieliczka

restored

were

to Austria.

Posen, forming the western


palatinatesbordering
grand duchy
thousand
and containinga populationof about eighthundred
souls,
Silesia,
on
ThLs
its conquests
confirmed
Prussia.
in
also
surrendered
to
was
was
power
made
at the periodof the first partition.
of the three powers,
to belong to none
was
3. The cityand district of Cracow
of

2. The

under the guarantee of


into a free and imlependent republic,
but to be formed
and
one-half
is nineteen
Its extent
the three.
geographicalmiles,inhabited
souls.
at that time by a populationof sixty-onethousand
of ancient Poland, comprising the chief part of the recent
4. The remainder
Warsaw
(embracing a country bountled by a line drawn from
in the east),
in
the west, to the Bug and the Niemen
Cracow
Thorn
to near
forever
to form
reverted to Russia, and was
a kingdom
subject to the czars.
Population about four millions.

grand tluchyof

POLISH

The
December

new

DEVELOPMENT

UNDER

kingdom of Poland
24th, in the same
year,

was
a

THE

NEW

June

proclaimed
constitutional

CHARTER

charter

20th, 1815; and on


was
granted to the

Poles.
The

articles of this charter (in number


of so liberal a description
165) were
to astonish all Europe.
They abundantly prove that at the time of their
as
of liberal institutions.
was
no
Though the
promulgation Alexander
enemy
the nature
of the dispute
charter in questionhas probably forever passed away,
between
to

the Poles and

their monarch

of its pro\"isions.
Though the Catholic religionwas

cannot

be understood

without

adverting

some

religionof the state, all


were
placed on a
perfectequality,as to civil rights,
with the professorsof the established faith (Art. 11). The
libertyof the
in
its
fullest extent
(16). No subject could be arrested
recognised
press was
of person
and
(18). The inviolability
prior to judicialconviction
property,
in the strictest sense,
was
guaranteed (23 to 26). All public business to be
transacted in the Polish language (28); and all offices,
civil or military,
to be
held by natives alone (29).' The
national representationto be vested in
chambers:
and deputies (31). The power
senators
of the crown
two
(35 to
than
sufficient
due
the
to
to
not
more
47) was
executive; all
weight
give
be
crowned
the
observance
of the
to
at
after
to
kings
Warsaw,
swearing
his
in
the
chief
be
vested
lieutenant
absence,
charter; during
a
authority to
and council of stat^ (63 to 75). The great publicdepartments to be presided
to rest with the
by responsibleministers (76 to 82). The legislative
power
king and the two chambers : an ordinary diet to be held every two years, and
sit thirtydays ; an extraordinarydiet whenever
judged necessary by the king
dissidents

declared

the

footing of

'

five

after
to public employments
StranRers, however, might be naturalised and admissible
years' residence, if in the interim they should
acquire the Polish language (33); and the

to himself
king reserved
(34).

the

privilegeof appointing distinguishedforeignersto

certain

ployments
em-

RESTORATION

PARTIAL

FINAL

AND

DISSOLUTION

109

[1815-1816A. D.]

could be arrested during a session,except for great


(86 to 88). No member
of the assembly (89). The
then without
the consent
and not even
ofifences,
to all
deliberations of the diet extended
affectingthe laws and the whole

projectssubmitted
routine

of

to

internal

it by the ministry
administration

be

public,except when committees


were
originatewith the council of state,and
of the king; such
by command
to be laid before the chambers
projects,
committees
of both houses (96 to 98).
examined
by
however, being previously
to be
All measures
to be passed by a majority of votes
(102). The senators
and
exercise
their
functions
for life (110). The
nominated
to
by the king,
77 for
deputies(128 in number, or about double that of the senators) were
districts (one for each),and 51 for so many
communes
(118 and 119). To
member
of this chamber
the qualifications
the
become
a
were:
citizenship;
of
however
of
landed
of
some
thirty;
possession
portion,
small,
property;
age
94). AH deliberations to
All projectsof law
(95).
sitting
(90

and
No

to

the payment, in annual

to

contributions,of

to
publicfunctionaryeligible

one

hundred

the consent
district to meet

sit without

Polish florins (121).


of the head of his

in dietines,
for the
department (122). The nobles of each
of
of
of
their
the
and
to
electingone
body
generaldiet,
returningtwo
purpose
to the palatineassemblies
members
(125),all dietines being convoked
by the
owners,
king (126). The class of electors was
comprising: (1) All landnumerous,
however
towards
the
small, who
paid any contribution whatever
manufacturer
or
shopkeeper possessinga
support of the state; (2) every
florins;(3) all rectors and vicars; (4) all professors
capitalof ten thousand
for talent (131). Every
and teachers ; (5)all artists or mechanics
distinguished
and to have reached twenty-one years (132). The tribuelector to be enrolled,
nals
the
and
to be filledwith judges,part nominated
elected
by
king
part
by
and
the palatinates
immovable
(140) ; the former
being appointed for life,

(141).
Such
two

were

things to

the chief
be

this remarkable
charter,which
trial by jury,and
the competency

provisionsof

desired;

the

confined to the
to propose
laws; the initiative was
of the king and the council of state.
of the Poles towards
The enthusiasm
their sovereign,for

chamber

the

almost
promulgation of this charter,was
imitated
his
and
with
strove
Zaionczek,
example,
of
settled
the
result
to his sway.
a
Prosperity,

boundless.
success

and

left
of

only

either

sisting
executive,con-

some

His

to attach

time

after

lieutenant,
the Poles

an
enlightenedgovernment,
improvements introduced
of a universityat Warsaw
into the publiceducation,the establishment
and
of an
agriculturalsocietyat Mount
Maria, the rapid increase of trade,the
diffusion of wealth, and the consequent advance
towards
happiness by the
nation at large,
might well render his government popular. That prosperity,
On taking possessionof the country he
indeed,is his noolest monument.
found nothing but desolation and misery. So enormous
had been the force
which the grand duchy had been compelled to maintain,so heavy the exactions
of the treasury, that no country could have borne them, much
less one
whose two chief outlets for her produce,Dantzic and Odessa,were
long closed
of
The finances
by the continental system
Napoleon and by the Turkish war.
of the duchy, indeed,were
unable to pay more
than an insignificant
portionof
the troops; either the remainder
raised by forced loans,or the men
went
was
millions of francs, in addition,were
borrowed
at Paris,on
unpaid. Twelve
the securityof the mines of Wieliczka.
Still all would not do ; the revenue
did
not reach one-half of the expenditure; in time,no
siastical,
functionary,civil or eccleand scarcelyany soldier,
was
paid. The contractors
fled;troops

followed

in the train of peace.

Innumerable

THE

no

HISTORY

OF

POLAND
[1816-1818 iL.D.]

traversed

the country

of

some

fell in

food

little money
or
anj'where,and a total
peror's
industry. To repairthese evils was the emfirst object. By opening the country to foreignmerchants, by providing
and
with oxen
the husbanchnen
horses,by suspending the pajTnent
and supj)rcssing
taxes
others,and by providingfor the support of his
his hereditarydominions, he recalled industry and the means
of
from
In

their way.

stop

at

all who
pleasure,plunderingindiscriminately

was

put

short, there

to all

was

branches

of

army
subsist?nce.

the Polish nation with its new


situation in the year 1818
its
union
with
Russia
that
the oppositionto ministers
after
three years
near
of
T
he
benefits
of
in the chamber
deputieswas utterlyinsignificant.
the prejudicesand antipathiesof the people.
the government had disarmed
at this time, to have
himself appears,
been no less satisfied;
he
The
emperor
himself on the liberal policyhe had adopted towards
his new
congratulated
So

satisfied

was

"

"

declarctl in full senate


that he was
at Warsaw
only waiting to
free
he
had
of
the
institutions
extentl those
to
effect
the
them,
given
try
had confided to his care.
all the regions which Providence
institutions over
reached
the term
of the good understanding between
the
Having now

subjects,and

to advert
their monarch, it is necessary
and
then
to hatred,
first to mistrust,
lastlyto open

Poles

and

to

the

causes

between
hostility

which
led
the two

parties.
be expected that any
On the first view of the case, it could not rationally
considerable
degree of harmony could subsist between
people who during
quently,
eight centuries had been at war with each other, and between whom, consehad
a strong national
antipathy had been long fostered. And even
in manners,
too dissimilar
they were
timents,
habits,sencoalesce.
For
the Pole had
t
o
religionever
cortlially
ages
idolised a libertyunexampled in any coimtry under heaven; the Muscovite
God and the czar.
but depended entirely
The one
had no will of his own,
on
of kings; the other obeyed, as implicitly
and master
the maker
the
was
as
voice of fate,the most
he considered
arbitraryorders of hLs monarch, whom
heaven's favourite vicegerent. The one
was
enlightenedby education and
by intercourse with the polished nations of Europe; the other, who long
and ignorance.
thought it a crime to leave home, was brutified by superstition
of
Each cursed the other as schismatic
the
of
God's
visible church
out
as
pale
and doomed
to perdition. The
which
had
nourished
had
antipathy
ages
been intensely
late
The
erine,
events.
aggravated by
unprovoked violence of Caththe haughtinessof her troops, the excesses
accompanying the elevation

they always lived in

peace,

and

"

and fall of Stanislaus; the keen sense


of humiliation
intolerable to a proud people were
than
causes
more
the greatest benefits conferred by the czars.
"

"

Another

keen as to become
so
sufficient to neutralise

could the
and, if possible,
weightierconsideration arises. How
in Europe
whose will had never
been trammelled
arbitrarymonarch
one
the forms of freedom, whose nod was
all but omnipotent
or
by either the spirit
bo expected to guide the delicately
of a popular govmachine
complicated
ernment?
Would
he be very likelyto pay much
the apparently
to
regard
however
Would
insignificant,
springs which
kept it in motion?
necessary,
the lord of fiftylegions,
whose
empire extended over half the Old World, be
likelyto hear witii patience the bold voice of freedom in a distant and (as to
of his vast heritage
?
territory)insignificant
corner
Under
state of things,however, would
the Poles,as long as they were
no
subject to foreignascendency, have remained satisfied. The recollections of
their ancient glorywould givea more
bitter pang to the consciousness of present
most

"

"

PAKTIAL

KESTOEATION

FINAL

AXD

DISSOLUTION

111

[1818-1819A.D.]

degradation. Alexander, indeed, had

held

out

to

them

the

hope

of

imiting

but

of

Lithuania under the same


government;
be less subject to
either Poles or Lithuanians
their present advantages would
be continued
guarantee had they that even
None, surely,but the personal character of the autocrat, who,
to them?
somewhat
and who might any day abandon
with the best mtentions, was
fickle,
form

in this case, would


even
the autocrat?
Besides,what

"What
empire to a more
rigorousor less scrupulous hand.
exclaimed
the
celebrated
Dombrowski
the
at
hope,"
period at
is
"what
have
not
fear?
This
to
arrived;
we
compendium
very

the reins of
have

to

we

this

which

await us to-morrow?"
day might we not tremble for the fate which may
if
his
conviction
that
the
The generalexpressed
united,
Poles, instead of being diswould
would
their lost greatness.
recover
cordiallycombine, they
"Let them," added he, "retrieve their ancient nationality;
let them combine
their wishes !"
In other words, he meant
their opinions,their desires,
that
the whole nation should enter mto an miderstanding to permit the existence
If the same
of the present order of thingsno longer than they could help.
"which
has
he
should
us
a
concluded,
given
one
fortune,"
sovereign
day
her libertyand independence,and
round on him, Poland
turn
recover
may
choice."
acknowledge no king but the one of her own
Words
like these,and from such a quarter, could not fail to produce their
mouth
effect. They flew from
to mouth; the press
began to echo them.
of deputiesassumed
The oppositionin the chamber
formidable appeara more
ance.
The
however
transient, of the liberal party in Spain and
success,
hailed with transport. Were
the Poles to despond at such a
Italy was
the students in the
crisis? The anti-Russian
party, comprising the army,
the
of
the
with
to
act
populace
capital,
publicschools,
began
greater boldness
and decision ; no very obscure hints were
thrown out that the gloriousexample
"

of other

coimtries

would

be

not

lost

nearer

home.

The

newspapers,

which

followed the current


of publicopinion,however
changing,as inevitablyas the
shadow
does the substance,adopted the same
resolute if not menacing tone.
It was
evident that a revolution was
meditated, and that the minds of the

people,not

merely

and

Austria

of the

but of the countries imder the sway


of
those of the grand duchy, were
to be prepared

kingdom,

Prussia, as well

as

now
though apparently insensible degrees. Privilegeswere
promulgated of a tendency too democratic to consort
principles
with the existingframe
of society. That
Russia should take alarm at the
fearless activityof the press was
naturallyto be expected. Accordingly,by
ordinance of July 3Ist, 1819, the censorshipwas
In violation of
an
established.

for

it

by

claimed

sure

and

Art. 16.

Infractions
of
have

the Charter

opportunity of expressingtheir opinions publicly,


they
Wlien
tlie
tlie
outlets
of
privately.
journals,
legitimate
popular
thus arbitrarily
and impoliticly
were
feeling,
closed,secret societies began to
tated
multiply. A sort of political
freemasonry connected the leaders of the mediIf

men

will do

no

so

movement,

and

its ramifications

extended

as

far

as

Vilna.

Their avowed

objectwas not merely to free their country and the grand duchy from the
Russian yoke, but to unite their brethren of Galicia and Posen in one common
cause, and then openly to strike a blow for their dearest rights. But however
secret their meetings and purposes,
neither could long escape the vigilanceof
the police,
of the
which, since the arrival of Constantine as commander-in-chief
Polish army,
had acquired alarming activity. Why
this personage
should
have interfered in a branch
of administration
beyond his province why he
"

HISTORY

THE

112

OF

POLAND
[1819-1820

of his

have

stopped out

A.

D.]

peculiarsphere to hire spies,to collect


pected
information, and to influence the proceedingsof the tribunals againstthe sushas been matter
of much
the accused
or
conjecture. Perhaps he
to his imperial brother; perhaps he
proposed to render himself necessary
could not live without some
bustle to excite him ; perhaps his mind
was
genially
conin
the
and
of
However
this
treason.
occupied
discovery
punishment
acted
with
he
His
wisest
the
Poles
selves
themand
course
amazing impolicy.
be,
of
once
hoped that he would atloptit was to cultivate the attachment
whom
he resided,and thereby prepare
minds
for
tlie people among
their
one
his views on the crown.
Instead of this,he conducted
himself
day secontling
he suspected of liberal opinions and few there were
towards all whom
who
with violence,
did not entertain them
often with brutality. At his instigation
the secret policepursued its fatal career;
demnations,
arbitraryarrests, hidden conthe banishment
of many,
the imprisonment of more,
signalised
his baneful
should
be passed
sentences
activity. That amidst so many
some
individuals wholly innocent need not surpriseus.
\\'h('rf spiesare
hired
on
of detectingthe disaffected,if they do
with societyfor the purpose
to mix
find treason, they will make
it ; privatemalignity and a desire of being
not
if
of enjoying the
to their employers, and
thought useful, not indispensable,
in procuringinformations,
rewards due to success
would
make
them vigilant
but the basest and most
enough. As this is a professionwhich none
cipled
unprinof men
woulil follow,
cannot
we
expect that they would always exercise
much
it with
avarice
would
be
regard to justice. In such men
or
revenge
all-powerful.
The Universityof Vilna was
visited with some
severityby the agents of
this dreaded
institution. Twenty of its students were
seized and sentenced
to different punishments
however, very rigorous. Those of Warsaw
none,
used
not
were
more
indulgently. A state prison was erected in the capital,
and its dungeons were
crowded
with inmates
soon
no
doubt, not
many,
undeserving their fate,but not a few the victims of an execrable system.
The proceedings,however, which
dark
must
are
always be suspected; of the
hundreds
who were
dragged from the bosom of their families and consigned
all would
to various
be thought innocent, since none
had been
fortresses,
legallyconvicted.
By Art. 10 of the constitutional charter,the Russian
troops, when
to
be
the
entire
to
required pass through Poland, were
at
charge of the czar's
for
stationed
at Warsaw"
treasury;
years, however, they were
evidentlyto
the population" at the expense
of the inhabitants.
overawe
Then
the violations
of individual liberty(in opposition to Arts. 18 to 21) the difficulty
of
;
procuring passports; the misapplicationof the revenue
to objectsother than
those to which
it was
raised
to the reimbursement
of the secret police,
for
instance ; the nomination
of men
without the necessary
senators
as
tions,
qualificaand who had no other merit than that of being creatures
of the government,
infractions of the charter,as wanton
were
intended to be
as
they were
humiliating.
The
much
rlissatisfied as the nation.
was
The
as
army
imgovemable
should

own

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

temper,

and

the

consequent
which

he

excesses,

of Constantine; the useless but

tious
vexa-

introduced;his rigorousmode of exercise,fitted


for no other than frames of adamant
; and, above
all,his overbearingmanner
towards
the best and
highestofficers in the service,raised him enemies on
side. His good qualities"
and
he had many"
every
were
wholly overlooked
ainidst his ebullitions of fury,and the unjustifiable,
often cruel,acts he committed
while under their influence.
On ordinary occasions,when
his temper
manoeuvres

HISTORY

THE

114

POLAND

OP

[1830 A. D.]

pursuitas

the

total separation from

Then

empire.

it

was

that

liberal

odious in the cabinet of St. Petersburg; that the czar


institutions became
but not unnatural
resolved to prevent their extension,on the plea a mistaken
with
settled
and consequently
inconsistent
a
that
monarchy,
were
they
plpa
that the imperialministers
social security;then it was
with long-continued
their unwise system
a system but partially
and their underlingscommenced
"

"

"

have been approved by him


that would never
to the czar, and one
first
next
the
of exasperating
Poles,
by petty annoyances,
by deprivingthem
had
sacred
of
fuel
which
to a fire already
of privileges
to
a
right
adding
they
harmless.
too intense to continue
long
known

"

"

NATION-\L

THE

ASSOCIATION

AGAINST

A.D.)

(1830

RUSSIA

seeds of hatred, thus unfortimately so^m,


The
germinated with sUent
of soldiers (especially
of unemployed
number
fatal rapidity. A vast
all
of
Russian
and
students
whom
of
ardent
patriots
haughtiness
;
officers)
;
had failed to visit ; and, more
than all,
of
had provoked or Russian
liberality
but

that fickle and numericallyspeaking imposing class so prone to change, were


the scattered
gradually initiated into the great plot destined to concentrate
its framers
and
of resistance to imperialviolence,and to sweep
elements
from
the face of the kingdom. The society,nimierous
its
abettors
as
were
well

ramifications,was

organised,and

its

proceedingswere

wrapped

in

more

That not a few of its members


than masonic
were
implicatedin
mystery.
of
the
accession
Nicholas
the conspiracywhich
on
exploded
utterlyunknown
of
and
that
the
nature
at present as were
subjects
conspiracy appears both
occasion
that
fewer
than two hmidred
took
arrests
the
from
on
(no
numerous
of
and
the
admission
their
Poland
and
from
Lithuania),
place in
very
organs.
"

"

of inquiry,consisting
cover
the commission
chieflyof Poles,failed to disadduced
the clue to that dark transaction, evidence
to
enough was
of
formidable
national
association.
Two
the
existence
wards
aftera
years
prove
(in 1828) that association gained over the great body of Polish officers,
the progress
waited
of events
for an
to watch
and silently
opportunity of
the
blow.
striking
of surpriseto most
It hiis often been matter
thinkingforeignersthat the

Though

advantage of the Turkish war


independence. Evidently,however, their plan was
did not

Poles

take

matured.
But

the

French

That

it

was

insurrection

"

so

even

which

in 1830
appears

not

to erect
not

may
to

at

the standard
of
that period sufficiently

be reasonably doubted.
have been wholly unexpected

in the Polish
capital its daring character, its splendid success, had
electric effect on the whole nation, and disposedthe initiated to anticipate
the time of their rising. It is well kno^\'n
it has, indeed,been admitted
by
"

an

"

both

Poles

and

of the latter
Frenchmen, including the political
organs
Warsaw
that emissaries from
held confidential meetings with the leaders of
the revolution of July, and were
their countrj-men by the
instigatedto rouse
aid
of
immediate
from
the
of
the citizen king. That
promise
government
relied on with the fullest confidence by the Polish patriots
such aid was
selves
them"

is known.
Two

other

circumstances

the longto hasten


powerfully contributed
meditated
catastrophe. The army began to entertain the notion that it was
to the south of Europe to assist in extirpatingthe alarming
to be removed
and
doctrines of the French
that its place was
to be suppliedby
politicians,
The youths of the militaryschool,too, found or fancied
of Russians.
an
army

PARTIAL

RESTORATION

AND

FINAL

DISSOLUTION

115

11830-1831A.D.]
excuse

for

apprehension. That

their

design of risingwas

not unknown
to
of the hired agents
with which one
the eagerness
their confidence,
professinghis devotion to their
of their project.
imploring permission to share in the execution

from
the authorities appears
to win
of pohce endeavoured
cause,

and

caused him to
Though this fellow overshot his mark; though his eagerness
be
convinced
to
he
learned
not
be suspected and shunned
enough
only that
;
it
that
hand.
at
resolved
but
insurrection
was
actually
was
an
on,
and the students
of whom
the latter had
The apprehensionsof the army
from
duke
should
he
believed
fear
the
to have
to
he, as
was
grand
everything
conviction
martial
law
the
and
them
that
the
arrest
whole
threatened,
by
try
the
the
to
secret
project,
encouragement
populaceof the capitalwere friendly
of the enterprising
to court
of France, the eagerness
danger for its very sake,
if not towards
at least,
the assumed
approbation of the free towards the cause
hastened
the opening of
the time and circumstances, of the insurrection
to seize on
the person of
the great tragedy. The first object of its actors was
obnoxious
to
the grand duke, their most
tage
use
him,
perhaps,
as
a hosenemy
fortune prove
for their safety,should
unpropitious. The students
as
and the rash will always be in such cases
the authorised
the young
were
of them,
On the evening of November
29th one
leaders of the movement.
and
accordance
with
entered
the
school
called
in
his
a
preconcerted plan,
The
call was
comrades
to arms.
instantlyobeyed. On their way to the
miles from
residence of Constantine, which stands about two
the city,their
number
increased by the students of the universityand public schools.
was
three companies not a regiment, as has been usually stated
Two
of
or
Russian
cavalry they furiouslyassailed and overpowered. This first success
of the officers,
moderation
who
a few
they did not use with much
; towards
have
been
exhibited
to
personallyobnoxious,
they
great animosity;
appear
cruellymassacred after the conflict was over.
three or four were
They forced
the palace,flew to the grand duke's apartments, but had the mortification of
of a servant
had firstconcealed,
findingtheir victim fled ; the intrepidfidelity
assisted
him
As their first object had thus unexpectedly
to escape.
then
resolved to gain the city. Their retreat was
failed,the conspiratorsnow
the spiritwhich
animated
opposed by the Russian guards; but such was
the skill and courage
them, such were
they displayed,that after a struggle
continued over
of two miles they accomplished their purpose.
a space
During this desperateaffraythe efforts of another party within the city
A considerable
successful.
were
more
body of cadets and students paraded
the streets, callingon
the inhabitants
for their coimtry's freedom.
to arm
had
been
They were
joined,as
previouslyarranged,not by hundreds, but by
of
native
and
their force was
thousands,
augmented by several pieces
troops,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

of

The

"

Russian

carried
attacked, were
now
posts, which were
prison doors were
opened, and criminals as well as debtors invited to
the assailants;the theatre was
speedilyemptied of its spectators; and
cannon.

great body of citizens were


the excitement
consequent

the

swell

the

from
the publicarsenal.
In
provided with arms
this extraordinarycommotion, every
on
part of
which was
conducted
with a regularitythat could only be the result of a
how much
he may
maturely formed design,no reader will be surprised,
soever
committed.
Russians
lament, to find that several excesses
were
Many
were
massacred ; many
of intimacy with the
terms
to have been on
Poles, known
fate. But some
dark deeds were
done for which
grand duke, shared the same
excitement can apologise some
which will forever disgracethis memorable
no
of Russian
and
few Polish superiorofficers were
night. While a number
a
laudablyexertingthemselves to calm the ferocityof the people; while they
"

POLAND

OF

HISTORY

THE

116

[1830-18S1 A.n.]

rode among
ceedings,
them, and urged them to desist from their violent profearlessly
who would
readilyredress
to lay their grievancesbefore the emperor,
and themselves
that the Russians
were
them, and, above all,to remember
these very
bloodshed
peacemakers, whose
intentions
the respectand whose kind-hearted
the affections of the populace,were
shoultl have won
barbarously massacred.
made
all Russians, except one
were
other officers of rank
prisoners.
Some
all
with
the
of
of
Polish
the
30th
the
the
exception
troops,
morning
By
who
held
for
and
remained
Constantine
and
few
a
companies
one
regiment
and refrain
fellow-subjects,
should

heroism

have

from

"

commanded

"

"

armed
citizens
with him, had joined the insurgents. Nearly thirtythousand
have
been
would
formidable
To oppose
swelled their dense ranks.
a mass
so
and
In
revolution
twelve
hours
the
madness.
completed. In
was
begun
the recovery
meditate
did
who
without
the
vain
the grand duke,
walls,
lay
His
isolatetl though desperateefforts
and fortifications.
of the intrenchments
to

the

re-enter

city were

acquaintedwith
He

purpose.

what

steps

repulsed with serious loss; and when he became


of hLs antagonistshe wisely desisted from his
the walls,as if imcertain
to a greater distance from
extraordinaryan emergency.

the number

removed
take in so
hours an administrative

to

the
formed
In a few
council was
to presideover
It was
destinies of the infant state.
distinguishedfor their
composed of men
tion
talents,character,or services. At first they evidentlyentertained no inten-

throwing off their allegianceto the

of

in his name,
and
As their ambition

all their claims

bounded

; all their

czar

to

due

proclamationswere

execution

of the charter.

their success, they insisted on


or
patriotismrose
of
Polish provinces subject to
and
the
other
Lithuania,
an
incorporation
with
the
Some
months
after
Russia,
kingtlom.
they declared the throne
vacant

The

"

their

declaration

behaviour

with

highly rash and

of Constantine

impolitic.

in his retreat

was

not

without

generosity.

the request of the provisionalgovernment, he agreed to send back the


Polish troops who
still remained
faithful to him, antl proposed that if the
not only to procure
an
people would submit he would endeavour
amnesty

At

for

all,but the redress

of their

allegedgrievances. It was too late,however,


.such security; the die was
irrevocablycast.
had justeffected,
guiltyof rashness in what "they
they were
not
the follyof undoing it. On the 3rd of December
his
likelyto commit
of
evacuated
the
middle
the
about
of
the
imperialhighness
capital;
vicinity
the month
he crossed the Bug.
in his retreat. "
He was
unmolested
The Polish aristocracynow
set up
a
dictatorshipunder Gen. Jos. Chlythe
of
court
St. Petersburg opened hostile negotiations.
lopicki,whereupon
Nicholas declined to recognisethe dictatorshipand demanded
tional
uncondian
surrender.
On January 25th Poland
declared at an end the succession
of the Rassian
imperial hoase to the throne of Poland and confirmed the
national government.
Against the Russian army under Diebitsch the Poles
sent an
commanded
several skirmishes,
Tliis army
by Divernicki.
army
won
and on
'The Russians lost seven
February 19th, 1831, besiegedGrochow.c
thoasand
in this battle,
men
thousand.
and the Poles who kept the field,
two
The
Russians
were
again defeated at Zelicho (April 6th), at Siedlce (April
10th) ; and at Aastrolensa (May 26th) ; on June 10th Diebitsch died of cholera.
On June 19th, however, the Poles suffered a decided defeat at Vilna,and on
September 8th Warsaw
taken by the Russians.
In the followingmonth
was
the insurrection was
and
ukase
suppressed
known
the organic statute
a
as
issued by the czar, by which Poland
became an integralpart of the Russian
empire,"
think of such
If the Poles were
to

submission

or

RESTORATION

PARTIAL

AND

FINAL

DISSOLUTION

117

[1817-1818 D.]
A.

CONDITIONS

LEADING

TO

THE

INSURRECTION

OF

1846

of the native Poles since the last partitionin 1794 had


different
in the portionsallotted to the three partitioning
powers.
very
the class in which the hostUity to
that the nobles were
The
Russians,aware
them was
strongest,and fearful of the effects of a national revolution on
frontier of their inmiense
the extreme
empire, had made the greatest efforts
The

condition

been

to

ameliorate

became

the condition

greatlysuperior to

of the

what

peasants. The
it had

ever

The
government and their stormy Comitia.
entitled
and put on the footingof farmers,

been

condition

peasants

all

were

to the whole

of the peasants
old national

the

under

emancipated,
toU,

fruits of their

the rent of the landlord.


after satisfying
In Prussian
Poland, styled the grand duchy of Posen, the changes were
stillmore
radical,and perhaps erred on the side of undue concession to the
In 1817
the Prussian
government, under the direction
populardemands.
Baron
had
of the able and patriotic
lutionary
Stein,
adopted a change which a revolished
hardly have ventured to promulgate ; they estabin
law.
In
lieu
of
the
services
kind,
agrarian
bound
ation
which
to give to their landlords in considerof being maintained
by them, the peasants received a third of the land
left to provide
they cultivated in property to themselves,and they were
The old prohibitionagainst the sale of lands on
subsistence.
for their own
taken away,
and facilities given for the purchase
the part of the nobles was
of the remaining two-thirds by the peasants, by permittingtwenty-fiveyears
for paying up the price. This was
a very
great change, which at first sight
seemed
the dangers of revolutionaryinnovation; but
to be fraught with
being free of the most dangerous element in such changes the excited passions
of the people it was
with any such effects. The nobles,
not attended
who were
to appearance
despoiledof a third of their land, ere long found
value of the remainder, and being freed from the
that,from the enhanced
in effect gainersby the
obligationof maintaining their peasants, they were
perfectlycontented with it.
change, and they were
In Austrian Poland, on the other hand, and especially
in that largeportion
of it called Galicia,although certain changes had been introduced
with a
view
the
condition
the
of
had
been
to ameliorating
not
so
peasants, they
well considered,
and had by no means
been attended
beneficial
by the same
in form
results. The serfs were
even
emancipated, and the proprietorwas
bound
with piecesof land adequate to the maintenance
of
to furnish them
If matters
themselves and their families.
had stopped here all would
have
been well ; the insurrection which followed would
have been prevented,and
followed in its train would
the frightful
calamities which
have been spared
But unfortunatelythe peasants, instead of being left in the
to humanity.
undisturbed
possessionof their patches of ground, were
subjectedto a great
of
services
feudal
and
which
variety
restrictions,
being novel, and such as
been
accustomed
they had never
previously
to, excited very great discontent.
The cultivators,
though entitled to the fruits of their little bit of ground,
were
not, properly speaking,proprietors;they could neither alienate them
it
his possession,
nor
acquire other domains ; and if any of them abandoned
of course, to another peasant, who
became
subjected
devolved,as a matter
to the corves
and seignorial
rightsexigiblefrom every occupant of the land.
On the other hand, the nobles,who
alone could hold lands in fee-simple,
were
of
value
the
not entitled to sell them, and this reduced
almost
to nothing

government would

to a certain extent
an
by the old law they were

"

"

THE

118

HISTORY

OF

POLAND
[1819-1845 A.D.]

thus

So stronglywas
charged with
grievance felt
that numerous
presented to the Aulic Council, praying for
petitionswere
of holding lands.
exclusive privilege
At length
deliverance from the onerous
authorised.
Inmiediately
the government yielded,and the sale of lands was
proprietorsbegan to arise,who promised, by the possession
a class of small
service to the
of a little capitaland habits of industry,to be of the utmost
Metternich
and
the
took
the alarm at
But
ere
long
government
country.
these
ideas
democratic
the
new
landholders,especiallyin
prevalent among
in
and by an imperialedict,
when
all
the year 1819,
commotion;
Europe was
of
in
the
1819,
periloasprivilege exclusivelyholding land was
published
generallyre-established. The only exception was in favour of the burghers
almost entirelyof German
of Leopol, who
were
permitted
origin,and were
to acquire and hold lands.
The corvee
also,or legalobligationon the part of the peasants to pay the
of labour rendered
in the form
either
of their lands
to their landlords,
rent
which
of
the
in
remained
his
natural
estate
thai
possession,or
on
portion
be more
excited
discontent.
could
the
roads,
sonable
reaNothing
on
great
public
In truth,it is the only way
in which
than such an arrangement.
districts where
the sale of produce is difficult
be paid in those remote
rent can
of
and
the
cultivator
has
other
what
no
discharging
or
impossible,
way
but by services in kind.
Both
he owes
to his landlord
parties,however, in
dissatisfaction at this state of things. The
Galicia expressed the utmost
which
landlords sighed for payments in money,
might enable them to join
of Vienna
\\'arsaw ; while the peasants
the gaieties
or share in the pleasures
or
vice
anxiously desired to be delivered from all obligationsto render personalserallowed
their whole
their
to exert
to their landlords,and
industry on
behoof.
So numerous
the petitionson
the
were
possessionsfor their own
that
laid
down
to
certain
they
government
subject presented
regulations
such

estates

for the

as

debt.

were

commutation

of services

in kind
and

into money
minute
that

onerous
so
requiredwere
inoperative,and the services in kind continued
At length the whole states of Galicia presenteda

for the entire abolition of


of Vienna

eluded

the

effect,a regularsurvey

payments;

remained
rendered

they

be
formal
to

demand
in that province; but

corvees

demand, allegingthat, before


would
requireto be made of

but

the formalities

generally
as

before.

to the government

the cabinet

it could be carried into


the whole province, and

they had no funds to meet the expenses of such an undertaking. Upon


this the nobles formally declared,in 'a generalassembly of the four estates,
that they would
themselves
bear the whole expense
of the survey;
but
that

with their characteristic habits of procrastination


the Austrian
government
allowed the offer to remain
without an answer.
Meanwhile, as the cognisance
of all disputesbetween
the landlords and
devolved
their peasants was
upon
the Austrian
shared
the

corvees,

and as the taxes were


the governauthorities,
progressivly
rising,
ment
in the whole unpopularityaccruing from
the vexed question of
and the discontent,
both among
the nobles and peasants of the

country, became

universal.
of difference
These caases
would
have
they
passed over

were

in themselves

without

sufficiently
alarming; but

had it not been


unlettered
the rude,
peasants
upon
of this province,
who
in every age have shown
themselves in an especial
manner
to illusion and
gerous
them
the dansuperstition,and propagated among
prone
doctrine that their only masters
"God
and
the emperor"; that
were
the landlords had no rightto any portion of the fruits of their toil; and that,
the contrary, their whole property belonged of rightto them.selves. These
on
for the efforts of the

who
Socialists,

serious

seized

commotion

RESTORATION

PARTIAL

AND

FINAL

DISSOLUTION

119

[181"-1S45A.D.]

the
doctrines speedilyspread among
The
instruments
Galicia.
principal

enthusiastic
of

and

illiterate peasants

excitement

of

employed among
villageto villageas the missionaries
in some
had formerly done
parts of the AVest Indies,who inculcated the
had
abolished
been
doctrine that the corvee
seven
by the emperor
years
illegally
kept up by the seigneurs,who refused to carry his
before,and was
paternalintentions into effect. Thus the Galician insurrection acquires an
would
otherwise
have belonged to
not
importance in generalhistorywhich
first
of
of the socialists.
the
doctrines
the
it
for
practicalapplication
was
it;
in
existed
which
circumstances
Galicia
Two
peculiar
aggravated in a
the
serious degree
most
dangers,already sufficiently
great, arisingfrom the
and
doctrines
excitable peasantry.
an
ignorant
spread of such dangerous
among
of Jews who
the multitude
The first of these was
were
there,as elsewhere in
and who
monopolised nearly
Poland, settled in the chief towns and villages,
of
in
them.
The
situation
or
profit
importance
greater
part of their
every
derived
other intoxicating
from
the sale of spiritsand
emoluments
were
immoderately
liquors,to which the Poles, like all northern nations, were
The proprietorsand the priestshad long endeavoured
addicted.
to check
whole
consumed
the
stance
subthis propensity,which
there,as elsewhere,
nearly
of the working classes in debasing pleasures,
and considerable success
sufficient to set againstthem the whole
had attended their efforts. This was
body of the Jews.
which
The second circumstance
creased
aggravated the hostile passionsand inof disbanded
the dangers of Galicia was
the number
soldiers spread
through the province,who were
secretlyretained as a sort of disguisedpolice
As
the
levied in
the
by
government.
troops for the public service were
Ln
of
certain
but
not
number
Russia,
as
by ballot,
by a requisition a
Galicia,
for
from each landlord,they were
the
of
the
most
most
less
restcomposed,
part,
it was
and dangerous characters,
whom
deemed
advisable to get quit of
of these unscrupulous persons
had
in this manner.
been
Eight thousand
in the end of 1845; but the government, aware
disbanded
of the dangers
threatened
the province,and secretlydreading both the nobles and
which
peasants

emissaries

were

who

went

the

from

in their pay, and


them
the peasants, retained them
authorised
to seize and
authorities any persons
either party
to the Austrian
to
over
belonging
be
the
first
threaten
the
to
might
public tranquillity.Deeming the

hand
who

nobles

the

more

formidable,and

to embarrass

likelymost

the government,

these agents inculcated on


the peasants the belief that a general massacre
in contemplation,and
their guard
of them
well on
to keep themselves
was

against the

first

aggressivemovement
approaching

the conflict which


was
and the people.

Under
these circumstances
but the firstblow was
struck

on

the

in Galicia

collision at
the nobles.

no

part
was

of
not

distant

Driven

the landlords.
between

Thus

the government

periodwas
despairby

inevitable ;
the knowledge

by
the peasants, the}'organapproaching socialist insurrection among
ised
the
chief
a coup-de-mainagainstZarnow,
placeof the Communists, where
they hoped to be joined by the whole artisans,mechanics, and bourgeoisof
the province. The
at their disposal,
means
however, to effect this object
dred,
were
were
miserablyinadequate; the forces at their command
only two hunand
the Austrian
thousand
two
was
garrisonof Zamow
strong. The
national
and
party at Cracow
stronglys)Tnpathisedwith these movements,
did their utmost
the
into a generalinsurrection,
to expand them
over
extending
whole of Old Poland, and
re-establishment
which
in
the
terminate
might
of the national independence. Thas was
time threatthe country at the same
of

an

to

HISTORY

THE

120

OF

POLAND
tl845-l"46 A.D.]

encd

insurrection,and yet so strangelywere


ignorant of each other,that not only was
them.
there existed the most
deadly enmity between
with

double

movements

two

but

the leaders of the


there

concert,
nobles and

no

The

exasperatedagainstthe Austrian government,


ances,
petitionsand refused to redress their grievwere
than
they had been
against the nobles,by whom
had been intercepted
to them
led to believe the prodigalgiftsof the emperor
but the two
take
Both
to
concealed.
prepared
were
parties
up arms;
or
not prepared to fightin common
classes of insurgents were
againstthe government,

superiorclasses
which

had

were

not

more

long evaded
the peasantry

their

each

other

so

but to

massacre

the Aillageof
at
seignorialinsurgentsappointed their rendezvous
from
where
hundred
of
them
met
on
one
Zamow,
Lysagora, three leagues
The
cold
the
was
excessive,
ground
the night of the 19th of February.
and the conspirators,
who for the most
with snow,
covered
part arrived in
already almost frozen to death when they arrived,with their
sledges,were
But the governfallingfrom their hands, at the place of rendezvous.
ment
arms
of what
authorities were
was
going on, and at daybreak on the
aware
surrounded
by a greatlysuperiorforce
following morning the littleband was
and
armed
The conspirators,ignorant
of
Austrian
soldiers
peasants.
composed
laid down
their
of the intentions of the band by whom
were
surrounded,
they
but
comrades
fraternise
with
their
to
no
sooner
them;
callingupon
arms,
themselves
had they done so than the peasants threw
them, boimd
upon
whence
and
thrust
them
into
from
hand
and foot
them
a
they were
ceUar,
another
band
of
to Zarnow.
conveyed in wagons
Hearing of this disaster,
and
Ulikow
threw
their arms
dispersed:but they
conspiratorsnear
away
the greater part
were
pursued with unrelentingfurj-by peasants, by whom
These events, inconsiderable in themselves,
tracked out and cut down.
were
The

became

the

source

from

which

calamities

unnumbered

ensued

to

the whole

was
received,which it generallywas
province. Everwhere, when the news
attack
the peasants flew to arms, and commenced
with great exaggeration,
an
of the seigneursin their vicinity. By a refinement in cruelty
the chateaux
on
which
indicated
too
at work
clearlythe infernal agency
them, the
among

peasants of each

landlord,but

estate

were

directed,not

againstthat of the

agaui^t the chateau

neighbouring one, in order

that

of their
no

own

lingering

Under
feelingsof humanity might interfere with the work of destruction.
direction
it
in
such
a
ness,
completeproceeded with a rapidity,and terminated
which
might satisfythe most demoniacal
spirit.
During these horrors the effervescence in CYacow reached its climax. That
free to^"n had
long been the centre in which a general Polish insurrection
emissaries
was
were
organised,and from which the revolutionary'
despatched
in every direction throughout Lithuania
and Poland.
The original
movement,
terminated
which
with the leaders
concerted
so
disastrouslyin Galicia,was
of the committee
there,who had been fonnallyinstalled in power by the committees
in all parts of Poland
24th
of
the
and
the
insurrection
on
Januarj',
fixed for the 24th of February. These
was
definitely
preparations,and the
effervescence
which
d
id
the
notice of the consuls
general
not
prevailed,
escape
of the three powers
resident in Cracow, and so early as the 16th of February
of the senate
whether
they formally demanded
they could guarantee the
public tranquillity.They repliedthat they could do so from aU internal
from without ; and that if danger threatened
dangers, but not from such as came
from
that quarter, they abandoned
themselves
to the prudence of the
three residents.
Upon this a body of Austrian troops, under General Collin,
towards
marched
the town, and entered it on
the 18th.
The
conspirators

POLAND

OP

HISTORY

THE

123

[1848-1862 A.D.]

dreanis of winning back again her fallen independence; but if she did, those
and there was
nothing to indicate to the world
visions foimd
no
expression,
A few
regiments of militia,a few
that her ancient
spirityet survived.
the land which,
reserved battalions of inferior soldieryhad kept in check
Russian
the
had
on
haughtilychallenged
supremacy
twenty-fiveyears before,
of
of
tude
serviseemed
It
a
a
Grochow.
of
as
though
battlefield
century
quarter
had trampled out all hope and expectationfor the future,and as though

had

Russia

in

name,

ui

length succeeded
her vast
empire.
when

life
political

of freedom

champions

Polish soldier

The

own.

of

then

in arms;

was

raging, and she made

was

effort when

no

being trampled out to save a people


with
thought, was
intimatelyconnected
when
in
the
Russian
seen
marching
army
were

Gorgey capitulated.

fled and

Kossuth

as

of

her very gates the war


the strugglingliberties of Hungary
she might well have
whose
cause,
her

any

nation

At

sign.

no

indication

was
European
every
tion,
realisaenthusiasts found a momentary
political
nationalities were
everjTS'here
rousing themselves,the
of Poland ; but Poland
listened for the battle-cry
gave

dormant

when

well

as
virtually,

shown

Poland

had

Neither

almost

in 1848
visions

the wildest

when

incorporatingPoland

in

at

been

very remarkable,
to
whisper of disaffection had escaped them, nor was there any reason
believe that they hoped for a revival of national independence.
The establishment
out
at the beginning of 1863.
insurrection broke
But
an
of Italian independence,coincidingin time with the general unsettlethe first years of Alexander's
marked
and expectationof change which
ment
the
of
the Polish national leaders.
ill-fated
stirred
had
more
hopes
once
reign,
of repeated
the scene
A\'arsaw
of
the
1861
was
the
From
beginning
year
to
within
certain
a
ciliation.
The
policy of contumidts.
limits,
inclined,
czar
was
which
Poland
had
and
The
separate army
separate legislature

and

of the Polish soldiers had

the valour

the Crimea

In

no

"

possessedfrom

1815

willingto give Poland


offices in
the principal
close

of that

he

1830

to

determined

was

largedegree of

its

government
with

union

Russia

to

not

administrative

natives,and
had

which

restore

to

but
to

autonomy,

generallyto

been

enforced

he

was

confide

relax

thing
some-

by Nicholas
accompanied
the
satisfying

But the concessions of the czar,


the rebellion of 1831.
far from
of
acts
repressionand severity,were
by
as
they were
in the summer
in vain that Alexander
demantls of Polish patriotism. It was
establL'^hed
Constantine
to
his
brother
of 1862
Warsaw,
sent
as
viceroy

since

at
Pole,Wielopolski,

the head

tration,
of the adminis-

placed a
of Polish provincesby natives,
superseded all the Russian governors
and
districts
the right of electinglocal
the
and gave
to the munieipalities
in fact nothing,in comcouncils;these concessions .seemed nothing,and were
the Polish leaders claimed.
parL'ionwith the national independence which
Polish council of state,

situation

The

duke

grand

and

worse
grew
Constantine

worse.

An

attempt

made

his

the life of the

on

entry into Warsaw


discredited the Polish cause

during

was

but

one

among

and strengthened
which
a
the czar's attempts
tho.se who at St. Petersburg had from the firstcondemned
took the step which
At length the Ru.'jsian government
conciliation.
at
A
of
in
hundred
of the population
revolt.
two
one
levy
precipitated
every
series of similar acts

throughout

as

the

known

were

soldiers.

out,

so

empire
from

far

had

been

ordered

St.

Petersburg to
to
country populationwere

sent

were

Poland

the

to

be connected

This
as

it

with

terrible sentence

lay within

the

of 1862.

in the autumn

the effect that


be spared,and

in

raisingthe

tions
Instruc-

levy in

who
all persons
seized
the disorders in the towas
to be
were
carried
class was
against an entire political
power

of

that

the authorities,on

the

night of

PARTIAL
[1863-1863

14th,

January

of

houses
the

RESTORATION

its

and

the

into

themselves

guerillawarfare

armed

rumour

and

other

broke

before

But

1863.
victims

preceding hours,

Warsaw

AND

DISSOLUTION

FINAL

123

D.]

A.

the
of

the

during
Polish

bands,
out

the

night
into

towns

and

wherever

imperial

in

press-gang
blow
had

intended

the

Russian

of

the

the

14th,

troops

of
were

gone

There

the

next

found

the

abroad.

thousands

forests.

course

surrounded

fled

they
few

in

In

from

formed

days

sufficient

off their guard./


The
utterly vanquished.
end, however, the mutineers
were
ures
measthe
taken
with
by Russia
leading to the final incorporation of Poland
and
have
Russian
been
detailed
to
history,
sufficiently
empire belong properly
National
earlier volume
in an
(XVII).
feeling still exists in Poland, but the
"
powerful principality no longer exists as an autonomous
body politic.
once
agrarian policy," says
Fyffe,
"By the side of its life-givingand beneficent
of debarring
from
has
Poland
all means
"Russia
pursued the odious
system
of its own
with
and
associated
the use
of culture
language, and
improvement
has
aimed
at
into Russians
eventually turning the Poles
by the systematic
is essentially Polish
in thought,
and
extinction
of all that
impoverishment
and
in expression.
be
The
work
in sentiment,
to
not
beyond
one
may
prove
of
its
and
the
would
its power,
no
common
perversity on
part
government
in
who
Poland
all
be necessary
to
Russia
the
millions
turn
they
owe
against
of prosperity and
have
should
the excess
but
of
to the
independence
czar;
Russian
the hostility of church
distant
to church, at
propagandism,
some
or
this struggle will be
date
engender a new
struggle for Polish
independence,
Russia
than
those
of 1831
governed by other conditions
will,
one
or
1863, and
for the first time, have
class
but
the
Vistula
to
not
nor
a
a
city,
on
a
conquer

strength
In

nation."

or

the

HISTORY

THE

REFERENCE-LIST

BRIEF

OF

letter

[The

Chapter

A.

S.

Period

Present

I"J.
"IJ.

Zenith

Fletcher,
A.

Years

Earliest

Poland.

J.

Editorial

Matter]

(till

Fletcher,

The

a.d.)

1385

oj Poland

History

"

Decline

and

History

of

Histoire

Thou,

DE

"

for

CHAPTERS

BY

from

the

Earliut

de

Poland.

Time.

II.

Chapter

of

The

POLAND

AUTHORITIES

reserved

is

"

I.

History

Dunham,
the

to

OF

(1386-1696

Poland.

cC.

C.

de

"

Rulhiere,

eS.

Temporis.

sui

a.d.)

A.

"

FAnarchie

Histoirede

Dunham,

History

Kingdom

(1696-1796

of

Poland.

/Jaues
"

SOBIESKI.

Chapter

I"J.

Fletcher,

History

Histoire

The

III.

de

of

I'Anarchie

Extinction

Poland.

op

cS.

A.

Dunham,

"

de

Poland.

"

the

History

Richard

of

Ropell,

Poland."

Polen

/.Adolphe

Beer,

"

"

AOginski,

Memoires

Chapter

t"S.

History
History

IV.

A.

Dunham,

of

Europe."

of

Modern

la

sur

Partial

Die

Pologne

of

A.

Day,

Europe.

et

les

and

":
"

Russian

"

George

Weber,

depuis

Final

Meyer's

1788

jusqu'd

Dissolution

fin

de

des

a.d.)

Lexicon.

A.

"

in

Poland,

hiere,
Rul-

de

1815.

(1796-1863

Konversations

Government

la

C.
milte

WellgeschichU.

"

Polonais

Poland.
The

Polens.

Theilung

Restoration

History
*W.

Ersle

dC.
die

um

"

Jahrhundert.

a.d.)

etc."fC.

A.

Alison,
Ftffe,

18.

BOOK

BALKAN

THE

II
AND

STATES

CHAPTER

THE

RISE

AND

MODERN

DEVELOPMENT

ORIGINAL

GREECE

OF

INHABITANTS

OF

RUMANIA*

RUMANIA

The

of the country called Macedonia, to the south of


possessionby Rome
the Balkans, and of the country called by ihem Moesia,now
Bulgaria,led them
the
the paramount
in time into conflict with
people immediately across
Danube.
These
the Dacians, who
inhabiued
the country at present
were
known
by its tripartite
designationWallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania,
and

who

The

under

people of the Balkans

the

name

of the Geta?

found

were

to

the south

of the Danube.

in
even
during the Greek period had come
proper
impressed
their
had
capital;but,
captured
great Philip

with them.
The
he not only
with the earnestness
and the bravery of the inhabitants,
married
the
concluded a speedy peace and alliance with the nation,but
daughter
in
of the Getic king. Queen Meta.
Lysimachus, who succeeded Alexander
Thrace, tried to punish them for aiding his rebel subjects in Moesia. He
contact

was

conquered,however, by the Getic king,and

heavy fine

was

he allowed

coin of Macedonia

to

return

occasionallyturns

to his
up

to

own

only

on

country.

the Rumanian

the payment

of

To-day the golden


plough."

March
1 3, 1904,
['At a mpetinj; of the Rumanian
on
Keoprapliicalsociety held at Bukliarcst
in
made
by KiiiR Cliarles,a protest was
presided over
against the inchision of Rumania
that
Peninsula and learned and scientific proofs were
Balkan
to show
brought forward
neither peologically, etlinologically,
of the Balkan
form
nor
one
politically does Rumania
of
states.
We
include
it in the present Book
with
controversial
not
intent, but as a matter
and
the

convenience.]
125

THE

126

STATES

BALKAN

CxREECE

MODEEN

AND

[" 10A.D.)

History has

and

concerning the Dacians

preserved little information

the

It represents them, however, as a people just,sober, as eminently


dain
for disfor love of libertyand
and warlike, as a people renowned
religious
and inconsolable exile of Tomes, describes
of life. Ovid, the immortal
of Greeks
them as follows : Although the people of this country are a mixture
Getse.

"

Sarof the latter predominates. It is mostly Getan


or
and Geta;, the race
roadis.
is
and
in
the
There
not
that
cavaliers
one
sees
matian
going
coming
and
his
his
does
not
who
of
them
arrows
dipped in
quiver,
bow,
one
carry
have
the
of
the venom
rough voices,savage features,and are a
viper. They
They cut neither their hair nor their beards,
strikingimage of the god Mars.
their hand

and

barbarian

wears

is

always prompt

at

his belt."

to

The

use

dagger, which

the nmrderous

poet adds:

have

"They

laws

no

every

which

with them justicecedes to force,and the law bends and disappears


In another place he observes: "There
the sword."
are
very few
hold the
cultivate
the
and
those
unfortunates
who
dare
here
to
fields,
people
helmet
and
it
is
sword
with
the
with
with
hand
the
on
other;
a
one
plough
he
"is
that the shepherd plays his pipes. The
his head
sword,"
repeats,
of justice." One
must
here the instrument
remember, however, in order to
the complaints of an
the severityof his judgment, that these are
moderate

they respect;
under

exile,who

misses Rome
people which

and

is

trying to

move

Csesar to

pity his

lot.

in its
]\Iars as
a
common
ancestor, which
souls
and
of
in
with
believed
the
migration
arrows,
anger
of the rigidsj'stem of the stoics
in immortality;disciples
a
system which
of- the body to the mind
and will,the consideration
teaches the submission

This

even

regarded

defied heaven

"

of virtue as the supreme


good, and vice as the only evil the Dacian people
celebrated of their sages
in bronze.
seemed
to be cast
Zamolxis, the most
had taught them
the end of a miserable
to regard death
and legislators,
as
This belief it was
of
existence.
dawn
eternal
the
and transitorylife,as
an
"

that caused them to shed tears on a cradle and to dance about


heroes of all the Dacians. c
of life tended to make
in primeval times there had
the Geta? or Dacians
Among

coffin.

Scorn

associated

been

having
of the gods in distant
travel in foreign
explored the ways and wonders
of the Egyptian
lands,and having thoroughly studied in particularthe wisdom
of
and
the
Greek
had
returned
his
native
to
Pythagoreans,
priests
country
in a cavern
He
of the "holy mountain."
to end his life as a pious hermit
accessible only to the king and his servants, and gave forth to the
remained
king and through him to the people his oracles with reference to every important
at first as priestof
undertaking. He was regarded by his coimtrymen
the supreme
god and ultimatelyas himself a god, just as it is said of Moses
that the Lord had made
and Aaron
Aaron
the prophet and Moses the god of
the prophet. This had become
a permanent
institution;there was
regularly
associated with the king of the Getse such a god, from
whose
mouth
thing
everywhich the king ordered proceeded or appeared to proceed. This peculiar
the

with

king

of the

people a holy

constitution,in which

apparently absolute

man

the theocratic
of

who,

idea had

subservient

become

after

to

the

of

the
king, probably gave
kings
power
.such
with
had
their
some
position
caliphs
subjectsas
respect to
with respect to the Arabs : and one
result of it was
the marvellous
religiousof the nation, which was
reform
the time of Julius
carried out about
political
Cajsar by the king of the Geta", Boerebistes,
The
and the god Dekaeneos.
fallen into utter
people,which had morally and politically
decay through
GetaJ

the

called Zamolxis,

to

the
the

unexampled drunkenness, was as it were


metamorphosed by the
valour;with his bands under the influence,
so

of temperance and

new

to

gospel
speak, of

AND

RISE

THE

DEVELOPMENT

OF

RUMANIA

127

pO-173 A.r.]

and enthusiasm, King


discipline
puritanic

mighty kingdom,

years

reached

and

southward

which

far into

Boerebistes

founded

both

cxtendctl

along
Thrace, lUyria,and

banks

within

a few
Danube

of the

Noricum.^

Caesar and

between
took sides in the war
Antony, and Augustus
wise enough to make
friends with this powerwas
becoming emperor
ful
of Boerebistes the title of "friend
peopleand conferred upon the successors
to have
been
and ally of the Roman
people." This title does not appear
taken very seriously
by the Dacians, and we hear of various incursions made
the river from
provinceof Moesia,which was across
by them into the Roman
In the year
69 a.d.
them.
were
repulsed by Vespasian. The nation
they
of
material
entered upon
a
new
path
prosperity under a king called DeceBoerebistes
upon

In the }'ear 86

balus.
to

the

Balkans,

until

a.d.

Decebalus

the

emperor

invaded
Domitian

Mcesia

and

himself

was

drove

the Romans
forced to march

intrusted to Julian,who defeated the Dacians


The campaign was
againsthim.
in a placecalled Tappie and besiegedtheir capital,
Sarmizcgethusa,the modern
Domitian
concluded, in which
promised
Varhely. A treaty of peace was
tribute to the Dacian
to pay an annual
king. In spiteof this dishonourable
and
returned
with the title king of Dacia
brated
celeto Rome
treaty Domitian
did
the
not
deceive
the
to
true
a triumph, which, however,
people as
of
state
things.
THE

Trajan'saccession
In
of the Dacians.
them
against

and

in the

ROMAN

to the throne

another

part

PERIOD

in 98
of the

a.d.

resultingin the conversion


erection of Trajan'sColunm.

reliable records of civUisation


After the second
suicide. The

new

have

era

in the

read

of his

of Dacia into
This colunm
is

the Dacians.

a
one

history
tions
expedi-

Roman
of

our

province
most

"

of

Decebalus, this last king of the Dacians committed


followed by the dispersion
of
or extermination
his people,which in its despairpreferreddeath to captivity.About
the year
106 of our
era
Trajan established his legionsin the conquered country and
repeopledit with colonists taken from the different provinces of the empire.
These divided the land among
themselves
"fraternally":the expressionis
of
for he introduced
historical. Trajan'swork
into the
was
one
regeneration,
and
Roman
laws
civilisation.
He
founded
schools
and
new
province
cities,
constructed forts,
aqueducts,streets,and militaryroads,the traces of which
and wondered
founded
stillbe seen
under
at to-day. Never
was
a nation
may
favourable auspices. One should study Trajan'slife in order
happieror more
have controlled
to appreciatethe liberal and
progressivespiritwhich must
of the new
the establishment
and organisation
province. His reign,according
that rare
could think
to Tacitus, was
epoch in the empire when everyone
Dacia colonised by the
what he pleasedand say what he thought. Thus
was
A large number
of its ancient
Latins.
cities were
restored and many
new
towns

defeat

among

marks

historywe

event

was

arose.

the

lifetime of its founder

during the reign of Adrian this


in the empire. This state of things
province was one of the most flourishing
continued
incursions
of barbarians
until the incessant
finallycompromised
the existence
of the Trajan colony. Gallienus
it.
was
obliged to abandon
If the testimony of Pomponius may
be accepted,it was
reconquered by the
Claudius, and this was
probably the case, since under Aurelian it
emperor
stilla part of the empire. Aurelian, being unable to oppose
was
a sufficient
barrier to the ever-increasing
floods of barbarians, who
were
threateningto
and
the
whole
of
able
engulf
despairing being
longer to retain the
empire,
During

and

STATES

BALKAN

THE

128

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[173-453 A.D.]

to withdraw

province,decided

of the colonists.
When
the necessities of

his

legionsdefinitively,
together with

defence,says

Amedee

successeurs,
the Roman
to retract

part

Thierry {Histoired'Attila

Paris, 1856, I, pp. 248, 249), obliged the

et ses

emperor

Aurelian

Danube, he opened a place of refugefor


colonists on the rightbank of the river,in a provincialsubthe Daco-Roman
division
which
from
of
to
he
McEsia,
a
through feeling regret
separated
gave
of these trans-Danubian
of Dacia; but a large number
colonists
the name
their country.
refused to abandon
the
They remained as they could among
which
towards
the
Danube
nations
from
the
Gothic
banks of
were
advancing
frontier

to

the

the Dniester, c
the least WalStOl proud of the glory of the ancient Roman
conquerors,
from
the patriciansof Rome.
lachian
peasant considers himself descended
Several of his customs, those at the birth of children,
at marriages,at funeral
ceremonies, stillrecall those of the Romans; the dance of the Caluchares,he
is nothing else than that of the Salian priests. The Wallachian
likes
he attributes whatever
talk of his "father" Trajan, to whom
he finds that
is great in his country
and road,
not
only the ruins of bridge,of fortress,
but natural phenomena which other peoples might attribute to a Roland, a

says,
to

"

Fingal,or to divine or
opened by the sword

"thunder

is the

summit

defile in the mountains


breaks loose from
Trajan; the avalanche
of Trajan"; even
the IMUky Way
has become

infernal
of

Many

powers.

which

was

the
the

"road of Trajan"; during the course


of centuries the apotheosishas become
for the representative
of his nation,
complete. Having choseit the old emperor
the Rumanian
refuses to consider the Getie and Dacians
his ancestors
as
; he
knows
the Goths were, and if it is true that he is related to them
not what
in origin,
it is certain that he has ceased to resemble
them, except perhaps in
the mountains, where one
itants
inhabsuch
the original
as
frequentlysees big men,
have

been, with blue eyes and long fair hair. But in their grace
the
rnountaineers
well as the inhabitants of the Danubian
suppleness
as
differ
from northern peoples and approach more
plains
nearly the peoplesof
the south."
must

and

BARBARIAN

For

country

about
was

century

overrun

by

after
one

(274-1250

INVASIONS

Dacia

barbarian

had

been

horde

A.D.)

abandoned

after

another.

by Aurelian the
During all this

however,the

of the Roman
descendants
colonists,in their mountain
their
character
and
language. Some historians believe that
retreats,preserved
all the colonists left the country at the time of Aurelian, and that thej^did
to the regionnorth of the Danube
until the worst
of the barbarian
not
return

time,

domination

The prevailingopinion, however, is that at least some


was
over.
of these early settlers remained
in the country during all the
representatives
successive periods of invasion.
The Rumanians
especiallyinsist upon this
that the question of nationalitycannot
view; it must, however, be admitted
be solved by their venlict.
Their descent from
those Roman
colonists is
better proved by their language,which, as one
historian has it,"betrays its
originon every page of its grammar."
The first rulers in "Trajan's Dacia"
after its abandonment
by the Romans
who
the
remained
for
until
the
about
were
Goths,
a
376, or
century.
year
The chief event
the brief Roman
during this period was
occupation of the
and the introduction
of Christianity
the
country under Constantine
among
The
latter
Goths.
were
superseded by the Huns."
At the death of the greatest chief of the Huns
(Attila,in 453) his exten-

GREECE

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

130

[800-1290 A.D.]

succumbed

to the weapons

Before the end of the eighth century the Avars


At the beginning of the ninth century a Finnish
tribe,the
of the Franks.
tlie
advanced
seized
with
black
impulse,
migratory
Ugrians,
being
or
Magyars
to be the scourge./ In
the west, of which
the Ural towards
from
they were
lands they
the Bulgarians,whose
the pay of the Byzantines,they attacked
of their plunderingraids,until the latter in desperationcalled
the scene
made
of the Hungarians, the "wild
the old enemies
Petchenegs," to aid them.
the latter were
broke into the territoryof the Magyars at a time when
human
all
killed
the
beings they found, and took
engaged upon a new raid,
From
the Petchenegs occupied
land
and
of their
now
on
property.
pos.session
on

These

The Hungarians, however, deprived


the Danube
to the Don.
the land from
and Pannonia
with great destruction.^
Moravia
of their country, fell upon
succeeded
The Petchenegs were
race
by the Kumani, a people of the same
themselves, and speaking nearly the same
language. We frequentlyhear
as
the Byzantines and
with the strugglesbetween
of the latter in connection
French
In
aided
1239
a
marching to the assistance
they
Bulgarians.
army
and while their best troops were
absent on this
of Constantinople,
attacked
and
the
Tatars.
The
their
conquered by
country was
expedition
after
and
their
latter did not remain
departure,the
long in these regions,
the
to form
of the Kumani
being destroyed,the lands whicl were
power
of Wallachia
and MoldaA^a
at last free from foreign
future principalities
were
of Baldwin

oppression.

FORMATION

For

OF

about

the country

north

About

the mountains
that

name

is

and
never

Tsara

Munteneasca
The
Rumans").
word
Welsh, and

OF

PRINCIPALITIES

W.VLLACHIA

AND

MOLDA^^A

invaders
departure of the barbarian
of the Danube
of whom
ruled by petty chiefs,
no
was
one
at first occupied chieflyby
authority. The plains were

fiftyyears

acquired extended
Slavic peoples,for
moimtains.

THE

after the final

the descendants
of the old Roman
1290 Radlu
Negru, or Rudolf the
founded

known
principality

the

colonists

Black,came
as

in the
dowTi from

were

Wallachia, although

used

in the country itself,


the natives
callingtheir land
of
Tsara
Romaneasca
("land
("land of
mountains") or

name

Walach

or

represents the

\nach

has

the

same

appellationgiven by

the
Teutons

originas
the

English
to

the

provincialsthey found in the countries overrun


by them, Walach
word.
being the Slavonic adaptationof the same
According to Roesler, the
Wallachian
people is met with sporadicallythroughout the whole Balkan
Roman

Peninsula.
Not long after the foundation
of the Wallachian
a Rumanian
principalitj',
colony,under the leadershipof a chief called Dragosh,coming from the mountainous
driven by Hungarian
regions of Transylvania, whence
they were
These
of Moldavia.
oppression,founded the principality
two
principalities
existed side by side, through all the vicissitudes of Turkish
dominion, until
united under one king. They were
1859, when they were
governed by separate
called
of succession
princes,
voyevods, who ruled absolutely. The manner
to the throne
the source
of repeated civil strife.
of the
was
Any member
reigningfamily had the right to succeed, subject to election by the nation.
This election took placein an assembly of the chief nobles and clergy,
and was
afterwards submitted
to ratification by the populace,who
their
vote by
gave
acclamation.
If the princeleft only one
but
all went
when
the
son
ber
numwell,
was
also admitted
the country
plural the claim of natural sons was
"

"

THE

RISE

AND

DEVELOPMENT

war.

The

OF

RUMANIA

131

[138"-1391A.D.]

plunged

was

into

civil

in the army
position

boyars

nobles

or

of

and

in the administration
warrior, and that
signifies

occupied

prominent

government."

the original
character of
The name
was
boyar
the proprietors although not
the institution. The boyars were
exclusively
force of the nation ; those inhabitants
and the armed
who were
of the soil,
"

"

without
proprietors

the

their habitual
carryingof arms
profession
and medjiasiin Moldavia.
instructive for us to follow the
or
especiallyinteresting
each successive princewho ruled in the two principalities.

making

called mosueni
be
It would
not

were

in Wallachia

varying fortimes of
Only here and there does
exploitsor by
by personal

one

Such

princewas

with

wars

rise above

THE

Mircea

the

the Turks.

the level and


which

circumstances

MIRCEA

for his

(1386-1418

GREAT

Great, who

The

brought

Rumanians

attract

him

our

into

attention

prominence.

A.D.)

in 1386, and

arose

had

already

come

is celebrated
in contact

the latter at the battle on the Maritza,fought in 1364, for the recovery
the Wallachians
under
their prince Alexander
Bessaof Adrianople,when
raba fought side by side with the Servians and Hungarians.
The Christian
with

at

was

army

that

time

completely defeated.

In

1389

Mircea

allied himself

with King Lazar of Servia in the battle of Kosovo, where the


outnumbered
by their Christian opponents, delivered them a
to punish Mircea
years later they crossed the Danube
The Rumanian
in the battle.
forces had been weakened

Two
at

Kosovo

this time

; Mircea
on

was

Wallachia

taken

captiveand

is entered

on

the

Turks, although
crushingdefeat.
for his participation
by their losses

in Asia Minor.
From
the
Porte
o
f
Ottoman
as
registers

sent

to Brusa

tributaryto Turkey.
The

treaty concluded

between

that the latter stillretained


reads

"

Sultan

Bayazid

its independence. The

and

the principality
shows
firstarticle in that treaty

quered
By our great clemency we consent that the principality
recentlyconby our invincible force may govern itselfafter its own
laws,and that
and the right
the princeof Wallachia shall have the rightto make
war
or peace
his subjects. But," the treaty goes on to say (Article5),
of lifeor death over
of this high clemency and because
"on account
have written this rajah
we
of
perial
imthe
list
held
he
shall
be
to
our
subjects,
princeon
pay armually to our
red
of
the
500
silver
of
piasters
piasters our
treasury 3,000
country or
not of long duration,and upon
money." The captivityof the prince was
his return he made
alliance with the king of Himgary, hitherto his enemy,
an
but who now
land from
the Turkish
began to realise the danger to his own
advance.
The alliance was
for the purpose
of defending the two countries in
of an attack by the Turks, and it was
followed before long by the battle
case
of Nikopoli.
Besides the Rumanians, Sigismund, king of Hungary, had for his support
six thousand
knightssent by Charles VI of France to fightagainstthe Turks.
The Christian knights felt so sure
selves
of success, that instead of preparing themfor fighting
they gave themselves up to enjoyment. Froissart says that
the Turks surprisedthem at table,
whence
they had to drag themselves painfully
to their horses."
They were
completelyrouted, and Mircea, perceiving
the hopelessness
of the combat, left the field of battle and returned
chia.
to WallaHe was
followed by the Turks, but this time they were
not so successful,
Mircea forcingthem
to retreat
with great slaughter. After the capture of
Sultan Bayazid by Timur
the Tatar, we
find Mircea activelysupporting the
"

THE

132

BALKAN

AND

STATES

MODERN

GREECE
[1391-1474 A.D.]

of Bayazid. When, however,


son
empire reunited under his brother
Mircea
obligedagain to bend his neck to the Turkish yoke.
was
Muhammed,
Poland,
had been in a positionof dependency upon
time
this
Moldavia
during
a
treaty also with
and before Mircea's alliance with Hungary he had made
prince. This
the king of Poland, through the intervention of a Moldavian
the friendship
have
to
his
found
it
to
altered
when
Mircea
advantage
treaty was
of Hungary.
The great Rumanian
died in 1418.
This first great prince of Wallachia
remarkable
"He
is
of
the
him:"
most
figures
one
Xenopol,? says of
historian,
which he
The country over
in the historyof the Rumanian
principalities.
the
reigned being still entire and intact, the positionof this prince among
surrounding countries was very important. That is why we see him turning
to suit his policy,concluding with his ancient
the great kingdom of Poland
of
the
a
Hungary,
suzerain,
treaty on terms of equality,and playing a
king
internal
in
the
role
Enipire. Mircea
strugglesof the Ottoman
preponderant
tions
whose relaskilful
also
he
politician,
a
was
not
was
only a great captain,
very
the sea of Marmora
from
to the kingdom of Poland."
extended

claims
Musa

to the

was

throne

of Musa,

deposed and

VLAD

THE

the second
the

killed,and

IMPALER

A.ND

STEPHEN

THE

GREAT

and Moldavia
of Wallachia
until 1456 both the principalities
to the
and dissensions caused by rival claimants
torn
were
by internal wars
throne, which undid all the work of Mircea and his predecessors. The Turks,
them
the
in addition to increasingthe monetary
tax, had imposed upon
children for the corps of janissaries.But at the
human
tax of five hundred
whose characters stand out in bold relief.
end of that time two princesarose
lachia,
and Vlad the Impaler in Walin
Moldavia
the
Great
These were
Stephen
deserved."
well
too
whose horrible cognomen,
it appears, was
only
His favourite amusement
was
impaling,and he liked best to dine with his
From

1418

ambassadors
Turkish
turbans
to be nailed to
refused to salute him with bared head, he caused their
faithful
to the
their heads with three nails,so that they should sit firmer,
of their fathers.
He one
custom
day invited all the beggars in the country
them all alive.
he burned
to a banquet, and after they had eaten and drmik
court

closelysurrounded

by impaled Turks.

When

hundred
Four
people
joy was to witness executions en 7nasse.
young
Hungary and Transylvaniawho had been sent to Wallachia to learn the
from Burzenland
burned together;six hundred
merchants
were
language were
had
of
whom
he
in
Wallachian
the
five
hundred
nobles,
spitted
market-place;
able
not
to
correct
the
that
give
were
they were
impaled,on
ground
suspicions,
of inhabitants in their districts.''
statistical information concerningthe number
Vlad commenced
hostilities with the Turks by refusingto pay the tribute
of two
hundred
children.
His first move
to impale a company
of five
was
of
thousand
II in the guise
sent
an
embassy, although
men
by Muhammed
if possible.Muhammed
to take Vlad by surprise
the real objectof their mission was
of
then
marched
against him in person, accompanied by an army
with which he
and fiftythousand, as large,it is said,as the one
two hundffHl
conquered Constantinople. Vlad, liavinghiiiLselfspiedout the enemy's camp,
But he did not
attacked it by night,routingthe Turks
with great confusion.
long enjoy the fruits of his victory,being attacked and deposed by Stephen of
he himself had placed on
the throne by helpinghim to overthrow
Moldavia, whom
had killed Stephen'sfather.
Peter Aaron, who
It is a curious feature
His

from

chief

THE

RISE

OF

DEVELOPMENT

AND

RUMANIA

133

[1474-1475i.D.]

that their internal jealousiesalways


preventedthem from making a united front againstthe invadingTurk, and we
each other instead
find them again and again expending their forces in fighting
to the throne
of joiningagainstthe common
Stephen the Great came
enemy.
in the

historyof

the different Balkan

states

in 1457 and ruled for nearlyfifty


of Moldavia
years, being engaged in repeated
the throne of Wallachia,
Vlad's
warfare.
successor
on
Radul,
By deposing
he drew upon himself the enmity of the Turks."
be explainedonly by his warthe part of Stephen can
This bold move
like
on
his
and
and enterprising
he
at
undertakings
nothing,
character;
stopped

had

until then

been

crowned

with

brilliant

success.

He

Poles,beaten the Hungarians, Wallachians, and Tatars.


ning
vanquish also the Turks ? His firstacts, beginwith his aggressionagainstVlad and the
inflicted on the Tatars,whom
cruel treatment

had

intimidated
the
should
he
not
Why

irritated against himself


to no
purpose,
followed
show that Stephen in hLs first years
the voice of passion rather than that of reason.
fested
manifirst
at
His future
genius was
he

by his impulsiveness. He did not find


mature
his equilibriumuntil later,when
age
brought him lessons of experience,together
with

the calm

of

reason.

Knowuig that he would be attacked bj'the


when
Turks, he began to look about for allies,
find
him
to
at
came
an
unexpected embassy
The
who
his capitalof Sutchana.
Venetians,
with the Turks, having sent Paul
at war
were
Omeubonum
to the king of Persia,
on
a mission
Uzren Hassan, the latter charged the Venetian
ambassador
his return
to Europe to go
to
on
and
the princeof Moldavia
give him a letter
in which he begged Stephen to take the initiative
in a Christian coalition againstthe Turks.
bonum,
Stephen seized the occasion to charge Omeuin his turn, with
a
petitionto the
him
him
form
with
ance
to
a holy allipope, asking
in
order that we
againstthe Ottomans,
"

may

not

be

Omeubonum

alone
had

in

fightingthem."

only reached

Braila

when

But

Officeh

of

the

Janissaries

an

and twenty thousand


hundred
Ottoman
ing
men
strong, without countarmy, one
the contingentof Laiote Bessaraba, whom
Stephen had placed on the
throne of Wallachia
in placeof Radul, flooded Moldavia, under the command

of

Solyman
Stephen
of
Szeklers,

Pasha.
had
only

forty thousand
Moldavians, aided by five thousand
gary,
hundred
had been sent by the king of Hunonly eighteen
addition
mercenaries
in
in
to
the rest being recruited as
Transylvania,
thoasand
Poles sent
two
IV.
by King Casimir
However, by a successful
the
stratagem, he defeated the Turks on January 14th, 1475, at Rakova, near
river Berlad ; he killed twenty thousand
of them, and took one
hundred
flags;
four pashas and a large number
of prisonersfell into his hands.
What
was
left of the vanquishecldid not even
reach the Danube.
Stephen celebrated
his victoryby building a church, prescribinga fast of forty days, and by
impalingthe prisoners. Their victorywas a feat of arms hitherto unexampled
whom

BALKAN

THE

134

AND

STATES

GREECE

MODERN

[1475-1476

thanksgivingsfor

arose

the

Venice, which heard


hastened
Omeubonum,

the

of

the senate

lipsof Paul

of the Christian

triumph
to

that

the first time

It was
Turks
and Christians.
in the fightbetween
drawn
of
battle
such importance ;
had lost a
Turks
all the more
keenly becaase their antagonistswere
armed.
They well realised that their prestigehad

D.]

the

they felt its humiliation


simply peasants rudely
suffered.

On

The

cause.

all sides

country and

of their brilliant victoryfrom

news

A.

congratulateStephen.

the

Si.xtus IV saluted

Athlete of Christ.
the name
of praisethere resounded
nevertheless a discordant note;
the concert
which
did
of
wish
that
to let its pretended vassal mount
it was
not
Hungary,
could not forgetits defeat at Baja and the cession of two
too high,and who
fortresses to Transylvania. Hence
Hungarian historians take sides with the
with

him

In

King Matthias did more:


giving
princeof Moldavia, he obtained
with the
from
the holy Chair an important subsidy for carryingon the war
all
interests
of
used
it
in
his
the
state.
but
particular
Turks,
Stephen, believingthat he had acquired a title to the gratitudeof the
Christian world and the rightto be aided,asked help from
Hungary as well
Turks

the defeat of the latter.


the suzerain of the
or

to attenuate

himself out

to the pope

At the same
time he
his request should reach.
and
to aid
to Venice asking these two
to the pope
sent special
powers
envoys
Venice excused herself on the groimd of not being able
with their subsidies.
that he had
told Stephen's ambassadors
to do so; the pope
for the moment
These
sadors,
ambasof
the
their
the
to
suzeram
King
Matthias,
prince.
given
money
as

which

all countries

from

whom
Stephen had taken into
priestsfrom Moldavia
of gaining the good will of the pope,
the very purpose
tested
proagainsttheir prince being considered a vassal,and gave the senate at
that in case
their master
should not be assisted he would
Venice to understand
tians.
and
would
make
with the infidels
even
ally himself against the Chrispeace
Catholic

two

for

his council

sador
ambasVenetian senate, alarmed
at this prospect, sent
a special
to Stephen, called Emanuel
Gerado, who was charged to follow every
step of Stephen's,to fan his ardour with fine words, and to hinder him at
mats
price from making an agreement with the sultan. The subtle diploany

The

had understood
Stephen's character perfectlyand
inclined to listen with pleasure to wortls of praise,which
prompt to take fire from fine words, of which
; that he was

knew

of Vienna

he

was

merited

sparing;and

would

was
by no means
envoy
rather perishthan submit

The
with

Laiote

so

Venethe tian
he
that
independence

of

yoke.

Turks, bent upon


avenging their defeat, invaded Moldavia
anew,
largerarmy, augmented as on the first occasion by the troops of
and by the Tatars,who were
Bessaraba
at the very
to invade Moldavia
that the Turks

and

pope

at

and

the Turks.
He wished

crossed

the

Venice, everywhere he

Hungary

in the event
Tlie
to

feared

for

that

oppose

their

Stephen
prince was
the crossingof

Moldavian

As

Danube.
asked

had

been

second

to

Turks

of all

means

of

the
closed doors.

none

the

the

succeed

time

in

over

davia
Mol-

defeating

less determined

to

resist.

peasants in his
of the Tatars, asked leave of

Danube,

but

the

fearingfor their homes from an invasion


Stephen to go and place their families in safety. They
Stephen, left with only his cavalry,numbering ten thousand
the defence of the river,and, after having devastated
his own
the Turks

his fate with

found

for aid

Stephen
pretensionsto sovereignty

.should

anny,

The

that

in fact

still

moment

Poland

to

fond

he

subsistence,retired to

Rasboeni, a clearingwhich he turned into


pursued him, and, discoveringthe retreat

never

men,

forest

returned.
abandoned

country
north

prive
to dedavia,
of Mol-

improvised fortres.s.
an
of the Moldavians, after

EISE

THE

DEVELOPMENT

AND

OF

EUMANIA

135'

[1476-1513A.D.]

several desperateattacks succeeded

dislodgingthem (1476). Stephen was


to Poland,where he soon
collected
undertook
determined
with
which
he
the
a
against
campaign
new
a
army
nated,
decimated
by famine and sickness. This campaign termiTurks, who were
like the first one, in complete ruin of the Turkish
forces;arrived near
with fury, threw them
them
into confusion,
the Danube, Stephen attacked
into the river.
and cast their remains
Profitingby his victory,he advanced
the faitlJess Laiote Bessaraba, and
the same
year into Wallachia,dethroned
Vlad
the
who
him
was
Impaler,
livingat the court of Matthias
by
replaced
in
of
died
Vlad
after
1477
but
Corvinus ;
a reign
a few months.
that
he
could
the Moldavian
not
princeby a
Bayazid II, seeing
conquer
of which
the Turks
direct attack, decided to employ the system by means
with Mircea the Great.
He desired to gain possessionof the
had succeeded
vanquished but

in

discouraged. He

not

went

he seized Kilia and Cetatea Alba


time two great gates of Moldavia
(1484).
them; but so many
Stephen performed the impossiblein his efforts to save
had
successive invasions
almost
completely ruined the country. Stephen
had to repulsenearly every year invasions of the Turks, who
were
supported
In
had
them
he
drive
to
out
the
an
they
just
place
conquered.
by
attempt
fortress

Danube;

of the lower

(Akierman),

which

were

at

the

to

this end

same

decided

of Poland, a thing which he


to yieldpersonalhomage to King Casimir
when Stephen was
had hitherto constantly avoided.
At the moment
kneeling
of
the
before
the
the
the
felland he was
tent
on
ground
king,
hangings
exposed
in that humiliatingposition. As the priceof
to the view of the whole army
this sacrifice he received only a derisive support of four thousand
wholly
men,
insufficient for the reconquest of his fortresses.
Casimir's successor, John (I) Albert (1492-1501), shortlyafter his accession
to the throne came
to an
cessor,
imderstanding with Matthias Corvinus' sucZadislaus,to overthrow
Stephen and to divide his coimtry. Albert
invaded Moldavia, but Stephen, who had many
and
desertions,
humiliations,

treacheries to avenge,
attacked
the Poles at the moment
when
they were
of
in
the
forest
which
had
been
half
caused
advance
trees
cut
crossing
Gosinen,

them, and completely routetl their army (1497). He pursued the


the whole country with fire and blood,
vanquished as far as Lemberg, filling
and takingone
hundred
thousand captives. The king proposed to make peace ;
all traces of vassaldom
disappearedin the treaty (1499).
For Stephen,the great thought of hLs lifehad been the struggleagainstthe
had abandoned
him to his fate; had
Turks.
The princes of the Occident
attacked him behind while he was
He turned
facing the common
enemy.
in
towards the north,hoping to find there more
a league
forming
support
eager
to
To succeed
it was
establish
concord
against the Ottomans.
necessary
to

fall upon

between

and
the Tatars and Russians and between
the Russians
the Lithuanians.
when he believed he had succeeded,an intrigue
At the very moment

ried
grand prince of Moscow, whose son had mara daughter
Stephen, compromised the alliance between Moldavia antl
Moscow.
fruitless in this direction also.
Stephen'sefforts were
The princeof Moldavia
was
seventy-one years old : his forces were
spent ;
which he had received at the siegeof Kilia in 1462, and which he
a wound
had never
had time to care
death,
for,became
Being so near
gangrenous.
he advised his son
tian
and successor, Bogdan, in view of the fact that the Chrishis
him and had showed
him bad faith,to make
princeshad abandoned
submission to the Turks (1504). He well knew
that with him
perished the
which
only arm
independence. Bogdan, in
might have saved Moldavian
1513 (a century after the submission of Wallachia),of his own
free will sent

at

the court

of Ivan
of

the Great,

MODERX

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

136

GREECE
[15iy-luJ7l..D.]

Constantinopleto offer his recognitionof Ottoman


have erected at Jassy, the ancient
suzerainty. In our days the Moldavians
right in so
capital of Moldavia, a statue to Stephen the Great; they were
of
incarnation
their
the
for
nationality.
was
highest
Stephen
doing,
the

Tautu
logotliete

The

to

had
Rumanian
states
after
swallowed
up

two

fallen under

of the Turks.

the domination

been Servia,
They
of
Albania.
The
turn
the
Hungary was soon
Byzantine Empire,
Bulgaria,
the
Turks
had
used
But
in
these
to come.
struggles
up the youth of their
arrived
before
When
first
Vienna, in 1529,
vigour.
they
empire and their
If
civili-sation
weakened.
western
their nerve
escaped destruction,or
was
with which Turkey was
at least the eclipse
threateningit,the fact was largely
due to the victories won
by the Clu-istian people of the Orient,and especially
had

been

an

energeticresistance,as

had

to the Rumanians.

RUMANIA

TO

TRIBUTARY

THE

TUiRKS

fortunate in not being upon


the direct route of the
were
towards the north. In Wallachia, in Moldavia, they retained
^Mth
the exception of the
the benefits conferred by treaties of submission.
investiture of their princesby the sultan they were
governed only by national

The
Turkish

Rumanians
invasions

were
chiefs,
they had

mosques

burdened

tribute and
a moderate
the pre.sence of Turks
nor
When
their princesdid not

only by

neither to endure
in their country.

militarycontingent;
the establishment
mix

of

in Polish, Tran-

In the
in peace.
the sultan left them
Hungarian intrigues,
for
had
to
fear;
squeezed in
everything
they were
contrary event, they
of the Crimean
between
Tatars.
Turkish Bulgaria and the domain
In 1521, at the same
time that the sultan (Solyman I) was
takmg Belgrade,
he ordered Mahnmd
Bey to direct an expeditioninto Transylvania. As he
was
passing through Wallachia, the bey, by a ruse, got possessionof Nagul
Bessaraba, son of the last voyevod of Wallachia, a child of seven
years,
and sent him with all hLs family to Constantinople. The ^^'allachian boyars,
named
Radul, sent envoys
having proceeded to the election of an old monk
of their choice; the envoys
the confirmation
to the sultan,to demand
were
and
of
suite
the
back
with
and
off.
their
.sent
cut
noses
ears
strangled,
people
of
Mahmud
antl
Wallachia.
Radul
took
the
titleof
sandjak bey
Bey conquered
In the mean
while the boyars had called to their aid John
sylvania,
Zapolya of Tranwho was
not
Bey judged
yet a vassal of the Turks; and Mahmud
it prudent to treat with them and to guarantee their right to elect a prince
and their rightsto certain other privileges.Afterwards, when
the Transylvanian
to be averted, the newly elected prince went
to
perilhad seemed
receive the insigniaof his command
of
the
sultan's
instead
deputy
giving
;
him his armour
dealt him a blow which stunned
This perfidyresulted
him.
in a revolt of the boyars and in an intervention
the part of Tran.sylvania.
on
John Zapolya fought five battles with Mahmud
Bey, but perceivingthat the
Rumanians
he
a
dvised
the new
were
depleted, finally
prince,another Radul,
whom
the boyars had just chosen, to make
submission.
The latter obtained
the Ottoman
investiture on
conditions as his predecessors
nearly the same

sylvanian,or

(1524).

Although
Bogdan

Moldavia

(1513), it

had

continued

recognised the suzerainty of


none

the

less to

pursue

hostile to its new


It
masters.
policy,often even
the
and
Stephen
Bogdan's son,
Young (1517-1527),

did

the

so

stillmore

Turks

under

independent
especiallyunder
under Bogso

rather

138

GREECE

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

(1563-1572 A.D.]

taxation, however,
resulted

and

his o\-erthrow

in

the people
reinstated
Alexander
was
by the
condition.
The native popinto its former
ulation

and
dissatisfaction,

gave

in

1563

risingof

death.

the country fell back


main
into two
divided
that time was
classes,
boyars and serfs.
owned
the land and the latter tilled it,being obliged to pay a
The former
what
tax
on
they produced as well as upon the land itself. Besides these
the poll tax and various extraordinaryimposts and \ev\es,
there were
taxes
which
of war
with the ravages
frequentlyreduced the peasantry to the lowest

sultan,and
at

tlepthsof poverty. The authority of the prince


the boyars was
definite limits,although the power"of
in overthrowing a ruler who
was
succeeded
There
has

all
offices,

various

were

given

list of the

concLse

for reference

michecked

was

by

any

quently
great that they fre-

so

not
pleasingto them.
boyars. Mr. Samuelson
which
be convenient
officials,
principal
may

hands

in the

of the

"

Krajova was viceroyof littleWallachia,and his authority


of the principality.(2)
to the foundation
back,
probalnlity,
of the Carpathians
the
niini.-;terof
The
interior,was
vel-vornic,
or
governor
of
voTmic
The
and
of the neighbouring districts. (3)
was
great
governor
minister of jastice. (o)
the lowlands.
chancellor,was
or
(4) The logothete,
and
minister of war.
The great spatharwas
(6) The great vestiar,treasurer
of the post. (8) The
master
of the robes.
master
(7) The great postelnik,
title of Hungarian origin).
a
-paharnic,chief butler and cup-bearer(this was
(1) The

ban

of

in all

reached

of the horse.
(10) The great comis, master
(9) The great stolnik,chief cook.
riat.
of
of
The
The
chief
(11)
police. (12)
great pitar,insj^ector commissaaga,
thousand
of
three
districts
of
The
(three
infantry
(13)
serdar,general
in
both
ketman
called
the
In
Moldavia
the
principalities
spathar was
men).
;
minor
and
there were
offices,
council of ministers.

JOHN

the

TERRIBLE

the firstsix^

MICHAEL

AND

formed

the

BRAVE

THE

years

In order to win

dealer

in

money

preciousstones

acquainted

became

into

conflict

with

at

influence,he had established himself

antl

important

with

the

he made

Constantinople,where
persons

in

the

the

Ottomans

wanted

now

the

of Moldavia

crown

money

government.

through
brought
Kiajna, a daughter of Peter Rarcsh, in Wallachia,
of her sons, Alexander, on the throne
one
establishing

was

political
intriguesof

who
of

He

as

and

had

succeeded

Wallachia,and

in

who

quently
Consethe other, Peter the Lame.
instead of the 60,000
tribute for Moldavia
for

she offered 120,000 ducats


then paying.
was

which

the country

Turks, always

The
ever,

only

of

career

in 1572.
a

Stephen'stime

after the death of the adventurer


Jacob, Moldavia entered
vigorousoppositionto Turkish oppressionunder its ruler,John
the throne
mounted
of Stephen the Great, who
Terrible,a descendant

Nearly ten
a

on

THE

in

in order

Terrible

to

eager

repairtheir

that unless he

port him

on

the throne.
in

the money

paid

than
and just then needing it more
John
the
losses at Lepanto, at once
informed
would
them
ducats
120,000
no
longer sufK
they
for money

John

raising troops

to

answered

defiantlythat

resist such

he

would

demantls.

the peasants, who


him
rallied around
and
in spiteof the hostility
their support
of the boyars,John

appealed

to

'

In

later times

the

council

was

rather

use

then
W
enthusiastically.ith

extortionate

composed

of twelve.

He

gained several

THE

AXD

RISE

DEVELOPMENT

OF

RUMANIA

139

[1572-1594A.D.]

victories

the

over

Turks.

Constantinopleordered
the

He

was

so

public prayers

beylerheyof Rumelia

to

successful
in

attack

that

the sultan

all the
him

He
mosques.
with
hundred
one

Selim at
then commanded
thousand

But all John's bravery could avail nothing against the treachery in
In the midst of the decisive battle his cavalry deserted to
ranks.
His artillery
in addition having been put out of service
the side of the Turks.
John
to
retreat
to a neighbouringvillage,
where
was
obliged
weather,
by rainy
desert
his
to
himself valiantly,
he defended
refusing
loyal peasants by flight.
Lack of water
finallyforced him to surrender,and he was quartered by the
men.

his

own

of the peasants to John the Terrible and his care


for
the
and
of
contrast
to
selfishness
the nobles.
them form a pleasant
perfidy
It is related that in the battle the peasants would not permit John to go among
the nobles,suspecting their treachery and fearing that they might deliver
devotion

The

Turks.

alive to the Turks.


fell a prey to rival contestants
the death of John, Moldavia
for the
had
of
the
other
but
that
their
and
no
history
country
throne,
intrigues,
in Wallachia,and for a brief
until a counterpart of John the Terrible arose
him

After

of the Rumanian
space illuminated the cloudy sky
ascended
the throne of Wallachia
the Brave, who

people.
in

This

had
they had

been
them
from
the
to
which
been
people to rescue
misery
the Turks and Tatars and by the corrupt rule of their voyevod
With
the aid of Sigismund Bdthori of Transylvania and a plentiful

the

chosen by
reduced by
Alexander.

Michael

was

He

1593.

he succeeded
in gettinghis election recognised
supply of borrowed money
Constantinople. He firstmade an alliance with Moldavia and Transylvania,
and then proceeded to rid himself of all Turks within the country by a general
of the Wallachian
preconcertedmassacre, which usuallygoes by the name
Vespers (1594). Michael assembled aU his creditors on the pretence of paying
but instead they were
burned
back their money,
them
alive,together with
at

books.
their account
which was
army

Michael
sent

next

defeated

againsthim,

in three separate battles

crossed

the Danube

The Turkish
the Ottomans.
He lost his
his forces for the third time,was
again defeated.
time
this
was
completelydestroyed.
army
took home
with them
the Wallachians
The booty which
was

plunderedthe provincesof

largenumbers

of horses

and

cattle introduced

ish
Turk-

the

ice,and
generalHasan, rallying
on

and
life,

his

immense.

into the country

brought
price of those animals, causing a proportionatescarcityof meat
The Porte did not
consternation.
at Constantinople. In that city all was
in
Michael.
solemn
divan held at
whom
to send
know
a
FinaUy,
against
Constantinopleit was decided,in consideration of the fact that the war with
Hungary could not be carried on so long as Wallachia was in revolt,to send
an
expeditionunder the grand vizir Sinan Pasha."
commenced
with reverses.
The
The
campaign of Sinan in Wallachia
of Kalugeran was
after a long battle in the marshes
Turkish army
completely
half submerged in the marsh
by his horse,owed
destroyed. Sinan himself,
his escape only to the vigour of a soldier in his suite called Hasan, who was
Hasan
of the Marsh, and who
after named
subsequently distinguished
ever
himself again for his bravery. A Wallachian
prisonergave up his life and
exploded the powder of the Turkish army.
his army
marched
The grand vizir after recruiting
Tirgovist. Michael
upon
drove him out after a siegeof several days. Sinan redoubled upon
Bukharest
and Giurgevo with the remainder
of his troops ; Michael attacked
him again
the
he was
the
the
as
over
Danube,
bridge
and, blowing up
bridge
crossing
under the feet of his army,
into the river.
plunged him with all his artillery
The

down

the

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

140

GREECE

MODEKN

[159^1599 A.D.]

city of Gran
in trying to

army
a

in

The

Hungary.

rehevc

surrendered

Hungarians
The

at

(^ran

statues,
they conquered the

when

the

and
fied
fortithird

of its brave
In

spiteof

the Turkish

women

of the Germans

massacres

and

and
the victors.
had respected

of

the

humanity
honesty
which
and libraries,
the Turks
pictures,
the
swords
and
city,disappearedunder
the

stained

monuments,

of

property

the thefts,and
children,the pillaging,

and

after the death

killed in the breach.

was

the lives and

assured

capitulationwhich

the

of

son

Gran

Gran.

(.\litlie Blaciv),who

Ali

Kara

defender

Wallachia,an Austrian
Mansfeld,besiegedthe
grand vizir Sinan hjst a

those disasters of the grand vizir in


of Prince
under
the command
army,

During
Hungarian

fiames of the

soldiery.

German
A

slice of the

whole

after these

reverses.

harest, Akerman
and Hungarians.

fell

empire

The

terror

public prayers

ordered

seemed

to crumble

the Danube

towards

away

Braila,Varna, Kilia, Ismail, Silistria,


Rustchuk, Bukinto the hanils of the allied Wallachians, Germans,
on

reflected

was

the

square

in

even

called

the serai.

Okmeidan.

The

The

sultan

grand vizir,

him.self under
hail re-entered Constantinoplealmost
alone, humiliated
exile
for
time
of
vizirs
fourth
the
the
to
at Malgara.*:
and
retired
his disgrace
TurLs
took
ih
In
the
the sultan
1595.
1597
The
place
campaign against
who

and recognisedhim as princeof


to Michael
red (lag in token of peace
But AlichaeFs
ambition
not satisfied with having routed
the
Wallachia.
was
of unitingimder his sway
He dreamed
the whole of the ancient Dacia,
Turks.
sent

includingWallachia, Moldavia, anil Transylvania. SigLsmund Bathori having


abdicated, Michael began to sclieme to get hold of his domains, which had been
Bathori.
For this purjxxse he entered into negotiations with
left to Andreas
both

sultan and

by

submission

German

favourable

by one
stopping

Without

emperor,
occasion
he

declaringhimself the vassal


Transylvania,which

decisive battle between


he

proceeded

iting
Profhe reduced to

and

Schellenberg.
capital,
Weissenburg, entering it in

the

to

HermaniLstadt

attire which
tell of the gorgeous
of his wife and children.
the appearance
The processionentered
and the music
of the Wallachian
to the noise of cannon,
national airs was
rendered by gipsy performers.

triumph

he

wore

November

of each.

invaded

on

on

Historians

1st, 1599.

that occasion

and

describe

Michael's
Michael's

by

conduct, with

Duplicityand

all his

duplicity. The

Ruin

bravery, appears

to

have

been

ised
character-

the

sylvania
campaign againstTranthe
of
on
pretence
using
emperor
A\'hile in the act of invadingTran.sylvania
it againstthe Turks.
he continued
to its ruler,
to professallegiance
Andreas
Bathori.
Following out his general
he
policy
pretended to be pn"paring an attack upon the Ottoman
Empire,
when
he suddenly fell upon
Moldavia, and in one battle gained possessionof
and expelledits voyevod Jeremiah.
that principality
extreme

he

had

All this time

and

the

obtained

Michael

from

had

money

spent

on

the German

been

acting in

the

name

of the German

emperor,

him
latter,although very grudgingly,did nevertheless recogni.se
as
ruler over
the three principalities
is
the
Dacia.
It
ancient
comprising
sible
posthat he might have succeeded
in retaining this positionhad he been able
to gain the hearts of the people. But
he had alienated the peasants by his
and
nobles
the
him
severity,
with suspicion and were
regarded
waiting only
for an
The German
opportunity to rebel against him.
began more
emperor
and more
to doubt
the sincerityof his professedallegiance,
since
especially

RISE

THE

AND

DEVELOPMENT

OF

RUMANIA

141

[1600-1601A.D.]

the Turks, while the nobles of course


to negotiatewith
he still continued
took pains to fan these suspicions.
find duplicitybeing answered
As a result we
by duplicity. The emperor
the feelingof discontent,
while
sent emissaries to Transylvania to increase

Michael, for fear he might place himself and the


Michael
protection. Surrounded
by traitors,
One
of
enemies
his
bitterest
perial
his
the imclear
lose
to
was
judgment.
began
rule
of
obtain
the
who
had
to
hoped
Transylvania for
general Basta,
hated
when
this
Michael
and
proportionately;even
general joined
himself,
whether
not
was
sure
in the revolt of the Transylvanian nobles,Michael
or
which
hun
in
made
hesitate
not he was
being sent by the emperor,
preparing
ensued
the villageof Mirischlau,
In the battle which
attack.
near
for an
from
his almost impregnable positionby a feignedretreat,
Basta drew Michael
turned about ready for an attack.
Michael
and then at the critical moment
stillfeigningconfidence
three

under
principalities

in

Turkish

Ancient

was

Khan

at

Bdkharest

completely defeated (1600),but escaped,the


across

Moldavia

river

on

enemy

at his

ming
heels,by swim-

his horse.

revolted,and Jeremiah, its former voyevod, who had sought


Poles, seized this opportunity with their aid to place his
brother Simeon
the throne of Wallachia.
on
Michael, being thus almost at
blow
of
his three provinces,resolved upon
one
a personalappeal to
deprived
in 1601.
the emperor.
After a journey full of danger he arrived at Vienna
Events in Transylvania,where Sigismund B;ithori had again been placed on
Rudolf
the throne,inclined the emperor
to listen to Michael.
appointed him
viceroy of Transylvania, and despatched him togetherwith Basta and an
to overthrow
imperialarmy
speedily accomplished;
Sigismund. This was
but, as might have been foreseen, the enmity between the two rivals broke
of soldiers to
out anew
after the victory. Basta
finallysent a company
and Michael fell in his tent pierced with blows before he
arrest his enemy,

refuge with

could

even

now

the

seize his sword.

THE

142

AND

STATES

BALKAN

MODERN

GREECE
[1601-1634

Thus
much

ended

the

historyinto

of Michael

career

the

of

the brief space

Brave, a man
eight years, and

who
who

had
was

A.

D.]

crowded
so
the last manian
Ru-

It is difficult to
successfullythe invasion of the Turks.
his policy,
difficult to see why he did not confine himself to fighting
understand
TurLs
instead of waging wars
againstthose who should have been his friends
Rumanian
eminent
and allies. The
historian,
Xcnopol, thinks that he was
and
attack
Moldavia
because
its rulers were
hostile
to
obliged
Transylvania
to

to

him.

Since

support
nor

resist

an

from

fell upon

these

army.

the

were

forced

he dared

not

wars

This

people whom

the Wallachian

upon

demand

him
from

he

had
his

to

have

to

money

nobles

at home,
own
jast conquered; consequently the burden
peasants. From his day dates the system of serfdom

he had

Wallachia, a system which binds the peasant to the soil. So that if for a
did succeed
in liberating
his country from
brief space
Michael
the foreign
In discussing
rather than better.
yoke, its condition at his death was worse
what
Michael might or might not have done, given the conditions in which
in

he

placed,Xenopol

was

"Michael

the Brave

says of him : "


in order to succeed

and

established his domination


could he have attempted such

upon
bold

the
move

should

have repulsed the nobles


of
the populace. But how
goodwill
In
at the epoch in which
he lived ?

in the Rumanian
countries,the people existed only
Europe, and especially
in name.
of
value than the cattle led to slaughter; they
no
more
They were
there only to be despoiledand to serve
flesh for cannon
in battles,
were
as
without its being necessary
for the sacrifices which were
to ask their consent
of them.
demanded
Michael the Brave ought to have relied on the peasants
of John the Terrible,
and repulsedthe nobles ! But the memory
who had to
for
that
with
his
still
The
fresh.
was
folly
quartered body,
plans of
pay
for their realisation a broad
Michael
the Brave
demanded
democratic
base,
but his century was
not
ripe for such a conception. He had undertaken
a
work not only beyond his strength,but beyond that of the time in which he
lived.
He wished
combinations
influence which
he
to win
an
by. political
could not win through popularity. He wished
to found
a
state, and it was
the peoplewho were
wanting. How, then, could he have succeeded?"?

all

RUMANIA

After

the time
entered

of John
upon

TURKISH

DEPENDENCY

the Terrible and

period of

Michael the Brave the two principaliti


until
subjectionwhich lasted practically

the middle of the nineteenth


hundred
a
Although for over
century.
the rulers stillcontinued
to be mostly of Rumanian
stock, they were
who
had bought their appointments at Constantinople. The Greeks

years

rulers
took

from
the nobles
prominent part in these transactions and drew largerevenues
united in only one
competing for the two thrones. The native boyars were
Greek influence ; otherwise they
thing their objectionto the ever-increasing
while
of the people became
and
the
condition
themselves,
worse
fought among
In
the
1619
national
the
worse.
sultan,utterlydisregarding
susceptibilities
of the people,sent an Italian to govern
Moldavia.
not
Nevertheless, the national
independence was
completely lost. In
the early part of the .seventeenth century two
rulers arose
during whose
in
and prosperitywhich
a period of comparative order
was
reigns there was
turmoil
marked
and corruptionof tlie times.
These
to the political
contrast
Be.ssaraba in \\'allachia and WasiljcLupul (Basil the Wolf) in Moldavia,
were
who
from 1633 to 1654 and from
1634
to 1653.
reigned respectively
They
"

THE

RISE

DEVELOPMENT

AXD

OF

RUMANIA

143

[1634-1688 D.]
A.

codes

of written

law, purifiedthe church, encouraged the founda"


and
colleges,
promoted literature and the artsat this time ; the first Rumanian
The country received its first printing-press
book printedon Rumanian
territory
appeared in 1640.
themselves
Unfortunately,however, the two rulers quarrelledbetween
But the important matter
and wasted their strength in fightingeach other.
of independence,however
in
obscured
to note is that the national sentiment
stillalive
and
in
the
the
minds
of
Rumanian
the
was
nobility,
pulsing
people.
ruler of ability,
Serban Cantacuzenus, came
to the throne of
In 1679 another
introduced

and

tion of schools

Wallachia.

monastic

continued

He

education, and

to encourage

in the last year

of his

translation of the Bible was


published. Serban
reigna part of a Rumanian
asked by the Turks to take part in the siegeof Vienna, but he loaded his
was
the city. He had a secret
with balls of hay and thus helped to save
cannon

understanding with the


but this plan was

Church

in

and

emperor,

Bukharest

even

tinople,
thought of attacking Constan-

carried out, and Serban


was
poisoned by his
At his death the boyars hastened
relatives in 1688.
his nephew,
to crown
time
Constantine
before
the
Porte
had
had
to
Brancovano,
give the throne
to a

Greek

His

adventurer.

entered
relationship

THE

never

BEGINNING

upon

of its national

RUSSIAN

OF

Russia was
emerging
of the East, and was
now

reign is important as marking the first conscious


Russia and the Danubian
principalities.

between

as

an
an

possessionsas

the year

1674, when

INTERFERENCE

IN

THE

BALKANS

accredited

nationalityfrom among
empire fairlywell organised,and so
to

begin

Alexis

to

have

national

ambitions.

the hordes
far assured

Quite

as

the throne, a petitionjoinedin by


was
on
and
Wallachia, had been presented by the

earlyas
both principalities,
Moldavia
ever,
petitioninghis protectionagainst Ottoman
oppression. Alexis,howemperor
oath of allegiance
first demanrled
from the sovereignprincesof both
an
which
"after
he was
principalities,
quite prepared to be their champion."
Such an oath was
felt to be compromising, and the negotiationsas a conse-

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

144

GREECE
[icss-im

quence

The

nothing.

to

came

student

A.D.]

this

note
period of history must
alities
rapprochementbetween the two nation-

of

all thingsthis firststep towards a


that the whole
to see
and Russia, as he will have occasion
of Rumania
its
derives
"Eastern"
from this first
called
the
origin
complicated question
with
what
Russia connote
will
his
to
also
be
He
on
trives
guard
facility
petition.

above

has
facility

This

presentedto her.
get petitions

to

fullydeveloped stage since these earlyyears


of
in the matter
of Europe stands Russia

reached

; but foremost

keeping an

ear

This attitude
the downtrodden.
entitles Russia, and both its friends and its enemies, to speak now
in veiled reproach,of that empire as
holy" Russia.
now

it is which

oppressed and

the

plaintsof

more

the nations
towards
the

among

open

much

in

sincerity,

"

This

first

attempt

find

failed,we

in

that

to

enlist the services of Russia


the ruler of Wallachia, on

1688

oppression,petitionedPeter

feared

nothing effective

plea of

protection and

Russian

redress.

Turkish
Much

agents

were

the

resulted till,
in 1711, a treaty of alliance
actuateti
the contractingpartiesare

which

motives

The
The

for

Great

the

busilyemployed in arousing a
suspiciousnobilityand such of the peasamong
antry
Turkish
than
domination
Ra-"sian protection more
; but

negotiationensued and
pro-Russian sentiment
as

the

protector ha\ing

as

eagerly wished

Rumanians

be

independent
plunderingGreeks.
to

was

entered

not

far

to

of the Turk, more


On the other hand

upon.

seek.
cially
espe-

Peter
of his business agents, the
of territory
and
towards
the
the Great wished an extension
a
as
plishment
accomstep
;
the Rumanian
of this wish,he desired to absorb
kingdom as a prelude
Nor was
the
to the absorptionof the Slav populationsin the Balkans.

present day-dream of Russia


an

invitingobject,and

bear"

of the

shores and

North

in the

approached by

it

should

more

Rumania

without
not

was

wish

to

its germ
an

thaw

that

Russians

the

Constantinoplewas

ambition

his "members

genialwaters of the .Egean


in 1711, he entered
into

with the greatest heartiness.


Wallachia
promised to provide Peter
and

in 1711.

unnatural

that

the

politic"on

Sea.

Hence,

the

spiritof

on

"frozen
the genial
his being

the

petition

of thirtythousand;
army
of
both
thrones should
be
integrity
with

an

promised
respectedby Turk and Russian alike,and that the country should not be
with Russian
overnm
by foreignsettlers. Peter flooded both principalities
result
the
and
the
with
the
that
patronisedbegan to quarrel.
soldiery,
patrons
in
ship
Much
enthusiasm, however, was evoked
general,but neither Russian leaderRumanian
nor
patriotism sufficed to preserve the allied forces against
Their great
crushing defeat by the trained troops of the Ottoman
power
his personalsafetyand hurry back
protector Peter had merely time to secure
to his kingdom, to which
Cantemir, the ruler of Moldavia, followed him with
a largecolony of Moldavian
malcontents,while Brancovano, affordinganother
illustration of the working of treachery,fell a victim
to the sultan's sword."
the

F.WARIOT

In order to insure the

corrupt

the

"Greeks

ser\'ants

of

of the

abjectionjoinedto

more

IX

RUM,iXL\

of the two principalities


the Porte took away
fidelity
boyars: but instead of making two pashaliks
the divan chose
by Christian rayahs whom
had
the Fanar, who
long been the lowest and most
It would
Porte."
have been impossibleto find more
venality. Being slaves,they yet thought themselves

from
native
the administration
of them
it had them
governed
among

RULE

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

146

GREECE

MODEEN

[1739-1774 A.D.]

RUSSIAN

INTRIGUES

the incorporation
of Rumania
in the firstattempt to make
of
southern
the
the
to
Muscovite
the
conquest
into
Empire a stepping-stone
Russia
Grecian
did
of
the
of
the
remains
Empire,
and
yet
eventually
Slavs,
view
of
and
pean
EuroA
Europe
her policyof aggression.
general
not abandon
alliances at this period is instructive.
France, having as early as the
with Turkey, was
capitulations
midtUe of the fifteenth century agreed upon

Although foiled

But then France


herself,
owing to western
allyof the Porte.
frequentlyan ineffective friend. At the opposite side of
England and the central states
Europe there was the risingpower of Russia.
be alarmed
to
at the increasing
of Europe were
reasonably
beginning very
had
Most
Muscovite.
of
the
European
tives
representapowers
aggressiveness
These
urged
at Constantinopleby the end of the seventeenth
century.
accord
inclined
favour
to
his
himself
of
what
the
sultan
own
was
Turkey
upon
races
the policy of using Central Europe, but especiallythe semi-barbarian
of the north,as a bulwark
aggression.
againstMuscovite
Rassia's attitude was
persistentthroughout, and consistentlypersistent.
Where
or empress,
intrigueand briberycould not effect the object of emperor
the art of astute
resorted to, and after arms
treaty-making. The
arms
were
territories which
Anne, whilst resolved on acquiring the Turkish
empress
from
the Black
excluded
the Muscovites
Sea, and whilst steadilymaking war
against the Poles on her eastern and the Tatars on her southern border,never
that
forgot the policyof a Rumanian
conquest. Consequently she demanded
and that
Moldavia
be regardeflas independent principalities,
and Wallachia
their independence be safeguarded by a Russian
protectorate. This would
advance
into the Balkan
Russian
have been the firststep towards a
Peninsula,
fieldThe Russian
and, naturally,the Porte refused to accept these terms.
Munich
therefore invaded
the country ; but being suited neither by
marshal
natural temperament
nor
by a knowledge of the people to conciliate the
maintenance
Rumanian
population,and the cost of his armies and his own
"liberator"
Muscovite
the
that
might
soon
a
a
charge,
people
saw
heavy
being
date
and
from
the
student
this
be as harsh as a Greek
period
may
governor,
on

the whole

affairs,was

an

most

"

the rLse of
at

strong anti-Russian

Belgrade in 1739

which

speaking,left matters

party

in Rumania.

restored Moldavia
in statu

treaty

to the Turkish

was

concluded

Empire, and, generally

quo.

tilising
made
by Catherine II. After ferGreek
Christians
of
the
sentiment
of Rumania
the national
and of
the Balkans
generallyby a silent invasion of Russian emissaries,she made a
In 176S the Russians
gained
desperateattempt upon the two principalities.
The

next

attempt

at

aggressionwas

and the Waliachians


the river Dniester,and the Moldavians
a great victoryon
of Jassy surrendered
The
town
grovelled before the invading Muscovite.
Galitzin.
Here, at the surrenderingof the
gladly to the Russian commander
the
in
of
the
town
catheflral,
no
keys
flatterytowards Catherine and her
considered
and
the
inhabitants promised under oath
too
fulsome,
generalwas
enemies
"consider
the
of
Russian
the
those of Moldavia, and to
to
as
army
in all thingsas the good and faithful slaves of her majesty."
behave
and refused to
Austria inmiediatelytook alarm
at the Russian
success
acknowledge the independence or Russian dependence of Rumania, or to
A peace was
patched up in
permit the further advance of the Ru.'jsian army.
Eastern politics.
of the most peculiarand important treaties which concern
one
This was
the celebrated Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji, dated July 21st, 1774.""

THE

RISE

AND

DEVELOPMENT

OF

RUMANIA

147

(1774-1831A.D.]

The

Peace

By this treaty
Budjak, and Kuban.
the Porte, but by a
"

that,whatever

of Kutchuk-Kainardji (July 21st, 1774)

the Porte

recognisedthe independence of

Wallachia

and

clause which

the

Crimea,

of

returned to their obedience to


disastrous to it the latter consented

has been

circumstances

the

Moldavia

in which

and
the principalities
their sovereigns
shall find themselves, the ministers and the court of Russia may
cede
interand
win
for them
audience of the Porte."
That put the principalities

Article 7 also gave


free field to the
the protectorate of the czars.
a
the Russians
in
by ceding to them the right to remonstrate
and
of the Christian religion
of its churches.
It M'as
this right that
favour
"Since
of 1854.
the Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji," says Von
caused the war
"Russia
has
been
the
oracle of diplomatic negotiations
carried on
Hammer,''
under

usurpationof

the Porte, the arbiter of peace


affairsof the empire." '
at

or

Russo-Turkish

of war,

the soul of the most

important

Conventions

after the Peace


of Kutchuk-Kainardji
history of the principalities
in
of
summed
treaties
be
enumeration
the
which were
made
and
an
might
up
successive
and
which
of
the
at
times
the
affairs
broken,
regulated
country.
The

Wallachia

and

Moldavia

were

occupied and reoccupied by Russian


In
changed again by the Porte.

the governors
were
changed and
Russians forced a hatti-sherif from
more
principalities

declared
In

clearly. In

in the

1802, after

troops;

the
the sultan,which defined the status of the
of Jassy confirmed
the Peace
1792
the privileges

hatti-sherif and

fixed

the Dniester

periodduring which

the country

as

had

1783

the Russian

dary.
boun-

been

overrun
by
convention
by Turkish troops, a new
was
signed between Turkey
and Russia
and
Moldavia
be
providing that the hospodars of Wallachia
for
and
that
should
be
removed
not
without the
seven
appointed
they
years,
who was
acquiescenceof the Russian envoy at Constantinople,
permitted also
of the principalities.
Thus Russia's protectiverights
to advise the governors
were
formallyrecognised.
The Turks, however, violated this treaty by deposing the hospodar Ypsiwho had secretlysupported the Servian revolution under
lanti,
Gzerny (Kara
and
for
this
invaded
the princia
George);
Russia,making
again
palities.
pretext
war,
Peace was
restored in 1812 by the Treaty of Bukharest,which fixed
the Pruth as the boundary of the two empires. The czar
abandoned
chia
Wallaand Moldavia
but
the
to
of the sultan,
kept Bessarabia and
vengeance
a

rebels and

the mouths

of the Danube.

The loss of Bessarabia


blow to the
was
a severe
national sentiments of the people. They looked upon
the Pruth as separating
them from their friends and relatives on the other side,who had now
become
had gained by the wars
subjectsof another empire. All that the Rumanians
carried
and

on

since

of Bessarabia
In

1711
to

had

been

the loss of Bukowina

the Russians

to the Austrians

in 1771

in 1812.

ment
spiteof the apparent losses,
however, there had been growing a sentib
etween
sister
countries
the
which
two
solidarity
was
eventuallyto
unite them and enable them to throw off the yoke of the oppressor.
The war
of Greek independence,which
broke out in 1821, was
the Fanariot
to overthrow
system. Moldavia was
persuaded by Ypsilanti,son of a former governor, to
take up arms
for the Greeks, while Wallachia,under
its patriotic
princeVladimircscu,not only refused to join the Greeks but fought activelyagainst them,
murdered
preferringthe rule of the Turks to theirs. Vladimirescu
was
by
of

STATES

BALKAN

THE

148

AND

GREECE

MODERN

[1S21-1S29A.D.J

forced by the Turks


to flee to Austria,
Ypsilanti's
agents, while Ypsilantiwas
wiiere he was
captured and ihed in prison. Turlcish troops occupied the
the sultan hatl been tauglitto suspect his Fanariot agents, and
consented
to appoint native rulers in the principalities.
Although freed from the hated Greek dominion, the new rulers found their
schemes
for reform
by Russia, whose influence
very nuicli hindered
patriotic

countries,but
he

now

This influence was


stillfurther increased
in the land.
by
now
supreme
which
the
and
of
Akerman
of
treaties
placed
principalities
the
Adrianople,
wholly imder the protectionof Rassia, although they stillcontinued to pay
tribute to the Porte.
By the Treaty of Akerman, signedin 1826," the Sublime
and
Porte
acts, on
solenmly engaged to observe all the treaties,privileges,
Moldavia
and
of
Wallachia, contained
occasion, in favour of the provinces
every
the Treaty of Bukharest, as also the hatti-sherif of 1802, which
m

was

^^'allachia
and
privileges.The hospodars of Moldavia
to be chosen, agreeablyto ancient
were
asage, by the boyars of those provinces
the
and
consent
to
approbation of the Sublime Porte,
subject
respectively,
the period of their enjoyment of power
being in every instance seven
years.
officewithout notification to the
from
to be dismissed
No
hospodar was
of comi^lainthad been stated by that
Russian
ambassador; but if no cause
ho.
after
notification
to the Russian
he
ambassador,
re-elected,
might
power,
The
confiscated
of
in the two provsecond
term
for a
seven
[properties
inces
years.
and
those implicatedhi
to be restored to the former
were
proprietors,
without
to be permitted to return
the troubles of 1821 were
being molested
ted
All
and
in any partPcular.
to be remittaxes
impositionswere
disquieted
or
of
two
and AVallachia for the period
to the inhabitants of Moldavia
years,
of commerce
and exportation of the produce of their
and entire freedom

these

enumerated

indastry to

part of the world."*

any

again broke out between Russia and Turkey, and the


by Russian troops for the sixth time. The Treaty
principalities
the privileges
of Adrianople,signed in 1829 at the close of the war, confirmed
ruler over
in
the
sister
and
made
Russia
countries
to
1826,
practically
granted
elected
be
of
should
It
that
the
these
them."
providefl
hospodars
provinces
officers
of
and
f
or
that
the
a
nd
for life,
pashas
not, as heretofore, seven
years ;
be
in
to
the adjoiningprovinceswere
not
to
at liberty
the Porte
intermingle
Two

years

later

were

war

invadecl

to be
of the Danube
was
the Pruth;
them
to the junction of that river with
the boundary between
and Wallachia,
the future inviolability
of Moldavia
and " the better to secure
man
Porte engaged not to maintain
the Sublime
any fortified post or any Mussulsituated
the
towns
establishment
the north of the Danube
that
on
on
;
the left bank, includingGiurgevo, should be restored to Wallachia,and their
restored ; and
all Mussulmans
fortifications never
holding possessionson the

in any

respect

in their concerns;

that

the middle

of

eighteen
entirelyindependent
hosjiodarswas
government
the quota of provisionsthey
of Turkey, and
to be liberated from
they were
the fortresses on
to furnish to Constantinopleand
had hitherto been bound
Russian
be occupied by the
to
the Danube.
troops till the
They were
allowed, and to be
indemnity was
fullyj^aidup; for which ten years were
relieved of all tribute to the Porte during their occupation,and for two years

left bank
months.

were

to be

bound

The

to sell them

to

the natives

of the

after it had ceased." '"


For the internal administration
rbglemenlor"iamque was drawn up

to

in the space

be

called the
a constitution
countries,
influence,and hence aiming
liberal in character, ignored
It was
far from
at strengthening tliat influence.
and conferred all
all rightsof the people except the rightof paying taxes
"

of the

under

Russian

"

KISE

THE

DEVELOPMENT

AND

OF

RUMANIA

149

[1834-1849A. D.]

the

privileges
upon
Porte

appointedto
Russian
1842.

boyars.

the Russian

in 1834

rule

in

the

On

the ratification

of this constitution

The
occupation withdrew.
army
were
principalities
wholly devoted to
of

Ghika
was
interests;in \^'allacliia,
succeeded
He
was
by Bibesco, who

prince
ruled

and

ruled

till 1848.

by the
princesnow
Russia

from

and

1834

Michael

to

Sturdza

The national
spiritwas, however, still alive
occupied the throne of Moldavia.
resented increasingly
in the people,who
foreign tyranny. This sentiment
Rumanians
received
fostered by young
who
their education
in
was
especially
full of itleas of civil and political
Schools
France and returned home
liberty.
in the native
Rumanian
established in which the teaching was
were
tongue.
to take an interest in literature
People began to be proud of their nationality,
introand the arts.
Russia, becoming alarmed at this progressive
movement,

Church

and

duced

reactionarymeasures
Bukharest,but the movement
The

reaction

closed

stillwent

of the events

of

Wallachia

of the insurrection

Moldavia

and

national

schools

at

Jassy

and

risingto vincHcate their nationality


totteringunder the blows of

were

did

the whole

not

remain
flew

behind;

the

at

news

Prince

besco
Bicalled
to
arms
a provisional
government was
of forming a Rumanian
and dreamed
Bukowina, Transylvania,and Bessarabia
Pasha
invaded
the principalities;
immediately the Russians
empire. Omar
at

Vienna

the

imtil the eventful year 1848."


on
had been felt throughout
in France

1848

Europe ; everywhere oppressedpeople were


and their liberty. Ever}rwhere thrones
revolutions.

Bukharest

Argis,

of

Moldavia

flightand

sixty

arms.

which
established,

fled and

entered

country

to

(June 20th, 1848). The


thousand

provisionarygovernment
At
the
occupied Wallachia.

Russians

took

to

moment

when

relations threatened
the sultan and the czar, the
to break off between
Convention
of Balta-Limani
intervened (1849).'
According to the terms of this treaty the sultan was to appoint the hos"

and
in a way
Wallachia
podars for Moldavia
speciallyagreed upon for this
of these provtime by the two courts, in order to confide the administration
inces
the
rulers
be
to
candidate."
The
to
most
were
appointed for
worthy

MODEEN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

150

GREECE
[1S49-1S53 A.D.]

years

seven

should

troops

done

be

to be

were

the

at

be

to

were

the

oiJy, and

reserved

two

powers
expirationof

that

the

right
Russian

time.

tlocide

to

and

what

Ottoman

saries
kept in the country to preserve order,and specialcommisappointed from each government to aid the hospodars with

their ailvice.
Thus
the

jection,
were
placed again under the old system of subprincipalities
aroused could not be so easily
of nationality
once
to
were
taking shape throughout Europe which were
crushed, and events
The
in
countries.
the
liberate
1849, Gregoriu
hospodars appointed
oppresseil
and Barbu
Stirbeiu in Wallachia, encouraged popular ideas
Ghika in Moldavia
but

and

the sentiment

Then

beneficial reforms.

introduced

broke

war

out

in 1853;

again

followed
were
occupied by Rassian
were
troops, which
principalities
led
The
Crimean
of
to the
Austrian
however,
occupation.
war,
army
of

beginningof

the

marked

Paris,which

Treaty
placed them
generally,
giving back to

removed

commission
national councils

be

of

The

Russia

Paris

untier

and

to

was

the
that

Moldavia

the

by an
Treaty

freedom.

Rumanian

from
the protectionof
principalities
of the contractingEuropean powers

part of southern

aj)pointedto

revise

A European
the aid of the

Bessarabia.

the laws

with

call

togetherin each of
stillrecognised,
the two countries.
was
although
allowed
the principalities
of internal administration
in matters
were
complete
the seven
years' term of the hospodars
independence. In the same
year
appointedin agreement with the treaty of 1849 expired,and the questionof the
of the,country caused great agitation.
future organisation
tlivans

or

The

which

the Porte

was

to

suzerainty of the Porte

""

THE

UNION

OF

THE

PRINCIPALITIES

questionwas whether the countries should remain separate or should


other among
these politically
unite; but this principalquestion,like every
selfish interests.
with personal and
immature
peoples,was
strongly mixed
objectetiat the start, in October, 1857, the divans of
Although Moldavia
into a neutral state, Rumania,
declared in favour of miion
both principalities
under a hereditarytlyiuisty.Since, however, the Porte vehemently opposed
did not
this plan, the powers
recognise the decision. They tried instead
and
both
Wallachia
(1858) to satisfy
partiesby providing that Moldavia
should each have
its separate hospodar and divan; but that, in addition,
of the united printhey should have a chief court of justicein the name
cipaliti
The

and

council

common

consistingof sixteen

to the Porte.
affect their va.ssalage
the spot. The
election of the
on

But

membens

this artificialstructure

"

this not

to

fell to

pieces
lifelong

John
Cuza
as
boyar Alexander
afterwards
and
as
29th,
immediately
January
1859,
of
of
realised
desired
and
the
state
Wallachia,actually
Rumania,
prince
there was
itself to
nothing for the impotent Porte to do but to accommodate
the accomplished fact."
Prince
Alexantler Cuza
than a comparatively kind,
was
nothing more
who
had
frivolous person,
somewhat
taken Napoleon III as a model, and
smaller
and
like him, only on
a
stage, performed coups d'etat,plebiscites,
in little Rumania,
other surprises. But
in which
close
everything was
paratively
together,and where, besides,a large landholdingnobilityexercised a comimportant influence,the play did not last so long as in France.
A revolt of the boyars put an end
to it on
the night of February 23rd-24th,
arrested in his bed, was
Cuza was
1866.
kept in arrest for a few days, and

prince of Moldavia,

on

THE

RISE

OF

DEVELOPMENT

AND

[1857-18fi6A.D.]
then left the country,
of Old

the Bank

Paris, very

much

RUMANIA

glad of the few savings which he had accumulated


England tluringhis princedom. He went to Vienna, then
pleased at being able to live as a deposed prince with

151

in
to
no

of state.

cares

provisionalgovernment, with General Golesco at the head, first took


looked about for a "proper" prince for Rumania,
place. This now
of Prince Karl
discovered in the person
who wa.s finally
Ludwig of Hohenwho
of
the
Prince
in 1870 furnished
brother
a
Leopold
zollern-Sigmaringen,
of
of Napoleon III against Prussia.
for the war
the excase
By a plebiscite
of
almost
chosen
20th
he
Rumania, although
was
unanimously
prince
April
doubtless wholly unknown
On May 13th
to the good Wallachians.
he was
A

Cuza's

Butcher

Shop

at

Bukharest

and on May 22nd,


legislative
assembly confirmed the popular election,
amidst
the customary
1866; the new
prince,Charles I, entered Bukharest
jubilationof the populace. The Porte indeed protestedagainst the choice
of Prince Charles,and
assembled
even
troops in Bulgaria; but since the
other powers,
whose
attention in 1866 was
occupied with much
weightier
do
the
the
the
Porte
same.''
to
was
obliged
recognised
prince,
matters,
the

THE

After
the

1866

Rumania

of
name

had

suzeraintyof the Porte

text of the Ottoman

the

INDEPENDENT

as

of

Ottoman

accustomed
little by little become
to consider
purely nominal ; she had protestedagainstthe
which
proclaimed the unity and indivisibility
privilegedprovinces,and which applied the
of race
or
subjectsof the Porte, irrespective
notice of their protests, and England declared
iis an
Empire.
integralpart of the Ottoman
for all the yoke which Europe
to shake off once

constitution

empire, including the


to

religion.Diplomacy

all the
took

no

that she considered


Rumania
The Rumanians
then decided

KINGDOM

GREECE

MODEEN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

152

[1866-1877 A.D.]

April a secret treaty signed


at the disposalof
principality
placed
the country
into action.
the Muscovite
dragging
however,
without,
troops,
Paris
of
the flagrant
the
to
the
denounceii
Treaty
to
signatory
Turkey
powers
of Europe,
the
intervention
demanded
and
committed
violation
by Rumania,
bombardment
The
of KaJafor
the
Porte.
which
refused to act as policeman
and on
of
declaration
Rumania,
monitors
war
by
fat by Turkish
provoked a
thousand
Rumanians
May 14th she proclaimed herself independent; sixty
the rightwing of the Russian army.'
went
to form
themselves
The Russians
at first considered
perfectlycompetent to deal
all the

Russia

with

On

them.

in inflicting
persisted
upon

the 16th of
the

of

resources

offers of active assistance


the TurLs
alone, and treated the Rumanian
of Rumania
the
ofTensive indifference ; all that they wanted
was
Before
her
march
were
long,however,
they
to
territory.
across
right
troops
and after having been defeated once
at Plevna
forced to change their attitude,
This
he
refused
do until
to
Prince
Charles
asked
to
Nikopoli.
they
occupy
should
Rumanian
its
that
the
had
received
the
he
assurance
army
preserve

with
with

almost

identity. After the second defeat at Ple^^la the Russians asked for his active
of
given the conmiand
terms, and eventuallyhe was
co-operationon his own
In the third attack the Rumanian
Russian
troops before Ple\Tia.
and
the almost impregnable Grivitza
itself
with
covered
captured
glory
army
ber
redoubt (September 11th,1877). Ple^"na itselfdid not surrender until DecemIn the treaties,
however,
10th,after having been reduced by a blockade.
showed
herself wholly unappreciativeof the
which followed the war, Rassia

all the

had made."
sacrifices the Rumanians
Russia's
states to
that, ha%ing helped the Balkan
feelingwas
Indeed,
of
these
would
out
her
states
gratitude willingly
independence by
arms,
the slightest
inclination to do
become
her vassals.
That they did not show
but

so,

in
rather for real national independence,appeared, therefore,
base ingratitude;
and the Pan-Slavic
of the Russians
as
party felt
much
called upon
the more
to obtain
through its intrigueswhat

strove

the eyes
itself so
could

be reached

With
the exception of distant Montenegro,
by open means.
willinglyacknowledged itself a vassal of Russia, the Balkan
which
remained
the favourite field for Pan-Slavic intrigues,
usuallyfound
effective backing in Russian diplomacy. Of all the states, Rumania

not

which

states
a

very
had

had

to

rendered

the

the worst
As thanks for the aid it had
treatment.
Russians
forced to acquiescein the
it
at
Plevna,
was
hard-pressed
of
for
Dobrudscha
Bessarabia
the
exchange
possessionof Arab Tabia,
; even
and
Silistria
situated near
with Dobrudscha,
important for the connection
was

put

up

disputed by Rassia, who


decided

commission

dreamed

those who

countrymen

support

in us;

taken
the

of

likewise,but

of the congress,
was

with

Bismarck
but

in

claimed
favour

it for

Rumania.
which
was

great Rumania
when

Minister

said to

Bulgaria,although the

of

Bratiano
"If

him,

if you
want
war,
you
of all the Balkan
to heart, and

you

must

There
to
went

want

no

include

look elsewhere."

Rumania
development. The
states

tional
interna-

lack of
their Austrian
to Berlin at the time
find a
can
peace, you
was

The

has had

advice

tively
compara-

quietestand most prosperoas


equal rightsgiven
to aU religious
confessions,as provided in the Treaty of Berlin, presented a
momentous
question to the coimtry ; because here it involved the emancipation
of the Jews, who
threatened
the land with the economic
danger of a
Jewish overflow, since a largepart of the estates of the nobles were
mortgaged
This difficulty
avoided
to Jews.
was
by a law making the naturalisation of
voted to elevate
foreignersdifficult. On March 26th, 1881, both chambers
Rumania
to a kingdom."

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

154

MODERN

GREECE
[1881-1889

A.

D.]

remaining in the hands


obliged to work on the latifunclia,
for a too .small {)art of the produce. In
in return
of the large proprietors,
been made
have
this state
Laws
to ameliorate
were
they
poor.o
con.sequence
improved.
of things,and the condition of the peasants to-day is nmch
Pruice
In the year
18S9
Ferdinand, a nephew of King Charles, received
and was
of Rumania
recognisedas heir to the throne. In
the title Prince
marrieil
the
to
1893 he was
princessMaria, a daughter of the duke of Coburg
bom
of
and
Queen \'ictoria. His children, Prince Carol
a
granddaughter
and
have
been
Elizabeth
ami the princesses
Maria,
brought
in October, 1S93

They

thiLs

were

"

"

up

in the

orthodox, that is,the Greek

faith."

chambers, elected according to a


body is composed
legislative
complicated arrangement which is calculated to favour chieflythe interests
With the exceptionof servants
of wealth.
working for wages, all Rumanians
and
to the state
of
above
paying
any sort of a tax are
twenty-one years
age
divided
into four colleges,
the
inscribed on' the electoral lists;but they are
T
he
differ
of
senate
which
votive
principally
singularl}'.
represents
powers
The
heir to the throne, the metropolitans,and the
the great land property.
The
of the senate.
of office for
term
diocesan bishops are by rightmembers
At
of
the
end
four
i
s
of the legislature
members
period the
every
j-ears.
for eight
the
elected
whole representative
senators,
body is renewed ; whereas
of two

The

member
of every district shall present himself
lots to see which
of the electors.
enjoy all the
According to the letter of the constitution the Rumanians
The libertyof association
in documents
of that nature.
liberties fornmlated
councils are elected,
and union is affirmed : the press is not restricted : the toun
years,
to

the

draw

votes

of more
than one
thousand
also the chief magistrates; only in conmiunities
in the choice of the
families has the prince the right of direct intervention
municipal authorities. The penalty of death is abolished except in time of

where
gratuitous,and obligatory in the communities
the
a
ll
of the
orthodox
religion
Finally, cults are free,but
"the
and Christians only may
dominant
be
to be
religion,
is largeh'organised on
Rumanians.
The
Rumanian
the
army
is

Instruction
there are schools.
is declared
East"
war.

naturalised
model.
Prussian

"

AH

citizens

are

held for ser\'ice from

the age

of twenty

to

and in the resers'e


of the active
eight years in the active army
thirt}'-six;
in
militia
and
of
the
the
the
militia.
From
the age
reser\'e
eightj'ears
army,
in the national guard."
the inhabitants are registered
of thirty-six
to fifty
in the side of Rumania.
The Jewish question has always been a thorn
the new
constitution
of its originalprodrawn
in
WTien
was
1866, one
up
that
belief
in
^^sion3
shall be no
obstacle to naturalisation
was
religious
"

Rumania.''
rioting took

This

excited

so

much

indignation

in the

countrj- that

serious

place at Bukharest, and the synagogue


recentlyerected there
the ground (though subsequently rebuilt at the expense
of
lowing
Prince Charles). The
obnoxious
withdrawn, and the folpropositionwas
article was
become
citizens of
substituted,"Only Christians can
The
Rumania."
in Rumania
is not so much
bitter feelingagainst the Jews
due to religious
fanaticism as to personalinterest,and to the not ungrounded
fear that, if given political
selves
and other rights,
they will graduallypossess themof the soil and oust
In
the original
of
the
many
country.
proprietors
in northern
Moldavia
the Jews are in a majority,and their total numtowns
bers
in the united
about three hundred
thousand, i.e.,about
are
pro\'inces
of the entire population,a largerratio than exists in any other
one-twentieth
In most
country in the world.
placesthey have the monopoly of the wine
and spiritshops, and retail trade generally;and as they are always willing,
was

burned

to

THE
[1889-1904

like

RISE

their

of

most

intelligent
that

in

and

reckless,

soon

which

prevent

Moldavian

language,

the

be

may

religious
do

with

OF

the

hands

RUMANIA

the

155

no

distinguishing

attempt
and

has

in

of

dress,
which

customs,

all

made

to

proof

that

it

Russian

is

considered

held
not

by

the

aloof

with

The
their

antagonism

religious fanaticism.*

|^*3^^,P

laws

the

foreign

from

their

fact,

ever,
how-

Rumanians

justified.

interfere

this

that

origin, speak

soil

from

Jews)

themselves

keep
are

stringent

non-naturalised

little

agant
extrav-

the

needy,
the

more

is

proverbially
for

not

addition,
and

perhaps,

been

is

and

they

although,
ever

in

Polish

it

are

there

and

poor

were

therein

When,

mostly

understood,

Jews

moreover,

peasant,
are

proprietors

the

of

ordinary

landowners

large

peasant

towns.

are

antipathy

practices

the

and,

usury,

the

(including

foreigners

on

money

than

where

the

who
a

wear

advance

and

outside

neighbours,

to

into

Jews,

that

DEVELOPMENT

educated

country

all

land

owning

better

fall

would

to

race,

and

doubt

AND

D.]

A.

erally
gen-

religion,
has

or

nothing

II

CHAPTER

HISTORY

THE

oldest

eastern

included
that

the

western,

Thracians

of the

and

and

Thracian

perhaps

the

the

Ill3'rian.The

Pclasgi maj' have been related to them.


by the Illyriansand the Epirots. Thracians
other in somewhat
the same
relationshipas

Germans

to

The

western

and
Slavs

eastern

it is not

Macedonians;

the

formed
each

and
the

BULGARIA

present Bulgarian lands belonged to the


divided into two branches,
Indo-Gernians, and were

inhabitants

Thraco-Illyrianfamily of
an

OF

INHABITANTS

EARLIEST

The

BULGARIA

OF

branch

impossible
branch

Illyriansstood
to

Lithuanians

was

to
or

Scandinavians.

ants
descendwholly disappeared; their Romanised
and Epirots only the wild Albanians,
the Rumunea.
Of the Ill"Tians
are
Next
to the Basques the Albanians
are
or
Arnauts, are still in existence.
of the Thracians,
As to the character
and
the oldest people in Europe.
customs
Thracian
"The
the oldest and most
important witness is Herodotus.
of all peoples.
numerous
people is, at least next to the Hindus, the most
if they had one
be by far
And
held together in unity, they would
master
or
of
all
in
in
But
since
it
is
the most
no
powerful
people,
opinion.
way
my
possiblethat that should ever happen, they are exceedinglyweak."
The only attempt to unite the separate Thracian
districts into one
dom
kingmade
was
by a tribe called the Odrj'sa^. Their prince.Teres, in 450
united most
of the tribes into one
B.C.
state, which he left to hLs son Sitalces,
land from
well known
from Grecian
niled
the whole
history. His successor
the Bosporus to the Strjinon. But after
the Danube
to the ^Egean Sea, from
his death
the empire fell in pieces. King Philip II of Macedonia
conquered
Thracians
after sanguinary battles.
the Illyriansand
At the beginning of
the Celts appeared in what
Bosnia
the third century b.c.
and comis now
pletely
devastated
and plundered the peninsula. On
the southern
slope of
the Balkans
with its capitalTyle,
they established a powerful community
for
whence
a whole
century they kept all their neighbours in continual terror.
The
Romans
appeared on the peninsula during the Second Punic War.
and
It took them
half to bring the Thraco-Illyrianlands into
a
a
century
The

Thracians

their power;

nmch

have

now

blood

was

shed

before
156

the

Thracians

bowed

under

the

HISTORY

THE

OF

BULGARIA

157

[29B.C.-650A.D.]
and
the Hermes
the
yoke. The land between
Mcesia
Thracia
with
the
Roman
name
(29 b.c).
province
Emperor Tiberius (in 26 a.d.).
as a province until under
Roman

have

AVe

by
founded

other

many

colonies

in the

foreign. There Ls an
give an idea of the civil

before the
to

abandoned

AureUan
that when
Trajan, he estabhshed
seen

land, and

had

Moesia.

native

The

element

organised
been

quered
con-

Romans
gave
the

insula
pen-

Moesia,Thracia,Macedonia, and

Illy-

abundant
life in

the

in

became

not

was

Dacia, which

colony

new

Danube

amomit

of material

on

way

Roman
dominion; ruins of large towns, traces of army
ria under
roatls,
of archieological
abundance
and
remains
countless inscriptions,
an
testify
of native industryand commerce.
to the advance
Peninsula
A tremendous
change was accomplished upon the whole Balkan

by

the

immigration of

this

how

came

the Slavs.
There are different opinionsas to when and
The
coloBulgarian historian Drinov claims that the nisation
take place all at once, but gradually,in the course
of about

about.

did not
three hundred
years, and that it began in the third century, that is,before
end in the seventh
the great migration of peoples,and
to an
came
century.
In
fifth century the Slavs were
the
This view appears
to be the correct
one.
and
influential people, although their
already a comparatively numerous
all
stillfew.
settlements to
were
appearances

OF

CUSTOMS

Concerning

the tribes which

SLAVS

BULGARS

settled

were

seventh

AND

have

the Balkan
Peninsula in the
on
the contemporary
of the Grecians,
accoimts
of the Syrian,John
of Ephesus. All the

we
centuries,
Procopius and Mauricius,and
tall,with strongly built
Slavs,according to Procopius,were
hair was
neither very lightnor wholly dark, but rather blond.

sixth and

present descendants

black

character of
highly praisestheir

the

natural
the

old

hair

unusual.

is not

Slavs

as

Mauricius

bodies.

Among
describes

Their
their
the

free

hospitality.Among

from
cruelty and trickery. He
and
the southern
northern
Slavs

the basis of the life of the states and of the communities.


The
state
democraticallyorganised. Procopius
system of the Slavs was
relates that they "are not ruled by one
but from the most
ancient times
man,
have

family is

been

under

all their affairs

a
are

democracy.
placed before

In
a

favourable
common

and

council."

mifavourable
Several

situations
families living

called
settlement
formed a stem ; the district occupied by one
stem
one
was
to the Slavs.
Rulers
Ziipa. The rule of a singleperson was obnoxious
The
endure, and live together in disunion," says Mauricius.
they cannot
able
Byzantines relate of the Slavs of the sixth century that they lived in miserhuts far from each other, which
they built in the forests,by the side of
and
lakes.
Their
dearest
rivers,swamps,
possessionsthey hid under the
earth.
almost
naked, and armed with a firm
They usuallyfought on foot,
black shield ; many
without
shield.
a
fought even
The
earliest information
concerning their religionis found in Procopius:
the only lord of all
as
"They recognise one god, the creator of the lightning,
and
various
animals
in sacrifice";and
things,and they offer to him oxen
further : They worship also rivers as well as nymphs, and other divine beings,
to all of whom
they make
offeringsand from whom
they seek auguries."
The Slav prayed to the gods in open
nature, in groves, under trees, on cliffs
and hills. The
sacrifice was
attended
with singing. The
changes in the
which
much
meant
to
an
agricultural
so
people,they celebrated with
seasons,
in

"

"

THE

158

BALKAN

STATES

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[650-679 A.D.]

holidays,which have been preservedon the peninsula through the


Miildle Ages down
to the present day.
As to their cosmogony,
the Slavs were
universallyof the opinion that the
(Jod brought up from
the
earth had originatedin the sand of the soa, which
of the water.
the surface
They thas imagined
depths and scattered over
the earth to be floatingon the surface of the sea.
Concerning the customs
have been preserved,many
and the life of the old Bulgars numerous
accounts
by the Byzantines and Arabs.
The
chief seats of the Bulgars in Mcesia were
probably in the present Dobrudscha
and on the shores of the Pontus.
Thence, shortlyafter their arrival,
had
Slavic
Severans.
Until
the tenth century the central
moved
to the
they
in
the regionof the Kamtchik
river,and
point of the Bulgarian kingdom was
The settlements of the reigningOttomans
the plainsof Dobrudscha.
are
on
stillthickest in those regionsto-day. All the expeditionsof the Byzantines
in the eighth and ninth centuries were
westwards
towards Sofia by way
not
but towards
the mouth
of the Danube
and the regionabout
of PhilippopolLs,
festive

Varna.
The

Bulgars lived in polygamy, or had at least two wives apiece. As


had gold,silver,
a dowry
cattle,
horses,etc. Concerning the dress,
and women
alike wore
wide trousers, and that the
it is reported that men
old

the bride

The men
shaved
their faces like Mohammedan
off
women.
the
heads
oriental custom, wore
the hair of their
a turban,
and, according to
which
of
taken off in the temple. Their food consisted principally
not
was
veiled

women

If anyone
became
ill they
only that of young animals.
rites. Ribbons
the
were
by superstitious
put around
him
for
little
neck
of the
medicine.
stones
or
were
given
person,
According to the accounts of the Arabs, the dead bodies of aristocrats were
either burned
together with their attendants,or else laid away in a mound
and wives of the deceased were
in which also the servants
placed and left to

meat, but

they

sought

cure

to

ate

him
diseased

smother.
barbaric.
If anyone
seized for theft or robbery,
was
justicewas
he was
of which
wish
the
deerl
and did not
accused,
meekly to acknowledge
him
him
in
the hips with iron points
the head or pricked
the judge beat
upon
Executions
form of punishment. Not
until he confessed.
were
a
conuuon
overpowered lose their lives and
only did the rebellious nobles who were
Their

their property, but also their children and


The
Asiatic character.
an

etiquettehad

relatives

put

were

prince ate

at

to

death.

specialtable

Court
; not

tance
The
courtiers ate at a certain dismight keep him company.
him
from
the prince,sittingaround
stools or squattingon the floor.
on
skulls were
iLsed as (h'inking
Human
goblets. The left was the side of honour.
of treaties the oath was
taken on a bare sword, and at the
On the conclusion
in
time
cut
two.
dogs were
same
The ancient
a wild people.
Bulgars lived in war and for war; they were
frontiers
Their
were
stations,and no one, whether free or
guarded by many
slave, might leave the country under pain of severe
punishment. If anyone
did escape, the sentinels lost their lives. According to Arabic
accounts,
the whole land ; the singlevillages,
a thorny barrier with apertures surrounded
A horse-tail was
in.
used as a war
not walled
standard,like
however, were
On
certain
hunchuk.
allowed
not
the Turkish
day.
Fighting was
every
Before
advisable
deemed
battle.
to avoid
marching
unlucky days it was
his wife

even

the chiefs .sent one


of the most
faithful and intelligent
men
found
Alas for him who
and horses.
all the weapons
was
lacking
at once
in anything ! He was
punishedby death. Before beginning a battle
encounter

to

an

to

examine

THE
[679-700i.D.]
they had

deserted

to

recourse

in battle

was

refused obedience

HISTORY

OF

BULGAEIA

incantations,games, songs,
barbarously punished; the

159
and
same

auguries. Whoever
fate befell him

who

to his commander.

Masudi
(956) the old Bulgars had neither
According to the Arabian
and sheep. Wlien
paid for with oxen
gold nor silver coins; everything was
with the Greeks, they sold Slav boys and girlsinto slavery
there was
peace
ancient
at Constantinople. The
Bulgarian state had an aristocratic organisation.
The
prince was called cha7i. Besides the prince,the highest power
in the hands of a council of six aristocrats who were
called foyers(nobles).
was
of the Bulgars when, under
the customs
Such were
Asparuch, they settled
What
difference between
this people and the old Slavs
in Mcesia in 679.
a
centuries
of the peninsulaof the sixth and seventh
as
Procopius and Mauriwhat
difference
between
the
cius describe them
a
Bulgars of Asparuch and
bear the name
of Bulgarians!
the Slavs who now
Concerning the relation of the okl Moesian Slavs to their Bulgarian masters
has come
but littleinformation
to light. It appears,
however, that the
Bulgarianelement had only a slightinfluence on the character and customs
barbarian
of the Slavic people. The
immigrants learned from the already
the Slavs from
civilised Slavs, rather than
the Bulgars. The
Bulgarian
lived
of
terms
with
the
Slavic
chiefs.
The
official
on
friendship
princes
tions
posito both.
Crmn
feasted in the company
of Slavic boyars.
were
open
of the Bulgarian ambassadors
In 812 one
bore the Slavic name
Draguin, and
middle
of
the
ninth
the
Slavic
the members
names
occur
by
century
among
of the reigning family. The welding of the rulingpeople,which
portant
unimwas
Slav
have
with
their
to
taken
as
numbers,
subjectsnmst
placerapidly.
of the present Bulgariansare consequently not those small
The ancestors
took possession of Mcesia on
companies of the Bulgars of Asparuch which
in 679, but the Slavs who
in the period from
the third to the
the Danube
seventh century settled in Mcesia,Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus, Thessaly
indeed,in almost every part of the peninsula. The blood of the Finnish
now
Bulgars,which flowed mostly in the veins of the noble families,seems
to have long since ceased.
hundred
and fiftyyears to weld together the ruling
two
It took about
with the subjectpeople. The governing people,the Finnish Bulgars,after
toms,
they had united the Slavic tribes into one state, lost their language and cusinheritance
to the Slavic districts subjectto
but gave their name
as
an
the ruling race, which
The
them.
conquered people, the Slavs, absorbed
And
its
ancient
thus all who
lived
name.
spoke a different language but lost
called by the same
garian,
in the same
state
name
Bulgarians. The Old-Bulare
The German
influence on
the Slavonic.
Finnish language, had no
a
"

"

"

Franks

and

Lombards

stood

in

similar relation to the Romans

in Gaul

and

of the state was, and


The name
is,stronger than
present Lombardy.
of the people.
the name
Concerning the ancient historyof the Bulgars,before their arrival in the
Balkan
Peninsula,we possess two accounts, a native and a CJreek. The
Its text is Slavic, but interspersed
former is as interesting
it is obscure.
as
from
the wholly forgottenlanguage of the
with hitherto unexplained words
of the Bulgarian princes
enumeration
non-Slavic Bulgars. It contains an
from
been originally
earliest times
765.
to have
the year
It appears
to
written with Greek
letters;later it was
transposed into Slavic characters.
of the patriarchNicephorus
is found
The Grecian
in the chronicle
account
ments.
contain few harmonising state(815) of Constantinople. The two accounts
who
to have
The former begins with the reignof two princes,
appear
in the

STATES

BALKAN

THE

160

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[700-815

reached

regularbiblical

age"

one

of them

ruled for three

having
According

A.

D.]

hundred,

to this chronicle,
five
and fiftyyears.
from
164-679
fifteen
a.d.6
and
hundred
five
the
years
during
the Danube,
Asparuch, who, as we have seen, first led the Bulgars across
His successor, Tervel, entt-red into an alliance with
until about 700.

the other for


princesruled

hundred

one

reigned
the Byzantines and

when
them
Constantinople was
besieged by the
until
end
of
the eighth centhe
of
death
tury
the
Asparuch
Arabs in 719.
different
of
at
throne
the
Bulgaria
tunes,
nearly a dozen rulers occupied
a
until at the beginning of the ninth century a reallygreat ruler reigned.
aided

From

CRUM

(802-815

A.D.)

the throne the most


powerful of the Bulgarian
there ascended
warrior.
When
he
and
tireless
unconquerable
fierce
the
Crum, a
princes,
the
Balkans
to
the
from
reached
it
Transylvanian
the empire
took over
tine
conquereda largepart of east Hungary and the ByzanCarpathians. Crum
Constanto
provincesup
'^
tinople. In Hungary at that
"^
In

802

Charlemagne, after fierce


battles,had
conquered the
weakened
kingdom of the
time

'^"

(796).

Avars

All the land

under
tlie Danube
was
of the Franks.
dominion

up

the

t(j

During the reignof Nicephorus, in 809, the Bulgarians


appeared in the vicinityof
rible
the Strymon and after a terseized Sofia,
massacre
till then

which

of
A

Bulgarian

creditable
two

been

One

in

dition
expe-

taken
Nicephorus under-

in revenge

Monastery

had

hands.

Grecian

had

outcome.

no

very

After

spent in preparationNicephorus again broke into Bulgaria at the


dence,
largearmy, plundered the land for three days, burned Crum's resiand
It was
of peace.
not
proudly refused all overtures
granted him,

years

head

of

however,

to

return

Nicephorus found

home.
himself

Crum
so

the
the

blockaded

surroundetl

and

all the passes


of the Balkans.
shut in that he exclaimed : " Let

danger; we should need to be birds to do so!"


The whole Byzantine
massacre
began on
morning of July 26th,811.
victorious
made.
The
was
destroyed. No prisonerswere
Bulgarian
army
princestuck the head of the unfortunate Nicephorus on a lance and left it
view for several days; then he made
with
the skull into a gobletmounted
on
silver and out of it drank
at banquets the health of Slavic boyars.
After the battle Crum
broke into Thrace
and Macedonia, and besieged
of the siege,
he demanded
Constantinople. But soon seeingthe inadvisability
conditions of peace a yearly tribute,
as
a
a quantity of gala garments, and
certain number
of beautiful girls. During a personal interview with the
he narrowly escapedassassination
through the treachery of the
emperor
In revenge
Greeks.
he laid waste
the whole country surrounding Constantinople
far
the
Countless
as
as
Hellespont.
dragged from
prisonerswere

no

The

one

hope

to escape

STATES

BALKAN

THE

162

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[863-893 A.D.]

The

Byzantines.

Slavs

and

of Thrace

part throwTi off heathendom, and

had

Macedonia
in Boris'

even

ovm

the most
had
Christianity

already for
realm

Boris
of Crimi.
since the time
accepted
deep roots ever
and the Magyar
justas the Russian Madimir
Christianityfor political
reasons,
land Boris began a war
Stephen did later. During a great famine in his own
he profferedthe hand
of
III.
After a few successes
with Emperor Michael
from
receive
and
this
to
used
Christianity
Bj-zantium.
opportunity
peace
of baptism took place on the same
tions.
The ceremony
spot as the peace negotiastood as godfather,and Boris,upon becoming a Christian,
The emperor

begun

strike

to

received

the

of Michael.
the campaign
from

name

time in leading all his


Boris lost no
his return
the
but
with
he met
energeticoppositionamong
dependentsto the new faith,
raised
revolt
a
among
boyars who had remained true to pagan beliefs. They
Boris
in order to place a pagan
on
the people and attempted to overthrow
Boris had the
The revolt ended in their complete discomfiture.
the throne.
On

rebellious

boyars put

in number.

"Whole

to death

families

with

and

children,
fifty-twopersons
by the unworthy deed of
people who had joined the

their wives

thus exterminated

were

Clu-istian. The
conmion
this newly converted
allowed to go unpunished.
rebels were
from the Greeks and entered
Not long after his conversion Boris withdrew
for the ecclesiastical
anxious
be
He
w
ith
the
to
into negotiations
began
pope.
garians
since
the
his
Greeks
not
were
willingto give the Bulland,
independenceof

August, eighthundred and sixty-six


before Pope Nicholas I. They brought
Rome
in the form
of one
hundred
and six questionsas to how
their message
they
of these questionswere
Some
should have to order their lives as Christians.
in
be permitted them
it would
not
or
extremely naive, such as whether
whether
One important question was
trousers.
future to wear
they did not
avoided
direct
the pope
a
have the right to receive a patriarch,to which
himself
of
convince
to
he
would
firstsend
two
that
bishops
answer
by saj-ing
bishop of their
Bulgarian envoys appeared in
even

own.

In

of the country. "


Nicholas,however, and his successor,

the condition

tage
II,failed to keep the advanrefused
to
gained. They
unconciliBoris
and
showed
desired
generallyan
by
appoint an archbishop
that Boris, whose
soon
exliausted,sent to the
so
patience was
atory spirit,
council of 869 to ask whether
Bulgariabelonged under the pope or under the
patriarchof Constantinople. The influence of the papal legatescould not
and thus
prevent the oriental fathers from declaringin favour of the latter,
this monotonous
question, which was
so
important for the history of the
An
tinople,
Constandecided.
sent
to Bulgaria from
archbishop was
coimtry, was
ten
new
bishopricswere
clergy left the
foimded, and the Roman
which

the

Roman

church

seemed

Adrian
to

have

country.

Friendly relations
and

Boris'

son

Simeon

grew
was

up
sent

between
to

Constantinopleand the Bulgarians,


where he
at CoiLstantinople,

be educated

child to know
and Aristotle,which
the works
of Demosthenes
for
him
of
Half
the
after
title
Greek.
Boris
won
reigningthirty-six
years
his crown
in 888 and retired to a cloister. His oldest son, Vladimir,
laid down
him
succeeded
the throne, but after four years
the aged Boris was
upon
dethrone Madiobligedby the mismanagement of his son to leave the cloister,

learned

as

Michael Boris
by force,and to give the throne to the younger
son, Simeon.
5lay2nd, 907. His pictureon a gold backgroimd is in a manuscript of
the thirteenth century in a libraryat Moscow.
With
Boris begins the series

mir

died

of national

saints.

THE

HISTORY

OF

BULGARIA

163

[893-911A.D.]

FIRST

THE

BULGARIAN

A.D.)

(893-1018

EMPIRE

Simeon
(S93-927), the son of Boris,is the most important of all the rulers
deeds he brought the Byzantine
the Bulgarian people. By his martial
of
destruction.
The
of the imperial title and
the
to
adoption
Empire
verge
over

the foundation

of the

Bulgarian patriarchate,
by which he placed his throne
the introductorysteps to
Constantinople,
were
on
of a new
Greco-Slavic empire on the ruins of the monarchy
the establishment
the Great.
To his martial fame he joined the brilliance of a
of Constantine
Old-Slavic
then budding,counts
mind.
his name
creative
literature,
among
equality with

an

its authors.
Simeon's
With
with

that of

accession

Byzantines

the

came

the throne

to
to

an

end

and

the peace
gave

way

which
to

Boris had kept


bitter strugglefor

non-existence
of the empire of Constantinople,which
with
or
The direct cause
nished
furinterruptionslasted for fullythirty years.
was
by a commercial
question,doubtless an unusual event at that time.
could not effect a settlement
Simeon
When
feated
peaceably,he declared war, deand sent the prisonershome
the Byzantine army,
with their noses
cut
off. Thereupon Emperor Leo called in the aid of the Magyars.
Simeon
had

the existence

rare

to

retreat

into his fortifications while

the enemy

devastated

(893). But when the Magyars went home


as Preslav
their
them to
steppes and defeated them there.

the

his land

as

far

Bulgarians followed

Soon afterwards Simeon


again conquered the Greeks near Adrianople. In
order to put an end to their alliances with the Magyars forever,he. In conjunction
with the Petchenegs livingon
the Dnieper, fell upon
the families
of the Magyars while the latter were
fightingin Pannonia, and either killed
took

them

the battle near


captive. From
Adrianople to the death
and
between
Greeks
disturbed.
not
was
Bulgarians
peace
In this interval of quiet,literature,
in which
Simeon
took much
pleasure,
could develop unhindered.
Bishop Constantine, Pope Gregory, John the
exarch,and other writers raised it in the space of a short half century to
such a height that in the field of church
literature it did not stand
much
below the Latin and Greek.
His contemporariesused to compare
Simeon
to
King Ptolemy of Egypt. But the tendency of his learningand the art of his
education were
foreignto the Bulgarians,and did not succeed in warming
either the heart or the fancy of the people. The periodof Simeon, the golden
has no poetry. From
that time Byzantism began
age of Bulgarianliterature,
the
the
to find its way
Slavs;
Bulgarians transplantedit to Servia
among
them

of Leo

or

(911) the

and Russia.
residence

Simeon's

in

Preslav,in

beautiful

mountainous

district;
villageoccupies the spot, called by the Turks Eski-Stamboul
(Old-Stamboul),surrounded
by extensive ruins. John the exarch describes
the impressionwhich Preslav in its prime made
he
a stranger: "When
upon
who came
from
far enters the outer
of the princelyresidence,he will
court
be astonished,and when
he approaches the gates he will question in amazement.
And
the threshold,he sees
when
he crosses
buildingson both sides,
at

present

was

with different sorts of woods.


with stones
and covered
And
he goes further into the court, he sees loftypalacesand churches with
and
countless stones, woods, and frescoes,
their interior inlaid with marble
such
with
silver
and
what
to
that
he
does
know
extent
not
an
gold,
copper,
to compare
land he has never
the like,but only
it,because in his own
seen
huts
of
straw.
Wholly beside himself he will sink down in bewilderment.
poor

ornamented

when

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

164

GREECE

MODERN

[913-927 A.D.]

sightof the prince,sittingin

if by chance he catches
pearls,with a chain of coins about
girded with a purple girdleand with a
But

side of him

"hewill

'

answer,

comprehend

be able to
all this

splendour but

In 912
dead.

was

who

had

few

place in Simeon's reign. Emperor Leo


insulted the Bulgarianenvoys
Alexander, frivolously

His successor,
to

stones.

change took

decided

come

in

hast thou seen


there?'
asks him, 'What
own
not how
to describe it. Only your
eyes would
"
there Is nothing left of
Now
such magnificence.'
home

return

I know

neck, with bracelets on his amis,


goklen sword at his side,and sees his
golden chains, girdles,and bracelets,
his

with

boyars sittingon each


his
on
then, if anyone

robe embroidered

the

renew

\'II,at

by Constantine

But he died soon,


of peace.
of seven.
No
child
time
that
a

terms

and

was

one

in

lowed
fol-

stantinople
Con-

but Simeon's
longer be assuaged. In
anger could no
world
porus.
of
the
city on the Bos913 the Bulgariansapi)earedunder the walls
for
time.
After
Simeon
held Adrianople
a
In the followingyear
followed by a fleet,proceeded
three years'preparationthe Byzantine army,
wanted

war,

In August, 917,
of the Black Sea to the Bulgarian frontier.
in the destruction
which
ended
of
in
the
Balkans,
sight
fought
a
tinople,
Constanagain.'^t
of the Byzantines. Although Simeon
might have marched
Besides Constantinopleand
himself
with a blockade.
he contented
of
The boundaries
his power.
few coast
m
stripsnearly everything was
a
Menembria
the
Black
from
extended
that
time
at
on
realm
the Bulgarian
Rhodope. In the south the boundary went
Adrianople,to Mount
Sea, pa.'^t
Kalama
mouth
of
the
the
to
from
opposite Corfu, from sea to sea.
Olympus
far as
ruled by Simeon
few
with
coast
as
The Albanian
a
exceptions was
formed
the
the
border
Towards
Scrvia
Drin,
by
was
the Drin.
Bulgarian
there it reached to the Save.
Belgrade
the "White Drin, and the Ibas ; from
under
Beyond the Danube, before the Magyar
Bulgarian ilominion.
was
and perhaps also parts of Hungary and Transylvania
invasion, Wallachia
to have
belonged to Bulgaria.
seem
The ruler of such a monarchy could not be satisfied with the simple title
Boris and
his predecessorshad
borne, but took the imperial
Prince, which
Since an
title Czar of the Bulgarians and Ruler of the Greeks.
emperor
could not be imagined without
a
patriarchat his side, the archbishopricof
Bulgariawas elevated to a patriarchate. Simeon received the imperialcrown
from
Rome, not from Constantinople. Simeon died on May 27th, 927, after
appointing his younger
son, Peter, to be his successor.^

along the
battle

coast

was

DECLINE

With

the accession

OF

of Peter,

THE

son

EMPIRE

BULG.\RIAX

of

Simeon, begins the decadence


in succession

Bulgarian Empire. AVallachia,Transylvania,and Servia


off the Bulgarianyoke, and the emperor
Nicephorus Phocas, who
this interval
his attention
his

of rebellion

in the

north

fortified his Asiatic

had

of the
shook

during

frontiers,turned

conquered territoryof the empires in Europe, and under


Bulgaria became a Byzantine province^
decline
In the intellectual life of the Bulgarian people,also,there was
a
to the

successors

under

Czar

Peter.

Under

Boris

and

Simeon

we

see

wide-awake

and

siastic
enthu-

the
teachers, fre.sh youthful spirits,
spreading enlightenment among
and
came
with
of
word
Lender
disposition
Peter,
men
gloomy
people
pen.
who
withdrew
into the foreground,men
forests and mountains, to lead there

from
a

human

into impenetrable
.society

without
lifeof the strictest asceticism,

HISTORY

THE

OF

BULGARIA

165

[927-967A.D.]

important of these was John of Ryl, afterwards


in a villagem the province of Sofia,he
of Bulgaria. Born
the patron
After the death of his parents he
his
as
a
shepherd.
youth
passed
poor
which he soon
entered a cloister,
exchanged for the solitude of the heightsof
then in the
the Ryl plateau. For twenty years he lived in a dark
cave,
okl oak, and finallyfor seven
hollow of an
an
unapproachable
upon
years
Czar
Peter
the great Ryl monastery.
at present stands
cliffunder which
touching

The

pen.
saint

most

John
died in 946, at the age of seventy. Contemvisited the hermit.
him
in
with
lived, the north of Macedonia, tliree other equally
poraneoasly

once

celebrated hermits.

Bogomiles
belief gained ever
the mountain
the ascetics lived on
While
tops, a new
the people,the teaching of the Bogomiles. Five cenfirmer foothold among
turies
with the history
Slavic historyare inseparablyconnected
of southern
of the Bogomiles. From
Bulgaria it spread over the whole peninsula,to the
Slavs and Greeks, and stillfurther into Italyand France.
In the Occident
no
they were
longer called Bogomiles, but had numerous
in Italy,Cathari
in Germany,
such
other names,
Manicheans, Paterenes
as
called
themselves
France.
in
and Albigenses
anything else than
They never
garia
their
belief
bons
hommes.
That
boni
originatedin Bulchristiani,
christmni,

by their opponents. Gibbon calls


from
the founder
of
them
Bogomile comes
of
of the Paulician doctrines,by the name
their remarkable
sect, a reformer
Bogomil (Love of Gotl),who appeared in the first half of Peter's reign. His
gained a large followingby their strictlymoral lives. They were
disciples
loud
abstaineil
from
of peacefuldisposition,
talking or laughing, and were
That
them
faces
from
white
an
fasting.
distinguishedby
appearance
gave
forgottenneither by them
"
The name
sunply Bulgarians.

was

of

sanctity,which

in the Orient

nor

from

the most

ancient

times

has

not

failed

to be effective.'^''

Bogomile theology was founded on the principlethat there are two


originalelements, a good and an evil. The good and the evil divinityare
and
not
antiquity. The good divinityis a perfect triunal
equal in power
nothing incomplete and temporary has proceeded; it is
being, from whom
The evil divinity,
and perfect world.
of the heavenly, the invisible,
the creator
created
called
Satan
the
Christian
devil,
to
or
terminology
according
everythingvisible and corporeal,togetherwith the universe and everything
of
thus for the Bogomiles the creator
Satan
animate
and inanimate.
was
belief
doomed
their
to
his
to
the world.
The
according
work, was
earth,
The

destruction.
The Greek
and

earth,

Bogomiles relate that Satan,

formed

Adam

out

his messengers
be of service to them

thereupon sent
man

of the
to God

would

and

man

was

caused

obtained

an

attribute

by
of

life.

Satan.
man.

Eve
Free
Satan

both.

after he

soil but

could

had

created

not

animate

his heaven
him.

He

since
asking him to bestow his spirit,
The
good God fulfilled Satan's wish

The
fall of man
created in the same
way.
will is not, according to the Bogomile doctrine,
from
the beginning during the
ruled the world
was

Old Testament; it was


he who
brought on
of Babel, who
Hence
destroyed Sodom.
well as the prophets.

the
the

flood,who

scattered

the

people
Bogomiles rejectedMoses as

They rejectedcompletely the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Every "perfect"


Bogomile, whether man
might preach. Tlie church superiorswere
or
woman,
There
were
only administrators of the community, appointed by election.

GREECE

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

166

[967-969 A.D.]

Bogomiles called upon God


tops, in groves and in their

buildings. Like the old Slavs, the


everywhere, under the open sky, on mountain
to them
huts.
Christian temples and churches were
church

no

the seats

of evil

spirits,

Satan, they said, lived

first in
trumpets
at
Sofia
of
St.
church
the
then
in
Constantinople.
Jerusalem,
temple
However, in southern France, and perhaps in Bosnia, they had houses of prayer ;
tower
bell,without ornament
or
these were
simple little structures, without

their bells

and

the

or

were

devil.

the

of

at

chancel

without
portrait,

and

Testament, took

it the open

upon
The

table covered with a white linen cloth,


place of the altar.
distinguishedfrom ordinary believers by
drink
eat
meat
could not
not
or
marry,

altar ;

or

the

"perfect" Bogomiles were


They might
specialasceticism.
wine, dressed in black,lived in poverty, and abstained from all enjoyments
difficult
so
of life. The conditions for becoming a "perfect" Bogomile were
this strange cult was
that in the beginning of the thirteenth century, when
fect"
only four thousand "perat its height,among
a million Bogomiles there were
ones.

of the Slavic

gloomy doctrine ruled the minds

This

and

Peninsula

itself there

maintained
In

of the Turks.

Middle

the

with

varymg

the Balkan
until the coming

people upon

fortunes

time when
religious
questionswere
of Christianity
the southern Slavs the struggle
for the independence
the
added
contest
to this were

Ages,

pre-eminent,there arose among


against oriental Bogomilism;

at

national church and the effort to unite the Eastern


the undermining effects of
understands
Whoever
church with the Western.
the rapid successes
will
dissension
of
and
comprehend
easily
Bogomilism
and fifteenth centuries gained for the Ottomans
which
in the fourteenth
orthodox

of the

the

over

supremacy

peninsula.''

IS

BULGARIA

We

turn

now

to

INCORPORATED

event

an

whose

INTO

THE

EMPIRE

GREEK

influence upon

the

rians
history of the Bulga-

in their
of the Russians
that is,the first appearance
garia,
has been a factor in the historyof Bulsince then Russia
territories. Ever
is potent in determining the
the attitude of Russia
and at this moment
the
fate
of
and
deeming it prudent before
Nicephorus,
country.
policy
himself with an ally,
to
provide
a
as
Bulgaria
attackingso powerful country
to this day
persists

turned

to

the

Russians.

"

Accordingly an

embassy

who loved
princeSviatoslav,a man
of ten thousand
else. Sviatoslav with an army
rivers,and in August, 967, appeared at the mouth
sent

to their

of the

Bulgarians was

soon

broken.

The

with

adventure

rich
above

presents

was

everything

the Russian
The opposition
quickly took possession

proceeded down

of the Danube.
Russians

number
of other Danubian
cities,and Sviatoslav
pitchedhis winter quarters in the city of Preslav on the Danube.
In the mean
while Nicephorus felt obliged to change his tactics,
partly
had broken out in Constantinopleon account
because of disturbances which
of anxiety caused
of oppressivetaxes, partly because
by the unexpectedly
Czar
He made
with
Peter,and promised
rapid advance of the Russians.
peace
of Silistria and

to

drive the Russians

from

the

Danubian

territories. ^

complications,however, prevented the speedy fulfilment of this


died in 969, and was
succeeded
by Boris II. In the western
promise.
Shishman
in 963 had torn these provheaded
the
revolt
by
boyar
inces
provincesa
there a new
Peter's
and
loo.se from
established
dynasty.
authority
Sviatoslav was
pleased with the southern lands he had discovered and was
Various

Peter

THE

HISTORY

OF

BULGARIA

167

[969-1018A.D.]
all good things flow
inclined to return
to his comfortless
north.
"Here
he
his
"the
send
said of
Greeks
new
gold, rich stuffs,
together,"
quarters;
and Hungarians, silver and horses ; the Russians,
wine, and fruit ; the Bohemians
He
his attack upon
honey, and slaves."
consequently renewed
wax,
not

the

Bulgarians,captured

their

king, crossed

the

Balkans, and

appeared

on

the Grecian frontier intent on the earlysubjugationof the country.


John
not Nicephorus,but his successor,
It was
Zimisces the Armenian, who
the
Russians.
he
This
d
rove
back
did
to save
his own
finally
quite as much
After a long and
to help the Bulgarian czar.
as
desperatesiegethe
forced
retire.
Sviatoslav
to
himself
Russiaas were
attacked
finally
was
on
march
who
homeward
the
killed
after
him
his
fierce
by
a
Petchenegs,
pretensioasconverted his skull into a
contest, and in derision of his former

empire

"
goblet.
Zimisces
had
now
wholly occupied by the Greeks.
Bulgaria was
no
thought of giving back his empire to the liberated Boris,although at his
coming he had everywhere heralded himself as the liberator from Russian
Czar Boris II and the Bulgarian patriarchDamian
dominion.
were
deposed,
and Bulgaria incorporatedinto the Byzantine Empire.
Returning home in
offered
of
St.
Sofia
the
victor
in
of the Bulthe
the
church
garian
crown
triumph,
up
the
of
Roman
after
mortal
the
Thus
three
dred
hunczar
Empire.
enemy
existence
the Bulgarian Empire on
the Danube
(the
years of victorious
old McEsia) became
subject to the Greeks. **
there a final flicker of independence,
Only in the western
part of the empire was
like a separate firebrand which
suddenly flares up and burns for ?
fire is extinguished. For nearly half a century after the
time after the main
fall of Boris II, the Shishman
itself under
Shishman's
dynasty maintained
the
throne
who
the
death
to
after
of
his three
came
youngest son, Samuel,
"

elder brothers.

Basil
Samuel's
of the

successes

and

conquests

Byzantine Empire

minority of Basil

II.

II, the Bulgar-Slayer

When,

were

possibleon

the death of John


however, the latter came
after

account

of the weakness

Zimisces,during the
of age,

he

made

the

and by
Bulgarian independence the main objectof his life,
"
title
of
for
himself
the
He
won
Bulgar-Slayer.
cruelty
almost
for
several
decades.
uninterruptedly
fightagainstBulgaria

of
final overthrow
his severityand

continued
It would

to

be

tiresome

cruelties which

were

to narrate
relate the vicissitudes of this war;
in
detail
be
would
disgusting;they can
perpetrated
to

violent

and

the
be

that the Greeks,


bittered
emby nature
easilyimagined if one
ation,
by hatred,were
frequentlycalled on to exercise the rightof retaliinhuman
for
mercenaries
and that they employed the rudest and most
that purpose.
Finally Basil performed an act of cruelty which exceeds all
that had
hitherto
been
perpetrated and which surpasses belief. It is said
that he caused
fifteen thousand
captive Bulgarians to be blinded, allowing
hundredth
to
as a guide for the others.
one
keep
man
every
eye, so as to serve
with the horror
When
led
their
overcome
was
home,
king,Samuel,
they were
of the sightand died after two
This
into
the ranks of
days.
brought dismay
killed by a
and
the Bulgarians. Furthermore, Samuel's
was
son
successor
land
the
of
the
at last posdevastated
and
was
noble;
depopulated
sible.
conquest
In the year
the
whole
of
Basil
had conquered
1018
Bulgaria. At
the same
time he forced the Croatians
and Servians to do him homage, and
occupied the whole eastern coast of the Adriatic.^
reflects

STATES

BALKAN

THE

168

MODERN

AND

GEEECE
[1018-1186 A-D.]

BYZANTINE

and empty
Desolate
of inhabitants
Thousands
distant

lands

loss of their

far

as

the realm

was

had

many

which

fallen in the
The

Asia.

as

leaders;

(101S-11S6

SUPREMACY

power

forced

were

the

A.D.)

terrible

had

victor

took

over.

been

carried off to
of the boyars was
broken
by the
for
to exchange their old freedom
wars

or

daughter
positions. The last czarina,Maria, and Samuel's
Catherine, graced the Byzantine court as ladies in waiting. The Bulgarian
The
princesses
princesoccupied military poi?ts in Constantmople or Asia.
aristocratic
married
to
were
Byzantines.
One important institution of the old empire was
preserved by Basil II.
called archThe
bishop
Bulgarian church kept its autonomy, only its head was now
^
the church
But
affected by the
instead of patriarch.
even
was
it was
its existence,
worried and
generaldecline,and, although it did maintain
continued
to gain ground.
harassed by the Bogomiles,who
and seventy years elapsingbetween
the
During the periodof one hundred
of the second empire Bulgaria
and
the foundation
fall of the house of Samuel
national
has practically
no
history. After the death of Basil II the land was
allowed
first by the Petchenegs, who
were
overrun
by the Byzantines to
and
then by the Kumani, who drove the Petchenegs
settle beside the Bulgarians,
of the Bulgarians to rebel and
into ^^'allachia. Efforts
regain their
foiled by the lack of union
the people themselves
and
libertywere
among
the rival pretendentsto the throne.
The
country
presents a sorry pictureduring this period. The policyof
each of its Byzantine governors
much
of the
to make
out
was
as
money
before
he
It
was
was
replaced by a successor.
wholly
country as possible
rule in the provinces to-day. Overrun
like Mohammedan
the country
as
was
by barbarian
invasions,torn by internal rebellions and party quarrels,
it Ls surprbing to find that the national spiritwas
not
wholly broken ; but
broken it was
succeeded
not, as is shoum by the rise of the Asen brothers,who
in throwing off the foreign yoke. Two
Peter and
Ivan
(John)
brother.^,
descendants
of
the
old
of
made
the
tinople,
Constantour
to
Asen,
Shishman,
family
of good family were
which
sons
expected to do. They asked, like
well-bred youths with ambition, for what
a grant
they probably deserved
of certain lands ; this in rightof their descent.
They expressed a desire also
for an
official appointment, if the emperor
should
be so disposed. Both
demands
were
refased,and a high court functionaryemphasised the refusal by
of the two
brothers on
the cheek.
It is due to this
slapping the younger
that the empire staggered still more
event
that
the
feebly;
Turk, who was
strenuouslyencroaching from the south, received fresh encouragement, and
that there was
a second
Bulgarian empire."
Byzantine

court

"

THE

SECOND

Returning home,
St. Demetrius

related,certain

at

BULGARIAN

the brothers

Tirnova
and

which

(1186-1398

EMPIRE

called the

they

A.D.)

people togetherin

themselves

had

fountled.

the church

There,

of
it is

influenced
women
to proclaim with prophetic
were
the will of God that the boyars throw ofT the yoke of
win back
their freedom:
that St. Demetrius
so
had abandoned
many
the Greeks and the church laid waste
the
and
had
to
come
by
Normans,
bring help to the Bulgarians. This "miracle"
overcame
even
hesitating

enthusiasm

men

that it
years and

was

STATES

BALKAN

THE

no

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[1203-1207 A.D.)

CONFLICT

BULGARIAN

"THE

THE

WITH

LATINS

On June 23rd, 1203, just as the sun


was
setting,the fleet of the Latin
crusaders
ships carrying
appeared before Constantinople. Three hundred
of
number
the
about forty
and
to
Germans,
French,
Venetians, Lombards,
thousand

bore

men,

who.se
fleet,

course

Empire. Commantling the


from
the original
Palestine,
of
the Byzanimplacableenemy
tines.

the Byzantine
upon
had diverted
Venetians
sly

down

the

goal,stood the blind doge Enrico Dandolo, an

months
in a day. Nine
taken
not
passed amidst
Constantinople was
varying fortunes of battle. Finally,on April 23rd, 1204, the walls were
and the city was
stormed
inmiediately
conquered. Kaloyan's positionwas
still
the
Latins
While
this
event.
were
besieguigConstantinople
changed by
if they would
thousand
hundred
to their aid with one
men
he prombed to come
him
and
His
of
the
ruler
him
crown.
a
give
Bulgarians
as
agree to recognise
Baldwin
was
visiting
rejected. When, then. Emperor
offer,however, was
and Macedonian
the Thracian
cities,Kaloyan again offered to enter into a
that he was
to treat
received the haughty answer
He
not
treaty of peace.
his
but as a slave with
with the Franks
masters, since
friends,
a king with
as
the land which he had
in assuming dominion
he was
over
wholly unjustified
the Greeks. **
Kaloyan wTote later to Innocent
they would have no peace with me
from

torn

They proudly repliedto me that


I returned
the territorywhich
that I posse-ssed
this land more
the empire.
I had wrested from
To
Johannitsa's
themselves
than
Constantinople.
po.ssessed
they
tensions
prejustly
of Trajan, the crusaders opposed their
from
the Romans
of descent
of Priam.
descent from Francus, son
"Troy," said they, "belonged to our
III

"

unless
I answered

"

ancestors."
It would

have been wise of the crusaders,who in the Orient had to defend


againstthe Greeks of Nicaea and the Turks, and in Europe against
the despots of the Epirus and other petty Greek or \lach princes,to make
of the Balkans, who
alliance with the powerful czar
proclaimed himself
an
the most
their brother in origin. They preferredto have one
more
enemy,
of all. The rupture with the king of "Blaquie and Bouguerie"
redoubtable
the Greeks.
complete. The Bulgarians found allies among
(Bulgaria)was
in
their
old
hatred
Their
new
against Kaloyan was
forgotten
exasperation
Thracians
called upon
Kaloyan ; at Didjinotichon they
against the Latins.
massacred
the Frankish
garrison; at Adrianople they drove out the Latins,
themselves

Baldwin
hastened \nth the eliteof his army
and hoisted the banner of the czar.
wait for the reinforcements
which
not
to recapture that place; they would
Boniface was
hastening from
bringingfrom the south, nor those which were
who
for the twenty thousand
Armenians
Asia with Henry of Flanders,nor
to follow

were

them

and

who

were

massacred

by the Greeks.

of Kaloyan,
April 14th, 1205, before Adrianople they met the army
of
of fourteen
and
of
of
Machs,
Bougrps (Bulgarians), Greeks,
composed
after
the
fashion of
thousand
Kumani.
The
latter, fighting
unbaptised
which
attracted
the
French
cavalry,
they riddled
nomads, by a feignedflight
On

with

arrows.

disaster

was

The
of valour.
with his battle-axe performed prodigies
Baldwin
taken captive. Different
was
complete. The emperor
Baldwin

circulated as to his fate. It is best, without


doubt, to hold to
Dehitiim carnis exsolverat dum
to the pope:
the letter which
Kaloyan wrote
tenereturA Kaloyan survived Baldwin
He was
muronly two years.
carcere

reports were

HISTORY

THE
[1307-I2C0A.D.]
by his
Kumanian

The

wife.

report

171

of
probably at the instigation
spread that Demetrius, the patron

was

with

killed him

Thessalonica,had

saint of

BULGARIA

his tent,

general while asleep in

dered
his

OF

his

hand."

own

1207, ended the prince who had filled the Byzantines


with such terror that they called him Skylojohannes that is.Dog John.
However
prejudicedthe Greek and Latin chroniclers may be concerninghim,
His character
foundation.
write without
is stained with blood
do
not
they
of

in the autumn

Thus,

"

clean.

be washed

it cannot

and

Among

the

Bulgarians the

is held in

of the
memory
stillfiguresto-day

high esteem.
pious" czar
"great
myth of the Thracian Bulgarians.
Kaloyan's nephew Boril,who was probably one of the accomplicesof the
Ivan
murder, usurped the throne, and the legitimateheir,Asen's yoimg
son
Boril's reign lasted until
Asen, fled to Russia with his brother Alexander.
of importance occurred
the
1218;'' only two events
during it. One was
which
of
from
the
the
was
a
Bogomiles,
complete
departure
persecution
vious
prepolicy of the czars, and the other the marriage of Boril's beautiful
daughter with the Frankish
Henry, who hoped thus to gain an ally
emperor
The
enemies.
his
alliance,however, had no important results,and
against
Boril was
before long dethroned
by Ivan Asen II,who reigned from 1218
and

most

He

in the

to 1241."

IVAN

Ivan

Asen

II, "son

Asens, extended
in

condition,and

country obtained
reached

to the

an

relates of him

he

was

II

him.

He

(1218-1241

A.D.)

old czar," the greatest of the dynasty of the


of his kingdom
although he found the realm
"

was

himself

importance which

after

improvement

his memory;

the

the boundaries

decadent

it never

of

ASEN

devoted

him
Under
the
conqueror.
had
for
not
centuries and which

no

it had

himself

of the internal administration.


a

humane

and

mild

ruler.

No
The

to

deeds

and
contemporariesheld him to be a remarkable
"because
he neither
his
fortunate man
with
own
raged against
coimtrymen
of Greeks, as his predecessors
the sword, nor spotted himself with the murder
in the habit of doing. Therefore
he was
the Bulgarian rulers were
among
but by the Greeks and other
not only respectedand loved by the Bulgarians,
peoplesas well."
For the first time since Samuel
the Bulgarian Slavs were
united under
three
Asen
At Tirnova
built a
one
seas.
sceptre; Asen's empire touched
his
lows
folcathedral (now a mosque) in which
records
victories
an
as
inscription
In the year
Ivan
6738 (i.e. 1230) of the third indiction,
:
czar
Asen,
I,
and autocrat of the Bulgarians,faithful to God in Christ,son of the old Asen,
have built this most
worthy temple from its foundations and have completely
decorated it with paintingsin honour
of the fortyholy martyrs, with the aid
of whom,
in the
twelfth
of my
the
reign,when
temple was
being
year
and defeated the Greek army,
painted, I fought in the war
against Rumania
and took captive the czar
Theodore
himself
Comnenus
with all his boyars
(nobles).And I have conquered all lands from Odrin (Adrianople)to Drac
(Durazzo),the Greek, the Albanian, and the Servian land. Only the towns
around Carigrad (Constantinople)
and that city itself did the Frazi (Franks)
but
these
themselves
two
to my
hold,
rule,for they had no other
subjected
their
than
and
lived
out
czar
days according to my will since God has so
me,
ordained.
For without
him
is no
deed or word
accomplished. To him be
that

all his

expansion, but
of crueltymar
Byzantine Acropolita

only

not

"

honour forever.

Amen."

THE

172

BALKAN

STATES

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[1230-1341 A.D.)

The
under

residence
II.

Asen

city of Tirnova
At

the present Tirnova


with
the

that

was

it

time

raised to

presented a

with

its scanty ruins.


epithetsin Byzantine

high

of

state

niaguificence

very different appearance


In Bulgarian records
it is

from

nated
desig-

glowing
style:"Tirnova, the citj'of czars,
cities,the ruling;the widely celebrated city,the second in word

of

queen
deed after Constantine's

Tirnova was
founded is not knowTi.
city." When
built by giants; according to another, Crum
tradition states that it was
In the tenth century it was
the cradle of Shishnian's
the founder.
lution.
revothe first to establish its gloryby
and Peter were
The
brothers Asen

and
One
was

fixingtheir residence tliere and making it the


impossibk; that their paternalcastle was
Even
to the present day the superb location

is not

astonishes

every

traveller.

It consisted

of the

seat

archbishopric. It

in Tirnova.
of the old

Bulgarian metropolis

of
originally
by
The

citadels separated

two

rushing

church

Martyrs
bank

northern

stream.

the

built

was

of

There

of

the

river

part

of

Forty
the

on

the

in

the

town.

miracles
many
the saints buried

are

reputed to

to the holy
here, especially

Ilarion

of

deceased

Moglena. The
slepthere in

czars

subterranean
walls
covered

which
the

church

with

were

inscriptions

stillto be

are

The

vaults.

the

of

mosque.

in

seen

Besides

this

filled with
the
city was
and
churches
cloisters which
the

Turks

their

after

transformed
mosques

quest
con-

into

into baths.

or

Concerning the
of Tirnova

we

have

environs
esting
inter-

an

dating from
last patriarch,
Near
Euthymius.
accomit

the time
the

it

watered
the

only by the river,is a grassy


by the streams which converge
of the beholder,even
from

eyes
it is full of the

by

most

varied

the

"

Tirnova

from

of

kinds

meadow
at that
a

point.

distance;

of flowers

city Tirnova, separated


all sides,richly

visible from

and

This

it is

refreshes

meadow

planted

fruits,and

is

with

trees,

overtowered

thick and

it.
that water
roving forest; charming, too, are the streams
of
the
of
where
the
mother
a
Christ,
Virgin,
year
every
the people from
the whole
day."
city gathered with wives and children for a holiand nobles,was
the centre
Tirnova, as the seat of the czars, patriarchs,
of all Bulgarian life in the thirteenth
The
citizens
and fourteenth centuries.
Here

stood

often took

church

decisive part in political


events.
ruled
in
which
lands under Asen II brought about a
Bulgarian
peace
Asen
rapid development of commerce.
granted special privilegesto the
who
trade of the
had
all the internal
control
to
gradually come
Ragusans,
to
travel
unmolested
his
in
to
buy and sell as
peninsula;they were
empire,
The

THE

HISTORY

OF

BULGARIA

173

(1241-1257A.D.]

empire." The Ragusans in later tunes still


Ivan Asen."
celebrated czar
true friendship"of this
remember
monasteries
and
Ecclesiastical life also developed, and
cloisters received
orthodox,
large donations from Asen II. The followers of different sects
in Asen's realm.
The pope comCatholic,and Bogomile lived undisturbed
plained
in a letter to the king of Hungary of Asen's tolerance towards
the
and
that
he
to
the
that
refuge
protection
s
o
heretics,
Bogomiles,saying
gave
contaminated
and filled by them.
The
land was
his whole
independence
the
under
Greeks
Asen II.''
of the church of Tirnova
was
recognisedby
Like many
other
Concerning his foreign policyJames Sanmelson
says :
his
in
rulers
of
and
where,
elseEastern
day
Hungary, Wallachia,Constantinople,
and
Ivan
Asen
with
was
constantlymaking
breaking alliances: now
with Vatatz, ruler of Nica?a,who occupied
B^la, the great king of Hungary ; now
territories of the Eastern
of the fast-dissolving
one
Empire; and again,
the poswhen
it suited his views, with the pope, in order if possibleto secure
session
of Constantinople;but the only important outcome
of all these alliances
rule in the lastthat they contributed
to the fall of the Frankish
was
named
city,and facilitated the restoration of the Greek dynasty, which took
in
place 1261, when Michael PaliEologusresumed sway at Constantinople."
Asen
In June, 1241, died Ivan
II, the greatest of the dynasty of Asen, and
the
of the
The son
most
next to Simeon
important of all Bulgarian czars.
refounder of the empire, he spent his youth in exile,and not till after severe
the throne ; when
he died he left an empire
trials and battles did he ascend
the shores of three seas, and of which
the position was
which
touched
firmly
established among
the Christian states by friendlyrelations with the rulers
The Bulgarian national
of the Greeks, Servians, Hungarians, and Germans.
An
the
Greeks.
active
ings,
church was
recognisedby
splendid buildcommerce,
of
and
testified
to
the
civilisation.
a
rare
religiousliberty
progress
the empire would
have
Untler a brave and experiencedsuccessor
continued
to
and
in power
prosperity. But it was otherwise decreed.
grow
truest, dear

"the

the

guests

of ray

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

DECLINE

AND

After the death


and

glorystood

dynasty,as
was

was

Slavic

or

FALL

of the

fell with

great

czar

the life of

alreadyshown

monarchy

THE

OF

with

SECOND

it became
one

its

capitalat

their supremacy
able to maintain
Slavs.ft Within
sixteen years after

even

Greek, Macedonian, and

had

end with

an

his cousin

Kaliman

the murder

Michael, the

son

over

Servian

of Kaliman
of Asen

that

ideal of Asen

all this power


II and of his

of the

Bulgariansand Greeks,
were
Constantinople; his successors

the death

had reverted to
to

man.

EMPIRE

manifest
The

in the title Czar

not

come

BULGARIAN

the Macedonian
of Asen

II

and

Thracian

all his

possessions
Asen dynasty

rulers,and the
II, who in his turn had

II, and

successor

of

dered
mur-

his brother

I."

With Ivan Asen II there disappearedall chances for the future of Bulgaria.
With that dynasty, which
to an end in the third generation,
disappeared
came
traditional policies; the territorial greatness of the Bulgarian state
was
attacked.
The
of Ivan
I (1241-1246), aged nine years at
Ascti,Kaliman
son
his accession,died at the moment
when
the war
against the Greek Empire
That
about
to commence.
empire, profitingby the situation,tried to
expel the Bulgarians from Macedonia, from the valley of the Struma, and
from Thrace, which
Ason
II.
It attained its
under Ivan
they had occupied
ends in the years 1254 to 1257 during the reignof Michael Asen (1244-1257),
was

BALKAN

THE

174

AND

STATES

MODERN

GREECE
[1257-13y:5A.D.]

another
the

.\sen II and

of Ivan

son

of Michael

assassination

of difficulties which
the

related

noble

succession

of Urosh

the

to

throne

I of Servia.
gave

rise to

After
a

series

tlid not

until almost
end, except for a few interruptions,
garian
Titch, a Bulconcjuest. The reign of Constantine

Turkish

of the

time

the

brother-in-law

kings of Servia, was fairlylong (1258-1277),but


of Bulgaria,between
the Danube,
boundaries
the systems of the \ltoch and
of the Rilo-Dagh, remained
the Maritza, and
unchanged. The prolonged illness of Constantine, the intriguesof his wife,
rise to disorders
the proximity of enemies, especiallyof the Tatars, gave
which lasted nearly twenty years.
Ivailo,Ivan Asen
III, protege of Byzantium, Svetslav, George Terterij,
followed
of them
another without
one
one
Smiletz,
succeedingin establishing
Tchoki-Khan
invaded
order.
The Tatars under
Bulgaria. The western
part
of the country, the region about Widdin, established a partialindependence
brought

to

the

The

amelioration.

no

under Shishman.
The son
of George

Theodore
Svetslav,restored the central power
Terterij,
from
His son, George TerterijII,
1322.
1295
to
reigning
his
but
without
during
reign of one year, to extend the
attempted,
success,
of
the
at
state
he
Byzantium (1322-1323).
Dying without children,
expen.se
of
succeeded
Michael
Shishman
Widdin
was
(1323-1330), the first of the
by
dynasty. Very ambitious, unfortunate in his ambitions,jealousof the progress
of Servia,he sought an alliance with Byzantium.
Hence
his divorce
from
John .Alexander,nephew of Michael,succeeded
the sister of Urosh III.
him ; the marriage of his sister with Dushan
inauguratedthe policyof alliance
between
the Servians and
Bulgarians,so dear to Dushan, and which was
indeed salutaryand prudent.*^
Alexander
died,probably, in 1365, and left a disunited,decayed empire,
succeeded

and

in

the three rulers of which


resided Czar
and

Ivan

Dobrotic

death

of

were

was

Dushan, who

had

of Servia

the supremacy

the last Christian lords in the land.

In Tirnova

III ; Ivan Scracimir ruled in the west


Shishman
in Widdin;
^
the independent ruler of the Black Sea regions.
With the

called himself Czar

Bulgaria;

and

of the

Bulgarians,disappeared

the country, which


effective resistance

have seen
we
different
could
offer
the
to
cing
advanrulers,
no
among
Turks.
The
in
latter were
of
already
po"session
strongholds on the
and
of
southern
after
the
death
Dushan
coast,
they began their resistless
over

splitup

advance

towards
I and

to Murad

the north.
to send

In 1366 Shishman
his sister into Murad's

III

was

harem.

forced to pay tribute


The battle of Kosovo

sealed the fate of Bulgaria and of the whole peninsula.


"
battle the Turks directed their attack againstBulgaria.
What
the egoism of the
Byzantine pseudo-civilisation,

Shortly after

that

boyars, and religious


self-sacrificing
of individual
heroes.
Fortified strongholds and a warlike people
courage
like Tirnova
and
not
were
lacking. Large towns
Nikopoli still maintained
their independence. In the spring of 1393 Bayazid rallied the Asiatic army,
crossed the Hellespont,and joined his occidental army
them
corps ; among
tui moils

may

have
to his

surrounded
In

been
son
on

the absence

had

destroyed,could

the Christian armies


Djelebi and sent him
all

sides,but

of the

czar

it was

not

be

remedied

of Macedonia.

by

He

against Tirnova.
not

taken

Shishman, who

until after
was

the

intrusted
The

citywas

the leadership

suddenly

three months' siege.


trying his fortune elsewhere
a

against the Ottomans, the patriarch Euthjmiius was the chief person in the
city. He went manfully out to the Turks to soften the anger of the barbarian
the patriarchapproaching, undaunted
prince. Bayazid's son, when he saw
and serious,
as
though all the terrors of war were
only paintingson a wall,

THE

HISTORY

BULGARIA

OF

175

[1393-lCOOA.0.]

but
kindly,offered him a seat, Hstened to his petition,
deeds.''
few
with
followed up
promises
killed all the prominent
left behind by Djelebitreacherously
The governor
Different
Bulgarians. Euthymius himself escaped only by a miracle.
of his fate.
legendsrelate the death of Shishman, but nothing certain is known
Scracimir stillcontinued to hold his strongholdof Widdin, but he surrendered
before the battle of Nikopoli (1396), and
that
to Sigismund of Hungary
the fate of Bulgaria.
After the fall of Widdin
decided
the
battle finally
to the Timok
barians.
whole of Bulgaria from Varna
was
subject to the Asiatic barOf the cities many
were
destroyed,but others received new
tion
protecTurkish
themselves
for a
privileges.The boyars maintained
through
Islam.
The
were
by accepting
villages
terribly
depopulated,
long time, chiefly
whole
transformed
for the Turks
regionsinto deserts and everywhere burned
The
inhabitants of the plainsfled to the mountains
cloisters and churches.
cities. A large mass
there new
of the people,together with
and founded
Wallachia.
and
to
escaped
clergy,
boyars

stood up, received him


his

"

BULGARIA

THE

UNDER

TURKS

story of the medisEval

Bulgarian Empire is at an end. If we glance


long series of varying events which affected the Bulgarian people
For many
tones.
we
turies
cenget a picture in sombre
during eight centuries,
the Bulgarians held the whole
shared
their
peninsula in suspense,
Slavic world, and, by the
literature and culture with the remaining orthodox
the whole of southern
doctrines of a native sect, shook
Europe; and what
The
nation
feared
conclusion
and
?
the
once
was
so
respected
passed politically
under
under
the yoke of the Turks, intellectually
the yoke of the
Greeks,and remained in this servitude until in our days it has shown that its
The three causes
which contributed
task is not finished.
directlyto the fall
mediaeval
of the Tirnova
Empire were
Byzantinism, Bogomilism, and
Our

back at the

feudalism.
The

"

five centuries of Turkish


The

invaders

history.
and monasteries
villages,

were

rule (1396-1878) form a dark epoch in Bulgarian


sword through the land ; towns,
sacked
and
destroyed, and whole districts

carried fire and

regionsformerly ruled by the


and
Thrace, were
placed under the
Bulgarian czars, including Macedonia
ing
administration of a governor-general,
styled the beylerbey of Rumelia, residdivided into the sandjaks of Sofia,Nikopoli,
at Sofia; Bulgaria proper
was
and
Kiistendil.
Widdin, Silistria,
Only a small proportion of the people
followed the example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity;
the conversion
of the isolated
the
Pomaks
took
comnmnities
now
representedby
place
three centuries.
at various intervals during the next
A new
kind of feudal system replaced that of the boyars, and fiefs or
conferred on the Ottoman
chiefs and the renegade Bulgarian
were
spahiliks
nobles.
The Christian population was
subjected to heavy imposts. Among
of young
the most
the requisitioning
cruel forms
of oppression was
boys
between
the ages of ten and
to
sent
twelve, who were
Constantinople as
which
of janissaries.Notwithstanding the horrors
recruits for the corps
condition
of
attended the Ottoman
the
the
the
during
conquest,
peasantry
had
firstthree centuries
it
of Turkish
than
was
worse
scarcely
government
been under the tyrannicalrule of the boyars. The contemptuous
ence
indifferwith which the Turks
the
Christian
not
altogether
regarded
rayas was
were

converted

into

desolate

wastes.

All

the

THE

176

BALKAN

GREECE

MODERN

AND

STATES

[I600-1S35A.D.]
not
exacted
Militarysen'ice was
disadvantage of the subject race.
made
to extinguisheither their
from
the Christians,no systematiceffort was
allowed to
rehgion or their language, and within certain limits they were
of their clergy
and the jurisdiction
local administration
retain their ancient
in regard to inheritances and family affairs.
at its height the lot of the subject-races
While
the Ottoman
was
power
intolerable
than
far
less
during the period of decadence, which began,
was
Their rights
the
with
misuccessful
have
siegeof \'ienna in 1683.
as
we
seen,
law
the
and privileges
was
enforced,commerce
prospered,
were
respected,
of the Ragusan merchants
constructed, and the great caravans
good roads were
to

the

Down

traversed the country.


been
to have
to the end of the eighteenth century there appears
of Prince
that occasioned by the advance
serious attempt at revolt

only one
Sigismund Bathori

however, maintained

"

into

Wallachia

in

the

in 1595.

kind

of

guerillawarfare

by the haiduti, or

mountains

was,

outlaws, whose

exploits,like those of the Greek klephts,have been highly idealised in the


of the sultans declined
anarchy spread
popular folk-lore. As the power
of
In
decades
the
the
earlier
the
eighteenth
peninsula.
century
through
armies
of the Turkish
from
the ravages
the Bulgarianssuffered terribly
ing
passTowards
its close their
with Austria.
through the land during the wars
condition became
even
owing to the horrors perpetratedby the krjali,
worse,
ish
soldiers and desperadoes,who, in defiance of the Turkor
troops of disbanded
der
through the country, supporting themselves by plunauthorities,roamed
conceivable atrocity.
and committing every

NATIONAL

RE\TVAL

the beginning of the nineteenth century the existence of the Bulgarian


almost unknown
in Europe even
of Slavonic literature.
to students
race
was
of
from
Disheartened
Christendom
by their
by ages
oppression,isolated
geographicalposition,and cowed by the proximity of Constantinople,the
which
Bulgarians took no collective part in the insurrectionarymovement
At

resulted in the liberation


1810 and 1828 only added

of Servia

and

Greece.

The

Russian

invasions

of

of fugitives
and great nmnbers
sufferings,
took
by Russia under the treaty of Bukharest.
But the long-dormant national spirit
now
began to awake under the influence
The precursors
revival.
of a literary
of the movement
were
Paisii,a monk of
and
who
wrote
of
Mount
the
saints (1762),
Athos,
a history
Bulgarian czars
and Bishop Sofronii,who has given a vivid pictureo the times.
After 1824
WTitten
in
several works
modern
Bulgarian began to appear, but the most
important step was the foundation, in 1S35, of the first Bulgarian school at
Within
Gabrovo.
into
ten
Bulgarian schools came
years at least fifty-three
at work.
existence,and five Bulgarian printing-presses
were
The literary
led the way
movement
to a reaction
against the influence
of the Greek
and authority of the Greek
clergy. The spiritualdomination
had
tended
of the
than
the
more
patriarchate
effectually
temporal power
of Bulgarian nationality. After the conquest of the
Turks to the effacement
patriarchbecame the representativeat the Sublime
peninsula the Greek

their
refuge in Bessarabia, annexed

Porte

to

of the Rum-milleti, the Roman

comprised.

nation, in which

The

was
independent patriarchateof Timova
pressed;
supHeUeniscd.
The Fanariot clergy
was
.subsequently
in monopolising the
unscrupulous,rapacious, and corrupt succeeded
were

that of Ochrida

"

alities
all the Christian nation-

"

THE

178

BALKAN

AND

STATES

MODEKN

GREECE
[1864-1878 A.D.]

THE

Under

the

REVOLT

administration
enlightened

OF

1S76

of Midhat

Pasha

(1SG4-1868) Bulgaria

remarkable

is not
man
bered
rememenjoyed comparative
which
lie
with gratitudeby the people owing to the severity with
In
twelve
thoasand
Crimean
1861
movements.
repressed insurrectionary
the Caucasus,
of Circassians from
Tatars, and in 1864 a still largernumber

prosperity,but

were

that

settled by the Turkish


tion
government on lands taken without compensaThe
the Bulgarian peasants.
taineers,
Circassians,a lawless race of mounproved a veritable scourge to the populationin (heir neighbourhood.

from

the insurrection
in Bosnia and Herzegovina protlucedinuuense
ment
excitethroughout the peninsula. The fanaticism of the Moslems was aroused,
endeavoured
of Christians,
and the Bulgarians,fearinga generalmassacre
to
which
The
broke
blow
revolt.
the
rising,
a
general
organising
anticipate
by
out
prematurely at Koprivshtitza and Panagjvrishche in May, 1876, was
mainly confined to the sandjak of Philippopolis.Bands of bashi bazouks
let loose throughout the district by the Turkish authorities,the Pomaks,
were
called to arms, and
Moslem
or
Bulgarians,and the Circassian colonists were
of horrors followed to which
can
scarcelybe found in
a succession
a parallel
of massacre
the historyof the Middle
were
jvrishche,
PanagAges. The principalscenes
Perashtitza,Bratzigovo, and Batak; at the last-named
towTi,
and children
accordingto an officialBritish report, five thousand men, women,
imder Ahmed
were
Aga, who was decorated
put to the sword by the Pomaks
thousand
for
this
fifteen
the
sultan
some
exploit.
Altogether
by
persons
in
and
massacred
the
district
of
fifty-eight
villagesand
were
Philippopolis,
five monasteries
were
destroyed. Isolated risingswhich took place on the
northern side of the Balkans
crushed with similar barbarity.
were
w
hich
These atrocities,
first made
known
were
by an English journalist
brated
and an American
consular official,
denounced
were
by Gladstone in a celeThe
the indignation of Europe.
pamphlet which aroased
great
in the followingmonth,
remained
inactive,but Servia declared war
powers
A conference
and her army
was
joined by two thousand
Bulgarianvolunteers.
towards
the end
of the representatives
of the powers,
held at Constantinoiile
of the Bulgarian
of the year, proposed,among
other reforms, the organisation
provinces,including the greater part of Macedonia, in two vilayetsunder
with
Christian governors,
popular representation.These recommendations
aside
set
were
practically
by the Porte, and in April,1877, Russia declared
In the campaign which
followed the Bulgarian volunteer
contingent
war.
in the Ru-ssian
played an honourable
part; it accompanied Gurko's
army
where
with great bravery at Eski-Sagra,
advance
the Balkans, behaved
over
it lost heavily,and rendered valuable services in the defence of Shipka.
In

1875

TREATY

The

victorious

by

the

OF

BERLIN

lowed
folof the Russian
to Constantinoplewas
army
realised
almost
Stcfano (March 3rd, 1878), which
All the provinces
aspirationsof the Bulgarian race.

advance

Treaty

of San

to

the full the national

of

European Turkey

in which

the Bulgarian element


now
predominated were
which
from
extended
the Black Sea
princii)ality,
to the Albanian
to the jEgean, enclosing
mountains, and from the Danube
Ochrida, the ancient capitalof the Shishmans, Dibra, and Kastoria,as well
included

in

an

autonomous

THE

HISTOEY

OF

BULGARIA

179

[1878-1879 D.]
A.

the districts of Vranya and Pirot, and possessinga Mediterranean


port at
Kavala.
The
Dobrudscha, notwithstanding its Bulgarian population,was
included in the new
not
as
state, being reserved
compensation to Rumania
as

for

the

Russian

Bessarabia; Adrianople, Saloniki,and

of

annexation

the

thus delimited constituted


Turkey. The area
three-fifths of the Balkan
Peninsula,with a population of four million
The
inhabitants.
however, anticipatingthat this extensive
great powers,
Russian
become
would
a
dependency, intervened; and on the 13th
territory
the
of July of the same
signed
Treaty of Berlin,which in effect divided
year was
the "Big Bulgaria" of the San Stefano
treaty into three portions.
of
limits
of
the
The
mous
defined,and the autonoprincipality Bulgaria,as now
province of eastern Rumelia, have been already described ; the remainChalciihan

peninsula were

Intehior

left to

op

Principal

Court

of

Chilandari

and part of the vilayet


ing portion,includingalmost the whole of Macedonia
left under Turkish
No specialorganisaadministration.
Adrianople,was
tion
was
provided for the districts thus abandoned; it was
stipulatedthat
laws similar to the organiclaw of Crete should be introduced
into the various
carried
out by the
parts of Turkey in Europe, but this engagement was
never
Porte.
Nish
and
transference
and
the
Vranya, Pirot,
were
given to Servia,
of

of the Dobrudscha

the

to

Rumania

was

sanctioned.

This

artificialdivision

of

Bulgarian nation

could
scarcelybe regarded as possessingelements of
provided that the prince of Bulgaria should be freely
elected by the population,and confirmed
by the Sublime Porte with the assent
of the powers, and that, before his election,
an
a.ssemblyof Bulgarian notables,
convoked
The
at Tirnova, should draw
the
organiclaw of the principality.
up
to
draftingof a constitution for eastern Rumelia
a
was
assigned
European
pennanence.

It

was

commission.

THE

NEW

CONSTITUTION

Pending

the completion of their political


ern
organisation,
Bulgaria and eastRumelia
were
occupied by Russian troops and administered by Russian
officials. The
Tirnova
in 1879, was
at
assembly of notables, which met

mainly composed

of half-educated

peasants, who

from

the first

displayedan

STATES

BALKAN

THE

180

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[1879-1881 A.D.]

in which
they proceeded to maiiipuhitethe very
extremely democratic spirit,
them
submitted
niieral constitution
to
by Prince Korsakov, the Russian
ernor-gene
govhad effectually
domination
of
Turkish
erated
oblitThe long period
formed
and the radical element, which
into
all social distinctions,
now

and Karavelov,soon
Tzankov
gave evidence of its predominance.
suffrage,a singlechamber, payment of deputies,the absence of a
of all titlesand disand the prohibition
for candidates,
tinctions
property qualification

party under

Manhood

formed

salient

features

in the

constitution now
largelymodelled on

elaborated.

The

the

was
stitution.
Belgian confor five years by the sultan with
nominated
governor-general,
assisted by an assembly, partly reprethe approbation of the powers,
was
sentative,
of
committee
members; a permanent
partly composed
ex-ofjicio
and
the general
intrusted with the preparationof legislative
measures
was
supervisionof the administration, while a coimcil of six "directors" fulfilled

organic

of eastern

statute

Rumelia

The

the duties of

ministry.9

PRINCE

AND

ALEXANDER

RUSSIA

taken by the Russians


to mean
The liberation of Bulgaria was
simply
that they were
privilegedto act in the country exactly as they pleased,as if
of Battenberg, who
Prince vUexander
it were
a conquered province. When
had been chosen princeof Bulgaria on April29th,
at the suggestionof Russia

accept the throne,he received the


remembrance."
But scarcely
pleasant
Accept
when
he was
made
his
into
the
had the new
on
13th,
city,
July
prince
entrj'
forced to the conclusion
that no
possible,with
organised government was
of
the
notables
either the radical constitution framed
at Tirnova
assembly
by
of
the
Rassian
under
Russian
with the brutal high-handedness
or
influence,
had
who
Pan-Slavists
gained possessionof the highest civil and military
pcjsitions.But not until after two personalinterviews at St. Petersburg did
he succeed in persuading the czar
to suspend the constitution.
Thereupon in
his abdication and
18S1 he called on the Bulgarian people to choose between
for the purpose
of creatingthe necessary
a seven
years'dictatorship
provisions
and of revisingthe constitution.
At the elections a grand sobranye was
chosen which accepted these conditions without debate.
But although one
thus removed, the other,the Russian
evil was
pressure,
and
still remained
was
continuallyon the increase. The Russian generals
and
Sobolev
the latter of
Kaulbars, the former the minister of the interior,
acted in harmony with the Russian
Jonin, as though the
war,
representative
mitting
prince and their Bulgarian colleagues had no privilegeexcept that of subwithout cjuestion
decreed among
other
to Russian
demands.
Kaulbars
things that no officer might be appointed who had not served two years in
the Russian
When
the conflict between
and Bulgarian
the Russian
army.
ministers
to
break
in
the prince,
came
to an
an
answer
appeal to St.
open
received
the
laconic answer
that the mission
of the two generals
Petersburg,
and
not 3'etended
that their opponents must
But
the brutal
was
give way.
arbitrariness
with which
the Russian
magnates misused their positionshad a
result which
far from
intended by themselves:
it led to an understanding
was
between
the hitherto hostile parties. The conservatives,who
did not wish to
the Turkish
united
with
the liberals,
see
a
replacedby
Rassian,
supremacy
who
above
else
wanted
re-establi,shment
of
the
the
constitution.
everything
Prince Alexander, on September 10th, announced
Trusting to this coalition,

1879, asked
"

answer

Prince

Bismarck

if he should

it ; it will be at least

HISTORY

THE

OF

BULGARIA

181

[1881-1884A.D.]
ministers
the Russian
czar's
orders
had
the
they
to

the prince,and
to the retention
to draw

of his

on

the

up

to

same

of the two
new

that
dismission, but they coolly answered
at their posts even
against the will of
day Jonin presented a note which, in addition

their

remain

generals,demanded
constitution,and

the

the establishment

of

relinquishmentby

the

mission
com-

prince

extraordinarypowers.

who were
turned to the liberals,
ready to accept
of Tirnova.
back
the
constitution
to them
give
any
Sobolev had already arranged with Zankov, the liberal leader,that at the
convention of the littlesobranye the depositionof the princewould be insisted

Thereupon
alliance

But

upon.

the Russians

which

would

this time

The

also the

Convent

"Russian

of

triumvirate"

Sphigmenu,

at

Mt.

missed

its aim.

At

Athos

the last minute the Zankovits recognisedthat instead of fomiding the freedom
and independence of Bulgaria they were
about
to assist in establishing
a
Russian dictatorship.Instead of deposing the prince,the little sobranye in
address expressed to him only the unanimous
desire of the nation for the
an
re-establishment of the constitution,with the change of one
point,
necessary
and this was
The
Russian
ministers left Sofia in
two
willinglyconceded.
"That
last triumph, highness,"said Sobolev to the prince
was
anger.
your
which
the emperor
at parting,"and
time
the last misdeed
will
at the same
let go unpimished." In fact deep indignationwas
felt at St. Petersburg
this

had
because the new
the more
so
czar
unexpected turn of affairs,
personal dislike for his Battenberg cousin as his father had had
for him.
of war
to another
When
the princedesired to give the portfolio
liking
Russian general,Liessovoi,the latter as well as a Russian
adjutant of the
of
which
had
instead
been
the
confirmation
prince,
hoped for,received orders
from St. Petersburg to leave Sofia within forty-eighthours.
The
prince
this insult by dismissingthe remaining Russian
officers
worthilyanswered
who were
in his personalservice and by recalling
by telegraphthe thirty-five
The people placed
Bulgarianofficerswho had positionsin the Russian army.
themselves unanimously on his side ; if Russia did not wish to lose influence,
over
as

much

it was

needful

overstretch the bow.


the czar
this
reflection which moved
not to rejectthe
probably
concessions offered by the prince. Through the younger
Kaulbars, who was
sent to Sofia,an
for
three years was
reached,in accordance with
agreement
which the ministry of war
for the future also intrusted to a Russian
was
It

was

not

to

THE

182

BALKAN

STATES

AXD

MODERN

GREECE
[1884-1885 A.D.]

general,who, however, had


and
mean

obedience

to swear

the

to

prince,the constitution,

all interference
in internal affairs.
In the
the laws, and had
to avoid
while the little sobranye had finished the revision of the constitution,

the introduction of the dual chamber


first
then
to be tried for three years and
system.
laid before a grand sobranye for final approval. The
prince hereupon, in
Germany, 1884, laid down the extraordinarypowers which had been given him.
the most

important change
The

in which

constitution

new

UNION

EASTERN

WITH

RUMELIA

agreement with Russia, however, which

The
was

was

was

only

national

of

short

duration.

party lay in the

chief

source

fact that the congress

had
of

been

won

discontent

of Berlin

had

with
for

such

the

toil,

radical
the creation

opposed

Rumelia
had received a separate
that eastern
From
time
that
the radical national
in
the
of
Aleko
Pasha.
governor
])erson
of
work(Hl
in
for
but
the
secret
reuniting the two Bulgarias;
tirelessly
party
of

Great

Bulgaria and

garrisonof Philippopolis.On September 18th,


Aleko's weak
was
1885, a
accomplished there without bloodshed.
Gavril Pasha, was
Rumelia
with
arrested,the union of eastern
successor,
invited to come
to Philippopolis.
Bulgariaproclaimed,and Prince Alexander
He did not delay in respondingto the summons,
but his firstact upon arriving
in Philippopolis
of Turkish
to recall the tokens
was
sovereigntywhich had
been taken
and
be
in Constantinople
it
s
tated
to
to
cause
explicitly
away,
that he had no intention of interfering
with this sovereignty. On the advice
of Germany and Austria the Porte,in order to avoid bloodshed,refrained from
sending troops as it had intended.
On the other hand. Emperor Alexander
the sharpestpossibleexpresgave
sion
hLs
to
disapprovalof this act of independence. It was not enough that
he bluntlyexpressed this opinion to the Bulgarian deputation,which under
the metropolitanClement
had been sent to him at Copenhagen
not enough
that he immediately recalled all Russians
serving in the Bulgarian army.
the princeoffered,
When
in case
these measures
directed againsthimself,
were
to abdicate
if,on the other hand, Russia would uphold the union, the czar
off the list of the Russian
struck his name
without
condescending to
army
him.
Most
had
the
answer
strangely
directlyinterested in the
great powers
former
Bulgarianquestioncompletely reversed their
positions.Russia,which
full of
formerly had written the liberation of Bulgariaon its banner,was now
jealousy towards the indepentlencewhich those Bulgarians were
demanding
under the leadershipof their prince,and oppo.sedthe union of the two Bulgarias,
the separation of which had had to be wrung
from
her with difficulty
at
of Berlin.
the congress
On the other hand, the powers
which had then fought
found
against the partition of Bulgaria the Porte, England, and Austria
this Great Bulgariavery convenient
wall
No
Russia.
wonder
that
as a
against
the conference
of ambassadors
which met
the
at Constantinopleat
suggestion
of the Porto did nothing towards
became
the solution of the question. Matters
still more
complicated by the fact that Greece and Servia thought that, by
the extension
of Bulgaria,portions of the Turkish
which
inheritance
upon
they had counted were to be taken away from them ; and, in order to prevent it,
they made
militarypreparations which far surpassed their financial ability.
all efforts made
Futile were
by diplomacy to prevent the firebrand in this
of Europe from
dangerous corner
breaking into flames. King Milan took
advantage of the crossingof a line by Bulgarian troops to declare war in Sofia
November
on
13th, 1885.
sworn

officers

won

over

the

revolution

"

"

"

THE

HISTORY

OF

BULGARIA

183

P885-1886 A.D.]
WITH

WAR

entered Bulgaria under the leadership


against Widdin ; the main branch proceeded
of Tsaribrod, Trin, and Kiistendil.
towards Sofia by way
Considering
and
better
the superior numbers
equipment of the Servians, the struggle
had lost nearly all its superior
seemed hopelessfor the Bulgarians,whose
army
officers through the recall of the Russians; and the beginning of operations
appeared to confirm this view. The Servians took in quick succession the
poorlyfortifiedstrongholdsat Tsaribrod,Trin,and Adlieh (Kula) (nearWiddin)
the Dragoman pass as far as
back over
from their opponents and forced them
attacks
and
Slivnitza. A few more
vigorous
they would have arrived before
leaf
But
the
turned contrary to all expectations. Prince Alexander,
Sofia.
with
the
inunediatelyafter the Servian declaration of war, had conformed
On

the very

of their

king.

next

Servians

division marched

One

of the Porte

demand

day the

SERVIA

that

he

should

withdraw

his troops from

Ru-

eastern

Constantinople that in defending the Bulgarian


time defending the Turkish.
He
frontier he had been at the same
fortified
the intervention of the great powers.
He
himself further by callingon
then
of battle
collected fifteen thousand
and appeared with them on the scene
men
On the 17th he repulsedan attack of the Servians; on the 18th
at Slivnitza.
back to the capital,
he took the offensive ; on the 19th,while he had hastened
Servian
Gudschev
the
and
the enemy
forced
back
captured
Major
positions
the
Tsaribrod
garians.
Bulinto the Dragoman
23rd
the
was
occupied by
pass; on
This defeat,so wholly unexpected, completely cured King Milan
In a telegram to the Porte he offered to stop hostilities,
of his desire for war.
whereupon Turkey, thereby acting in harmony with the terms of the Treaty
melia.

He

explained

of Berlin,ordered

at

the victor

conclude

to

Prince

Alexander, however,
stop fightingexcept on Servian
of

felt that

an

armistice.

his martial

soil ; he refrained
Rumelia
before

honour

also

from

forbade

him

sending

to

missary
com-

the Porte to eastern


On
the end of the war.
26th he crossed the Servian frontier,and on
the 27th and 28th
He
was
sharp battle stormed Pirot and the heights behind.
already

November
in

the Austrian
sador
ambaspreparingto penetrate into the interior of Servia when
in Belgrade, Count
from Comit
to him
Kiievenhiiller,came
Kdlnoky
and presenteda collective note of the powers
which demanded
the cessation
of hostilities. It was
further he would
hinted that if the prince advanced
the Austrian whitecoats.
There was
come
nothing left for the prince
upon
but to agree to an armistice ; after long and fruitless negotiations,
ber
Decemon
22nd
commanded
both partiesto
international militarycommission
an
vacate
hostile territory
and to agree to a peace lastingmitil March
1st, 1886.
Servia
the
March
was
unyielding. Finally,on
3rd,
negotiatingparties
had to be content
of peace
with the simple re-establishment
without coming
to an
the intervening
Prince
Alexander
details.
had
used
agreement upon
time to accomplish as much
Rumelia
and to conas
was
clude
possiblein eastern
the
a
treaty with the Porte on February 2nd, 1886, through which
this province was
for
general government
over
assigned to him provisionally
five years, and both Bulgariaspledged themselves
to support each other in
of need.
This greatly annoyed Russia, who, however, by her interference
case
succeeded
in causing the conference
of ambassadors
at Constantinople to
make various changes in the treaty. Alexander's
struck from
it,
name
was
and

the renewal

of his election

every

union
of the
by the powers.
The
fact.
The
Peace
of San
accomplished

five years
two

was

reserved

for confirmation

Bulgarias, however,

Stefano

had

been

remained

realised of itself.

an

THE

184

BALKAN

STATES

MODERN

AXD

GREECE
(1SS6-18S7 A.D.]

Russian

Intriffues

Russian
be"n restored when
intriguesstirred up
peace
Bulgaria. After throwing off the Turkish yoke people
had so finnlyexpectetlthe liawri of a golden age that disappointmentopened
for such influences.
In conjunctionwith the Russian
a way
militaryattache,
formed
a
Zankov, Major Grujev and Captain Benderev
throw
conspiracy to overthe prince. Sofia was
purposely almost emptied of troops. On the
21st of August .AJexander was
surprisedat night by mutinous
officers,
cadets,
and soldiers;he was
forced on
the pain of death to sign a sort of abdication,
frontier town
carried to the Russian
was
Reni, and from there,on an order
frontier.
In Sofia the
the
Austrian
from
St. Petersburg,was
to
brought
of
which
held
who
court
at
sort
a
metropolitan Clement
high
everj^one
peared
apand
that
God
loosed
received one
rubles
had
the
two
proclaimed
or
Bulgarian people from Prince Battenberg and had brought them back under
the protection of the powerful czar.
Thereupon the populace was driven to
the Russian
consulate,upon the balcony of which the metropolitan,standing
blessed the kneelingpeople. He himself
the consular atlministrators,
between

But

scarcelyhad

disturbances

new

became
But

it

the

in

heud

of

the

became

soon

unscrupulous deed.

Zankov

cabinet.

new

that

clear

neither

poured

Protests

was

people

minister

nor

army
all sides. The

in from

of

the

interior.

of the
militia of eastern

approved

as
against Sofia,the conspirators,
many
the
24th
and
Mutkurov
on
prisoners,
as
escaped by flight,
formed
and Stambulov
with
Karavelov
in the
a
provisionarygovernment
find
A
latter
and
started
the
of
invite
out
to
the
deputation
name
prince.
in
found
him
and
him
It
wounded
to return.
Lemberg,
although deeply
by
him
he decided
back.
On all sides he was
to come
the ingratitudeshown
received as in triumph.

Rumelia

had

But

under

Mutkurov

marched

not

he

taken

were

forced

was

to

against the lastinghatred

the conclusion
of

that he could

not

maintain

himself

Russia, without

culable
plunging Bulgaria into incalhe sent a humble
Rustchuk
difficulties. From
telegram to the czar
Since Russia has given me
which
closed with the words :
I am
my
crown,
ready to return it to the hands of her sovereign." Undignifiedas this offer
it nevertheless failed completely in attainingits object. The answer
of
was,
I cannot
of
the czar
return
to
was
a curt
:
rejection
Bulgaria,
approve
your
I see calamitous
is already so severelytried.
results for the countrj', which
as
I shall refrain so long as you remain
there from all interference in the unfortunate
reduceil."
is
It
the
state of affairs to which
was
most
Bulgaria again
of
pregnant expressionof the fiction,popular in Russia, that the government
from
which
rule
free
the
the princewas
Russian
Tliis
must
anarchy
country.
proclamation of implacable enmity against his person decided the prince.
After he had made
his solenm
entry into Sofia he reappointed the pro\TSory
government, abdicated on September 7th, and left the country.
With
redoubled
renewed
to force Bulgaria
now
emphasis the efforts were
into a Rassian
General
vassalage. More imperiouslythan a Roman
pro-consul.
the
fold
threeo
f
Slavic
Kaulbars, the new
authority,
imposed
representative
coiiunand:
To raise the state of siege,to liberate the imprisoned conspirators,
and to defer the election for the grand sobranye,which
had
been
fixed for October
and
10th.
But both regency
people opposed a firm and
"

"

temperate

resistance

resulted
of

treacherous

overpowered

and

in

to

these oflficiousattempts.

complete

attempt

defeat

for the Russian

against the little coast

brought before

tribunal

The

elections

party.

fortification

The
of

to

the

branye
so-

originators

Burgas

were

regardlessof all protests of Kaul-

186

THE

BALKAN

STATES

AND

MODEEN

GREECE
[1893-1904

arrived

in

royalty,

Sofia

which

she

were

refused

Alexander

the

obtain

the

now

and

judged

1894)

into

be

orthotlox

the

had

die

on

been
the

heir

antl

felt

office

until

three

his

year

of

Sofia

minister

and

and

his

garian
"Bul-

ministry

new

bulov
Stam-

1895)

almost
The

neering
domi-

the

15th,

and

later.

days

anxious

1894,

(July

show

to

prime

May,

resigned,

following

ever

years,

In

called,

streets

that

Prince

began

than

seven

following

the

he

more

minister,

exiled

in

and

also

enemies.

the

policy

of

time

to

disposed

faith

Greek

hacked

to

murderers

were

sine

new

of

non

suit.

with

throne

Nicholas

his

father

of
his

Catholic

the

to

czar

his

baptism

qua

Roman

rapprochement

than

the

that

the

of

Ferdinand

to

was

into

of

urging

an

understand

to

effecting

of

accession

the

propitious

baptised

been

in

son

was

in

make

In

entered
the

given

was

been

to

and

the

to

ruled.

prime

of

Ferdinand,

courts,

ha.s

not

favourably

prince

of

husband

and

death

a]

A.

due

respect

her

statesman

The

He

had

attacked

to

more

Prince

the

justice.

to

Ferdinand
Russia

of

latter

failed

diel

birth

foreign

Stoilov.

he

although

the

of

whom

over

dinners.

the

Stambulov

brutally

brought

and

and

peasant

Stambulov.

not
as

people

her

at

position

at

The

ceremonial

the

was

him

Doctor

by

her

year,

had

was

pieces,

Boris

the

towartls

Bismarck,"

the

to

the

way.

formed

never

foreign

same

manner

was

court

to

recognition

in

stood

of

strengthened

independence

more

ideas

have

to

in

January,

to

of

distasteful

Particularly
and

full

his

had
eldest

that

sonally
per-

been,

but

Boris,

son,

recognition

faith

vember,
(No-

was

Russia.

by

been

having

one

of

the

but

daughter,
In

imposed

conditions

the

in

February,
March

following

by

the

and

there

is

education,

for

schools.

popular

the

national

for

Parma

the

on

rebaptised

was

named

into

Ferdinand
and

his

marriage
the

Greek

officially

was

his

church.

Bulgaria

of

prmce

position

of

and
nised
recog-

powers.

of

and

sultan

of

Ruraelia,

eastern

Ferdinand's

During
condition

he

1896,
the

of

governor-general

duke

the

by

established.

great

no

and

there
Towns

country.
bank

The
health

reign

poverty

nearly
ruler

resorts

over

of

has

The
or

this

nation
where

They
the

show

budget

of

goes

by

and

an

astonishing

consists

of

is

peasants
he

the

prosperous,
eagerness

appropriations

familiar
name

the

constructed,

railways

industrious

are

in

improvement

rebuilt,

people

of

marked

been

wealth.

one-tenth

Europe,

been

have

figure
of

"

in

Nanda.""

the

CHAPTER

THE

HISTORY

ORIGIN

all the

Of

which

III

AND

OF

EARLY

SERVIA

HISTORY

is that of the
Europe the most
numerous
in
who
the
as
by Herder,
eighteenth century
of the first to draw attention
to the Slavs, they occupy
one
was
more
space
the map
than in history." Their civilisation and
their destiny have
upon
been determined
by two important facts: (1) They appeared upon the scene
much
later than the other European peoples; the Latins had already a long
and the Celts were
already submitting
past of progress and glory,the Germans
culture and of Christianity,
when
the Slavs
to the influence of Greco-Roman
were
passing through a patriarchalperiod. (2) Placed on the frontier of
Europe, the Slavs were
exposed to Asiatic invasions before they had succeeded
in forming powerful states.
Their mission had been in general less to
Slavs.

races

has been

But,

possess

observed

"

promote civilisation than


the Slavs
which
word
are

seems

stillused
The

the

by

comes

to

protect and

it.

propagate

called

of Wends.
The
Slavs call themselves
Serbs, from
Spores,frequentlyused by Byzantine historians. The
The
Serb and
Wend
meant
names
people, or nation.
day, but they now
designateonly particulargroups.

name

to

in

have
our

lower

Drave

and

of

the

Save

earlydate by Slavs,coming from the north or from the


not
however, were
territories,
reallyoccupied by them
them-selves

Germans

the form

territories of the

of Heraclius

The

(610-641).
in

Dalmatia

At
and

that
the

time

the Croats

adjacent

were

lower
until

and

countries

overrun

Danube.

during

the Serbs
the

at

an

These
the reign

established

west.
History,
however, is not at present able to establish their origin or fix their point of
departure. Later, the Croats occupied Croatia from the Kalpa to the Verbas,
south
the southeast of Setria,and northern
Dalmatia
; the Serbs settled to the
and east in the direction of Belgrade,Novibazar, and Durazzo.
The
Romans
kept only a few cities on the coast and the islands. The dispersionof the
Slavs accentuated
the differences which had already begun to appear between
187

on

STATES

BALKAN

THE

188

MODERX

AXD

GREECE
["41-1000 A.D.]

the Slavs

of the

west

and

tlioso of the south

and

east.

Moreover, each

number

of

of peoplesand

subdivided
into a certain
these two largergroujjs was
afterwards
tribes. Of tiie soutliern group, the Croats and the Serbs, who were
the Croats received
from Rome, the Serbs from
which
divided by Christiaiiit}',
people. To-day they
Byzantium, formed at the beginning one and the same
and the Servians
the
Latin
but
Croats
the
the
use
alphabet
same
language,
speak

in
about seven
are
millions,half of whom
Cyrillic.They number
the others spread over
Servia, Montenegro, and Turkey (Bosnia,
Croatia, Herzegovina, etc.). It sliould be noted tliat the Serbs and
of the Carpathians,where
the
from
the north
to have
come
appear

the
Austria

Turkish
Croats

and

of the tenth century stillmention


a White
Until the beginning of the tenth century the

writers

Servia

and

White

Croatia.

Slavs, alreadyseparated into

different groups and often hostile to each other,formed nevertheless only one
is the last episode of Panpeople. The preaching of Cyril and Methodius

MosTAH,

history; froin
of
individuality

Slavic
The

Capital

of

Herzegovina

that time the historyof the different Slavic states begins.


each group
and more
becomes
marked
more
precisely;

mi.xed with

and

become
not only
so
distinct,
pronunciationbut in their syntax, that the primitiveunity is perceptible
the elective power
institutions,
only to the eye of a philologian. The common
of the knezes, the
organisation of the
popular assemblies, the conununal
of membei's
of the
family,the juristicsolidarityof the clans, the e(iuality
of
and
the
maintained
certain
of
the
western
tribe,
onlj'
are
now
family
among
tions
Slavs, and tiieyare almost everywhere rejilaced
by feudal trailitions or imitaof foreignright. And
midst
and
different
in
of
the
their
careers
.so
yet,
of
chasm
the
of
have
.sentiment
which
the
in spite
events
placedbetween them,
has
the Slavs.
More
from among
origin
never
a common
wholly di.sappearetl
tlie neighbouringgroups,
the idea of Slavic unity is preserved
activelyamong
and an obscure
all,at least as a vague remembrance
presentiment.
among
Even
after their final .separation,
the primitiveunity of the Slavs was
transmitted
by a certain parallelismin the development of their history.
the dialects
in

are

foreignelements

THE

HISTORY

OF

SERVIA

189

[1000-1189A.D.]

tenth

the

Thus

and

tribes into
primitive

centuries

eleventh
states.

characterised

are

of these

Several

new

the

by

monarchies

union

of

attained

soon

Slavs of the east early reacheil a remarkable


degree of
of Byzantine civiliintellectual development, but the action
sation
material and
profoundlyaltered the character of these people,and their momentary
The

real power.

which
dearly bought by a politicaland social disorganisation
of the followingepoch. Fortune
disasters
the
for
the
less
was
prepared
way
other of the Slavic tribes,yet their
cruel to the Serbs and Croats than to some
historyLs in the tenth and eleventh centuries still very j^erturbed. The Serbs
was

progress

Montenegro, Herzegovina, and on the shores


the grand zhwpan
of the Adriatic were
princes,over whom
he
resided
in Old
at Novibazar
exercised only a very precarioiLsauthority;
All this period of vServian historyis a long .series of battles with the
Servia.
established their authorityover
Bulgariansand Byzantines, who successively
the.se regions. In the eleventh century the Greeks, despite the stipulations
trol,
conthey had entered into,attempted to take Servia under their immediate
In pur-suance
of this design
and to subjectit to their financial system.
But the proceeding incited a
sent into the country.
was
a Greek
governor
revolt.
A
Servian
chief,Stephen Voyislav,who was
imprisoned at
general
and return
to his native
found means
land.
to effect his escape
Constantinople,
around
him ; and the Greek
with
He quickly a,ssembled the nation
governor
who
and tyrannicallike their
his (lependents,
are
representedas mercenary
to have
compelled to leave the country.'' Voyislav appears
master, were
the coast; ve.ssels from Byzantium, laden with rich
taken up a positionnear
established in Servia

in

proper,

subjectto different

trea.sures, fell into his hands; and


subjectsof the Greek Empire, who
their freedom.
It

at

were

that time

the Italian

endeavouring

also that the

grand zhupan

Michael

Not, however, until the


king by Pope Gregory VII.
dynasty did Servia develop a trulynational history.
NEMANYA

founder

of this

dynasty

family of Dioclea
princely

was

rise of the

as

The

with

to obtain

in this century

was

into alliance

he entered

recognised
Nemanya

D-iTSTASTY

the descendant

Stephen Nemanya,

was

(the present Montenegro), who

to

came

of

the throne

an
energeticand warlike prince,who attempted to
in their savage
isolated
the Servian tribes,
independence,into one state.
group
him.self against his own
He had first to defend
family. It appears that he
m

about

owed

1159.'*

to Manuel

much

Dalmatia

He

finallyled

was

Comnenus

the emperor

however, Stephen'sconquests
to march

against him

in Croatia

and

in person.
Without
and to this remained

his submission,
(1173), Stephen made
of Manuel
(1180),when he considered himself free. He
his empire
then took up arms
again,wrested Nish from the Greeks, extended
the
of
mouth
the
Dalmatia
negro
Monteto
Cattaro, over
over
Herzegovina, over
because
and Danubian
but
there
he
into
not over
Bosnia,
Servia,
came
when
Frederick
In 11S9,
Barbaro.ssa
conflict with the Hungarians.
pas.sed

waiting for

battle

faithful tillthe death

throughStephen'scountry, he had
Stephen offered him the aid which
against them
to

and

the Dalmatian

authorisation
crown.

The

an

interview

the Greeks
for the
German

marriage

feared

in

the Servian
of his

Nish.
his support
with the heiress
this alliance.
It

state
at

son

would
war

princeat

asked

declined

emperor

Germany that a great Slavic


afterwards
was
Empire. Stephen Nemanya
whose niece he subsequently married.
was

with

refused,and

menace

with

Isaac

the

Holy
Angelus,

STATES

BALKAN

THE

190

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[1189-1281 A.D.J

the ambiin estabhshing his authority over


tions
In the interior he succeeded
the separatist tendencies of the tribes. The
of the local chiefs and
of their zhupanies in order to become
agents
zhupans ceased to be the masters
of the

prince.

He

fought the obstinate

pagans

and

the

Bogomiles ;

that paganism and heresy are supports of particularism. He


celebrated were
that of
the most
churches and monasteries,of which

he understood

founded

Kilandjar
his bury-

at Studenitza, which
Athos and that of Tsarska-Lavra
was
T.sarska-Lavra
He
entered
his
and
that
of
the
successors.
kings,
ing-place
hini under the
honour
in 1195, and died there in 1200; the Servians
as a monk
monk
also
St.
of St. Simeon.
His third son, Rastko, was
a
; he became
name
on

Mount

church, one of the promoters of the literary


The
movement.
patriarch of Constantinople reorganised their church as
autoccphalas,and St. Sava was its firstarchbishopat Ujitsa(1221).''Stephen
of a peace-lovingturn of mind and never
II was
fought unless obligedto do so.
occasioned
gary,
The
chief disturbance in his reignwas
II, Icingof Hunby Andrew
with Servia by
whose
territories had
been brought into close contact
Sava, the father

of the national

to that country of Bosnia


the annexation
second
brother,Vouk, to rebel
Stephen's

Sava, succeeded

in

making

the throne by his three soils


III) and Ladislaus,did not

and

Dalmatia.

Stephen
peace.
in succession.

tried to stir up

their third brother,


died in 1224, and was
followed on
first
Radoslav
The
(Stephen
two,

distinguishthemselves

JJrosh the Great

He

againsthim, but

and

in any

way.o

Milutin

(Stephen)Urosh, the youngest son of Stephen,succeeded his brother


Between
the
His able and prosperous
reign lasted until 1276.
Greek Empire and its adversaries he always took sides with the latter. To
strengthenhis positionwith the Bulgarian he gave his daughter to the emperor
To protect himself on the north and to facilitate the occupation
Michael VIII.
he had
his son
Princess Catherine, a Hungarian.
of the Matchva
Dragutin marry
himself
He
French
had married
the princess Helene,a
a
woman,
all Servian
historians
relative of the Anjous of Naples, in the praiseof whom
The
alliance with the Angevin kings protectedthe kingdom of Urosh
unite.
the west, and permitted him
his energiesto the strugglewith
to devote
on
he merits his cognomen
were
Constantinople. Although his successes
slight,
for having laid the foundations
of a firm and prudent policy. The
of Great
creation of the mining industry and
a
good commercial
policy augmented
It is under
him
ency
the wealth of the country.
that Servia began to gain ascendin
which
of
the
over
Bulgaria,
expansion was coming
policy
country
end with
the Asen
to an
djTiasty. A palace revolution interrupted this
lious
happy reign. In 1276 Urosh was obliged to abdicate in favour of his rebelPursued
son
Dragutin, who was
by
supported by a Hungarian army.
Dragutin himself in 1281 abdicated in favour of his brother Milutin.
remorse,
He kept for himself northern
Servia,the Matchva, and the adjacent part of
to the renasBosnia; he reigned there for a long time, and contributed much
cence
in this reign of Slavo-Byzantine civilisation.
able
During the reign of his brother Milutin (1281-1321),one of the most remarkthe
advanced.
the
work
of
Servian
Nemanyas,
unity was signally
among
in definitelyestablishing
Continuing his father's policy,Milutin succeeded
the
in
the
Servian domination
beyond
Tchas-Dag,
valley of the Vardar, at
of
the
the expense
Byzantine Empire. Allied with the Greek despots of
the
king of Naples, protected on the Hungarian side by his
Epirus and with
brother Dragutin,Milutin marched
the valley of the Struma, and
towards
In 1242

Ladi.slaus.

THE

HISTORY

OF

SERVIA

191

[1283-1336A. D.]

occupied the regionof Seres and Kavala.

The

Servian

for the firsttime

arms

Milutin
reached the sea of the Archipelago (1282-1283). Shortly afterwards
A marriage with
occupied the region of the lakes of Ochrida and of Presba.
in
the daughter of the Bulgarian emperor
George Terterijwas
sufficient,
him
the
side
of
theless
Neverthe opinion of Milutm, to assure
on
Bulgaria.
peace
himself
to defend
in 1291 he had
against a Bulgarian prince,Shishbe
alarmed
to
at the greatness of the Servian
who
of
Widdin,
began
man
treated
was
defeated,
diplomaticallyby Milutin,who
Shishman,
being
state.
the
him
in
to
order
cement
in
marriage the daughter of one of his
peace gave
The
union
afterwards
still further strengthened by
chief dignitaries.
was
of
Milutin's
of Shislmian.
with
the
the marriage
Neda,
daughter,
son
recommenced
in 1296
and
the
The
1297.
war
against
Byzantine Empire
Albania
to
Northern
was
conquered, and the Servian kingdom continued
Andronicus
(II) Palaeologus,
already engaged by the
expand in Macedonia.
in Europe by an
alliance with
the power
he
Turks in Asia, sought peace
to Milutin in marriage.
feared the most, and he gave his daughter Simonide
the two
not
The good understanding between
disturbed,and
sovereignswas
It was
Milutin ended his reign in peace.
a gloriousreign,for,includingthe
of Dragutin, the Servian
dominion
the one
hand
extendetl on
possessions
the
other
from
the
from the Bosnia to the Rilo-Dagh and to the Struma
; on
the
the
of
and
in
donia.
MaceDanube
to
to
and
mountains
Strumitza
Save
Prilip
His reign was
not
less beneficent at home.
Servian annals glorify
in his own
restored forty churches
him for having constructed
or
states,
at Jerusalem, at Thessalonica,near
nople.
and abroad
Seres, and at ConstantiIn this last city he built and
endowed
a
xeuodochie,a free asylum
for the poor.
Milutin

demands

was

of

authoritative

an

for obedience.

of this

domineering

His

will.

temperament,

The

part of the reignhad not failed


Stephen put himself at the head
an

order

"

which

was

not

executed

"

to

future

was

called to suceed

imperative in his

Urosh

have

his eyes

taste
latter

sion.
expan-

father gave
and
had him
put out,

of the malcontents.

imprisoned at Constantinople. Stephen stayed there


he

and

III, had
Stephen,
peaceful policy pursued during the
to excite the discontent of partisansof
the

son

seven

His

years.

In

1321

Milutin.

Urosh

III ;

Expansion Under

Diishan

signalised
by a war againstthe Slavic state of the
brother-in-law of Urosh, Michael,czar of the Bulgarians,repudiated
east.
Neda
to marry
a
Byzantine princess. Since the growth of Servian
power
viewed with anxiety in Constantinopleas well as in Bulgaria,a coalition
was
formed against Urosh III.
The war
which resulted ended in a crushing
was
defeat of the Bulgarian army
due in great
The victory was
at Kiistendil.
of the crown
to the heroism
measure
According to the
prince Dushan.
made
traditional policy of the Nemanyas, an
to create
new
attempt was
married
sister
bonds between
the
Servia.
and
Dushan
vanquished Bulgaria
of Czar Michael.
In 1336, Dushan, fearingthat his father would
disinherit
him in favour of another son whom
wife (a Byzanhe had had by his second
tine
him.
It has been said of Stephen
took up arms
and dethroned
princess),
of
Dushan
that he was
the Charlemagne of Servia.
Like the great emperor
the west, the Servian czar
had himself representedon his coins with a globe
in his hands sunnounted
If he has merited
the title of "Great,"
by a cross.
which all foreignhistorians have attributed to him, it is perhaps less for having
The

reignof Urosh

The

III

was

BALKAX

THE

192

STATES

AXD

MODERN

GREECE
[133"-1355 A.D.]

highestdegree of power which she attained in the


for his glorious
Middle
elled
conceptionof an empire of the East,remodby him, rejuvenatedby him, and established at the extremity of Europe
barrier to the Turk, who
was
day becoming more
as
a
every
threatening.
seemed
for deciding the question
At his arrival the moment
to have
come
which
had long been
hanging fire: would the hegemony in the peninsula
remain with the Greeks, or would it pass to the Slavs,who were
and
younger
?
more
energetic
be favourable
It appeared as if its solution would
to the Slavs.
Fifty
the
the
restoration
of
the
after
Grecian
interior
Empire
anarchy and
years
the Turkish
perilhad reduced that empire nearly to its last extremity.
Different factions were
undennining the states, and each in turn hired the
the Slavs, on
the other hand, the conflict between
With
Ottoman.
the
alliance united the two peoples.
Servians and Bulgarianshad just ended
an
the genius of Dushan
not
Would
assure
pre-eminence to the Slavs in their
first
The
ten
with
the
Byzantines?
struggle
reign conyears of Dushan's
all hopes. Successful
the realm
finned
towards
the
campaigns extended
the shores of the
south and brought it, by conquests in Macedonia, near
in Albania
those of the Adriatic.
With the
near
.^gean, and by acquisitions
of
and
the
Dushan
Thessalonica, Chalcidice,
Morea,
was
exception
already
of nearh^ all the western
provincesof the empire.
master
Dushan
decided that the title of king
Arrived
at this degree of power,
and immediately after the conquest of Seres he pronot sufficient,
(kral)was
claimed
conducted

Servia
Ages than

to

the

"

himself
Convinced
that
"emperor (czar) of Ser\ua and Rumania."
of the Byzantine Empire must
be to hb profit,
dismembennent
Dushan,
himself to accentuatingamong
while biding his time, devoted
foreignnations
it in the interior by organthe prestigeof his new
dignity,and to reinforcing
ising
Slavic empire. Hence
he surrounded
himself with grand
the young
the

officials,
despots,logothetes,chamberlains,followingthe example

of

tine
Byzan-

sovereigns;hence he made journeys into his recentlyacquired territories.


which
in 1349 in
also did he accomplish the great work
terminated
Hence
of Dushan, the
of the Code
the promulgation of laws known
by the name
glorj'. This code establishes the authority of law,
It solemnly proclaims the pre-eminence
arbitrarypower.
and the exclusive rightsin the Servian Empire of Greek orthodoxy, the state
the rightto punish Catholics and heretics.
and reserves
religion,
less fortunate
Other measures
were
; for example, the division of the empire
for its dismembennent
into large governmental districts prepared the way
the imperialpower
should no longer be in firm hands.
in the day when
The
of
the
the
of
the
later
counts
to
west, were
voyevods, following
example
But
Dushan
attempt independence by usurping lands and imperialpowers.
did not foresee a future of that sort.
What
he foresaw
was
Constantinople
the dissolution of the
the capitalof the Servian Empire.
Nevertheless
as
dismembennent
not
as
as
near
nor
Byzantine Empire was
easy as Dushan
had
could
at first thought. In the first place,Servia, purely a land
power,
greatest of
and puts an

not

his

furnish

to

him

Thessalonica

or

with

in 1204

Balkan

; the

the fleet without

Constantinople.

ve.s.selshad

whose

contributed

republichad

no

In

going

did

measure

of

no

be lord either of
alliance of Venice,
of the Latins
to the victor}'
could

one

he seek

helping in

the

the

rebuildingof

the Mediterranean.

on
power
in his conflict with

the

great

more,
Further-

Byzantine

pire,
Em-

allies of the Greeks, formed


or
projectsanalogous to his.
to seize Gallipoli
(1356), closingthe Dardanelles and barring

mercenaries

were

which

vain

in great
intention

state, in the creation of a new


those Turks known
to Dushan,

as

They

titles to

end

GREECE

MODERN

AXD

STATES

BALKAN

THE

194

[1371-1396 A.D.]

Roland

as

and

disappeared;

of the

Northern

Ottoman

made

had

Servia

at

themselves

masters

of

Dushan.

empire

battle of
and

Lazarus

Prince

heirs.

no

the

shortly after

died

the most

of

It appears

dependencies
Empire.

left to southern

checkered

were

leavingVukashin

in

transpiredsimilar

now

also the
remained

Here
Ser\-ia

has

of his friend Constantine

had

great mistake

Events

Adrianople.
Servia.
taken place in southern
of
in force.
Only the centre

alone

its

Marco

Ages.

heroic,a great fighter

was

and

Turks

the

which

and

ihicedonia

timars

and

ziamets

he

as
generous
the tleath of Marco

At

Middle

the

in

were

knight,as

independence

of

the semblance

Durandal

his sword

and

the type of
great drinker.

remained

fight

to

which

those

to

Servia
off into

had

tendency
particularist
faithful to

Urosh

was

He

V.
He

left
found

the Maritza
(December 2nd, 1371).
\'uk Brankovich
his brother-in-law
important fragment of what hatl been
that

wished

Lazarus

himself

make

to

the
heir

abandon
not
the feudal lords would
reorganise the empire. But
momitainous
of
lord
the
feudal
Altmanovich,
countiy
independence.
the
took
and
the
Narenta
new
the
arms
prince; this
between
against
Levi,

and

to

their

deplorablewar
the

under

15th, 1389.

at

The

"

of Kosovo

Battle

Kosovo
regained their

field of

the

death had
imited against the

(1389 a.d.), and

the Last

heights,cro'mied by the chief

the moimtain

of the Servian

Empire

the Servians, the Bosnians


(who after Dushan's
stood
more
independence),and the Albanians once
But

the

Turks

stronger than

were

particularsof the battle

The

seat

Struggles

"

Ottomans.

combined.

nations

ognised
rec-

the contingentsof the latter


with the king of Bosnia, and
the side of the Serv'ian nobilityon the battle-field of Kosovo,

June

on

lords

alliance

an

found

"

feudal

Ser\-ia was
stituted
nearly reconLazarus, and northern
that
It was
firm central power.
preciselyat this moment
Lazarus
had concluded
to finish the conquest of the peninsula.

were

On

other

The

for its author.

authority of

I decided

Murad

unfortunate

was

obscured

are

all these

by national
from
that day

but the result is certain:


of traditions,
viigueness
The sultan of the Ottomans
became
the Servians
subjectto the Turkish power.
both slain in the conflict.
But their sucand the Servian kral were
cessors,
which
into
entered
and
an
Bayazid
Stephen Lazare^^ch,
agreement
Lazarevich
gave
formally established the inferior positionof the Servians.
and
undertook
render
him
in
sister
to
to wife,
the sultan his
militarysersnce
his
life
he
his
all his campaigns, and throughout
honourably performed
tion
porIn the great battles of Nikopoli and Ancyra, in which
of the compact.

pride and the

the Ottoman
Empire was in jeopardy,Lazarevich fought by the side of his
brother-in-law.
Apparently he was bound to this house by an oath, and with
he exerted himself in the adjustment of quarrelsthat
the zeal of a kinsman
broke
in the 0.smanli family. But, in .?o doing,he only
out
occasion
one
on
confirmed

the

subjugation of his own


on
tolerablywell

affairs went
to

through
was

claim

never

prince to
at

some

retain
future

Turks

affirmed

possessionof such
time

use

them

to

that
rich

lifetime

revich,
of Laza-

the Osmanlis

they

inherited

tened
has-

the land

subjectof religion,
few disputes,
tian
they could not pennit a (Chris-

adjusted,althoughhitherto
The

the

During

after his death

to

been

renewed.

soon

should

; but

Scr\'ia,on the ground that


lay
with him.
The
their relationship
contest
on

had

which

nation.

the

there

mines

impede the

had been

and

strong forts,lest he

progress

of the Moham-

HISTORY

THE

OF

SERVIA

195

[1396-U57 A.D.]

With

faith.

medan

the spur

of

religionthe

1438

find

sultan

urged

the

on

spiritof

conquest.
the

About

year

we

erected
a
mosque
fortresses of Golubatz

garrisonsplaced in the

Turkish

the

derevo)

on

Matters

had

advanced

foreign aid,

Empire.

and

The

and

Danube,
so

far that

immediate

tleliverance

stillmaintained

could

be

the

the

(Sme-

richest

for

hoped

assistance

undoubted

an

Semendria

vicinityof

indeed, only through

now,

Latins

in the

Krushevitza, and

at

and

mines.

only through

of

the

Western
the

superiorityon

sea;

Europe, where the Jagelloshad united Lithuania and Polancl


and given a king to Hungary, a powerful land force was
organised, which
well
the
make
head
The
to
Ottomans.
Servian
qualified
appeared
against
in
force.
The
moment
Bosnian
this
not
and
alliance
a
princes delayed
joining
It was
thus cemented
appeared formidable.
principallybrought about by
of the Servian
the exertions
prince,George Brankovich, who throughout
and

in eastern

all his misfortunes


did not
who

and

days.
of the
on

the

So

had
now

successful

long campaign
conquered snow

sustained

the

the

spare
and decisive

character

treasures
were

of

the

wise

he had

which

and

brave

man,
in better

collected

results of this alliance

(especially

(John) Hunyady celebrated Christmas


of
the
that the Turks
felt the insecurity
Balkans)
plains
and
in the Peace
of Szegedin (July,1444) actually

in which

Janos

of their tenure;
restored the whole of Servia.c

of short duration.

This restoration,
however, was
the king of
backs turned when
had

just made,

attacked

them

defeated, at Varna,

Scarcelywere
Hungary, in spiteof the solemn
again.Taut this time the Christians
in

Two

1457.

he

treaty
were

pletely
com-

still maintained

Brankovich, however,

1444.

until his death


throne with the aid of Hunyady
the Turks incorporatedServia into the Ottoman

the Turks'

years

his
later

A Servian
Empire.
song
relates that George Brankovich
of
John
once
inquired
Hunyady what he
intended to do with regard to religion
.should he prove victorious.
Hunyady
that
in
he should
such an
make
the country Roman
event
did not deny
Brankovich
Catholic.
thereupon addressed the same
question to the sultan,

who

answered

that

he

would

build

church

""

near

every

people at libertyto bow in the mosques,


churches, according to their respectivecreeds.

leave the
the

to

or

mosque,
cross

and

would

themselves

in

The

generalopinion was
better
retain their ancient
that it was
and
to submit
to the Turks
faith,
than to accept the Latin rites. Brankovich, who, even
when
he was
ninety
creed,steadfastlyrefused ; and
urged to adopt the Western
years old,was
after
females
of
his
his
when,
death, the
family went over to the Latin church,
their ruin was
only hastened thereby. The last princess,Helena
Pala-ologa,
offered her country
their

as

fief to the

see

of Rome

"

an

her

act

which

excited

subjects. The Servians themselyes invited the Osmanlis


that they might not see their strongholdsgiven over
fortresses,

among

cardinal of the Romish

lion
rebelinto
to

church.

SERVIA

UNDER

THE

TURKS

The chief nobles of the country, whom


the Turks
began to annihilate as
they had already ainiihilat("d the royal house, soon
perceivedthat their only
Thus
safetylay in embracing Mnlianimedanism.
they retained an hereditary
rightin their castles,and, so long as they remained
united, enjoyed much
influence in the province. Sometimes
accorded
them.
vizir
native
a
was
By this means, however, they separated themselves from their people,who,

THE

196

BALKAN

STATES

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[1457-1689

A.

D.]

in defiance of every inducement, remained


true to their old faith ; and, being
office
in
the
from
excluded
state, and from carryingarms,
they,
hokling any
in common
with all the Christian subjectsof the Turkish
Empire, became raya.
in some
of affairs was
In Herzegovina this state
degree ameliorated by the
their ground through the aid
fact that certain Christian chiefs maintainctl
of

time to time they thus obtained,by berates


population. From
the pashas
a
legal acknowledgment of their rights,which
In
Servia
the
the
to
Morava,
on
Kolubara,
compelled
respect.
proper
the old system, on the contrary, was
the Danube
upheld in all its severity.
of the grand seignioralmost
every
year traversed this country to
army
frontier
of
the Hungarian
seat
war
on
; consequentlyindependence could
be preserved.
It appears,
indeed, that the peasantry in the neighbourhood of Belgrade
feudal service during the haysummoned
to Constantinopleto render
armed

an

from
were

and
The
the
not

were

the Porte,

"

"

in

harvest

the

spahis,whom
The

serve.

disturbances
would

They

meadows.

sultan's
the

inhabitants

Servians were
which
broke
not

to

carry

find them

we

divided amongst
the
was
the strictest enactments, to

country

bound, by

allowed

not

out

horses lest

keep

The

were

they should

any

armed
be robbed

only

with

of them

describes
the people as
traveller of the sixteenth century
dared to lift up his head.
of whom
Every five years
none
A

youths

was

collected

"

severe

and

cruel

exaction,

and

weapons,

w-hich

in

the

long
by the Turks.
captives,
poor
staves.

the

tribute of

carried

off the

service of the grand seignior,


hope of the nation into the immediate
native strength. But
their own
and turned againstthemselves
a change was
of
nations.
alliance
of
The
in
the
destiny
Hungary with
graduallyworking
of the Germans,
and
with
the
forces
Austria, and, consequently,
empire
military
of the Ottomans, and
checked
the advances
at length effected the
of this comitry from
the Turks.
The religious
dissensions had
deliverance
and spirit
time had developeil
the power
divided the nation, but at the same
tant
of the people,who
zealouslyseconded the active interference of the Protes-

and

bloom

princes.
of Passarowitz
the Peace
of the emperor,
who
the hands

At

an

extensive

did not

portion of

fail to encourage
the obligationof

Servia

remained

the culture

in

of the

by exoneratingthe peasants from


serving in the army,
German
These
colonisation.
reforms,however, soon ceased,
by promoting
that, after the lapse of twenty years, the conquered Servian districts had
so
This was
to the complicato be given back
again to the Turks.
owing more
tions
of European politics
than to any increase of the Turkish power, but its
result was
the condition of the Christian population in those parts
to render
far worse
than it had been.
Not only was
taken on those serfs
vengeance
who had not been so wise as to emigrate,but largetracts of land were
ferred
transinflicted
to other proprietors. Yet the chief and
was
deepest injury
with
in the ecclesiastical constitution.
Hitherto
the Servian
patriarchate,
had been preserved under
the Servian bishoprics,
of the Turks.
the dominion
This gave the nation, so far at least as regardeil
the church, a certain share of
and
political
procured for the rajah a representation
opposed to the
power,
of the grand seignior;nor
this at all to be despised.
was
power
In itself it was
a politicplan of the emperor
Leopold to gain over to himself
his imperialprothis powerful ecclesiastical authority,and to take it under
tection;
by which arrangement the entire Illyriannation stood towards the
in the relation of protectedstates.
It was
this ground that they
on
emperor
in
the
in
of
the
rose
so
promptly,
; their patriarch,
support
j'ear 1689,
emperor
thouArsenias Czernowitz, leaduig them on by his example. He, with some
soil

and

THE

HISTORY

OF

SERVIA

197

p089-i:3r A.D.]

sands

of the

people,all bearing the insigniaof

the cross,

joined the imperial


their projects
But
Arsenius
Czernowitz
found
himself compelled by the
into execution.
of affairs to retire from
the ancient
archiepi.scopal
course
seat, and to migrate
he did as a great national chief. Thirty-seventhousand
into Austria, which
families accompanied him and settled in the Hungarian territory,
where the
secured
for
them
their
important
privileges,
by
religious
independence
emperor,
Now,

camp.

(1691).

therefore,would

Nor

can

have

been

the

time

to

carry

wonder
that the Turks would
not suffer an
hostile to them
to
as
Czernowitz, exercise any

we

ruler,so openly
in their dominions.

They

at

endeavoured

once

to

render

siastical
eccleence
influ-

all intercourse

and themselves
with him impracticable,
appointed a Servian patriarchat Ipek.
of
the
advance
in
the
On
Austrians, 1737, the Albanians and Servians once
in
rose
more
great numbers, their forces amounting, it is said, to twenty

,."^-

Turkish

House

at

Bukharest

met
thousand; but they were
by the Turks, near
Another
circumstance
was
slaughtered.

entire host

entire national

defection

Kolubara, where their


conspired to produce an
from
An
the ecclesiastical rule.
impostor,assmning
in gaininga followingin Montenegro, and in obtaining

III,succeeded
far into the Turkish
He was
dominions.
an
authoritywhich extended
acknowledged by several bishops, and the then patriarch of the Servian
church at Ipek sent him
horse as a gift. Upon this the vizirs of
a valuable
Bosnia and Rumelia
took
in restricting
the field againsthim, and succeeded
his authorityto Montenegro, whither the patriarchof Ipek was
himself compelled
to flee for safety.
to

be Peter

the

These
Servian

determined
the Porte not to suffer the election of another
unitetl with
that of the patriarchat
patriarch. The dignity was
events

which
over
Constantinople,
in consequence
bishopswere

the

heavy blow for the nation.


people were
deprived of their

Porte

placed over
With
last

exercised undisputed power.


the Servian church.
This

the independence
remaining share in the

Greek

proved

the
the church
of public
conduct

of

BALKAN

THE

198

STATES

AND

GREECE

MODERN

[1737-1787 A.D.]

in

advancing
wholly subject

boon
in .some
instrumental
itself had
measure
themselves
for the first time found
civilisation. They now
to the Turkish
government at Constantinople.'^

affairs,which

been

the Servian

Nevertheless

spahis.

to

had

conciuest Servia

the Ottoman

After

GEORGE

KARA

insurrection;

SERVIAN

tributed
into fiefs and disattached
not
to

divided

peasant

was

the soil;the land belonged to him; he was


obligedonly to pay tribute to the
feudatory lord. He him.self elected his kmet (localmagistrates); it was upon
the tribute and of maintaining order.
them that devolved the care of collecting
of pashas and the tyranny of feudal lords maile these guarBut the vexation
antees
A

and
the
illusory,
coukl
not
enter
rayah

he

had

to

Servian

and

dismount

peasant

like

horseback

on

beast of burden.

Moslem

the road

on

k'md

carrying any

of

death.

puni.shedby
neighbourhood of Hungary

armour

treated

was

; if he met
the
act of
himself;
prostrate
town

was

and
the
the Turkish

of countrymen
who
instigation
and
seek
to escape
to
had
yoke
a refugeand
alive
in
of
ment
the
love
and
the sentihad kept
the Servian people
liberty
a home
had fled to the mountains, and popular
of nationality. The malcontents
surrounded
the exploitsof the haiduks with a halo of glory. In the
songs
armies
in crowds
and
of 1787 the Servians had fought in the Austrian
war
before long to display
had there acquired a milil^ary
knowledge which they were
The

in order

fled thither

before the eyes of the disconcerted Ottomans.


The pasha of Belgrade, Ebnet
Bekri, tried to win back
to equitableand humane
kindness.
He had recourse
measures.

proclaimed to those who

was

held with

were

firm

applauded the pasha

hand

the Servians
An

by

amnesty

had s"Tnpathisedwith Austria; the janissaries


and all excesses
repressed. The gratefulrayahs

and

the perilappeared to be averted.


The janissaries
Oglu, the pasha of Widdin, who had just collected the
who had been expelledfrom Thrace and Macedonia;
of the kridjaliks
remnants
Servia
and
marched
he invaded
on
Belgrade. Ebnet Bekri sought refuge
who
the
to his call ; but the janisServians,
responded
enthusiastically
saries
among
rebelled
the spahis.
openly, assassinated the pasha and dispossesscnl
atrocious
The most
tyranny then oppressed the people. A deputation went
to Constantinople and
spoke thus to the sultan: "Art thou still our czar?
called in Pasvan

then

and

Come

mountains

deliver us ! If thou
and forests and end

The

wilt not, tell us, so that we may


lives in the rivers !"
our
to the orders of the padishah by

escape

to

the

massacring all
designatedas being possible
This
chiefs of a national
movement.
sanguinary precaution produced an
effect different from the one
intended by its authors.
Despair gave strength
forced
to the rayahs; a revolt broke
out and in a few days the jani.ssaries
were
the

to

janissaries
responded
birth,position,
rayahs whom
courage

shut

had

themselves

connnanded

vich,surnamed
He

at

which

Kara

up in the towns
volunteer
corps

ignorance of
The

riches

stronghoUls. An old haiduk who


against the Turks in 17S7, George Petroand

(the Black),was

electetl supreme

chief of the

first refused the office,allegingas an


excuse
forced him
to chastise
without
pity; the knez

existingcircumstances

of the

or

the art

of

severityw:is an
governing men

following stories
future

will

give

liberator of Servia.

the

He

his

insurgents.

violent

character,

repliedthat under the


indispensablequality. He pleaded his
promised him their coun.sel.
; the knez

reader
was

sufficient

fleeingfrom

idea

of the

character

his fatherland

to

join

THE

HISTORY

OP

SERVIA

199

[1787-1806 D.]
A.

the

Avistiitms,and

banks

the

waiting on

was

to transport hini and

which

were

of the

cause.

of the Save

his

for the

Hungarian

to the other

side. All
companions
remonstrated
his father
against leaving his native land and begged
at once
the plan. Seeing that his prayers
of no avail,the old
his son to abandon
were
of denouncing George
resorted to threats; he declared his firm mtention
man
and all his family. Kara
George tried to impress upon his father the importance
boats

He

pleaded with

him

in the

of the

name

old man," cried Kara


useless. "Miserable
George,
was
"better for thee to die than to betray thy country and thy
and his father fell dead at his feet.

his

drawing
family."

He

story will complete the sketch of this terrible judge. A

Another

just lost

had

fatherland

his

service except for


could not make
up

father;
a

of

smn

the

the Greek

sum

priestrefused
fiftypiasters. All the

demanded

; it seemed

that

to

perform

resoui'ces

the

; all

pistol,
fired,

peasant
funeral

of the

his father's

orphan
body must

injury of the air and to the outrages of beasts and


Kara
In despair the peasant sought out
birds of prey.
George, who, with
him
the
order
The funeral ceretwo
to
the fiftypiasters,
mony
dig
gave
graves.
Kara
several
when
had hartllycommenced
George, accompanied by
arrived
When
the old man's
at the cemetery.
soldiers carrying a coffin,
been
in
the
Kara
asked
the pope
placed
George brusquely
body had
grave,
how
children
Heaven
has granted me
he had.
five,"replied
(priest)
many
his interlocutor with a voice of thunder, "it
the priest. "Well," answered
leave
fortune
if
be
that
no
they will some
day find themselves in
you
may
straits as this young
hence
I
wish
to provide for the
the same
man
myself
;
exposed

remain

to

the

"

of

expense
pope,

burial."
At
your
in spiteof his tears

and,

second

gesture

and

his

energetic chief

the

of

the

knez

the

soldiers seized

resistance,
placed him

the

bleedingin the

coffin.

Under
Shabatz

such
and

an

Semendria

insurrection

gained ground rapidly;


grade,
hands, and Kara George laid siegeto Belthe sultan had sent
pasha of Bosnia, whom

fell into his

where
he was
joinedby the
againstthe janissaries.The city surrendered, and Bekir Pasha invited the
their arms
and return to their habitual callings.Taught
Servians to lay down
by experience,the Servians refused,and implored the protectionof Russia,
which supported their claims at Constantinople. The divan threw the envoys
into prisonand ordered the pasha of Nish to recall Servia to obedience.
Hafiz
and
dated
Semendria
summoned
the
whole
was
a proclamation
beaten,
lation
poputo arms.
Bekir, the pasha of Bosnia, and Ibrahim, pasha of Scutari,
While
Peter Dobrynias was
successful.
not more
were
detainingIbrahim at
Kara
thousanil infantryand two thousand
Deligi'ad,
George with seven
cavalry
shut in Hadji Bey at Petzka
and defeated the liosnians at Shabatz
(August
and
concluded
between
Ibrahim
Kara
8th,1806). The Treaty of Semendria
receive
the
Servians
the
to
to
were
an
spahis
George granted autonomy
;
of
a
nd
the
Turkish
to
the
were
florins,
garrisons
indemnity
600,000
occupy
most
important strongholds. The sultan refused to ratifythe treaty and the
recommenced
with fury.
war
Belgradesuccumi:)ed,and the pasha,Suleiman,abandoned
by his own forces,
surrendered
the citadel on condition of being allowed
and
to retire with arms
was
baggage. The capitulation
agreed to but violated immediately. At some
leaguesfrom the citySuleiman was attacked,and he and all his followers were
massacred
by the very escort which had been charged with his safety. The
Servians,
having gained the upper hand, revenged the four centuries of oppression
Servia had escaped the rule of the Mohammedan
by horrible bloodshed.
In the
only to fall into anarchy; the militarychiefs disputed the power.

BALKAN

THE

300

STATES

AND

GREECE

MODERN

[1806-1815 A.D.]

while the insurgentswere


and
taking the offensive ; Milan Obrenovich
Bosnia
and
Nish, while Kara George invaded
Dobrynias marched
upon
and
(1809). The defeat of Milan
Dobrynias at Nish
besieged Novibazar
Bosnia.
Kurshid
Pasha was
Kara
forced
advancing at
George to evacuate
Kara
the head of thirtythousand
men.
George hastened to meet him, and
the Ottoman
the Bosnians, defeated
three thou.^and Servians
tlispersed
army;
These triumphs had given Kara
recrossed the Drina in disorder.
at Ijosnitza,
all the voyevods. Dobrynias and
Milenko, who
George predominance over
mean

to submit

wish

did not

him,

to

into exile.

went

The

Porte

then offered to

ognise
rec-

hospodar on the guarantee of Russia, on condition that he give


as
and deliver up his arms.
Kara
back Belgrade to the Turks
George,who had
solicited the protectionof Napoleon, threw himself wholly on the side
in vain
him

of Russia
to

the

; he

czar.

the

refused
The

abandoned

propositionsof

Treaty
Servia

of Bucharest

to

the vengeance

Milosh
All the old Turkish

the

sword

of

The

them

emperor

ander
Alex-

the

places; the spahis resumed


given up to pillage. At Kladovo
country was
heads
fell
impaled; at Belgrade three hundred

; the

executioner.

These

massacres

the

were

not

without

of the
energy
Of all tiio leaders,
Milosh Obrenovich
his submission.
alone had not left Servia ; unable
to resist, he had made
Suleiman
of
had
hun
knez
Rudnik.
But his submission
appointed
recompense
for
favourable
he
throw
moment
to
was
was
a
watching
only feigned;

off the

mask

the standard
Servia.
the

communicated

Obrenovich

indignationand despairreawakened
rayahs; the country again-rushed to arms.
a

and

of the Porte.

result ;

As

Divan

his reward.

officials regained their

possessionof their timars


the whole
population was
under

the

was

The

and
in the
defeat

satisfyhis ambition.
cemetery
of

an

of Takovo

Albanian

corps

patriotism and

Sunday, 1815, he raised


proclaimed the independence of
caused a generaluprising
Maidan
;

On

Palm

and
at

Turks, surprisedby the impetuosityof the attack, fell back

on

all sides.

preparingto invade Servia on the west, while Marashli


Pasha was
enteringby the valley of the Morava
by the reciprocal
; profiting
jealousyand hatred of the two Ottoman
generals,Milo.sh entered upon negotiations
which ended in a treaty providing for a generalamnesty ; the collection
of taxes
by the inhabitants ; the creation of an assembly of twelve knez
elected by the people and charged with distributing
the taxes ; civil,
religious,
and judicial
of
Servians
the
and to elect
to keep their amis
:
right
autonomy
would have civil and militaryauthorityover
them.
a chief who
Marashli Pasha, appointed to the pashalikof Belgrade,was
ordered to treat
the Servians
children.
After having triumphed over
his opponents
as his own
established a
or
through murder
banishment, Milosh, elected knez (prince),
despoticgovernment and kept the pasha a prisonerin the citadel of Belgrade.
The
as.sassination
of Kara
could
the only competitor who
George removed
for anxiety and left him free to rule as an autocrat.
give him any serious cause
Kara
George had been well received by the czar, who had raised him to the
grade of general and had given him the cross of St. Anne, but inaction had
made
to him
weighed upon him.
by the
Hastening to accept the overtures
of
chiefs
the HdcEria, he h;ul secretlyproceeded to Servia.
It was
hoped that
at his call the Servians would
take up arms
again ; that call was to have been
the signalfor a general insurrection of Greeks
and Rumanians.
The
presence
of Kara George in Servia,however, would have been fatal to the ascendency
But

Kurshid

Pasha

was

202

BALKAN

THE

STATES

AKD

MODERX

GREECE
[1843-1863 A.D.]

the

Accordingly
contracting powers.
principality
independent national ailministration,as well as complete
and navigation. Art. 29.
of commerce
of legislation,
religion,
in the fortresses,
which is stipulated
The rightof the Porte to maintain garrisons
No armed
intervention may
in former
take
conventions, Is preservedintact.
place in Servia without previousagreement of the contractingpowers."
reign the Obrenovich, supported by
During the whole of Alexander's
continued
had
to
Rassia,
conspireagainstthe prince. In 1857 an elaborate,
discovered.
Alexander
wished
to take
far-reachingplot against him was
forced
but
he
that
the
its
to
was
on
recognise
plot had
promoters,
revenge
The
national
demanded
his
far
tion,
abdicaassembly
beyond his control.
grown
he fled,
declared him deposed and recalled the old Milosh to
and, when
Milosh
but died on September
the throne on September 22nd, 1858.
came,
became
26th,1860, and was succeeded
by his son Michael, who now
princefor
The latter during his long exile had developed the idea of
the second time.
the theory that the littleprincipality
and he held firnily
of
Servian nationality,
of the Christian populationsof the
role in the war
Servia could play the same
had played in the war
Balkan
Peninsula againstthe Turks which Piedmont
Austria.
against
On June 15th,1862, a tumult broke out in Belgrade. The citystOl had a
of 1856.
The Turks
Turkish garrison,
according to the renewed .stipulation
the cityfor four hours.
retreated into the citadel and on Jmie 16th bombarded
in command
This caused so much
excitement
that the Turkish pasha who was
called one
to negotiate. Prince Michael
dred
hunat Belgradejudged it advisable
thousand Servians to arnxs, formed foreigncorps out of the racially
related
Bosnians, Herzegovinians,and Bulgarians,procured a quantity of weapons,
and laid siegeto the fortresses garrisonedby the Turks
Shabatz, Semendria,
He
that Servia, without
demanded
and Ushitsa.
intervention of the Porte,
should have the right to adjust its constitution to changing circumstances;
the fortified placesstilloccupied by
to him
that the Turks should give over
them, and also the citadel of Belgrade; or else that these strongholdsshould
be dismantled
that the Mohammedans
either leave Servia or
must
; finally,
under Servian jurisdiction.
come
On the appeal of the Porte a conference
of the signatorypowers
of the
of
Paris
settle
Servia
to
the
obtained
came
Treaty
together
dispute.
many
of its demands, but those in regard to the strongholdswere
granted only with
The Porte acquiescedin dismantlingUshitsa and Sokol ; on the
limitations.
other hand
it wished
to keep Shabatz, Semendria, and
Kladova
as
belonging
to its generalsystem of defence,likewise the citadel of Belgrade,wishing also
this last,since it left the city wholly exposed. Michael
to extend
at first
declared himself satisfied with what
he had obtained, but in 1866 he again
demanded
that the Porte should withdraw
the Turkish garrisons
from Servian
and
he
into
entered
extensive
strongholcLs,
again
militarypreparations. The
Porte declared itselfready to vacate
the Servian strongholds,
but made
counter
united

guarantee

will preserve
of
freedom

of

the

its

"

demands:

Servia

disarm

militia,increase its annual


tribute to the Porte,and the powers
which signed the Peace of Paris were
to
guarantee that Servia would henceforth comport itself quietlyand properly
in regard to the Porte.
Michael
demands;
roundly rejectedthese counter
was

to

the

national

had to intervene
the powers
the Porte consented
a second
time, and finally
to intrust,that is,to
although with provisoswhich onl}'covered its retreat
abandon, to the Servians all Servian fortresses with the singleexceptionof
Zvornik.
On
June
10th, 1868, Prince Michael, who in his second term of
had
the interests of Servia,was
certainlyprotectedenergetically
government
"

"

THE

HISTOKY

OF

SERVIA

203

[1863-1878A.D.]

murdered

by

Only the

Porte

band

the
instigated

or

of

accomplices in the garden of his Belgrade palace.


the Karageorgevich family can
be suspected of having

murder.

BECOMES

SERVIA

KINGDOM

UNDER

MILAN

assembly immediately called the young princeMilan (Milano)


Prince Milan, born August 10th, 1854, was
successor.
to be
a
of
Prince
brother of the old Milosh Obrenovich.
Ephraim, a younger
grandson
and Prince Michael, who had
Milan's father,Ephraim's only son, died yomig,
children,adopted his orphaned cousin Milan, and in 1864 sent him to Paris
no
On June 23rd, 1868, Milan,
that he might acquire a European education.
so
who
was
hardly fourteen years old,arrived at Belgrade, and on July 5th was
On accoimt
of being a minor
he
solemnly anointed prince in the cathedral.
under
which
established
his
in
the
a regency,
placed
policy
was
paths pursued
by his adoptive father, Michael./
In 1869
the regency
constitution placing all power
in the
adopted a new
hands of the ruler and of the national assembly or skupshtina. This consisted
and twenty members, a fourth of whom
of one hundred
were
appointed by the
for terms of three years.
prince,the rest being elected by the people to serve
This assembly met
it was
replaced by
every
year, although in specialcases
and eighty members, all of
the grand skupshtina,consistingof four hundred
elected by the comitry at large. Prince Milan, who
whom
of age
were
came
favour
in
continued
Russian
to
This
stands
marked
in 1872,
policy.
prince
to the prince of Rumania, who
to the throne two
contrast
came
years before
of developing the comitry
devoted
himself to the care
him, and who at once
given him to rule,and of placingit on a militaryfooting.Prince Milan had been
in Paris,and his nature
and
educated
inclinations appear
fitted him
to have
rather than for the duties of a
for a life of extravagance and self-indulgence
king. Hence when he was drawn into declaringwar with Montenegro against
proved far inferior to that of his allyand likewise to
Turkey in 1876 his army
his
and
of
that
only by the intervention of the European powers
opponent,
from
in consequence
of her defeats.
Servia saved
a loss of territory
was
The

national

Michael's

Peace

was

concluded

taking part

more

successful,and

Nish,which

had

with

the Porte

in the Russo-Turkish

from

among

in
war

1877, which
the

other victories he

same

did not

year.

prevent Milan

This

time

conquered the ancient

he
town

was

of

since the battle of Kosovo.


The
Turkey ever
of
the
of
followed
end
San
further
to
an
Stefano,
by
Berlin,put
Treaty
Treaty
hostilities.
This treaty, signed in 1878, recognisedthe independence of Servia
and gave her certain additions of territory;
but Milan was
disappointed in the
Russia
and turned his hopes towards
Austria.
at the congress
attitude of
In
he had married
this he was
with his wife,Natalie, whom
in 1875
at variance
and whose
with Russia.
The
the prosympathies were
struggle between
the pro-Russian partieslasted throughout the reign of Milan.
Austrian and
with the Treaty
The government began to grow
unpopular. In accordance
of Berlin
buOd
railroads
and
to
it was
to
indemnify the Turkish
necessary
in the newly acquired districts. These
landowners
measures
required money,
and
taxation
and this meant
increased
government monopolies on certain
products. In 1882 an attempt was made on the life of the prince. In the
had adopted the title of king,
same
year Milan, with the assent of the powers,
and Servia had become
a kingdom. "

belonged

to

AND

STATES

BALKAX

THE

304

GREECE

MODERN

[1878-1889a-Bl]

and

Russian
material

support

inclined

Milan

King

supremacy.

influence

Austrian

RIVALRY

RUSSIAN

AND

AUSTRIAN

each

struggledwith
to

Austria

"

other for the Servian

policy

indicated

had an
who
whereas
the radicals,
interests of the country
held
in Natalie,a daughter of the Russian
Keshko,
captain
"

the

by the
mfluential
to

Russia.

pretenderPeter

as a dowry
Ivarageorgedaughter of the prince of Montenegro, showed
established on the
how
far from
firmlyhe and his dynasty were
conclusively
An
his
implacable dislike to Austria prevailed among
new
royal throne.
people,called forth partlyby the intolerance of the Magyars, who in spiteof
solemn treaties were
the most
attempting to take away all national rightsfrom
the Serbs livingin Hungary, as had
already happened to the Rumanians
usurious
the
exploitationof the country on the part of the
there, partlyby
Vienna
banking-houses. Austrian
policy fell into an irreconcilable
great
the
in
that
it
tried
confidence
of the Balkan
to
contradiction,
gain
peoples,
branches
c
onnected
of
these
whereas
the racially
peopleswere
systematically
oppressed in Hungary. J?
increased by the Bulgarian war.
The king'sunpopularitywas
Ser^da and
Bulgariahad each been watching the other's increase of territorywith jealous
the union
of the two
Bulgariaswas
proclaimed in 18S5 the
eyes, and when

annuity which

The

vich

on

his

the

marriage

czar

gave
the

with

government felt
increase
compensatory
Servian

to

called

either to prevent
it or else to demand
a
upon
land
for
itself. The
accordingly
government

of

to have
an
expecting,in view of Bulgarian difficulties,
easy
Ser\'ian
inferior
the
armies
of its
the
to
again
proved
victory.
army
neighbours,and again Servda was saved by foreignintervention,this time by
informed
that of Austria, who
Bulgaria that she would meet Austrian troops

declared

war,

But

should

she try to advance

into Servia.

Peace

concluded

was

in

March,

1885.

reapetlby Servia from the war was increased debt and a loss
of what
littlemilitaryreputationshe had acquired in the Russo-Turkish
war.
In addition to political
difficulties,
King Milan had domestic troubles which
We
that the king and
have seen
finallydrove him from the throne.
queen
views.
had oppositepolitical
Their disagreementsunfortunatelydid not end
here, and the king obtained a divorce from his wife in 1888, a proceeding
did him
all his political
which
harm
than
mistakes.
His enemies
more
made
effective use
of these difficulties,
the
and
although
king regained his
positiontemporarilyby granting a liberal constitution,he was tired of ruling,
and abdicated voluntarilyin 1889, proclaiminghis young
Alexander
son
king
The

only

result

of Servia.

THE

Tlie countr"'was

in

had

most

been

AND

MURDER

confused

.ALEXANDER

OF

state.

Alexander
was
head was
Yovan

Since

whose

too

young

Ristich,a
appointed
of much
who
had already been regent during the minority of
man
ability,
This
King Milan.
stitution,
was
stronglyconservative,whereas the new conregency
the national
assembly,and the government were all radical. The
her quarrelswith
Milan
continued
stillconto reside in Servia and
tinued
ex-queen
to agitatepublicopinion. Furthermore, the unsettled
state of affairs
the intriguesof the Karageorgevich party, which
favoured
lost no
tunity
opporof turning public dissatisfaction to its own
advantage. The regency
tried to help matters
by appointinga liberal ministry,which at once tried to
to

rule,a

REIGN

regency

at

THE
[1889-1903

A. I".

HISTOEY

OF

SERVIA

205

with the radical national

assembly. The country refusingto respond


of a radical
national
to this attempt,
hopeless complication ensued
To the surprise
assembly, a liberal government, and a conservative
regency.
knot was
cut
of all,this Gordian
by the young
seventeen-year-old king, who
self
suddenly arrested his regents while they were
dining with him, declared himdissolved
the national
of age, and
ever,
assembly. This coup d'etat,howfailed to bring peace
of 1S93
to the country.
rife ;
Party quarrelswere
the
the Karageorgevich faction intriguedmore
attacked
openly ;
public press
talk of Russia's sending a grand
the king and his parents ; there was
even
In the midst of all this turmoil
duke to rule in Servia.
Alexander, in 1894,
asked his father,the ex-king Milan, to return, feelingthe need of his greater
of 1888
abolished and
was
experiencein politics.The radical constitution
do away

the

the constitution of 1869 re-established.


settled down
to a period of comparative
Servia now
which
country appeared heartilysick of radical excesses,

reactionary conservative

tranquillity.The
now

gave

way

to

restricted
libertyof the press was
made
and the laws of Ihe majeste were
more
severe.
Agricultureand commerce
received more
attention,and a generalimprovement took place in the
In 1900 King Alexander
married Mme.
state of the country.
Draga Maschin,
Natalie.
This completely changed the
to
former
lady-in-waiting
Queen
a
attached
herself to Russia.
policyof Servia,who now
King Milan,
political
with
who had caused relations
Austro-Hungary to become more
friendly,
was
exiled from

country

the
more

The

measures.

country and died the


liberal

constitution

next

year.

and

In

Alexander

1901

established

The king'smarriage gave


skupshtina and senate.
Draga possessed unlimited influence over
to insure the promotion of her friends
used that influence
houses

after a great deal


with a
Alexander

of scandalous

a
as

crisis when

she

was

on

the

the
two

tion
great dissatisfac-

"

in Servia.

Matters
reached
her enemies.
of her brother
the nomination

gave

parliament with
her

husband,
the

or

downfall

point of

and
of

enforcing

throne, it having become evident,


that
she would
not
publicity,
present King

heir to the

son.

militaryconspiracywas formed, and


in the palace at Belgrade,soon
murdered
the
The premier,the minister of war, and
killed. A provisional
at
was
government
A

the

king and
midnight

brutally
11th, 1903.
brothers of the king were
two
also
once
formed, which proclaimed the
constitution of 1888 and invited Prince Peter Karageorgevich to become
king.
In spiteof the horror felt at the unnecessary
brutalityof the proceedings,
publicsympathy in foreigncountries was
generallywith the revolutionists,
Alexander
had
lost
as King
publicrespect. In Belgrade itself there was great
rejoicing.
THE

King Peter arrived

in

SERVIA

Belgrade

OF

on

after

queen
on

were

June

TO-DAY

June

24th, and

was

enthusiastically

and Austrian
received by his people,although the Russian
ambassadors
were
the only foreignrepresentatives
tria's
Russia,
seemingly followingAuspresent.
the assassination
and
summoned
Peter to
lead, severely denounced
punish the conspirators. This the new king was hardly in a positionto do, as
his hands were
controlled
torship.
tied and events
were
practically
by a militarydicta-

The

recognitionof Peter by the other powers followed in time."


Since its independence
as
a whole, Servian
societyis prosperous.
the populationhas more
than doubled.
Hardly an eighth of the soil of Servia
is under
and almost
of farming are the
cultivation,
everywhere the methods
Taken

BALKAN

THE

206

STATES

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[1903-1004

primitive

most

the

lies fallow

land

witness

this

to

sale

these

of

nevertheless

grain
the

that

in

But

Austro-Hungary.
in

engaged

are

progress
has

himself

confessed

to

ambition

of

The

them.selvcs

apply

of

point

the

view
is
; it

to

exist

in

European

style

beautiful

heads

park

inhabitants

short

All

This

cults

ascd

but

since

governed

the
a

and

in

nineteenth
a

Servia,

three

diocesan

all able-bodied

standing
in
of

fifty thousand
perhaps

army,

which

men

the

of

the

into

strongest

and

has

their

winding

cupolas;

to

become

"little

bleeding

raise

the

Paris,"

celebrated

the

in

transformed.

equally
from

Turkish

from

and

streets,

used

Orient;

ceased

palaces

and

minarets

away

they

Butlapest

Turks

is

their

material

Turkish"

the

now

religion is called

of

Constantinople
called

the

itself

"

archbishop

part

of

could
the

from

In
fatalism.

belongs

it

on

initiative.

four

corps

Servia

sovereign

from

Posharevatz,

of

breaking

form

men

progress

the
its

as

religion.

state

nominal

Belgrade,

of

head,
"

autocephalous,

and

the

is

politan
metro-

bishops.

numbering
all

need.

the

of

"

with

Possaro\'itz,

it has

composed

and

city

patriarch

century

s\Tiod

the

Greco-Catholic

the

great

verj'
this

the

and

with

has

Save

and

and

that

domination:

energy,

the

where

people

Moslem

Vienna

quarters

more

labour

free, j'et the

the

case

was

by

recognise

framework

enlist

it

ago

world,
are

Servia

and

foreign

said

of

universities

disappearance

old

mosques

the

of

name

more

to

by
of

In

time

Western

Is

on

Danube

the

by

treaties

the

Belgrade

of

esplanade

Shabatz

monarchy

(1839), when

the

cause

city like

old

the

the

be

ago

persevering

midst

the

in

the

to

occidental

cross

on

say;

of

the

to

rise

aspire

developing

write.

finished.

nearly

education

country,

it may
;

recall

with

task

an

covers

spirit, also, Ser\'ia


Only

by

stakes.

upon

history

is

boulevards

magnificent
a

that

replaced

is

could

the

of

despising

the

in

from

of

of

towards

hann

return

long

so

to

Servians

which

work

not

able

being

the

to

on

direction

period,

not

anything

of

this

in

much

so

their

peasants;

quantity
industry

the

of

bear

thousands.

mistake

people

Timok,

chiefly in

of

Servian

contribute

D.J

A.

Ser\'ia

certain

great

young

throughout

instruction

the

since

country

many

the

and

docs

which

achieved

rapid

been

The

students

spreading

being

is

makes

of

Belgrade

at

lower

consist

the

furnish

Except

the

hundreds

of

to

years

administration,

bureaucracy

of

scourge

last

agriculture.

the

They
by

revenue

Sen'ia

infancy.

its

except

places

to

clearest

of

exports

economy.

Europe.

western

those

The

Germany

to

the

har^-est.

rural

sent

like

valleys

every
of

the

is

begun

in

labour

all

after

year

of

is still

all manual
above

have

markets

country

animals

they
the

to

for

fertile

most

primitive
stage
are
pigs, which

fattened

poorly
The

except

the

in

field.

possessed

of

the

at

men

the

national

easily

put

militia
a

Its

military

by

stat"

any

but,

army,

thousand

hundred

the

speak

to

most,
would
to

organisation
in

Europe.''

erly,
propis

only

have

to

hundred

is

tionately
propor-

CHAPTER

THE

LESSER

IV

BALKAN

of the

STATES

Balkan

Peninsula, only Montenegro, Bosnia,


independent history. As their politicscannot
be said to have influenced world
historyto any extent, it has seemed advisable
facts in the form
of
to give it only a general treatment, chroniclingthe main
and
Macedonia
such have had no individual
tabulated
as
chronology. Albania
a
tion
history,and only a generaldescriptionof their people and their condihas been given.
the minor

Of

states

Herzegovina

and

had

have

an

Montenegro
There

is

that at

tradition

the creation

its surface

of

the Lord

passed

above

the earth

bag, and that when he was passing


remaining stones fell out upon
Mountain."
There
different tales concerning the origin of
the "Black
are
black mountain
monte
the name
or
; it is usually supposed to have
negro,
from
the forests of black pines which
covered
the slopes of the
once
come
here that those Servian
It was
mountains.
families who
dence
preferredindepenunder
hardships to becoming subject to the Turks sought refuge
any
The historyof the country, however, goes back
after the battle of Kosovo.
and was
formed
stillfarther. It
annexed
to Rome
originally
a part of Illyria,
affected
under Augustus. It was
by the barbarian invasion like the rest of
the peninsula,and in the seventh century it formed
federation
Cona part of the Servian
the year 900 Ragusa was
About
the seat of the Servian government."

stones
distributing

In
Balcha

and

or

his

One

as

burst

the

Cattaro.

isles of Lake
of his

out

and

all the

Empire which followed the death


son
Urosh, a noble Servian called
his
fortress of Skadar
(Scutari),and extended
The
present Montenegro, Podgoritza, Sj)uzh
Scutari,and the territoryof Bari composed his

of the Servian

assassination

seized

far

Jabliak, the

domains.

the

Basha

authority as

from

bag

the dismemberment

of Dushan

and

over

the

Montenegro

over

successors,

of his

Ivan

Jabliak,in 1484, and


capital,

Czernowitz

forced
207

back

(Ivan the Black),


into the mountains

driven

of the

THE

208

BALKAN

MODERN

AND

STATES

GREECE
[1484-1782 I.D.]

Czornahora
by the Ottomans, fixed his residence at Cettinjeand caused a
In times of war
follows:
as
against
generalassembly to vote a law somewhat
"

the Turks
no
Montenegrin shall be able, without the order of his chief,to
shall be dishonoured
leave the field of battle ; he who takes to flight
forever,
despised and banished from the midst of his family,who shall give him a
shall drive him out with blows of
woman's
dress and a spindle; the women
and
traitor to his country." The Montenegrins
the spindle as a coward
a

~''Xfe

Cettixje,

Capital

the

of

Mo.vte-vegro

began a strugglewithout cessation or mercy which was to last without


sometimes
the conquerors,
the conquered,
interruptionup to our day. Sometimes
necks
Moslem
did
bent
their
the
the
mans
Ottoto
yoke ; never
they never
where reigned
succeed in gaining a footingin those rugged mountains
of liberty.
the religion
then

IXAUGUR.\TION

THE

The

abdication

OF

(1499

GOVERNMENT

THEOCRATIC

A.D.)

in the
(1499) placed the power
George Czernowitz
and
theocratic
(vladika)
metropolitan
inaugurateda
government.
of Danilo
Petrovich
for Montenegro ;
In 1687 the accession
era
began a new
under
his reign that the battle of Marchuliu
it was
was
fought, the greatest
has
taken
which
ever
place between Montenegrins and Turks, and in which,
of

of the

hands

be believed, twenty
if tradition may
One year previously
relations between

the end of 1710 Peter


the vladika
against the Turks.

Towards
in

way

Muscovite

the

Episcopal
historyof the
and

had

lived

was

concluded
this time on

From
In

appeared

Peter III of Russia.


the
ruler,
impostor, who went
in power

and

the Great

Mountains.

in Russia

him,self
establi.shing

Ottomans

Montenegro

fief;the vladikas

consecration.
Black

thousand

1767
A
in

went

occurred

doctor

who

Montenegro

treaty of alliance with


became

the Czornahora
St.

to

bit the dust (1711).


had commenced.

Russia

had
and

Petersburg

curioiLs

interlude

travelled
claimed

to

to

receive
in

the

considerably
be

the

dered
mur-

that time, being a weak


in
of Stephen the Little,succeeded
by the name
He
and, as regent, proved an excellent ruler.

Sava, the

vladika

of

killed in 1774.a

During the long reignof Peter I (1782-1830) the Russian influence became
preponderant that the subjects of the vladika accused him before the
of Rassia
of not being sufficiently
orthodox
and of not sufficiently
emperor
so

STATES

BALKAN

THE

210

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[1852-1860 A.D.]

always made claims upon Montenegro, although it did not


Pasha
took offence at this innovation,and Omar
a foot of territorythere,
orderetl to chastise the principality
(1852). After a sanguinary struggle
five hundred
cost
three months, which
dead,
Turkey four thousand

Porte,which
own
was

of

five thousand
and

Russia

had

wounded,
forced

antl

the sultan

31,000,000 piasters,the intervention of Austria


to suspend hostilities (March, 1853). Danilo,

the interests
and consideringmore
departingfrom the policyof his ancestors
of
the
of
those
of Montenegro than
friendship Austria; in
Russia, sought
from
St. Petersburg,in spiteof the recriminations
spiteof the agitationproceeding
he preservedneutrality
and revolts of his suljjects,
during the Crimean
and the Porte wished
to make
of Paris met
When
the congress
Europe
war.
the Czornahora, Danilo addressed
a
recogniseits imaginary sovereigntyover
he demanded:
in which
to the powers,
memorandum
(1) The recognitionof
the independence of Montenegro in diplomaticform; (2) the aggrandisement

BEEHIVE3

IN

THE

GARDEN

OF

THE

ARCHIMANDRITE

AT

CeTTINJE

the side of the Herzegovina and Albania; (3) the exact


of his frontiers on
of his frontiers ; (4) the cession of Antivari.
demarcation
chandise,
Diplomacy, unagining perhaps that people may be disposed of like merto submit
of the princeby orderinghim
responded to the demands
certain
consent
to grant him
to the Porte; in exchange the latter would
a

portion of land in Herzegovina on condition of receivinga tithe therefrom;


it would
pension the prince,who woukl descend to the rank of a mucnir, and
to all its ports. Turkey supported
would
give the Montenegrins free access
the
of
the frontier;the princein
these propositions
on
an
by
army
presence
refused
vain
made
and
St.
to
Paris,
Vienna,
Petersburg; he was
appeals
and
The
French
interest
showed
alone
some
everywhere.
government
ised
promHostilities
the independence of Montenegro.
to recognise diplomatically
Hassan
Pasha, defeatecl at Grahovo
by
opened on May 4th, 1858; the l.'^tli,
Mirko

Petrovich, brother

of the

prince, left

three

thousand

men

on

the field
arrested

of the powers
intervention
and lost all his artillery.The
again
bloodshed.
Things remainetl in statu quo; all that Montenegro gained was
her
to which
commission
her frontiers regulatedby an international
to have
delegatewas admitted by I'^urope.On August 13th, 1860, Danilo was assas-

LESSER

THE

STATES

BALKAN

311

(1800-1880A.D.]

Cattaro, leavingonly one daughter. His nephew, Nicholas Petrothe direction


vich, son of the victor at Grahovo, succeeded him and gave over
of affairs to his father,Mirko.''
sinated

at

In the

at

Montenegro
to

an

in

Herzegovina, and although


year an insurrection broke out
first remained
neutral,she concentrated her troops,which led

same

to disarm.

the Porte

order from

This

refused

refused,and

was

take

war

in

was

declared

the

struggle.
European powers
any
of
that
little
in
favour
for its
his
voice
raised
alone
people
fighting
The pope
could
be
odds.
not
The
doubtful.
event
such
long
heavy
liberty against
made
a
desperate attempt; on August
After various
engagements'^ Mirko
could
nature
the Turks
at Rieka; all that human
display
23rd he attacked
the
but
heroism
strugglewas too
was
expended by Mirko,
of bravery and
defeated.
Diplomacy then emerged from its
unequal ; the Montenegrins were
signed on August 31st. The conditions imposed by
apathy and peace was
in the prinforbidden
to remain
Mirko was
most
Pasha were
severe.
cipality,
Omar
and Turkey had the rightto build forts the whole length of the route
Montenegro, and to garrisonthem.
leading from Scutari to Herzegovina across
of Montenegro";
the expulsion of Mirko, the sword
did not insist on
The Turks
and
did
honour
have
been
that would
a miserable
they
vengeance,
the
Porte
the
it.
second
in
As
to
however,
themselves
point,
renouncing
to
The

in 1862.

to

part

"

inexorable.

was

the army
was
A period of peace followed this war, during which
ised,
reorganand
constitution
a
established,
given to the people,
a system of education
had

who

desire

no

of
power
of Servia

autocratic
Milan

with

Servian
year.

thing,being content, as of old,to be under the


Prince
Nicholas
allied himself
their prince. In 1876
the
successful,
against Turkey, and although he was

for such

army
In the

was

next

not, and

on

year,
the

Montenegro again took

in November
concluded
was
peace
the occasion of the Russian
war

field and

gained

beiS^the reconquest

nmnber

of

of the

with

victories,the

seaports which

same

Turkey,
most

had

belonged to
her
The
of
Berlin
Niksic,
her previously.
Spuzh, Podgoritza,
Treaty
gave
than doubling her territory.As the
Plava, Gusinie, and Antivari,thus more
and Gusinie objectedto annexation, a conference
inhabitants of Plava
Moslem
for
to Turkey, substituting
in 1880 decided
to give those towns
of the powers
It was
them
not, however,
Dulcigno,which was to be given to Montenegro
of a
until after a great deal of diplomaticcorrespondenceand the appearance
European fleet that Dulcigno was finallyceded to Montenegro."
important for her

of the

Albania
themselves
give to their
Shkyiperi which the Albanians
be better
could
and
land
of
no
designation
rocks,"
country probably signifies
from
all the country
deserved.
Montenegro to the
cover
Stony mountains
found in Albania
is
The
frontiers of Greece.
only plain of any extent which
is the basin of the Skodra
Scutari, which bounds the plateau of the Black
or
The

name

of

"

Mountain

on

the

south, and

the real frontier of


be considered
may
of this basin is occupied by the vast lake of

which

territory.The bottom
which
much
old inland sea
of an
larger. The
was
Scutari,the remnant
the
divided
into
two
is
Albanian
principal
races,
or
Shkyipetar population
doubt
without
Toskides and Ghegides (Tosks and Ghegs), both of which
are
descended
from
the ancient
placesthey are mixed
Pelasgians,but in many
with Slavic,
elements.
Rumanian
Perhaps other ethnographBulgarian,and
Albanian

BALKAN

THE

212

STATES

MODERN

AND

GREECE
1500

ical branches

present the

are

or

noble

most

ugliness. The
that
difficulty
dite

represented in

tribes,for

Shkyiperi

Hellenic,while

others

have

of

some

mask

A.D.]

them

of

repulsive
and it is not without
greatly,
(Acroceraunian) succeeds in understanding a Mir-

type

of the

dialects
Khimaran

other

some

of

the

of the

Albanian

differ

nations

two

north.

To

the

difference

of idiom

is

ally
usu-

detest each
of race.
other so
Ghegides and Toskides
joined a hostility
the precautionto separate them
has taken
intenselythat the Turkish army
it is necessary
When
insurrection
to suppress
for fear they come
to blows.
an
of Albanian
of Shkyiperi the government
use
always makes
troops of the
with the fury of hatred.
it is then served
hostile race;
the Albanians
Before
tlie migrations of the barbarians
occupied all the
Danube.
But
Balkan
of
the
the
to
western
peninsula up
they were
part
whole
Albania
draw
and
the
of
was
occupied by
back,
territory
obliged to
and
Servians
Bulgarians. A large
numljer

of

Slavic

which

names,

are

found
parts of the country, recall
this period of conquest, during which
in all

historydoes
of

name

But

as

the

Ottomans,
since

Slavic

upon

race,

scattered
in

tion

'I

^^"^ jOJ,
^^

the

"SMR^BB

.^Sr\ rH

ai^K

"S

In

amidst

neighbours

groups

of

nia.

This

also

called

of

Albania
of which

is
are

Shkyiperipopula-

greater numbers

Greeks

ceased

not

southern

the

of the

reappeared,

have

their

the

of the

to the blows

they

origin.

another

tion.
popula-

the power

as

Albanians

then

recede

to

soon

the

even

pronounce

autochthonous

succumbed

Servians

and

not

the

than
and

Olympus

among
Acama-

is that of the Zinzares,

race

Mac^do-Wallachian, "lame
manians.
RuWallachians," or simply southern
They
of those

the north
and
Ali

Pasha

of

occupy

Wallachians

character, and, like them, they speak


with

majority of

the

abandoned

for
the

and

Turkey, between
and

Toskides, half

three thousand
the Albanians
There

is

no

of

examples
this people
not

have

Alexander

valour

in

in

the

in

Wallachia

Rumanians

inised
probably Lat-

They

resemble

the

features,bearing,and

of

Greek

words.

neo-Latin

barbarians, whose

In

social

the

state

has

not

been

altered

for

By their customs, their ways of thinking and feeling,


years.
of our
day still represent the Pekusgiansof olden time.
modern
astonishing
people whose militaryannals show more

had

as

plainof
are

ers
brothwho

language,mixed, however,
valleys of the Pindus the
nomad
Zinzares are
shepherds,and often their vilhigesare
months.
Besides
vians,
these Zinzares, the Epirot Greeks, the Serfew
Ottomans
in the large cities,
the populationof western
the mountains
of Bosnia
and Greece, is composed of Ghegides

number

large

the

Danube, they
Dacians.

(1741-1S22)

the

Rumanians
Like

Moldavia.

of the

J.\j"ina

in fact

are

other

than

those

of

the

In the fifteenth century


the Great," who, while he did
for his glory as Macedonia, was
inferior to
not
kindin
and
differently
justice
great
very
Albanians.

Scanderbeg, their ''Alexander

largea theatre
genius and was

[1500-1800A. D.]
Ami what
ness.
among
not one

whom"
old

the murderers
set fire to
or

their

plunged into

always

remain

not
?

ammunition, who
torrents, holding
one

of the

hands

and

for mercy

from
who

the

from

singing

their

with

But

found

was

Suliote women,

begged

themselves

history.

there

"

of those

heroism

hurled

of

marvels

child,who

one

The

Suliotes,

mountain

those
courage
thousands
the

people ever surpassed in


into
and
they numbered

not one
woman,
man,
sent by Ali Pasha

213

STATES

BALKAN

LESSER

THE

tops of cliffs

death-song, will
bravery there

this

life is
Human
tribes a great savagery.
Albanian
mingled among
many
blood
and
it
is
warlike
these
shed,
valued
as
soon
as
peoples;
among
lightly
believe
in
victnns.
other
the
victims
They
are
avenged by
calls for blood,
of
burn
old
and
sometimes
men
suspected
being
they
vampires,in phantoms,
is always
Slavery does not exist,but the woman
able to kill by their breath.
out
inferior being,without
rightsand witha servant
; she is regarded as a wholly
is

will.

The father keeps his


the Albanians.
Family ties are very strong among
and
advanced
lord
the
to
most
of
as
long as he lives
sovereign
age,
rights
up
all that is earned by his children and grandchildrenbelongs to him ; often the
The
after his death.
different famUies
familycommunity is not broken even
when
of
the name
their
descent
even
relationship,
of a common
never
forget
called
in
clans
remain
been
united
has
phis
their ancestor
lost; they
long
unite in a body for attack or defence or for the preservation
or pharas,which
the Servians and
the Albanians, as among
interests.
of common
Among
of choice
is not less strong
ancient
peoples,the brotherhood
many
among
selves
brothers bind themthan that of blood; young
people who wish to become
promises in the presence of their families,and, opening a
by solemn
able
vein,drink a few drops of blood each from the other. In spiteof this remarkand
in comin
Albanians
associate
clans
the
which
leads
to
munities,
tendency
love for their native
in spite of their enthusiastic
country, the
with no
cohesion; the physical
political
Shkyipetar peoples have remained
antl
their
unfortunate
of
inhabit
the soil they
condition
passion for battles
to
their
them
to a scatteringof
have condemned
forces,and, in_
consequence,
between
and
Moslems
Christians,
slavery. The religioushatreds between
result.
to the same
contributed
Greeks and Latins,have
Albanians
of Mohammedan
that the number
It is generally admitted
exceeds those of Christians of diverse creeds,but the lack of definite statistics
of
masters
When
the Turks became
does not permit a positivestatement.
the
Albanians
took refuge in Italy to escape
the country and the bravest
oppressionof their enemies, most of the tribes which remained behind were
lived by brigandage,
of chiefs,who
forced to adopt Islam ; besides,a number
order
without
in
to continue
become
Moslems
found
it to their advantage to
fact
medan
Mohamfor
that
the
the
danger their depredations. That is the reason
generallyrepresents the aristocratic element,
population of Albania
at

least in the

warlike

cities.

fanaticism

those which
especially
not

at

all different

religiouszeal,and

than

connected

are

from

those

of

with

have

Albanians

Moreover, the Moslem


a

number

traditions

the Christians.

of
of

much

more

their ceremonies,
their country, are

They have

become

verted,
con-

the least conviction; as they themselves


without
say cynically,
"There where
the sword is,is the faith ! "
of the south and Epirus had
At the end of the eighteenthcentury Albania
still a wholly feudal organisation. The
chiefs of the clans and the Turkish
but

half independent of the sultan,inhabited castles perched


themselves
Eashas,
the rocLs, and
from
time
time they descended, followed by their
igh
to

on

armed

men,

or, to

speak

more

by brigands whom
correctly,

they had

in their

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

214

GREECE
[1800-1903 A.D.]

hire.

War

incessant,and

was

of

the fortune

with

boundaries

the

santly
possessionchanged incesof Janina
changed this
Shkyipetar aristocracy. Since

terrible Ali

The

anus.

of

the Ridielieu of the


things;he was
has gained in strength tliat wliich the feudal lords
the central power
and family chiefs have lost. It is to the imlependent populationsof southern
recalls the Middle
.social state which
that one
Albania
nmst
Ages.
go to .see a
of

state

his time

As

as

soon

armed

are

cro.^sed the Mat


one
perceivesthe change.
and
the
the shepherd
ploughman have carbmes
have
children
antl the
pistolsin the belt.

has

one

; even

the

women

All tiie
on

men

the shoulder;

their militaryorganisationalways
tribes have
tribes of Kuslika
the call to battle. The
Kraina,
the lake of Scutari, the clans of the Malissori,the

families,clans, and

The

complete
between

and

ready

for
and

Montenegro

for their military.services by an


Heraenti, the Dukajins, are recomi)en.sed
from
taxes.
nominally
subject to the Porte they are
Although
exemption
and they would
encroach on their immunities
in fact independent; let anyone
and
make
with their
the
common
cause
turn
pashas
against
indubitably
bo
The
Mirdites
Czornahora.
of
the
enemies
regarded as
hereditary
may
the type of the.se independent tribes of northern Albania.
They live in the
high valleys which rise like citadels at the south of the Drin ravine, and
and
hardly twelve thousand their quality of free men
though they number
uifluence in all western
their martial value insure them
a considerable
Turkey.
The regionof the Mirdites is constituted into an oligarchal
republicgoverned
is
The
of
Oroch
ancient
castouLs.
or
pasha
by
rightof title the
prince
by
chief administrator, but in,point of fact he can
give no connnands; policyis
of
determined
recchiardi,of every village,
by the tlelegates
by the old men,
the different militarydivisions,and by the chiefs of the clans,in council.

the young

the la.st century

In

of

men

sold

Khimara

theuLselves

the

to

donian."
Mace-

regiment, the

to
a
"royal
still
and even
Christian Toskides
Moslems
day many
in general by the corrupted
to pashas and
hire themselves
beys. Known
in the most
remote
of Arnautes, they are seen
parts of the empire, in
name
becoming
penin.sula.However, wars
Armenia, at Bagdad, on the Arabian
has
of
soldier
lost
and
the
gradually
a
more
profession
more
mercenary
rare,
of Albanians
who
in conseciuence
the number
its advantages,and
emigrate
Like the Swiss
labour increases every
their livingby honest
to earn
year.

king

of

numlDers

in sufhcient

Naples

in

Even

form

our

economical
of the same
the pressure
under
nece.ssities,
of winter
and
the
mountains
commencement
at
the Shkyipetars leave their
in
of
them
in
Most
return
the plain.
to practice^heir industry
go far away
rocks
which
the cultivation of their ungrateful
the spring with a few -sa-'/ings,
of

and

the Orisons

could

have

not

mtending

to

return

end

which

to

procured
A

return.

their

them;

to

large

days

but

number

in their

there
of

native

are

those who

Albanians

land,

who

and

build

emigrate
havi'

without

rich

become

beautiful

houses

the
the midst of the rugged rocks of E|)irus. Thus
and
ilrawn
into a general progressivemovement,
them.selves are
they shall have entered into permanent relations with other peoples,it
that they will play an
be hoped with good reason
important role,for
of thought,
clearness
fineness
of mind,
in general by
distinguished
are
in

surpri.seone

Albanians
when
may

they
and

great force of character.''


Education
is almost
non-existent,and

both

Christian

church,

on

and

whom

Moslem,
the

rural

deplorablyignorant. The
dialect

spoken

that town

the vast

totallyilliterate.
population depend

are

merchant

families

is the purest

majority of the population,


The
priestsof the Greek
for

of Janina

specimen

of

instruction,are
are

well-tHlucated

often
;

CJreek.''
coUocjuial

the

LESSER

THE

BALKAN

STATES

215

[000-1800A.D.]

AND

BOSNIA

HERZEGOVINA

Bosnia, at the northwest angle of Turkey, is the Switzerland


do not reach
Orient, but a Switzerland whose mountains
and ice.
perpetualsnows
provinceHerzegovina have

Tlie mountain

of

"

to those of the Jura.

used

for

Where

chains of Bosnia

great part of their

the stones

end

and

"there

extent

and

of the European
to

the regions

of its southern

nmch

resemblance

the trees begin,"the Dalmatians


certain Bosnian
regionshave

begins Bosnia"; but


vegetation. Likewise the teaus
plaHerzegovina, those of Montenegro and
to

say,

alreadylost their
of

the mountains

Dalmatia, have been almost


their forests,although Bosnia

of

despoiledof
entirely
half
The

is still very
well wootled.
proper
of its territoryis covered
with
of birds is

song

rarelyheard

woods, but wild animals


are
seek here
boars,and squirrels
so
one

wolves

many
of

the

Taken

as

whole

great

their skins

principalobjects of

fertile; it is

forests.

in these

plejitiful
; bears,
their shelter,
and

killed that

are

Almost

Bosnian

are
merce.
com-

rably
the country is admi-

the

of

promised lands of
of the extreme
Europe on account
fecundityof
its valleys. In certain districts,
notably on the
frontiers of Croatia and
in the neighbourhood
of the Save, large herds of swine almost wild
one

the forests of oak ; hence the name


of
of
the
in
Turks
derision
"country
pigs,"given by
to all of lower Bosnia.

wander

in

With

the exception of Jews, gipsies,and


and merchants,
Osmanlis,officials,
soldiers,
who live in the most
populous towns of Bosnia,
all the inhabitants
of the IllyrianAlps belong
some

to

the Slavic

race.

marked
from

banks
Like

of HerzeThe
inhabitants
govina
those which
present a most

perhaps
They are descended, it appears,
Slavic immigrants who
from
the
came
are

type.

of

the

their

talk is much

Vistula

in

the

seventh

century.

neighbours the Montenegrins, their


vians
more
livelythan that of the Ser-

proper.

WHiile the

Bosnians

are,

Bosnian

Merchant
(1850)

for the

in origin,
sion
and from this divithey are divided by religion,
At first tlioughtit does indeed
their state of political
servitude.
seem
surprisingthat the Slavs of Bosnia have not succeeded, like their brother
further removed
Servians,in shaking off the Ottoman
yoke. They are much
from the capitalof the empire and their valleysare
much
difficult of
more
than the fields of Servia,and yet, in spiteof the advantages of defence
access

most

part, united

results

presented by land and


made against the Turks
Christian Bosnian

climate, all
have

the

attempts

miserablyfailed.

at

revolt which

It is because

have

the Moslem

been
and

enemies
of another, and because,among
tians
the Chrisare
one
themselves,the Greek Catholics, governed by their popes, and the Roman
who
detest each other and
Catholics,
blindlyobey their Franciscan priests,

STATES

BALKAN

THE

216

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[18O0-1S78 A.D.J

betray each

other.

Moslems

of

(Uvided

has made

of servitude

condition
The

Being

Bosnia,

became

they

them

forciblyenslaved,and

than

worse

"Turks,"

call themselves

who

the

their oppressors.
a

rejected

name

of the rest of the empire, are not less Slav


by
Like
them
of the two
Christian sects.
than the Bosnians
they speak only
words
have
number
of
Turkish
slipped into their
Servian, although a large
as

dishonourable

the

Osmanlis

of feudal lords who, in ortler to preserve


the descendants
dialect. They are
became
converted
feudal
their
during the fifteenth and sixteenth
privileges,
of Bosnia
centuries,
their
the
"Turks"
count
number
ancestors
a
.\mong

brigands who made haste to change


religionin order to continue without peril
profession of pillaging.They soon
passed
surin fanaticism,
the Mohanunedan
Turks

of famous

their
their
and

reduced

the Christian

slavery.
out

the

near

of

notables

some

the

from

place went
the

where
time

the

ward
back-

most

Turkey, and many


1851, they have revolted

in

their ancient

the
time

to

of old

element

table
veri-

pleasure of hanging
Beys or spahis,

unfortunate
rayah.
form
Moslem
Bosnians

notably

to

is stillpointed

tree

of Bosnia-Serai

gate

the

peasants

wild pear

themselves

give

to

feudal

tain
main-

to

in

tjTanny

time,

all its

rigour.
The

soil was

divided

Moslem

under

the Turks

which
fiefs,

into

handled

spahiliks
down
according to Slavic custom, not by right
but
of the
first-born,
indivisiblyto all the
of
the
members
famUy; these chose for their
or

chief,when

it was

necessary

were

march

to

to

bat,
com-

them or the bravest.


either the eldest among
As for the Christian peasants, they were
conmiunity, no
obligedto toil for the Moslem

longer as serfs,it Ls true, but as day-labourers


tunate
foror
job; the most
working by the month
had a certain share in the benefits of
the association,but they had to support the
natural
that
it was
Hence
heaviest burdens.
tries,
Christians,like the Jews of other counmany
BosNi.vN

Costume

to

hands

of the Greek

devote
selves
themall trade is in the
of Herzegovina and of their foreign

abandoned

and

Roman

Catholics

agricultureto

traffic;almost

of Slavic Austria.
co-religionists
of every
and
In addition, the Bosnians
sect
religionpossess
every
the
natural
other
Servians, their brothers,and sooner
same
qualitiesas
be

later,whatever
the

their

politicaldestiny, they
may
level of intelligence
and worth.
They are

same

will rise
frank

as

and

the
or

people to
hospitable,

combat, diligent,
economical, given to poetry, steadfast in their
the Moslem
in love ; marriages are
constant
respected,and even
friendships,
brave

in

Incessant
by the Koran.
wars,
brutalised
their
have
the
ners;
manother,
tyranny
the lack of roads, the forests and rocks of their mountains, have kept
influences.'^
from
them
remote
civilising
Bosnians

rejectthe polygamy

on

the

one

allowed

hand, servitude

on

them

THE

218

STATES

BALKAN

AND

MODERN

GEEECE
[189("-190SA.D.]

as

within

of districts

number
well

Macedonia,

in

as

of Bulgaria and Servia,


the present boundaries
to which
Bulgarian bishops might be appointed;

the exarchate, should


two-thirds of the
of the latter provisionthe districts of Veles,
declared for the exarchate, but the Turkish government
Ochrida, and Uskub
of Bulgarian bishops to these
refrained from
sanctioning the nomination
dioceses.
It was
till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stambulov,
not

districts

other

inhabitants

the

might

be

desire.

so

subjectedto

In virtue

demands

Bulgarian prime minister, whose

Alliance

and

the

issued

Great

Britain,
bishops at Ochrida and Uskub;
Bulgarian prelatesin 1894, and

the

herat, or
of

sees

those

supported by

were

of

exequatur,

Veles

and

the

Triple
Bulgarian

for

received

Ne\Tokop

Monastir, Strunmitza, and

Dibra

further

strengthenedin the latter year


of "commercial
agents" representingthe principality
by the establishment
Serres.
at Salonica,Uskub, Monastir, and
During this period (1891-1898)
the Bulgarian propaganda, entirelycontrolled by the spiritual
and
power
and
conducted
within
the bovmds
of legality,
made
rapid
surprisingprogress.
In later years
the
interference
of the Macedonian
connnittee
at Sofia,in
which
the advocates
of physicalforce predominate, has done much
to injure
in 1S98.

The

Bulgarian positionwas

the movement.
In

connection

with

its

religiouspropaganda Bulgaria busily established


in 1898
there were
hundred
and sixty-two
seven
with
not alone in
nearly forty thousand
pupils. But the Bulgarians were
Rumanian
their propagandising movement.
In 1886
a
g}minasium was
established at Monastir,and there are now
schools in
some
forty Rumanian
Macedonia
of
education.
The
Servian
supported by the Rumanian
ministry
has
been
it
not
and
did
the
field
not
enter
behind,
although
government
until
schools
in
the
Servian
Macedonia
number
hundred
now
a
actively
1890,
and
thousand
hundred
two
the
seventy-eight,with seven
pupils. Even
Albanians
in
thenshall
be
schools
which
are
demanding
language
taught,
but so far none
has been founded.
Greek
schools are still in the majority,
in spite of all attempts of rival nationalities,
and in addition to all these
schools

Christian

in

Macedonia,

schools

there

and

are

the Turkish

ones;

so

that

it is small

wonder

if

the

so
population,which to begin with is racially
divergent,should not have
become
welded
together.
The one
from under Turkish rule is by causing
to escape
hope of Macedonia
such horrors to take place that the European powers
will feel obliged to
interfere as they did in Bulgariaand to establish an autonomous
government.
and in 1897
Russia, however, in 1896, declared that she would not interfere,

entered

into

an

of which
settle

agreement
Macedonia

with

Austria

and
between

to

Turkey

preserve

have

been

the

status

left,more

quo,
or

in

sequence
con-

less,to

their disagreements
committee
in
them.
The
Macedonian
the less active,stirring
a
nd
disturbances
Bulgariahas been none
agitations
up
which, although frowned upon by the Bulgarian government, receive hearty
sympathy from the people,which fact is not surprisingsince one half of the
Sofia,itself is Macedonian; in April,1901, the presidentof the comcapital,
mittee,
M. Sarafof, was
arrested
An
together with the leailingmembers.
in
insurrection broke
out
1902, which was
promptly and severelyput down
made
to prevent a repetition
by Turkish troops. Diplomatic efforts were
of the uprising;a Russian
minister visited Vienna
and the Balkan
capitals,
and the Bulgarian government
again arrested the leaders of the revolutionary
In February, 1903, the Russian
movement.
amba~?sadors
and Austrian
at
reforms
in Macedonia
which were
Constantinopledemanded
accepted by the
sultan and approved by Europe, but as a wTiter in the Review
of Reviews for

LESSER

THE

BALKAN

STATES

219

^.D,]
[1903-190-1

"There
were
pacifying Macedonia

October, 1893,
in

success

committee

Macedonian
die

cause

The

only

says,

was

the

"

plan

It had

not.

obstacles

two

was

those

in the way
of
sham
and
the

glad

to

die, and

complete
Bulgaro-

where

men

lives."

insurrection

the country
Christians murdered

broke
was

out

again

filled with

Mohammedans

burned

in the

horrors
and

spring,and from March to September


and outrages that defy description.
Mohammedans
assassinated
tians
Chris-

and

rection
railwaysdestroyed. By the time the insur; villages
down
in
than
hundred
been
had
more
a
September
was
villages
put
In
districts devastated.
fled
ber,
Novemto
burned and whole
Many
Bulgaria.
1903, the Turkish government again promised to introduce reforms, but
with the best intentions,consideringthe jealousiesof foreign powers
even
and the rival factions in the country, the problem is too difficult for the Porte
were

to deal with.
Russia
and Japan, and Russia's hands were
broke out between
When
war
between
tied in the Balkans, war
Bulgaria and Turkey seemed
miminent,
and desultory fightingon the frontier has been reported from time to time.
be restored so long as Macedonia
remains
under
Peace will probably never

subjection.
community living on

Turkish

southern

In strong contrast
Mount
Athos,

to this
on

generalupheaval is the monastic


promontory projectingfrom the

part of Macedonia.
MOUNT

ATHOS

which
The triplepeninsulaof Chalcidice,
protrudesfar into the sea like a
gigantichand stretched out over the waters, is completely separatedfrom all
is joined to the continent
the spurs of Despoto-Dagh, and
only by a thin
elevated ; almost all the root of the peninsulais covered
stalk of lands slightly
and alluvial plains. It is a miniature
in the
with lakes,swamps,
Greece
of its coasts,oddly cut up into bays and promontories,and in its
structure
distinct momitain
the islands of the

ranges,

which

rise from

Archipelagofrom

the midst of the lowest


Greek
the midst of the waters.

lands
in

like

aspect,

appendix of the continent is equally Greek in population; a rare


thingin Turkey, the inhabitants belong to only one race, except in the little
of Nisvoro,where Turks live,
and on Mount
village
Athos, where a few monks
of Slavic origin.
are
Of the three tongues of land which
Chalcidice
projects into the ^gean
it was
even
Sea, that on the east is almost completely isolated; once
rated
sepaof
from the mainland
canal
constructed
meters
a
by
by Xerxes
1,200
his fleet from
the connecting isthmus, either to save
the dangerous
across
the astonished
of
the
of
Athos
else
to
to
or
circunmavigation
give
promontory
This peninsulais that of the Hagion Oros,
inhabitants a proof of his power.
of chalky rocks, the
the Monte
Santo
of the Italians.
A superb mountain
beautiful perhaps of the whole eastern
most
Mediterranean
system, raises its
Athos, in
pointat the extremity of the peninsula; it is the celebrated Mount
which an architect,
statue of Alexander
holding
a
Dinocrates,wished to carve
hand
of a torrent
in the other ; it is also the siunmit
and the source
a cityin one
him
the devil took Christ to show
to which, according to the local tradition,
is
all the kingdoms of the earth stretched out at his feet.
The panorama
cidice,
of Chalembraces
not exceedinglyvast, but the view, which
coast
the whole
of Macedonia, and of Thrace, the vague
outlines of the Asiatic shores,
the abrupt cone
of Samothrace, and the blue waters
of the sea, is very beautiful,
one's glance travels an
distance from Thessalian Olympus to Mount
immense
this strange

STATES

BALKAN

THE

220

AND

GREECE

MODEEN

[1903-1904

Ida

Asia

in

there

oak,

the

on

indistinct

of

slopes

pine

or

The

Minor.

vigorous

the

happy

most

the

the

of

frontier

sanctified

soil

harem

outside

traveller

one

to

Mount

Athos,

isthmas

the

by her
of

the

no

republic

hens

: even

would

farmers

live in the

inhabitants
the

of the

to

the

of the

or

old

of

one

in

sex

and

of

of about

in

the

has

all the
is of

monks

sovereigns

can

watch

must

the

says

leave

his

history

of

holy mountain.
severely prohibited
by their vicinity; hence it

the

Greek

is very

With

the

centre

of

monLs

hermitages,
;

fomidation,

Russian

paying
one

the

on

animal

thousand,

are

; no

keeps
desecrating the

himself

put foot

Lemnos.

si.x

for

soldiers

centuries,

female

scattered

seclusion

council

own

return

from

governor

village of Carj'es,in

their
In

woman

any

crouching

"sphinx

complete

monasteries

from

to

naming

of Christian

fourteen

any

profane the

number

Almost

large monasteries,
expense

the

fa.shion.

own

Turkish

; for

female

all eggs

bring

monasteries
district.

of the

introduction

to

in

n]

A.

chestnut,
fleetinghorizon of

woods

of

with

compares
of monks,

prevent

the
Oros

Hagion

is necessary
who

to

presence;

person

the

Furthermore,

rising here

buiklings

midst

manner

in their
administering their government
live
there
have
the
to
right
tribute, they
a
without
their permi-ssion. A company
enter
at

fortified

lines.

coast

peninsula, which
the water," belongs

This
upon
and

of

from

mountains

the

in

contrast

linos

about

however,

and

two

exception

and

of

the

peniasula, the

the

reside
servants,
churches
935

the

among
were

the
erected

twenty
at

the

of Servia.

with
of citadels
edifices, built on
high
promontories in the form
of defence, present
for the most
walls and
towers
picturesque
part a very
of them, Simopetra, placed on
rock
the western
side,
a
on
; one
appearance
It is in these
looks
that
the
retreats
"good old
absolutely inaccessible.
These

caloyers, pass their lives in contemplative inaction; according to


or
disciplinethey pray eight hours a day and two hours a night, without
Thus
the monks
have neither
strength
once
sittingdo^vn during their orisons.
The
time
for
for
manual
the
least
the
labour.
most
nor
study or
simple
in their libraries,several
books
times
to
explored by erudite scholars, are
them
be in
incomprehensible, and in spite of their temperance
they would
if the lay brethren
if they
work
for them, and
did not
danger of starvation

men,"
their

did not
sole

possess

numeroas

farms

on

the

products of the fertile peninsula

mainland.

of Mount

Athos.

few
"^

crops

of nuts

are

the

CHAPTER

THE

UNDER

GREECE

MEDIiEVAL

OF

HISTORY

THE

SLAVS)

THE

MODERN

AND

OF

INTRODUCTION

GREECE

CHRISTIANITY

Philippiand Actium, Greece, being incorporated into


possessions,ceased to play an important role in Europe and in
not slow to bring about
such a change
The loss of her independence was
Asia.
that the taste for art and philosophy became
in her condition
extinguished
the same
time as the love of glory. The Peloponnesus (Morea) and
at almost
Attica had promptly been swallowed
of
up by a foreignpopulation,a mixture
The
Ionian
Islands
had
and
Asiatics.
with the same
Romans
met
fate,and
of libertywhich
Greece
to its philosopher-ministers
owed
the shadow
(year 54),
short under
the execrable Nero, could not raise again the
whose reign was
so
and Spartans who were
stillleft in Attica and Laconia.
energy of the Athenians
After

the battles of

the Roman

In

of

short time

barbarityalmost

the various

districts of this famous


had

been

their

land descended

military and

into

state

scientific

glory.
corrupted in provinces where the cupidity of
of a generous
officer made
out
a Roman
people a people of slaves. ^
and
Roman
Phoenician
merchants
however, hardly modified
conquerors,
the elements of the Hellenic
population,but at the time of the migrations of
in
the barbarians
the latter penetrated into Greece
multitudes.
During
maintained
centuries
in the Peloponthan two
the Avars
their power
more
nesus;
the Slavs, who
then came
aided more
than once
were
by the pest in
The

language

as

of Homer

great

depopulatingthe country.
was

local

Slavic tongue,

Greece

became

"

Slavia," and

probably Servian,as is stillshown

by

the
a

common

idiom

largemajority

of

names,

Still the coast


remained

as

became

in

the

towns, most

possessionof

of which
the

old
221

were

well fortified

inhabitants;whereas

on

the land
the

side,

the
interior,

THE

222

STATES

BALKAX

AXD

MODERN

GREECE
[500-1100 A.D.]

plainsand valleysand in time oven the old inland towns, became ooeupied by
inhabitants of
Slavic tribes.
During the fightsantl feuds with the Grecian
the power
of the Slavs and their spirit
the cities and the Byzantine governors,
and independence grew ever
of freedom
stronger,so that they threw off the
and
lived according to their own
of
the
East-Roman
emperors
supremacy
succumbed
laws.
Under
of
to the sword
Theodora,
however,
they
Empress
and again fell into a state of dependence wherein they
her generalTheoktistus,
With
the
loss of politicalindependence
were
tributary to Byzantium.
the Slavs the old spiritof liberty
there disappeared among
; the haliits and
of
their
and
formed
religion
ancestors, were
graduallytranscustoms, the language
by the preponderatinginfluence of Byzantine Hellenic imlividuality."
in the peninsulawas
further strengthenedby the spread
Byzantine supremacy
which
and monks
of Christianity,
through the propaganda of Byzantine priests
and his successors.
The
Basil the Macedonian
took place under
new
religion
overthrew
not
only the idolatryof the Slavs but also the Hellenic popular
in the mountain
and valleysof the Eurotas
beliefs of the Mainotes
gorges
initiated a new
transformation
have
This
to
epoch in
(Trior Tris).
appears
of the Peloponnesus. At any
the development of the inhabitants
rate we
of the ninth century, in singledistricts of Slavonicised
find hi the course
wealth, and even
luxury,which we should probably
Greece, traces of prosperity,
other
of
the Byzantine Empire at that time.
seek in vain in every
part
Even if we
acknowledge some
exaggerationin the descriptionby Constantine
Porphyrogenitus of the journey, the display,and the presents of the rich
of Danilis of Patras, the patroness of the first Basil,we
widow
are
justified
in creditingits main
receive a startling
features, and through them
we
Silk weaving, purple dyeing,
conception of the wealth of private families.
"

and

extended

numerous

and

Hellas
was

sea

Morea.

the

flourished among

commerce

who,

Jews

in the
In

the

The

usual.
have

given

mulberry
rise to

Greek

histories

in the Occident

stillemployed, whereas

planted there

trees

this name,

both

succeedingperiod of

or

the
on

the

Christians

had
tranquillity,
the

old

name

and

the

settled

in

Peloponnesus

"

name

account

Morea"
became
of the silk culture

else the latter is of Slavic

originand

more

may
means

land," littoral.""i
In time the polishedlanguage of the Hellenes resumed
and
the supremacy,
itself has regainedsuch thorough preponderance that it is impossible
the race
of the population. But, after having been
to find the Slav elements
now
Hellas
the risk of becoming Albanian,
almost completely Slavonicised,
ran
the
Venetian
domination.
Even
at the beginning of the
especiallyduring
Albanian
the
last century
was
preponderating language of Elis, of Argos,of
than a hundred
thousand
Ba^otia, and of Attica ; in our claysmore
pretended
actual
Greeks
still speak it. The
populationof Greece is thus very mi.xed,
be diflScult to say in what
but it would
proportionsthe different elements,
Hellenic,Slavic,and Albanian, are united.
It is certain,however, that in spiteof invasions and cross-mixtures,the
Greek race, aided perhaps by the climate which is native to it,has preserved
of its distinctive traits. In the first place,it has succeeded
in keeping its
most
and
it
is
for
wonder
that
the
language,
trulya cause
vulgar Greek, emanating
from
rural idiom, does not differ more
from
the ancient
a
literaryGreek.
Physically,
also,the race has not changed ; the ancient types may stillbe recognised
land,"

"coast

gait

"sea

"

in many
Greece.
The Bcpotian
a district of modern
which
made
him
the laughing-stockof the other

Athenian

has the

in horsemen

has

that awkward

Greeks; the

suppleness,the grace, and intrepidbearingwhich


sculpturedon the friezes of the Parthenon ; the woman

we

of

young

admire

Sparta

HISTOEY

THE

[tlOO-1460A.D.]
kept that

has

OF

and

severe

MEDIEVAL

AND

proud beauty

which

MODERN

GREECE

the poets used

to

223

praisein

the

virgins.

Doric

first crusaders

The

of the

middle

did

distracted,by different
grossest ignorance and
these

Coray

never

and

in industrious

In the year
The

emperor.

through

ages
have been
"

in

Greece
and

then

was

the

fact,from

wanting

faithful

writers.

GREECE

BECOMES

the French, under

1204

Venetians,and

Attica.

petty tyrants,

obscure

the Greeks

in Greece
appear
proper,
the Venetian, SiciUan, and

people

superstition.There were
prelates,whose writingsserve

learned

pious and
lightupon

not

century

Peloponnesus and

the

overran

twelfth

of

Baldwin

under

Greece

proper,

took

days

rather

or

in the

plunged
wanting, however,
to

throw

of Cadmus

considerable

DISPUTED

the
adventurers

governed,

stars

as

towards

were

never

for any

to

feeble

those

of

lengthof time

LAND

the

marquis of Montferrat,with the


Constantinoplefrom the Greek
of Montferrat
quests
pushed their conand Thebes, and
penetrated into

Flanders, took
the marquis

French

the

but
other

Athens

of Athens
the government
the Peloponnesus. The
marquis bestowed
on
la
Roche
title
of
hence
the
which
Duke
de
hear mentioned
we
singular
Athens,
;
crusaders
in the thirteenth
French
century. Some
returningfrom the Holy
the shores of the Peloponnesus ; they there joinedthe
driven upon
Land were

marquis
which

of

Montferrat,
added

who

was

besiegingNauplia, and

this little army,

to

Venetians, subjugated all the Peloponnesus, except


held by a petty native
Lacedsemon, which was
prince. The Peloponnesus,
delivered
then called the Morea, was
afterwards
by treaty to the Venetians,
the
the
Genoese.
In all these conquests
was
though
possession
disputed by
were

the Greeks

some

regarded as scarcelydifferent

were

soil,and, of course,
But

the

were

property

the

Europeans did not long


about the middle
family of Baldwin

from the
Greek emperors

of Nice.

From

from

cattle

belonging to

of its possessor.
hold
Constantinople;it

this time

to

of the
the

was

the

wrested

tliirteenth

middle

of the

century by the
fifteenth century

the

the emperors
of
possessionof Greece was the subjectof dispute between
the Venetians,Florentines,
who
and other European powers,
Constantinople,
in those fluctuating
times were
continuallygaining and losingpossessionsin
of
the eastern
Europe. By all these different lords of the soil the Greeks
part
were
harshlytreated,since they were too ignorantand too degenerateto defend
their rights. The sufferings
of the country hatl been such that the population
had materiallydecreased and no spirit
of improvement was
visible.
But still
the Greeks
in
of their national
istics
charactera strange degree many
preserved
mingle with their masters, but kept distinct in manners,
; they did not
language,and feelings;cruel treatment
they often suffered,but not direct
persecution.
e

THE

MOHAMMEDAN

GOVERNMENT.

The conquest of Greece by Muhammed


II (1460) was
felt to be a boon by
the greater part of the population. The government of the Greek emperors
of
the familyof Pala'ologos,
of
the
of their relations the despotsin the Morea, and
Frank princes,dukes, and signors,
the
had for two
centuries
rendered
Greece
scene

of incessant civil wars

put

an

end

to

the

and

odious

of
injustice

oppression.The

many

Mohammedan

petty tyrants, whose

ment
govern-

rapacityand

THE

224

STATES

BALKAN

AND

MODERN

GREECE
lea. 14C0 A.D.]

divided, impoverished,and depopulated the country. When


II annexed
the Peloponnesus and Attica
to the Ottoman
Empire,
extenninated
all remains
of the existingaristocracy,
he deliberately
both
in their
Frank
nobles and Greek archonts, in these provinces,and introduced
place the Turkish aristocracy,as far as such a class existed in his dominions.
The ordinary system of the "Ottoman administration
was
immediately applied
and
it was
not
valour, which
to the greater part of Greece, and
poverty,
from
its
few
districts
mountainous
application.
exempted a
left as governor
of Morea
and the duchy of Athens.
Saganos Pasha was
stationed in a few of the strongGarrisons of the sultan's regulartroops were
est
officers ; but the general defence of the coimtrj'
fortresses under their own
of order among
intrusted to Saganos,
the inhabitants was
and the maintenance
for the purpose.
The arbitrary'
who was
invested with the revenue
necessary
of
the
of
the
and
the
license
restrained
were
regulargarrisons
pasha
power
the
earliest
which
Ottoman
the
timariot
The
feudal
sultans
by
system.
usages,
in the SeljukEmpire, were
had inherited with their firstpossessions
introduced
of retainingthe rural
II into Greece, as the natural manner
by Muhammed
of
in the richest plains
land
under
domination.
his
tracts
Large
population
the
confiscated
reverted
the
to
of
to
estates
having
government as belonging
certain
the princesand nobles, a
proportionof this property was divided into

feuds

had

Muhammed

conferred on veteran
who
warriors
had merited
life-rent fiefs,which
were
service.
fiefs were
These
called timars, and conrewards
by distinguished
sisted
of a life-interest in lands, of which
the Greek and Albanian
cultivators
in possessionof the exclusive
remained
sometimes
rightof cultivation within
determined

limits,and

performing

certain

bound

to

the

serve

under

services

sultan

the

for
on

followers,varying according to
These

men

had

obligationof

the Mussulman
horseback
the

value

paying
landlord.

with

number

fixed
The

of

and

revenue

timariot

was

well-appointed

of his fief.

occupation,and no thought but to perfectthemselves


and
for a long period they formed
the best light
timars were
rewards, and they
granted as militarj'
hereditarywhile the system continued to exist in the Ottoman
no

of their amis,
in the use
cavalry in Europe. The
never

became

Empire. The veteran soldiers who held these fiefsin Greece were bound to the
ties. They looked
forward
sultan by many
to advancement
to the larger
called ziamets,or to gaining the rank of sandjak beg, or commander
of
estates
of
hor.^ie.
in
This
Christian
class,
a timariot
was
provinces,
consequently
troop
sultan,and constituted
firmlyattached to the central authorityof the Ottoman
both on the ambitious
a check
projectsand local despotism of powerfulpashixs
and
the
rebellious
on
dispositionof the Christian population. The rich
rewards
II to his followers drew
bands of
granted by Muhammed
numerous
Turkoman
and Seljuk volunteers to his armies
from
Asia Minor, who
came
and armed, to seek their fortunes as warlike emigrants.
to Europe, well mounted
The

brilliant conquests of that .sultan enabled

of these young
booty in female

volunteers,while

their

own

him

to bestow

valour

rich lands

on

many

gained for them abundant


These
emigrants formed

slaves and
a
agriculturalserfs.
after its
and Greece
portionof the population of Macedonia
always ready to take the field againstthe Christians,
conquest, and they were
both as a religious
and
of acquiring slaves,whom, according
duty
as
a means
to their qualifications,
send
to their own
harems, to their farms,
they might
the
to
slave-market.
The
timariots of the Ottoman
or
Empire, like the
of
feudal nobility Europe, requireda servile race
to cultivate the land.
in Turkey created the distinction of rank which pride
Difference of religion
of birth perpetuated in feudal Europe. But the system was
in both cases
considerable

GREECE

MODEEN

AXD

STATES

BALKAN

THE

226

[1460-1770 A.D.]

feelingsof humanity. Parents


daughters to be odaUsques.
of the Ottoman
government
historj'

the innate
and their
The
bore
if it

heaviest

on

only

were

to

Greeks

the

institute

gave

their

to

sons

be

janissaries,

during the period when

its

yoke

deserves to be carefullystudied,
of the Mussulbetween
the conduct
mans

nevertheless

comparison

the most
Christian
powerful contemporary
be
and
the conthis
Unless
made,
states
dition
comparison
subjects.
be contrasted
with that of the
of the rayah in the sultan's dominions
serf in the Holy Roman
Empire of the Gemians, and in the dominions of the
domination
kings of France and Spain, the absolute crueltyof the Ottoman
of
Christian
The
the
would be greatlyoverrated.
mass
populationengaged in
the

and

in which

manner

treated their

allowed to enjoy a far largerportion of the fruits


than imder
that of many
the sultan's government
labour under
the sultans
with which
This fact explains the facility
Christian monarchs.
landed
millions
of Christian
of Constantinople held
proprietorsand small
of Mohammedans
farmers
in submissive
bondage to a comparatively small number

operationswas
agricultural
their

of

in the

European provincesof

their

empire.

completed before the Ottoman


Indeed, the conquest of the Greeks was
in
succeeded
considerable
had
subduing a
part of the SeljukTurks
government
for
several
Mussulman
the
centuries
in Asia Jlinor,and
population in Asia
Christians
turbulent subjectsto the sultans than the orthodox
proved far more
in

Europe.

men

than

they

II

Muhammed

and

many

of his

successors

not

were

only abler

who
the Greek emperors
preceded them on the throne of Byzantium;
reallybetter sovereignsthan most of the contemporary' princesin
The
Transylvanians and Hungarians long preferredthe government

were

the west.

that of the house of Habsburg ; the Greeks


rather than .seek a deliverance
to the Catholic Venetians.
which
It was
therefore in
the
if
the
o
f
not
small
the
Christian
degreeby
apathy,
by
no
positivegood-will,
that
the
of
the
Sublime
Porte
was
population
firmlyestablished
supremacy
of the house

of Othman

their servitude under


would entail submission

clung to

from

the

plainsof

Podolia

of the Ottoman
the Black Sea
a

rightto

to

the infidel Turks

to the

power,

banks

even

on

of the Don.
its northern

So stable

were

frontier,that

lake.
The Russians
a Turkish
literally
navigate freelyover its waters in the year 1774. /
was

THE

CONSPIRACY

OF

CATHERINE

the foundations
for three

turies
cen-

first acquired

After the Turkish conquest, in the middle of the fifteenth century, Greece
considered of no consequence
between
was
e.xceptas a field of battle in the wars
and \'enetians who
the Turks
had alternate
possessionof the country and
the tyrants and oppressors
of the people,whom
who
were
they treated like
until
It
slaves.
1715
that the Turks got complete and undisturbed
not
was

possessionof the country; and from that time we lose sight of the Greeks,
hear them
or
spoken of only as degenerateslaves by those travellers who were
led by an
admiration
of the genius of the ancients to take a pilgrimage to
Athens
to contemplate the mins
of antiquity.
In 1770 Catherine
II planned and effected a revolt in Greece, in order to
win for Russia
the sympathy of the Greeks
in her war
with Turkey. She
of
sent emissaries into every
the
the populationfor
to
part
country,
prepare
a
nd
the
an
excited by hopes of being freed by
insurrection,
people were
Ru-ssia.
for the Greeks had become
Emancipation seemed verj' possible,
what
somethat any attempt
themselves
enlightened,and thousands were
flattering
be encouraged and supported by the European powers.
at independence would

[1460-1774A.D.]
A Russian

MEDIEVAL

OF

HISTORY

THE

MODERN

AND

GREECE

227

the Mediterranean; twelve hundred


summoned
to arms.
and the Greeks were
landed in Morea
They
soldiers were
the Turks;
been
allowed them
had
not
for arms
but
not
to
by
ai-ms,
rose,
with
their oppressors
bers,
fury, killed great numnevertheless they rushed upon
from
drove
the Turks
took the fortress of Navarino, and
part of
every
fleet

round

sent

was

to

Morea, forcingthem to shut themselves up in


But they were
miserably seconded by the

the fortresses.
Russians

; no

means

given

were

called in the Albanians


the
the Turks
them to continue the war, and when
and
under
in
the
mountains
take
in
turn
to
their
driven
Greeks were
refuge
the Russian
Orlov, had shut
commander,
the walls of Navarino, where
sands
the
Greeks
He
refused
his
soldiers.
with
admittance, and thouhimself
up

were

cut

his eyes.
who, after

piecesbefore

to

abandoned
by the Russians,
refused them
support, evacuated

guiltyundertaking to

THE

suffer the

enterprisewas
leading the Greeks

the country, and

left the

most
mto

shamefully
rebellion,

victims

of their

of the Turks.

terrible vengeance

(1774

KUTCHUK-KAINARDJI

OF

TRE.'VTY

The

A.D.)

under the bold Scot, Elphinthe Russian


fleet,
Turkish
fleet
at
bm-ned
the
and
Tchesme; and this success
stone, attacked
of
the
for
of
the
Russians
to atone
served in the eyes
disgracefultermination
of
the
the Peloponnesus. By
Kutchuk-Kainardji,
their attempt on
Treaty
signedin 1774, Russia resigned all her pretensionsin the Archipelago; she
in favour
of the Greeks, but they were
vain stipulations
made, it is true, some
to deal vengeance
who
continued
the
Turks,
upon
disregardedby
utterly
the divan exasperated,or alarmed, that the much
agitated
So far was
them.

Meantime,

in

July, 1770,

The execuresumed.
of the Greek
tion
people was
questionof the extermination
Pasha.
That
Hassan
the
exertions
of
of this plot was
prevented only by
divan
its
the
in
to
other
after
reasons
vain, brought
urging
trulygreat man,
will
the
who
the
If
exterminate
great
rayahs,
senses
by asking,
pay you
you
"e
get from them?
capitationtax which you now
"

FINLAY

three

For

centuries
Its

ON

THE

OTTOMAN

DOMINION

positionof the Greek

the

with

the

tyranny

with

connection

was

race

Hellenes

old

one

of

hopeless
repudiated

degradation.
pagan
Greeks were
and
forgotten by other nations. The modern
by themselves
orthodox
of
the
ecclesiastical
establishment
the
of
having organised
prouder
extinct
with
comiection
of
though cognate
an
an
miaginary
hierarchythan
and intellectual
societywhich had once occupied the highestrank in the political
identification
modern
The
world and created the literature of Europe.
series
is the growth of the new
Hellenes
of the Christian Greeks with the pagan
when
tical
ecclesiasAt the time
of ideas dissemmated
by the French Revolution.
the
Greeks
influence
a people
as
most
exerted
its
on
powerful
orthodoxy
of
tinople,
Constanin
the
national
existence
their
city
content
to
perpetuate
they were
dissimilar to the positionin
debasement
not very
in a state of moral
The primates and the clergy
at Rome.
which Juvenal describes their ancestors
acted

as

agents

of Turkish

of old had

pandered

for the

as

much

zeal

as

was

the artists and

passionsof their Roman

oricians
rhet-

masters.

not the
was
the other hand, the slaveryof the Greeks to the Ottomans
scientific
and
material
in numerical
wealth,
result of any
force,
inferiority

On

STATES

BALKAN

THE

228

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[1460-1770

of the

Romans,
The

effort,into

an

is (Hshonourable

fact

historyis

to

Christian

sank,

with

civiHsation.
wonderful

After

tlie

rapidityand

quest
con-

out
with-

abjectslavery. For three centuries their political


P]mpire. During this long
historyof the Ottoman
evil
and
for
for
good, wa.s determined
by the
position,
the
individuals
who
virtue
in
and
composed the nation.

vice

to the direct

weight

due

rarelyallow

Historians

D.]

in the

national

aggregate of

A.

like those

the most

merged

period the

Turks,

in perto their superiority


sonal
morality,systematic organisation,and national

the Greeks
Constantinoi)le

of

of the Ottoman

successes

in great part attributed

be

nmst

individual

courage,

dignity.

truth is,that the

The

knowledge.

influence

of individual

conduct

of mankind
in the mass
on
i)olitical
history. At this period,however, the
national historyof the Greeks is comprised in their individual
biography.
the
the
time when
of
the
Ottoman
at
The
and
resources
Empire,
power
tlreaded by the western
most
sultans of Constantinoplewere
Christians,were

derived
principally
to

of

subjectsa modicum
toleration which
religious
its

their labours

to continue

the sultan
of the

lives

to

that

as

fillup
in Mussulman

taken

to

the wealth
No
ambition.
with

to

dominion
the

over

profound polic with which the Turkish


of its designs.
subjectsthe instruments
for life and property and an
of jirotection

the

from

its Christian

rendered

induced

the oiHiodox

government
It gave
amount

their

numbers,
perpetuate
of
amassing wealth, ami to preferthe domination
In
it
Christian potentate.
exacted a tithe
return,
to

for

of any
of the fortunes
as

of its subjects. Christian children were


constantlyproducpolygamy and war were
ing
society,ami Christian industry filled the sultan's treasury
which
to the boldest
projectsof Ottoman
long secured success

well

the chasms

accidental

its

have given permanence


the same
stern
tyranny

Turkoman, the Kurd, the Arab, and the Moorish


the
over
Greek, the Albanian, the Servian,the Bulgarian,
Christian.
An empire whose
the Armenian
greatness has
the

Seljuk Turk,

Mussulman
as
the Wallachian, and
for several
endured

could
authority with

of events

concourse

maintained

which

it did

which

centuries

have

been

supported by some
profound
lations
just institutions. Accumuof accidental
conquest, joined togetherby military force alone, like
attained such
the empires of Attila,Genghiz Khan, and Timur, have
never
/
stability.
combinations,
political

if not

THE

must

by

some

GREEK

of political
rightsby
Dispo.s.sessed
that

which

wise

ami

REVOLUTION

their conquerors,

constitutes

the

real

the Greeks
existence

of

had

not

a
dispossessedof
people,
not
no
longersovereign,they were
nationality,
property; they were
religion,
still men,
Greek
Turkish
citizens,but they were
people and citizens. Dependent
though they were in their publiclife upon Turkish proconsulsestablished
in civil life they yet enjoyed all that conin their cities and in their villages,
stitutes
the common
their temples,
rightsof civilised peoples. They po.ssessed
their clergy,their patriarchs,their local magistrates, freelyelected, their
Christians
Greeks
their privileges
or
as
guaranteed by
ships,their commerce,
the Porte
had conceded
the officious protectionof foreign nations
to which
this
of
their
of
its
the patronage over
genius,a
subjects. By reason
portion
of their activity,their
genius which no other nation has equalled,by reason
of intrigue,
their subtleties,their power
their astuteness
(largely
pliability,
of slavery),their acciuisitiveness,
their complaisant servility
the outcome
vizirs and
towards
pashas whose favour they exploitedand whose treasures
and
advanced
and
finally
shared,
by force of their education, more
they

been

MEDIEVAL

OF

HISTOEY

THE

AND

MODEKN

GREECE

229

[1770-1S20A.D.]

European

more

that of the

than

aristocracy of the empire.


than
nesas

The

Turks,

Almost

as

their masters, they covered western


and other provincesof Europe with
long oppression of the domination

without

the Greeks

formed
and

numerous

the intellectual

much

wealthy

more

Asia, the Archipelago,the Pelopon-

populationof

of

their

eleven

conquerors

million
had

souls.
weakened

vigour of their nationality.Belonging


exhausting the ever-e.xisting

united
one
language, they were
possessingone religion,
by a
found
which
have
in
national
readily
might
expression
consanguinity
and
knowledge of their use they
independence. Had they possessed arms
to

race,

one

of
spirit

revindicated

could have
If the

emperor

their

name

.Alexander,who

and
after

their laws.
the

invasion

of France

in 1814

had

the perfidyof Catherine


Europe, had
Agamemnon
II,Greece, provoked or even
encouraged by him, would have long before
But
Malmiud.
the emperor
Alexander
arisen in rebellion against Sultan
the Greeks.
refused obstinatelyto provoke or even
to tolerate revolt among
not only the incontestable
It was
probityof that prince,it was also his policy
solicitations
of the Greeks.
the
Without
doubt
to
which was
the
opposed
would
enfeeble
of the Ottoman
in
Mahmud
dismemberment
quently
frea
Empire
hostile neighbour,but the Greek revolution would enfeeble the theory
of the sovereigntyof a great empire, and that theory of the legitimacyof
thrones which he was
sincerelytrying to make a political
religionin Europe.
the Greeks,
Accordingly he rejected all the covert
propositionswhich
to him.
He
hoping to incline him towards a Greek revolution, addressed
the future giftswhich an unknown
how
knew
to await
destinymight bestow
his empire; he did not wish
to purchase them
at the price of disloyalty
on
the czar
of his armies, he was
But if he was
towards the sultan.
not of public
resolved
do
violence
his
and
to
to
scruples,
opinion. Opinion
entreaty was
changed into conspiracy.
had
This Greek
its cradle in Russia;
conspiracy in spiteof the emperor
hatched
it was
by European liberalism in the armies of Alexander, not on
filial vengeance
of Olympus.
in its patriotism.
There
the mountains
was
of one
the first conspirator,
the son
Prince Ypsilanti,
was
Ypsilantibeheaded
by Selim III for having corresponded with the hospodar of Wallachia.?
lanti
Ypsiin 1.S2(),and we
entered the Rumanian
have already seen
jH'iiicipaHtics
and
the results of his intriguesin Moldavia
W'allachia,
ending in his flight
the

become

and

of the

death.

kings of

had

'I

proclamationand the emissaries of Ypsilantihad given to the Peloponnesus


thv^ signalfor independence. Kolokotronis,a leader in the first unsuccessful
insurrection,who had retired some
years before to the isle of Zante,
and in whom
exile had only ripened heroism, and
whose
father,
years and
relatives had all perished under
of the Turks,
the sword
brothers,and near
had againalightedupon
the continent and hatl reorganisedhis bands
of exiles
in the moimtains.
The archbishop of Patrse (or Patras),Gennanos, orator,
and warrior,had convened
all the chiefs of the clergyin the caverns
pontiff,
of the Erymanthus
with
of all
to arrange
mountains
them
the insurrection
The

had
their churches.
summoned
He
the Christians to separate themselves
forever from
and
the infidels,
their priests,their wives, and
to retire with
their children into the mountains, to organisethere the holy war
and thence
At his voice the cities and
the villages
to burst forth upon
the Ottomans.
were

deserted; the Turks, astonished


these bands

upon
to servitude

ejectedfrom

of

they

men

were

the cities in

whom

at

the solitude,attempted
could

easilybe

few

assaults

they thought
brought
everjrwheredriven from the mountains, and
which
they had reigned the day before.

back
soon

THE

230

STATES

BALKAN

AXD

MODERN

GREECE
(1830-1837 A.D.]

Macedonia, Thessalj-,
Epirus, Acarnania, .Etolia,the Peloponnesus,Eubattle-fields on which
had
become
nately
perished alterbcEa, and the Archi{)elago
rebel, in order to gain
tyrants and slaves. All Pasha, the Albanian
whom
he
a
proclamation to the Suliotes,
formerly expelled,and gave back to them their lands and fortresses,
At the approach of the peasants,
and ammunition.
together with cannon
from
and
and
the
their
leaders,
descentlingin thousands
following
priests
and
the
and
massacred
drove
all
them
the
towns
Turks,
mountains,
arose
of libertyequalled those of
and crimes
back into the forts. The massacres
The
nesus
Pelopont}Tanny.
fire and blood,
was
allies against the Turks, addressed
had

under

the cross
under
as
the crescent
ries
; three centuof cumulative
servitude
the revenge

were

centuries
The

of

two

for three

oppression.
and

races

the two

religionscounted

as

many
\ic-

hangmen, as
many
tims,the one as the
shuddered
Europe
horror

other.
with

at

the

recital

atrocities.

Two

races, two

nations,two
with

of

religions
pled
grap-

each

other, from

the shores where the waves


beat upon
the islands to
of Pindarus
the summits
of
and
Thessaly. Patrae,

Missolonghiwere

and

The

ular
pop-

hymn of in.surrection
laise
despair,the Marseilof

by

entombed

their ruins.

under

the

the

written

cross,

Thessalian

Rigas,

burst forth upon the mountains,


and blended with the
sacred
Grecian
(Sixtceoth

Centuo')

"shall
the rocks of the mountains, wandering in
among
of the earth ?
the caverns
Let us arise,and if we
die with us.
Arise ! the law of God, the sacred
let these be
down
bows

our

cause.

Let

us

songs

of

the

clergy.
"Until when,"

Nobleman

swear

on

the

we

live

it

lenic
Hel-

cried,
exile

in

forests, hidden

in

die, let our


try
counequalityof his creatures,
ma*t

the crucifix to break

the

yoke

which

heads !
from
Suliotes ! and you, Spartans ! emerge
our
your
retreats, leopardsof the mountains, eaglesof Olympus, \-ultures of Agrapha,
Christians of the Save, and of the Danube, brave Macedonians, to amis
! let
of
of
of
blood
burn
like
fire
!
!
the
seas
Dolphins
Alcyons
Hj-dra,
your
the voice of your countrj'?
Cyclades,do you hear in your waves
seize
the
bum
the tree
to its roots
strike,
ships,
thunderbolt,
your
upon
unfold
banners
and
let
the
become
the flag
cross
triumphant
tyranny;
your
!"
and
of
liberty
victory

Ipsara,of
Ride
of

of

the

HISTORY

THE

OF

MEDIAEVAL

MODERN

AND

GREECE

231

[1820-1827A.D.]
of

Fanaticism

nationalitydid not burn with a


the Ottomans.
They felt themselves called to a
conquered by their ancestors, by the sovereignty

of
religion,

and

race

of

less brilliant flame among


second conquest of the land
The
sultan in repressing the rebellion
of Islam.
rebellious

the

took

up

it to

his

populationfrom

of Christendom.

cause

admiral

grand

ruin

would

have

liked

to

serve
pre-

and

of
death, for the annihilation
with their wealth and strengthwas
suicide for the Porte.
six million Greeks
the janissaries,
irritated and afraid,saw
But the people and
safety only in
of the Christians and
the
to executions
the extermination
urged
government
of
The
the Moslems
and .barbarities proportionateto their terror.
panic
In
their
of
the
talked
universal
animated
a
ferocity.
capital,people
only
the
the
Christians
Turks.
to destroy
conspiracy among
The Greek patriarchGregory, a man
eighty years of age, was seized on
robes as he descended
from
the altar,
Easter Smiday, clothed in his pontifical
All the chiefs of the Greek
and was
clergy
hung to the door of his cathedral.
sacrificed on the steps of
seized at their altars the same
night and were
were
their churches.
Europe looked on and shuddered, but no power as yet openly
the

Kara

Mahmud

armed

his fleet and

intrusted

All.

of the Archipelago had


at
responded to the massacres
Turkish
of
of
the
the
the
threats
to
disarmament, to
departure
Constantinople,
of their merchant
ships. Tombasis, a bold
fleet,
by a general armament

AH

the

islands

appointed grand admiral of the


mariner, on board the Themistocles,was
They cleared the
insurgents. The fleet of Ipsara joined that of Tombasis.
mans,
of isolated Turkish
war-ships,and, imitatingthe atrocities of the Ottosea
the prisonersor Turkish
killed,drowned, or sold at auction
pilgrims
found

on

these vessels.

and
these reciprocal
the waters
and
these combats
massacres
on
Kurshid
the
head
of
the
Ottoman
the
of
at
shores
Pasha,
^Egean Sea,
army
Ali Pasha
in his capital,while
of Epirus,with half of his troops blockaded
perate
with the other half he fought the rebellion in the Peloponnesus. In a desin the midst of the firingto be
assault the aged Ali, causing himself

During

had triumphed and had sent back the priscarried to the breach in a litter,
oners.
"The
is stillalive,".said Ali Pasha
to his enemy;
bear of the Pindarus
"thou mayest send to fetch thy dead for burial; I shall always act justly
will lose Turkey; it is
like a brave man, but two men
thou fightest
as long as
a

questionof

as

two

!"

European

Sentiment

of
popularisedin Europe the cause
of Greece
of the
became
sort of religion
Greek independence. The name
a
imaginationin the literaryworld; the exploits enlarged in the telling of
scendant
Bozzaris,Canaris, Kolokotronis, Mauromichales, Tombasis, those worthy de-

There

were

many

influences

which

"

"

echoes
of Miltiades,of Leonidas, and of Themistocles; the sonorous
fabulous reports of victories won
of that land, full of memories, the almost
igies
by a populationof shepherds from the armies of a powerful empire, the prodside and of bravery on
the other,thrilled popular
of crueltyon the one
The publicresponded
sentiment, which has no other policythan its emotions.
of
of
Greece
with
to the suft'ciiiig
a cry
indignationagainst the persecutors,
of American
for the martyrs.
Even
and of enthusiasm
the cause
independence
had
France
in 1775
aroused on
aroused
than that now
to less enthusia.sm

the Christian

continent

purely individual,antl
neutral

and

undecitled.

by

the

did

not

cau.se

It gave

of the

involve
to

the

the

Hellenes.

This

governments,

sentiment
which
were

was

still

Greeks, however, encouragement,

THE

232

ammunitions,

BALKAN

STATES

auxiliaries.

and

arms,

held

GREECE

MODERN

Greek

[1S30-1827 i..i".l
in all the itals
cap-

formed

committees

ships,recruited officers and


even
multiplietl
among
poems,

armed
subsiilies,
lectures,wrote

voted

AND

men,

the

publishedjournals,
i)eo]jle
legends

Literature
of the popular cause.
whole, that spontaneous
as
a
irresistible expressionof unreflected and disinterested generosity in the
of Plomer, of Demosthenes,
the side of the sons
heart of the people,was
on
in favour

and

of Plato

and

by

of filialtradition for those

sort

of

adventurers

Courageous
Fabvier, diseniljarked
assumed

and

war

tactics

threw
a

to

F'rance,Germany,
merchant

from

life of the

tlie nomadic

and

England,

ships upon

Mainotes

or

fortune,life itselfinto

the

the

heart

such

as

in order

heroic

as

He

of Greece.

cause

thought.
as

General

q{ Morea,

coast

of the Palicari

shepherds. Byron, having

name,

fathers of hmnan

and

to teach

his

nation,
imagi-

equipped

subsidies to the treasury of the insurrection,shut


gave
in the most
dangerous city,took part in battle,and was ready to

ship,paid troops,

himself

up

anil the doubtful

die for the

gloriouspast
with
unacquainted even
had

Fabvier

them

of

Ali, the pasha

Mehemet

Lslam, and

Egyptian

future

of

people which

had

been

name.

the peasants into the mountains, and had disciplined


for war.
At that moment
Sultan Mahmud
called

followed

trained

and

them

his

half-independentEgypt,
Pasha

Ibrahim

in consequence
and attempted the
army

The

Attitude

to

disembarked

the

conquest of the Morea

of Foreign

aid

in the

of

imperilled

Morea

with

an

for the sultan.

Governments

But although the people heard the voices of the Greeks, their sovereigns
The emperor
of Rassia, fearing to encourage
in
still refu-sed to hear them.
which
he had sworn
to extinguishin France,
Greece the spiritof revolution
in Germany, abandoned
his ambition
in Italy,in Spain, and
to follow his

thought
principle.Metternich feared for Aastria the eruptionof revolutionary
Prussia hesitated,as always, between
such as disturbed Germany.
England,
England regarded with disapprovalthe resurrection of
Austria, and Russia.
whose
be disastroas to her, would
would
nation
enfeeble Turkey,
a
power
would open the Dardanelles,
perhaps to the future fleets of Russia,and would
marine
commercial
to rival her own
a merchant
place in the Mediterranean
who
does not
calculate but feels,vacillated,
advantages. France, finally,
sympathetic but undecided,between her pity for a Christian race and her old
.

the

alliance with

sultans.

In 1827, Rassia,France, and England assumed


the role of armed arbitrators
the
Greece
and
between
Ottoman
Emi^ire. Greece at that moment,
having
devoured
the Turkish armies
her to
sent
to reduce
successively
by Mahmud

obedience, had
of Islam

by

his

united

and

to
finallysuccumbed
by Ibrahim

troops, and
in

the

of

master

harbour

of

continent.

the

Egyptian

Pasha.

by

sea

Navarino,

the
the negotiationsl)etween
conditions of the treaty which

Greek

the

commanded

was

and

powers

armies

Ibrahim,
the

called to the aid


of the Morea
Turki.sh
and
fleets

master

Egyptian
waiting inactive for the result of
the sultan, ready to execute
the

should

and
to retain the
to evacuate
ensue
or
had
month's
time
for
armistice, to give
negotiations,
the belligerent
between
would
armistice
expire
parties. This
A

been concluded
October 20th, 1827.
the contrary,

No

declaration

of

war

had

been

addressed

to

the

Porte;

tacit peace existed between


and the
the Christian powers
forces.
The three atlmirals,\'on Ileyden,Codgeneralissimoof the Ottoman
on

ringtonand

de

witnesses

Rigny, stationed
and

not

like

like
their fleets off the coasts of Morea
held dailycommunications

enemies,and

catory
pacifiwith

234

THE

STATES

BALKAN

MODERN

AND

GREECE
[1827-1829 A.D.]

already been killed on the English ships,and yet Codrington held back.
Thereupon the hostile adiuiral's ship fired on the Asia and the fightbegan.
Vehemently did the Englishman deal ilestruction to his enemies ; the French
fleets were
and Russian
were
on
equally successful;courage and discipline
the other.
The enemy's
their side,confusion,bewilderment, and cowardice
on
in confusion
cannon
volleyed forth in a narrow
ships were
; three thousand
Fearful
of their thunder !
the sound
basin surrounded
was
by mountains.
battle lasted

The

from

four

to

six in the

afternoon

; between

five and

six

kilknl,and almost their whole fleet was destroyed.


which were
The
war-vessels,
hardly seaworthy, remained.
twenty-nine
Only
with
harbour
covered
debris, and through the whole
was
night might be
of the enemy

thousand

were

Ibrahim
turned
reexplosionsof useless ships blown
up by the Turks.
in the evening and saw
nothing before him but destruction.
informed
him
the remainder
The
admirals
that at the least sign of hostility
the forts would
be completely destroyed by their batteries.
of his ships and
of his
as
Thereupon he hoisted the white flag,and sent to Alexandria
many
fit for sea; the allies retreated and repairedtheir ships.
boats as could be made
heard

the
to

Navarino

THE

ORG.\NISATION

OF

GREECE

into no
then the Porte would
Even
enter
the
negotiationsconcerning
of Greece, and the disagreement between
it and the ambassadors
pacification
became
that the latter left the country.
of the three powers
upon
Thereso violent
of European inhabitants
turned
of Turkey. The
number
out
a
were
Russo-Turkish
tage
war
was
beginning. In order to reap the last possibleadvanFrench
generalMaison, in accordance
in the Morea
with fourteen
landed
London,
congress
Ibrahim
sail
for
and
thousand
forced
to
the
set
Egypt,
compelled
men,
in
the
that
Morea
t
o
at
least
s
o
v/as
October, 1828,
free,
garri.son capitulate,
and
nothing stood in the way to prevent the Greeks from establishingan
independent government.
President Capo d'Istria had entered upon
Greek
soil on
January 18th,
saviour
all
He
hailed
have
been one
had he
as
a
by
1828,
might
parties.
from

with

the

occurrence

resolution

of the

at

Navarino, the
of

too accustomed
to absolute
rule,and if he
not, as Russian minister, become
His
had not wrongly judged conditions upon his return
to Greece.
presidency
of dictatorship
of councillors consisted of his own
a sort
tures.
creawas
; his board

The

magistrates was
independence of the provincial and commercial
free
administration
in which
abolished,
an
no
by prefects introduced
election of magistrateswas
his will all-powerful,
possible. In order to make
his spies,like Metternich ; he limited the freedom
he had
of the press and
and

violated
care

was

the secrecy of correspondence.


indeed
Schools were
established,but
taken
that no
independent ideas might penetrate their precincts,

of Plato, Plato's Gorgias might not even


the
be rcail because
all who
had
expressed himself too stronglyagainst tyrants. Towards
acquired power during the Greek revolution he .'^howed no less hatred than
showed
the Si)anishFerdinand
againstthe victorious opponents of Napoleon.
the
Towards
the independent Mainotes, towards
those
Hydriots, towards
proud chiefs who for eight years had carried the fate of their land on the
points of their daggers, he acted like a Russian pasha.
March
On
decidctl by the three powers
that Greece
22nd, 1829, it was
should fonn a hereditarymonarchy ; that it should reach to the bays of Ceuta
and Vola on the north,but that it should be tributaryto Turkey. On Feb-

jjn

the home

author

HISTORY

THE

OF

MEDIEVAL

AND

MODERN

GREECE

235

[1830-18C2A.D.]

3rd, 1830, these

ruary

independent and

free

measures

were

from

limited, and

altered in order

tribute; its boundaries

Prince

of

Leopold

that with
such
narrow
prince,who saw
rule by recovering from
the Porte by
the profferedcrown.
Greek provinces,declined
But his days
than
d'Istria
?
to
Capo
acceptable
to

October

9th, 1831,

he

murdered

Greece
north

force
To
were

of

wholly

were

named

was

boundaries

begin his

On

the

Saxe-Coburg

the

But

to make
on

he

whom

would

the

arms

siderably
con-

prince.
have

remaining
this

was

more

numbered.

his way

church

by George
family
patriots towards whom
in a high-handed manner.
His brother was
at
Capo d'Istria had behaved
ruler
appointed
by the senate, but he was obliged to abdicate on April
once
Mauromichales,

9th,
be

The

1832.

member

was

of the

conference

of London

to

of

then

chose

Prince

Otto

of Bavaria

to

king of Greece.
KING

yet

OTTO

January 30th, 1833, King Otto

On

On

on

Mainote

(1833 A.D.)
landed

of three persons was


of age a regency
Bavarian
soldiers were
to keep order

25th, 1833,
Athens, which was

December
to

in

Nauplia. Since he was not


dred
appointed ; three thousand five hununtil

national

the seat of government


little more
than
now

was
a

army

heap

of

created.

was

transferred

from

ruins,but

plia
Nauit

soon

and in a short time became


of the most
university,
one
important
Orient.
who
in
assumed
the
the
had
rein
of
Otto,
King
ports
government
July 1st, 1835, and in the followingyear had married Princess Amalie
upon
of Oldenburg, first had
Armaiisperg,and then von
Rudhardt, as his prime
received

conflict with
for
no

the

After

minister.

the

latter had

English

been

ambassador

dismissed

Lyons,

who

in 1837
accused

in

of a
consequence
him
of friendship

received
into the ministry; but the harmony was
Russia, only Greeks were
greater. On September 15th, 1843, a militaryrevolt compelled the king,

made

who

this could

no

objection,to give Greece

not

representativeassembly. But
of the people, who
dreamed

the dissatisfaction

remove

even

of

Byzantine Empire.
There

intense

excitement

was

there

was

warlike

in Greece

the Crimean
Hatred
over
war.
of
the
the
northern
dary
bounnarrowness
;
oppressors
the
.seemed
have
moment
to
to
felt;
more
come
keenly
expand;
of a renewal
of the Byzantine Empire.
talk even
To dampen these

was

againstthe old

desires

troops landed

aroused

was

the
and

Western

sent
a few
ships into the Piraeus ; French
the government with their aid to keep revolutionary
Besides a few sorties of plundering Klephts in

powers

compelled

tendencies in check.
Thessaly and Epirus,nothing of

importance transpired. The lack of energy,


however, on the part of King Otto gave great offence to the Hellenic people,
and there began to be talk regardingthe appointment of a new
monarch.
of Paris,which guaranteed its old boundaries
The Peace
to Turkey, gave
From
that time on King Otto was
in a difficult
great dissatisfaction to Greece.
In
revolt
broke
in
out
a
position.
February, 1862,
military
Nauplia,
which
But
while the king with his wife was
was
mildly suppressedby Otto.
in October, the cities of Vonitsa, Patrae, and
Athens
visitingMorea
arose
him
aemanded
established which
the
against
was
; a provisory government
abdication

of Otto.

to the Pinrus
Upon hearing of this rebellion the royal pair returned
on
allowed
and
not
back
to land : they went
to Salamis
23rd, but were
embarked
there upon
to Trieste,whence
an
English ship,which took them
The Greeks
then chose Prince
they went home.
Alfred, the second son of

October

THE

236

STATES

BALKAN

AXD

MODERN

GREECE
[1863-1875 A.D.)

the queen

of

England,

their king, but

be

to

March
On
honour.
30th, 1S63, they chose
whose father had been destined by the London

KING

GEORGE

cabinet

the

declined

this
EngUsh
George of Gliicksburg,
protocolto be king of Denmark.
Prince

A.D.)

(1863

George landed at the Pira'us on October 30th. He had made


Islands with Greece a condition of his acceptance.
the Ionian
in
this,and the Greek nation regarded it as a favourable
England acquiesced
that the new
king brought this inheritance as a dowry, and hoped
augury
The

young
of

the union

regard to Turkey. This hope was


in 1866 when
confinned
King George openly took sides with the Cretans in
their revolt againstTurkey and did not hinder the departure of volunteers
that he would

meet

the

desires in

national

for Crete.
Crete Becomes

the

Property of

the Porte

(186S

.\.d.)

Russia,Prussia, and Italy,for fear that an


Europe be involved therein,advised the Porte
But England, who feared that Russian
in March, 1867, to cede Crete to Greece.
be increased thereby,encouraged the Porte
influence in the Orient would
The Cretans would
then to succumb
have been forced even
not to give way.
from
and money
if they had not been supported by volimteers,weapons,
If King George-did not
wish to be dethroned
like his predecessor
Greece.
to have
more
Otto, it was
sympathy than the latter had
necessarj- for him
Greek
for
shown
the Great
which regarded Thcssaly,Epirus,and
movement,
the Archipelago as stations and Constantinople as the goal. The Turkish
ambassadors

The

oriental

might

war

of France,

arise and

all

threats of war
did not alarm the Greek
government ; but when in November,
that the
1868, the Greek
foreign minister declared openly in the chamber

policy of the government

of annexation, and
with regard to Crete was
one
of the
with colours flyingpassed the windows
Turkish
embassy in Athens, the patience of the Turk was finallye.xliausted.
10th he sent an ultimatum
On December
this was
to Athens, and when
rejected

when

bands

the Grecian

of

volunteers

ambassador

Both powers
Constantinoplereceived his passes.
breathe.
dared
Count
Bismarck
war.
prepared
Diplomacy scarcely
of
the signatories
suggested to the French foreignminister that he sunmion
the Peace of Paris to a specialconference.
This began its sittings
at Paris on
The demands
of Turkey
that Greece should stop the
January 9th, 1869.
organisationof troops of volunteers, should disarm or exclude from its ports
the corsair ships,and should
permit the return to Crete of the Cretan families
which had emigrated to Greece
gate
were
recognisedas just,and, through a delefrom
the conference, Greece was
A change of
invited to accept them.
this possible,
and diplomatic relations between
the Porte and
ministry made
Greece were
resumed.
The island of Crete was
become
subjectto
obligedto
in

for

"

"

ihe Porte.''
Greece

is

Again Brought

to

War

mth

Turkey

(1897

a.d.)

In 1875 Charilaos Trikoupiswas


made prime minister,and for twentj'^
years
played a conspicuous part in Greek politics,
occupying most of that time
alternatelywith Delyannis, the office of chief of the cabinet.
Delyannis,
contrary to Charilaos Trikoupis,was
an
exponent of the martial desires of the
The policyof Trikoupiswas
nation.
and aimed at develwise and far-sighted
he

HISTORY

THE

MEDIEVAL

OF

AND

MODERN

GREECE

237

(1877-1897A. D.]

oping the country


by the rash

rupted
ability. But as it was so often interopponent Delyannis,nothing great was

of its

the extent

to

of his

measures

accomplished.
of 1877 caused intense excitement
in Greece,and
Russo-Turkish
The
war
old
under
the
formed
but Trikoupis
coalition
was
Canaris,
patriot
ministry
a
Greece
from
and
active part in
the
prevented
an
taking
controlling
spirit
was
into power
After the capture of Plevna, Delyannis came
and at once
the war.
invasion
of
but
an
Thessaly,
organised

the belligerent
the peace between
parties
warlike
movement.
checked
this
The congress of Berlin left the question

come

jointlyby those
as
they failed to

Constantinople in

at

and

be settled

to

countries,but
to an
agreement,

two

Greece

between

of the frontier

Turkey

convention

intrusted

1881

the definition of the boundary to a


commission
consistingof representatives
and of the two
the
six
of
powers
interested
settled in

parties.
the

The

same

questionwas
and

year,

Greek

ceded
troops occupied the territory

to

them by the decision of the commission.


Another
question between
Turkey
still unsettled
that of
and Greece was
"

increased
Crete. The disagreementwas
of
the
Greek
the
tionalist
naorganisation
by
and the formation
movement

societyEthnike Hetseria
patriotic
This secret societyaimed
at
arousingan insurrection in Macedonia,
of the

in 1894.

it sent its emissaries


into
evident determination

in 1896

and

The

Crete also.

to carry out the promised


in that island caused great

of the Porte not


reforms

indignationin
to

came

in

fired

troops
Canea.

Greece.

head

on

matter
The
ish
Turkwhen
1897,
the Christians in

days later (February 6th)


from
two war-shipswere
sent
to Canea
Greece,and on the 10th Prince George
Two

left for the scene


The powers,
in every
or

of action.

however, intervened
when

instance

dependents.

It

trouble

but that the island should

suzeraintyof the sultan.


the Greeks, who
now
were
make

active

Turkey
Greeks

were

an

Turkey

and her
be
annexed
not
administration

could

autonomous

neighbours
to

Greece,

under

decision

eager

for

the

only increased the hostile attitude


with Turkey and
commenced
war

of
to

preparations.

declared

ha"l been

war

on

defeated

provoked rashlyand
and

that Crete

receive
This

between

occurs

declared

was

as

with

easilydriven

to

April 17th, 1897, and


the campaign was

in

and

undue
retreat

cause

before

the Greek
the

over.

littleover
The

troops

were

superiornumbers

month
had

war

the
been

unprepared,
discipline

and

BALKAN

THE

238

STATES

AND

MODERN

GREECE
[1897-1902

of

their

at

Mati

opponent.'^.

April

on

23r(i

of Pharsakis,

battles

abandonment

hasty
disorderly

Their
was

X'elestino, and

in

of

the

Domokos

Larissa

That

extreme.

the

were

after

main

the

D.]

A.

fighting
and

event

incidents

the

deciding

The
in
in
of
Thessaly.
campaign
Epirus, the other
scene
campaign
An
successful
than
armistice
that of Thessaly.
more
no
was
operations, was
December
6th.
definitely concluded
was
on
May 20th, and
signed on
peace
indemnity of four million
pounds Turkish, and the frontier
an
Turkey received
of all the agitation
The
besides
only result to Greece
slightly modified.
was
of many
of its inhabitants
Crete
that
taken
the
was
was
impoverishment
in
Prince
of
Turkish
rule
Greece
made
from
1898
George
high
was
missioner
com;
awaj'

the

"

"

of

the

Under

island.
became

population
In 1901, although
objected, and
powers

Moslem

the

for

commissioner

high

him

quiet

gradually
the

itself

Greece

forced

years

bours.
neigh-

with

Greece,

of

stUl

continued.

the

excitement

In

Zaimis,

moderate

the

position

of

the ministry
by the proposal
usually spoken in

1901

caused

to

ministry

tiie

Agitation

resign
consequence
of the Gospel into the modern
Greek
publish a translation
had
been
made
The
translation
the order
at
the kingdom.
the part of
the opposition was
violent, particularly on
so
The
abandoned..
next
the plan w-as
1902, there was
year,

was

to

and

more.

political agitation
in

to

Crete,

for a union
assembly voted
George was
appointed to hold

Domestic
In

to

its Christian

Cretan

Prince

three

more

restored

was

reconciled

conservative,

went

out

of

of

the

the

queen,

but
that

students,
change of
ami
Delyannis

another

power

had
hidden
the
opposition of the hostile party, which
forced
the
members
of the government
of parliament,
were
keys to the house
of entering the house
to the undignified proceeding
by the fire-escape through
came

the

in.

back

Owing

windows."

to

the

BALKAN

BRIEF

REFERENCE-LIST

[The

letter

OF

Der

RnsTOW,

Krieg

I.

The

der

for

Editorial

History

Turkei.

BY

CHAPTERS

Matter]

Rumania

of

N. Blaramberg,
Les
c
institutions et les lois de
E.
"
of the Roman
Empire.
Reclus,
Geographic
h J.
/ E.
Roesler.
a
Unirerselle.
Weltgeschichte.
von
Hammer-Purgstall,
i E.
des
osmanischen
Reiches.
Lavisse
Geschichte
A.
Hisioire
et
Rambaud,
Generate.
i J.
* A.
' A.
Histoire
de la Turquie.
Rumania.
de
Lamartine,
Samuelson,
de
la
Jonquiere,
Ottoman.
A.
Th.
m
"
de
Alison,
Historrj of Europe.
Hisioire
VEmpire
Flathe,
schichte.
Weltge-

la

W.

Th.

Roumanie.

"

in

AUTHORITIES

is reserved

Chapter

PENINSULA

Mommsen,
"

"

"

History
G.
Weber,

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"E.

"

el de

in

la Moldavia.

Histoire

Xenopol,

of Encyclopcedia

volumes

new

"

"

Geschichte

Jirecek,

b J. K.

Weltgeschichie.

P'lathb,

"

de

II.

der

J. D.

la

The

"

pCogolniseano,

Roumanie.

H.

""

"

History

Bulgaren.

Unirerselle.

Histoire

Rambaud,

A.

Balkans.

Histoire

de

article

Trotter,

la

Valarhio

"Rumania

"

Britannica.

Chapter

et

des

Peninsule

Lavaleye,

DE

"

"

J.

Bouchier,

Bulgaria

of

d E. Lavisse
F. C. Schlosser,
c
Weltgeschichte.
Past
and
Present.
/ Th.
Samuelson,
Bulgaria,
volumes
article
in new
of Encyclopcedia
"Bulgaria"
"

"

Britannica.
Chapter

b E.

Lavisse

A.

et

The

III.

Servia

of

Universelle.

Histoire

Rambaud,

History

L.

"

"

History

Ranke,

von

Ottoman.
Histoire
de VEmpire
Jonquiere,
in der
Turkei.
/ W.
Der
de la Turquie.
Krieg
Histoire
RiJSTOW,
Geographie Universelle.
Weltgeschichte. A E. Reclus,

(translated by

Kerr).

Mrs.

A.

"

de

la

"

"

AUgemeine

DE

d
"

E.

b C.

D.

Raffenel,

Weber,

FiNLAY,

Turquie.

V.

"^

W.

under

Muller,

Histoire

de

The

A.

Th.

martine,
La-

de

Flathe,

Ottoman

"

des
e

S.

VEmpire

and

Politische

of

Grecs
G.

of

Balkan

Lesser

the

Ottoman.

"

States

and

Friley

Le

Wlahovitch,

Universelle.

History

Histoire

Weltgeschichte.

Greece
"

History

Geographic

Reclus,

Chapter

The

IV.

Jonquiere,

LA

Montenegro.

iG.

of Servia
e

"

Chapter

b .K.

"

Medi.gval

modernes.

Howe,

Venetian
Geschichte

"

E.

Dominion.
der

neuesten

Reclus,

Sketch

Historical
"

Greece

Modern

and

A.

Zeit.

Geographie

of the
de

Greek

Lamartine,

Universelle.

Revolution.
Histoire

"

"

/ 0.
de

la

SUABL\RY

CHRONOLOGICAL
BALKAN

THE

OF

STATES

HISTORY

MODERN

AND

OF

THE

GREECE

I. RUMANIA

Era

Roman
called

Countrj' now
They

Rumania

mentioned

are

Lysimachus.

First

in the

occupied

is

in connection

with

fourth

authentic

date

is from

about

Romans

and

Dacians.

Gets

by

centun-

Philip of Macedon.

Alexander

centurj- before

and
the

our

Dacians.

Great, and

era.

B.C.

First

Ill

conflict

between

A.D.

Decebalus

crosses

89

Decebalus

conquered by

90

Domitian

makes

101

Trajan makes

102

Dacians

and

defeats

Romans.

Julianas.
Decebalus.

f"eace with

expedition into Dacia.


defeated
by Trajan.

expedition of Trajan ending in complete defeat of Dacians.


by Romans.
.\urelian withdraws
Roman
legions and establishes province called

Second

105-106

Roman
ca

into Moesia

86

270-275

south

on

bank

about

after

centuri'

327

Constantine

361

Goths

to

accept

375

to

about

453

countn,-

453

to

about

576

land

564

or

576

610-614
678-6S0

they

overrun

is ruled

Bulgars

the

cross

of Romans

the
for

empire

countr"' is overrun
a

by Goths.

brief space.

by Huns.
Gepida?.
Lombards
and

bv

to

defeated

are

with

Christianity.

Gepidae priveway

when

Aureliani

Era

the

departure

incorporates land

said

Dacia

of Danube.
B.vRB.uiLOJ

For

becomes

Dacia

province, colonised

by

.\vars.

Avars

rule

intermittentlyuntil

Heraclius.

Danube,

and

from

Rumania

S93-101S

is

largely in Bulgarian

hands.
839
894

Hungarians
Hungarians

settle in eastern
are

Petchenegs
1227

Kumani

1240

Succumb

driven

and

into

Wallachia.
the

Carpathians.

They

are

succeeded

in

Rumania

by

Kumani.

converted

to

Christianity.

to Tatars.

LVDEPEXDEXT

PRINCIPALITIES

OF

WALLACHIA

AND

MOLDAVIA.

W.4LLACHI.\.
1290

of Wallachia
Principality
in revolt

is founded

by

Radol

againstHungarj-.
240

Negm,

at

head

of

emigrants

from

vania,
Transyl-

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

348

MODERN

GREECE

Moldavia

ranging from
probably established

Different dates
It is
ropded
1349

by his

1370

Bogdan
Uogdan

1374

Latzcu

1375

prince, Juga Eoriatovich.


Juga is killed by boyurs, and

Stephen, brother

rules for

II

1399

Roman

1400

Juga

1401

Alexander

n,

of Roman,
the
Good

son

Moldavia

time

of the

principality.
who

Dracosh,

is dependent

is

suc-

Hungary.

on

one

He

Wallachian

lay claim

is succeeded

by

Lithuanian

prince of the Bessaraba


family
Moldavia.
sovereignty over

to

there

is

strugglefor

acy
suprem-

II.

Peter

period.

short

throne

placed on

.Vfter him

year.

II and

year.
rules for
is

to

end.

an

Roman.

Stephen

sons

to

by

begins

rules for

of Roman,

his

between

Wallachia, under

of

Iiatzcu.

son
conies

is succeeded

by his brother

is succeetled

Peter

1395

of Wallachia.

by Mircea

He

devotes

himself

organising the country.

to

1433

by his
dynasty

Poland

Muchat.

1390

the foundation

given for

are

that

Balk, during which

dies, and is succeeded


die.s,and the Hogdan

called Peter

after

independent.

Moldavia

niake^

to 1342

soon

and

Sas

sons,

1288

dies, and

.\le.\ander

First, Elle

time.

one

period of

rules.

sets

war

divide

Then,

Stephen

together; 1444-47,

HI

civil

who

illegitimatesons,

and

in, the throne

the

1433-35,
Roman

HI,

being disputed by his mate


legitithree ruling at
two
or
HI; 1435-44, Elie and Stephen
Stephen
HI, and Alexander
II; 1455-57, Peter
sometimes

countrv,

rn.
1457
1462
1475
1479
1504
1510
1517
1522
1526

Stephen
Deposes
Stephen
Stephen
Stephen
Bogdan
Bogdan
Stephen

Oreat

mounts

the

Impaler.

Turks.

defeats

is defeated by Turks
dies, and is succeeded
concludes

Peter

1538

Peter, who
is

1541

Peter

1546

Peter

m.

Bogdan

Poland.

treaty with

of Ferdinand

defeats

army
is defeated
has

1551

Elias'

1561

Jacob

in

supporting John

obnoxious

become

to

Turks, is defeated

again rules in Moldavia, having bought favour


dies,and country passes wholly under Turkish
nile

Zapolya's claims

to

by them,

and

he

of Turks.

Elias, who

domination.

now

ceeds,
suc-

Mohammedan.
to

comes

an

end.

He

is succeeded

by

Alexander.
seizes

reins

the

over

of

Turks,

in

is defeated

and

slain

by

Voyevods

them.

are

quickly

now

made

and

deposed by

Porte.

the

Turks.
in killing
unites with Wallachia
Aaron
flees to Poland.
Jeremiah
is annexed
to Wallachia.
Upon Michael's
and
Jeremiah
is reinstated.
For
revolts
some
Transylvania, Moldavia

1594

Moldavia

1600

Moldavia
in

Lociuta

Stephen

.Alexander
and
origin,dethrones
Basilicus, an impostor of Greek
introduces
reforms.
schools
and
He founds
government.
.\lexander
is reinstated
Jacob,
by Porte.
People rise and murder
victories
the Terrible, who
Alexander
is succeeded
gains some
by John
but

Hungary.

by Poles.

the throne.

placed on

becomes

under

Moldavia
1618

Alba.
son,

during minority of his son countrj- is governed by the council.


He proves
himself an unwise
ruler,and in
Young declares himself of age.
He is succeeded
is poisoned by his wife at the instigationof the Poles.
by Peter
Raresh,
of Stephen the Great.
son
a natural
Peter

1574

Valea

by his

the

1531

1572

at

dies, and

1529

1563

of Moldavia.

throne

the

Vlad

Turks

is under

years

Polish
their

again assert
Alexander,

and

defeat

supremacy.
and
set
power,

up

two

rulers in

succession,Oratiani,

an

Italian,

Greek.

1711

and for twenty years


the country
to throne
enjoys prosperity.
He
fights,however, with
schools, revises laws.
reforms, founds
Bessaraba
of Wallachia, and is deposed by his subjects.
Duka
is obliged to supply contingent for siege of Vienna.
concliides treaty with Peter the Great, making Moldavia
Oantemir
Dmetri
protected

1716

Russian

1634

Basil

the

1683

Wolf

succeeds

introduces

Basil

vassal

of

Hu.ssia.

Cantemir
campaign against Turkey is unsuccessful.
Fanariot
in Moldavia.
regime is now
firmly established
Fanariot

From

1716

until

this period there


The
Moldavia.

in

Wall.\chia

and

refuge in

Russia.

Moldavia

from
the Fanar
house)
(lightthe principalitiesare
governed by Greeks
In
their appointments for money.
obtain
Constantinople, who
in
in ^V allachia and
different governors
thirty-three
are
thirty-five
and treaties.
wars
by Russo-Turkish
period is also characterised

1822

quarter

R"gimk

takes

of

CHRONOLOGICAL
1736

Russo-Turkish

1739

Peace

1747

Conatantine

1769

Russo-Turki.sh

1774

1777

243

war.

restored
Principalities

Belgrade.

of

SUMMARY

Turkey.

to

of Wallachia

Maurocordatos

tries to abolish

serfdom.

Principalitiesoccupied by Russian
troops.
Russian
to Turkey, but
of Kutchuk-Kainardji.
Principalities restored
Peace
right of
interference
recognised. Bukowina
Gregoriu Ghifca of
occupied by Austrians.
school at Jassy. Sultan, in spite of treaty, appoints Alexander
founds
Moldavia
Ypsiwar.

lanti to rule in Wallacliia.


is formally ceded

Bukowina

to

Austria.

Constantine

Murusi

appointed

of

governor

Moldavia.

1806

Porte defining status


of principalities.
joins against Turkey.
made
of Jjissy. Dniester
Peace
boundary of Russia.
Wallachia
and are
then succeeded
Rebels
by Turkish
troops.
ravage
obtains
Russia
provision that rulers are to hold their positions for seven
years.
Russians
Russo-Turkish
war.
again overrun
principalities.

1812

Peace

force

1783

Russians

1787

Russo-Turkish

1792
1801
1802

of

hatti-sherif

from

in which

war

the

Austria

Principalitieshanded

Bukharest.

to

over

Bessarabia

Turkey.

ceded

to

Russia.
1821

of

Greek
war
Greeks.
and

breaks

independence

Wallachia

under

1822

national

this time

Native

rulers

1826

of

Ypsilanti, takes part of


tries
countroops occupy

by

Turkish

Principalities

the

feeling continues

appointed,Gregoriu

are

Russo-Turki.sh

them.

opposes

rule is abolished.

Fanariot

Union
From

incited

Moldavia,

out.

Vladimirescu

increase, which

to

in Wallachia

Ghika

ends

and

in

John

uniting

in Moldavia.

Sturdza

Russians
principalities.
again breaks out.
occupy
Russian
Principalitiesplaced under
protection while

war

Treaty of Akermann.

cipalitie
prin-

two

tribute

to

Porte.

Russo-Turkish

1829

Treaty of Adrianople ratifies privilegesgranted


be

1834

war.

for life.

appointed

Riglement

P'irst Rumanian

troops withdraw.

to

issued.
of

administration
Ghika

Alexander

troops.

principalitiesin 1826; governors

to

newspaper

regulating internal

organique

Russian

Russian

Principalities
occupied by

1828

rules

in

is ratified

country

Wallachia;

Michael

by Porte.
Sturdza

in

Moldavia.
1842

George

succeeds

Bibesco

in

He, like his predecessor,is wholly under

Wallachia.

sian
Rus-

influence.
1848

Revolution

1849

Treaty

out, but

breaks

of

BaUa-Limani.

appointed

ruler

War

and Russians.
is suppressed by Turks
Privileges of principalitie are restricted.
;

in Moldavia

breaks

and

Ru.ssians

Barbu

Gregoriu

Ghika

in Wallachia.

Stirbeiu

They

succeeded

by Austrians.

1853

Crimean

1856

Treaty

1857
18.58

guaranteed by Porte.
appointed to revise laws.
Independent internal administration
Representative councils of two countries vote to unite into one principalityRumania.
council for two
chief common
tries,
counCongress of Paris rejectsthis plan, but appoints one

1859

Two

Paris.

of

under

powers

elect

and

Two

specialassemblies

1864

Cuza

by

1866

Cuza

is

ruler.
Charles

1877

Rumania

1880
18S1
1885
1891
1893

country

are

abolished.

European

commission

the

ruler,Alexander

same

are

replaced by

coup d'etat abolishes

forced to
New

election

Ouza, whose

is

finallyratified

abdicate.

constitution

national
Prince

drawn

one

assembly,

and

lished.
single ministry is estab-

assr^mlily.
of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen
Ludwig

Karl

chosen

up.

"Carmen
Wied, widely known
b}' her name
Sylva."
through her country.
allowing latter a passage
the
Porte
declares
her independence, joins Russia, and storms
objects, and Rumania
Grivitza
redoubt
She is rewarded
at Plevna.
by being compelled to cede Bessarabia
in return.
to Russia, in Treaty of San
Stefano, getting Dobrudscha
Treaty of Berlin ratifies this decision.
IndcpcDilcnce of Rumania
formally recognised by powers.
Charle.s
Prime
crowned
king of Rumania.
Orthodox
Church
recognised by patriarchat Constantinople.
Independence of Rumanian
dies at age of seventy-six.TwentyBratiano, one of most prominent Rumanian
statesmen,
fifth anniversary of king's reign celel)ratc(l with great enthusiasm.
Prince
Ferdinand
of Rumania,
nephew of the king and heir-apparent to the throne,
Victoria and of Czar
marries
Prince-ss Maria
of Coburg, granddaughter of Queen

1869

1878

over

Porte.

1862

country.

occupy

protection

separate rulers.

assemblies

by

out.

Russian

marries

makes

Alexander.

Princess

treaty

Elizabeth
with

of

Russia,

BULGARIA

II.
History

Early

third and

Between
In
and

country

occupy

tlie seventh

of

called

now

End

to

centuries

seventh

half

secontl

the

GREECE

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

344

First

op

Peninsuhi

Balkan

a.d.

century

Empire
becomes

of Finnish

tribe

settled by Slavs.
Danube
cross

Bulgars

Bulgaria.

A.D.

ruled during this period.


fifteen princeswho
Bulgarian chroniclers mention
Heradius.
treaty of peace with Emperor
Kurat, a Bulgarian prince, makes
or
in Moesia.
Slavs and founds
Although
a powerful monarchy
Asparuch (640-700) subdues
of two
j* malgamation
Bulgarians lose their nationality.
lose their names,
Slavs

164-679

Old

631-641

Kurt

679

takes two
succeeds

races

700

Tervel

705

Justinian

707

Justinian

717
720
748

hundred

confers

titleof

fiftyyears.

and

Asparuch

II in his exile.

protects Justinian

upon

czar

Tervel.

violates treaty with


Bulgarians and is defeated by them.
Bulgarians help Greeks against Arabs.
Tervel
is succeeded
by a king of the Dulo dynasty.
is recorded of these two
princes.
Nothing more
He is succeeded
liy 8evar.
Constantine

the throne.
75.3 Kormisos
usurps
Constantine
forces Kormisos
755
defeats

make

to

undertakes

campaign against him.

peace.

Varna.

759

Kormisos

760

764

disappears from the scene.


Many
Bulgarian empire. Kormisos
falls
Telek
to be their prince. He
Slavs
Bulgarians name
migrate to .\sia Minor.
Bvzantine
the
provinces.
upon
and killed by his own
Salim,
is defeated
subjects. His successor,
Telek
by Constantine
and
is therefore
deposed.
with
makes
son-in-law
of Kormisos,
Byzantines
peace
Toktu, is killed
with Constantine.
His successor,
Bajan's successor,
B^an, makes
peace

765

Byzantine troops

763

Rebellions

in

the

break

battle

Constantine

775

In

with

another

the emperor
Cerig, for an unknown
a

the

Romans

of all tlio traitors

names

reason,

royal princess. His


the

of

is

from

777

the emperor.

a
large part of Bulgaria. A change in the inner confusion
ravage
brought about by the accession to the throne of Oerig.
attacks
him.
makes
peace with Cerig, but treacherously
Cerig by a clever trick finds
expedition the Byzantines are defeated.

realm

774

at

emperor
in

out

to

flees

to

in his

Cnnstantinople to

renews
Kardam,
tribute (791-797).

war

successor,

pay

kingdom and
Leo

IV, is baptised,and

with

the

out

kills them.
marries

Byzantines, and

pels
com-

He
the throne.
a
powerful of Bulgarian princes, mounts
conquers
and
the Byzantine
Hungary
provinces up to Constantinople.
himself.
to avenge
Crum
809
Nicepliorus undertakes
captures Sofia.
811
Nieephorus is defeated and killed,with slaughter of the whole Byzantine army.
Crum
before Constantinople,but is bought off.
814
appears
Cnim
dies of apoplexy, and is succeeded
815
by Cok, or, according to another account, by
Dukum
and the latter by Diceng.
He
concludes
succeeds
to the throne.
820
a
Omortag
treaty of peace with Leo for thirty
his attention
the west, but his conDevotes
quests
to the Franks, his neighbourson
years.
of Omortag's
The
He
not
name
are
permanent.
persecutes the Christians.
and Malomir,
the youngest son
is not known
with certainty. Both
successor
Pre^am
mentioned.
of Omortag, are
Boris
into the country
I mounts
the throne.
ca852
During his reign Christianity is introduced
and Methodius.
through the preaching of Constantine
Boris is baptised and
of Micliael.
864
takes name
Church.
Church
Council
decides
that Bulgaria belongs to Eastern
869
Boris abdicates
and
retires to a monastery,
888
leaving his eldest son, Vladimir, to rule, but
802

Orum,

the

most

large part

after four
893

927
963
967
969

of eastern

years,

on

account

of Vladimir's

misrule, he

returns.

becomes
Boris dies in 907 and
Simeon, on the throne.
garian
first national
saint of Bulgarians.
Simeon
is the most
important ruler of the Bulwith
lasts with
few interruptions for
people. Begins war
Byzantines, which
Sea to Mount
Under
him
extends
from
the Black
thirty years.
Bulgarian dominion
Servia
also is subject to him.
coast.
Rhodope and from Olympus to the Albanian
Simeon
and elevates archbishopric to patriarchate.
adopts title of czar
Simeon
Simeon's
dies,and is succeeded
by his son, Peter, a peace-lovingman, under whom
empire begins to decline.
Shishman
founds
rival empire in western
Bulgaria.
Russians
for the first time in Bulgarian histoni',being summoned
by Nicephorua.
appear
Peter's reign is further characterised
by the rise of the Bogomile heresy.

Boris

places his youngest

Peter dies; David,


in this

son

son,

of Shishman

I, tries

plan by Boris 11, son of Peter.


Russia, again attacks Bulgarians,and

to unite

In the
takes

two

simimer

Boris

halves

of

empire, but

of this year

captive.

is defeated

Sviatoslav, king of

SUMMARY

CHRONOLOGICAL
and

Balkans

246

Philippopolis.

takes

970

Sviatoslav

971

and liberates Boris II,


at Preslav
Bulgarians, defeats S\iatoslav
Uanubian
but
Byzantine province. Boris II and the patriarch
Bulgaria becomes
and
In the west
sons
Bulgarianempire Shishman's
Damian
are
successors,
deposed.
Samuel
alone is
killed in the never-ending battles.
David, Moses, and Aaron, are
and rules for forty years.
He becomes
left.
czar
all lands on
the Danube
in
are
Death
of Zimisces.
Bulgarians in McEsia rise and soon
Samuel's
possession.
Fifteen
of peace
by Samuel.
Basil II marches
against Sofia, but is defeated
years
land ; fights with Vladimir,
and
the .\driatic coast
Samuel
fortifies Durazzo
follow.
his daughter in marriage.
and gives him
Servian
ruler, forces him to make
peace,
Thessalonica, but is defeated
Samuel
near
at
with
Byzantium.
Second
war
conquers

976
981

996

Zimisces

crosses

his island

of Presba.

fortress

This

marks

fortunes.

of Samuel's

decline

is destroyed at Belasica.
breaks
out.
July 29th, Bulgarian army
captives are blinded by Basil II, who leaves every one-hundredth
Samuel
is overcome
at Presba.
man
one
eye, so as to guide the others to their czar
15th.
He is succeeded
by his son Radomir,
with grief at the sight,and dies September
Roman.
He
is murdered
also called Gabriel
by his cousin John, son of Aaron, who
the throne, but is opposed by nobles.
usurps
two
a
head, is torn between
falls,and Bulgaria, left without
Siege of Durazzo; John
Basil II,
the other
wanting war.
to Byzantium,
wanting to surrender
parties, one
the leaders of the war
towards
of John's
Bulgaria, overpowers
death, marches
at news
becomes
and
and
force
dependent.
entirely
deceit,
Bulgaria
party by
last

and

Third

war

thousand

Fifteen

1018

with difficulty
to
"escapes

and

Thermopylae
1014

aid of

to

comes

Byzantine

a.d.)

(1018-1186

Suprem.vcy

national
and seventy years has almost
history.
no
period of one hundred
Thirty bishoprics, sLx hundred
Basil II formally confirms
rights of Bulgarian church.
For
and
sLx hundred
governmental
fifty-fivecolons.
and eighty-five clergy, and
by a
Bulgariais divided into districts called themata, each administered
purposes

This
1020

strategus
1025

dux.

or

II, followed

of Basil

Death

intrigues and

lands

Danubian
1040

Peter

Deljan,

Slavs

set

Deljan
some

three

up

ancf stone

Tichomir.

Maria

Bulgarian Czarina

first ten

the

after

years

mixes
death

Basil's

in
the

by Petchenegs.

Two

armies

by people.
as
czar
people enthusiasticallyelect

is welcomed

and

confinement

from

but

meet,

make
Byzantine territory and
of
brother
by Alusian, younger

fall upon

Bulgarians
is

Deljan

but

In

times

of Gabriel, escapes
rival Czar Tichomir.

treacherouslyblinded

Vladislav.

triumph of Byzantine emperor.


They are followed by the Kumani.
by Petchenegs.
Bodin
rule
Bulgarian nobles ask Stephen of Servia to let his son Constantine
under
of Peter, but is defeated
by Greeks.
He is proclaimed czar
name

Bulgarian leaders
land

The

1048-1054
1073

visited

are

cloister.

land.

in the

by anarchy
in

son

progress,

Czar
1041

placed

is

grace

is

overrun

their conquests are of short duration.


with Petchenegs and Kumani.

In Albania, but
Thrace

land

1081

Normans

1087

Tzelgu

1094

Kumani

1 122

Petchenegs

1186

Two

1188

and
prince Nemanya
by Ser\ian
they are successful.
Bulgarian czarina taken prisoner. ArmLstice

1190

Crusaders

invades

Khan

Danube.

cross

Danube

cross

brothers,

and

for last time


and

Peter

Ivan

defeated.

are

rise and

Asen,

aided

are

them.

over

engage

place is taken by Kumani.


Bulgarians
Byzantine yoke.
fare,
with
Byzantines in guerilla warTheir

throw

off

in which

to

1196

appear

and

Vama

ensues.

tries

in

vain

to

persuade

him

Byzantines

in

pass

of

Berrhoea

and

Peter

Barbarossa.

Frederick

Constantinople. Bulgarians

attack

conquer
Ivan Asen

under

defeat

Sofia.

I is murdered

by

Ivanko.

named

noble

his young

rules with

Peter

brother

Ealoyan.
1197

1199

Peter

is killed and
from

Struma.

Kaloyan

Papal

messenger
for
in return

desires

the

imperial

1205

Kaloyan.
Bulgarians, Greeks, and

Sea

and

from

Kaloyan

asks

to

he extends
Bulgarian
to the
of the Danube

Kumani

the

friendly relations

to establish

mouths
with

be

Rome.

received into Roman

Church

crown.

Constantinople.

Latins

Black

in Timova.

appears

1204

capture

to

with

In alliance

rules alone.

Kaloyan

Belgrade

dominion

In the

same

year

is crowned

Kaloyan

by pope.

win
Bald-

insults

and
1206

War

1207

Kaloyan

between

Kumani

his fate is

never

Bulgarians and

Ls murdered.

The

attack

is made

Baldwin

Latins.

prisoner by

known.
Greeks.

Kaloyan

meets

with

tlirone is

usurped by

his

nephew,

military
Boril.

success.

garians
Bul-

120S

Boril

1211

its
Boril

is defeated
by Franks
height.
persecutes Bogomiles.

1213

Prankish

1218

Ivan

is advanced

Commerce

rule.

BorU's

the national

and

aid of France

II to seek

and

is allied

Death

of Ivan

II.

Asen

reign the Tatars

his

is succeeded

He

retreat

from

Russia

to

by his

treaties

breaks
of

son,

with

Niciea, against
\'otatzeg, Bt-la

Epirus.
I, a l)oy of nine years.
through Servia and Bulgaria.

In

Kaliman

Croatia

all of Asen's
conquests are lost.
by his minor brother, Michael
dies, and is succeeded
is regent.
He, like his brother, is constantly at war.
Micliael Asen is defeated
and killed by his cousin, who
usurps
three

of

Votatzeg, emperor

excommunicates

Pope

emperor

England.

1241

In

months

Kaliman

His

Asen.

throne

the

mother.

Irene,

Kaliman

as

II.

Civil war
sets in.
shortly after.
The
nobles
elect Constantine, a grandson of Stephen N'emanya, to be their ruler, who
Asen.
His reign of
of .\sen II, and calls himself Constantine
marries
a granddaughter
and
the
witli
witli
and
nineteen
is
wars
Hungary
Byzantium,
intrigues
occupied
years
is killed

He

1258

established.

church

He
Theodorus, ruler of Kpirus. His empire touches three seas.
Asen
attacks
witli Servia by marriage.
Constantinople also and forces young

1240

1257

Bogomile herejy reaches

time

daughter.

for his alliance with


Asen
makes
and
the Latins.
Asen
at different times
with the pope.
of Hungan,', and even
Asen
marries
Irene, daughter of captive Theodorus

1246

this

defeats

Asen

Baldwin
1236

GREECE

Boril.
Asea
II, son of Asen and rightfulheir to throne, defeats and dethrones
and
its prosperity by his beneficeat
his empire by his conquests
promotes

Asen

e.xtends
1230

About

Philippepolls.

at

lienry marries

emperor

MODERN

AND

STATES

BALKAN

THE

246

wife. Maria, niece of Micliael VIII of Niciea.


and Maria
seizes supreme
becomes
Asen
ill,
power
At
this
Meanwhile
by Tatars.
empire is invaded

of his second
1277

Constantine
Michael.

He

power.
and
army
standard.
1278

Maria

is

defeats

bold
and

Ivailo.

marries

originallya

adventurer,

enfeebled

kills the

brings forward

Michael

Emperor

The

Constantine.

czar

he marries to his daughter Irene.


report of Ivailo's deatli is spread and

in the

of her

name

son

rises
juncture Ivailo
shepherd, but gathers together

another

people

flock

to

to
an

his

pretender to the throne,

wliom
1279

The

in,

Asen

1280

He

defeats

as

two

their

but

czar,

armies

which

nominee, Ivan
suddenly reappears.
and George
Ivan .\sen III flees,
Michael
sends against him.
of the Tatars, to ask for aid
IvaUo
goes to Nogaj, kaan
he cannot

the

Michael's

people accept

maintain

his

place.

Ivailo

1292

czar.
Terterij I is crowned
and there loses his life.
czar
against the new
Tatars
break
into Bulgaria and
Hungan,-.
Terterijis obliged
In western
Bulgaria Shishman
Tclioki, Nogaj's son, to wife.
prince. Terterij is obliged to flee before Tatars.
of Ottoman
Osman
Empire.
lays foundation
establish Bulgarian iiolile Smilek
Tatars
as
tributaryczar.

1293

Tchoki

drives

1295

Tchoki

is

1285

1288

Smilek

from

surprised and

we^t

succeeds

reigns as

to

independent

tlic throne.

killed

the Greeks, and under


Sliishman's
Michael
son

from

gi\e his daughter

to

by Svetslav,
liiiiithe

of Tert"rijI.
enjoys a short

son

country

He

wins

season

back

territory

of peace.

In

the

Stephen

Dushan.

rules.
Servian

throne

and

together with

rules

1320

Stephen

1322

Death

1323

Death

1330

the point of adding Constantinople


to be on
reign is a success, and he seems
of
Serbia
has been
to his dominions, but the enmity with
growing, largely on account
Michael's
his Serbian
wife to marry
having divorced
a Greek
princess.
Bulgarian forces are completely defeated by Servians at Kustendil, and their czar Michael
At

Uros

in

of Svetslav.
of

He

TerterijII.

to

is succeeded

by his

.Anarchy follows.

son

George

Nobles

Terterij II.

elect Michael,

the

despot

of Widdin.

first his

is killed,

l^ros, Iiowever, does

not

1331

her son, Shishman


II, czar.
is crowned
king of
Stephen Dushan

1346

Stephen

the countr\',

annex

but

reinstates

Anna

and

makes

Servia, and during the whole of his reign (twenty-four


forced to flee,
and her son
Anna
are
years) Bulgaria is wholly dependent on Servia.
and
Ivan
His sister Helena
Alexander, a nephew of Czar Michael, is chosen czar.
marries
the Servian
.Alexander's
wife is a
r61e.
king and plays an important political
Bessaraba, so that these three powers of the
daughter of the Rumanian
prince hanko
peninsula are united against Byzantium.
13^10 Turks
begin to appear in vicinity of (Constantinople.
from

Dushan
Turkish

has him.self crowned

as

czar

of Servians

and

Greeks.

Bulgaria suffers

invasion.

13.50 Council
1.353 Turks
1355
1362

of Tiniova.
Bogomiles denounced.
gain first strongliold in Europe (Dzemenlik).
Death
of Dushan,
the last energetic opposer
of the Turks.
From
Pliilippopolis
by Turks.
Capture of Eski-Sagra and

rapidly.

now

on

Turks

advance

CHRONOLOGICAL
1365

of Czar

Death

1378
1388

is succeeded

He

by

Ul

rules at Timova"
III, who
mpire. He seizes Pahrand keeps him captive. man
Shishto implore aid against the Turks,
ologus, who has come
becomes
in token of his good faith.
vassal,and gives his sister to Murad
a Turkish
his brother
Shisliman
retakes Sofia from
his attacks on him.
Sracinis,who does not cease
Sofia taken
by Turks.
Shishman, attacked
by Turks, revolts almost
immediately, but is forced to beg the
is granted him.
sultan for his life,which
while

1382

Alexander.

SUMMARY

themselves

rival rulers establish

Turks
of Kosovo,
in which
after three months'

1389

Battle

1393

Fall of Tirnova

1396

Battle

of

Nikopoli. Supremacy

Porte.

ruled

now

The

like any
church

national

Shishman

parts of thee

defeat

completely

Christians.

siege. End of Shishman


of Turks
finallydecided.

BuLGAEiA

Bulgaria is

in other

Under

province, by

independence

of Strazhimir, and
Fruzin,
quelled b}' Sultan Suleiman.

in

mystery.

rules until

1398.

Turks

the

Turkish

other

loses its

wrapped
Strazhimir

of

and

appointed by the

governors

falls under
stir

Fanariot
cities

rule.

1405

Constantine,

1595

1762

induces Sigismund Bathori, prince of Transylvania, to summon


garians
BulMen
and even
against the Turks, but the revolt is sliort-lived.
women
give vent to their warlike inclinations by engaging in a sort of chivalrous
brigandage,
directed only against Mohammedans.
They are called haiduli, and play an important
part in tlie historyof the period.
Paisii,at Athos, writes historyof Bulgaria, which marks
beginning of Bulgarian national

1792

Another

are

soon

son

Ragusan

son

Shishman,

to

rebel, but

agent

to

arms

movement.

of robbers

class

terror

has

called

krjaliappear.
They devastate the country
They are patronised by Pasvan
Oglu, a bold

the. inhabitants.

to

established

himself

Widdin

at

in

defiance

of

the

Porte.

Turks

are

and

are

rebel

who

powerless

against them.
1804
1807

Krjaliare defeated in Rumelia, and


Pasvan
Oglu dies, and krjali take
Bulgaria

1809

Russians

1810

Russians
and

1812

enter

with

service

of Pasvan

Oglu.

Peace

government.

of

Tilsit

assigns

Dobrudscha.
the

overrun

ottier

and

coimtry,

supported by Bulgarian

volunteers

occupy

Plevna

places.

Napoleon's advance
and

service

to Russia.

occupy

Russian

Moscow

on

Russians

rest.

survivors

receive

forces

Bessarabia.

Country

war.

is

overrun

them

to retire.
They conclude
Treaty of Bukharevolution
Bulgaria profitsnothing by Servian
with
delibashis
soldiers),who
(government

plunder everywhere.
1829

revolution.
Russians
take part in Greek
Bulgarian volunteers
capture Varna.
with Turks.
Mamarkov
raises standard
in war
of Bulgarian
Bulgarians help Russians
freedom
in Tirnova, but he is arrested
by Russians, and Peace of Adrianople puts an

1833

First

move

1835

First

public school

1837

Sultan

1839

The

1828

end

to

movement.

in church
is

dispute. Bulgarians
opened in Bulgaria.

ask

for native

Within

ten

bishops

years

there

instead
are

of Fanariots.

such
fifty-three

schools.
Mahmud

II makes

tour

of

inspectionthrough

the

Danubian

and

Balkan

tories.
terri-

1851

of a constitution,is promulgated,
of Gulhameh,
in the nature
a document
But
the
nearly equal rights are granted to Christians and Mohammedans.
reforms
are
mostly nominal.
taxes.
Bulgarian revolt in Nish and other places, due to exorbitant
Turks
Another
revolt breaks
in Widdin.
out
oblige patriarch to consecrate
Bulgarian

1856

bishops.
Hatti-Humajfum

1860

Congregation

1861

Ten

1862

Commission

hatti-sherif
which

in

1841

out

name

thousand

The

in

Civil and
religiouslibertyfor Christians.
Constantinople forces bishop to leave patriarch's
example followed throughout Bulgaria.

announces

new

of prayers.
This
"Tatars from Crimea

whole

and
Greeks
demands
country

of

reforms.

Bulgarian church

six

at

colonised
six

in Bulgaria.
to deliberate
Bulgarians meet

expulsion

of

Fanariots.

on

Bulgarian

church

quarrel.
take

newspapers

part in demand.
1864

1870
1875
1876

them
of the Circassians.
Bulgarians increa.sed by settlement
among
firman
establishes
Imperial Turkish
Bulgarian Exarchate.
Revolt
in Herzegovina and Bosnia.
of Batak.
denounced
Rising in Bulgaria. Massacre
"Bulgarian atrocities"

Trials of

by

Mr.

Gladstone.
1877

Czar

declares

war

on

stipulates for union


this treaty

does

not

Bulgarians support Russians.


Turkey.
of Bulgaria proper
and
Eastern
Rumelia
stand.

Treaty of San Stefano


under
one
prince, but

STATES

BALKAN

THE

248

AND

MODERN

GREECE

1878

and
tributaryprincipalityunder the
Bulgaria an autonomous
Treaty of Berlin makes
exclude
K-islern Kumelia.
Boundaries
Ruliuf;princes to be
suzerainty of the sultan.
of powers.
Russians
elected by people subject to appro\al of Porte and assent
tical
prac-

1879

Prince
Dondukovdrawn
by Russian
of Notables
up
Assembly
pas-ses constitution
influence predominant.
Korsakov. Prince .\lexander of Hesse chosen as ruler. Russian
trouble.
Bulgarian liberals make
and
tries to rule alone supported by Russians,
Alexander
Prince
suspends constitution
control of latter.
but is wholly under
advisers
Russian
resign. Liberals rule. Attempt to kidnap
Constitution is restored.
towards
union
with
National
movement
Bulgaria in Eastern
prince is frustrated.

rulers of countrj'.

1881
1883

Rumelia.
1885

and union
of Eastern
Rumelia, is deposed by liberals,
Pasha, governor
of the powers
Alexander
is proclaimed. As a result a conference
with Bulgaria under
withdrawn
from
officers are
Russian
Bulgarian army and
is held at Constantinople.

Gavril Krsto\itch

on
Bulgaria.
war
17th, 18th, at battle of Slivnitza.
defeated, November
with
Servia.
to make
Bulgaria is persuaded by Austria
peace
Treaty of Bukharest.
Alexander
is recognised in a treaty with the sultan.
of Bulgaria and Rumelia
Union
Alexander
is seized
by his own
made
governor-general of country, August 22nd.
and
forced
influence
Russian
to abdicate.
Although he is reinstated
officers under
becomes
second
abdication
of the loyalist Stambulov,
a
throutfh t!ie promptness
aiul he leaves the countn,'
on
September 7th.
necessary
elected ruler.
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
Ferdinand
Regents who have ruled country
Prince
Russia
refuses to recognise
Prime
Minister.
becomes
Stambulov
retire.
in interim

declares

Scrvia

Servians
1886

1887

are

Ferdinand.

1894

is crushed.
against Ferdinand
Alexander
dies.
of Panna.
Prince
Marie-Louise
Princess
marries
he shall
There
is some
to whether
as
Birth of Boris, heir to the throne.
controversy
Stambulov
church.
The decision in favour of former.
belong to the Greek or Roman
succeeded
by Stoilov.
dismissed from ministrj'_and

1895

Stambulov

1890

Conspiracy of Major Panitza

1893

Ferdinand

is

brutally murdered.

III. SERVIA
A.D.

638

For five centuries little


migrate into Illyricum and part of Moesia.
They are ruled by shupans.
Ladislaus
is grand shupan of Servia.
Quarrels with Bulgaria begin.
is taken
The
prisonerand killed by Bulgarians. Conquerors place Paul
shupan Peter
He is deposed, and
succeeded by Zacharia.
the throne.
Country is
Brankovich
on
wholly utuier Bulgarian power.
Ceslav, son of Brankovich, drives out Bulgarians.
dominion.
of Bulgaria. Servia falls underGreek
of Ser\'ia is killed by Ladislaus
Vladimir
Voyislav rebels against Greeks.
Stephen
Croats

and

Serbs

is heard

830
917

950
1015
1040
1043

Greeks

1050

Michael
with

of them.

Voyislav
the

1079

Jlichael

1080

Constantine

1122

Urosh

1 1 59
1169

1185
1195

1224

defeated.

are

succeeds

his

father, Stephen, and

enters

into

diplomatic relations

pope.

conquers

Durazzo.

and Rasa.
succeeds
his father, and subjugatesshupans of Bosnia
His wife is a German
princess.
Bfla, shujxin of Ra.sa,ascends tlirone.
to throne.
comes
Stephen Nemanya
is still suzerain.
Stephen unites Bosnia to Servia, but Greek emperor
with him.
terms
Stephen proclaims hLs independence, and Greeks are forced to make
sation
Stephen abdicates in favour of his son, Stephen Urosh, who strengthens internal organiBaldwin
of kingdom.
Earliest Servian
coins date from
his reign.
Emperor
and
Bo.snia.
of Constantinople recognises him as king of Servia, Dalmatia,
in succession.
Stephen Uro.sh dies,and is followed by his sons
Stephen HI and Ladislaus
I.,adislaus marries
daughter of the great Asen of Bulgaria and establishes mining
Bodin

industn,'.
1237

Ladislaus

1241

The

1272

1301

Stephen IV is deposed by his son Dragutin, who reigns as Stephen V.


rules as Stephen VX
He abdicates, leaving his crowni
Milutin, who
to his brother
Michael
Greek emperor
Pahcologus starts on campaign against Servia, but he dies,and
his successor,
Andronicus, acconiplishesnothing.
matrimonial
alliance with
Andronicus
asks aid of Stephen VI against Turks, and forms

1303

Stephen

1275
1282

dies, and

country

is succeeded

is devastated

him.

defeats Ottomans.

by his
by Mongols.

brother

Stephen

IV.

THE

250

STATES

BALKAN

IV.

AND

MODERN

GREECE

MONTENEGRO

of lUyria, annexed
under Augustus. It is subject
to Rome
like the rest of the penin.sula. In the seventh
invasions
negro,
century, Montecalled Duklea
confederation.
(or Dioclea), forms
About
part of Serb
is seat of Servian
Montenegrins distinguishthemselves in
government.

Country originallyis part


barbarian

to

then

Ragusa
with Bulgaria in eleventh

900
A.D.

1050

wars

of

Prince

Duklea

His
pope.
rule of Servia.

recognisedby
falls under
1098

Servia

century.

himself

proclaims

son

king of Ser\-ia and

Bodin

adds

dominion,

falls under
Bulgarian
their lord.
as

Bosnia

and

to

his

reigns for thirty years, being


domain, but Montenegro again

Montenegrins

refuse

recognise king of

to

Bulgaria
1115

Tcheslas
of Servia buys support of Byzantines again.stBulgarians.
Montenegrins
to fight with
indignant at this act and continue
13yzantium.
domination.
Emperor obtains only nominal
reunites Servian
his rule.
tenegro
Monstates, including Montenegro, under
Stephen Nemanya
with Herzegovina is formed
into a special goyemment
and is an appanage
of
the princes of the Ser\ian
royal house.
and
has
rebelled
Herzegovina, who
Vuk, prince of Montenegro
against his brother
dies, and until death of Dushan
Nemanya,
(1350) Montenegro has no history apart

Zhupan
are

1171
1180

1215

Servia.

from

Balsha
of

death

Dushan,

Montenegro

Dtn.^sty

becomes

practicallyindependent

1356

At

1365

Balsha

1367

Balsha

of

Zeta.

1368

Balsha

by his son Stratimir.


dies,and is succeeded
They take possessionof Scutari and

make

makes

with

alliance

Venice.

He

takes

suzerain, Urosh V.
displeasureof his nominal
proclaims himself independent prince
throne, allies himself with him by marriage.

certain

brothers.

them
1379

dies,and

Stratimir

and

George
divide

1380

and

1389

1394
1405
1406
1410
1419
1420
1421

1424
1425

land

his

1439

1450

on

with

government

it their

capital.

Turks

Servian
his two
occupy

and

son

brothers

dispute the throne.

Country

is divided

between

ensues.

war

of Balsha

I, dies, and

his brother

Balsha

II, and

nephew

George

II,

amicably.

Treaties

made

are

with

Balsha

Ragusa.

continues

to

gain partisansamong

Czernovich

1444

shares

usurper

L
incurs

II attacks

Bosnia.

He

is killed in

with

Stephen

1427

Vukashin,

and

sole ruler.
Turks, and George n becomes
defeated
Turks
by Servians, Montenegrins, and Albanians.
are
defeated
in battle of Kosovo.
Servians
are
George II is not present at this battle;
a part of his troops take
part in it and are killed with Servians ; another part arrives too
late.
Many Servians seek refuge in Montenegro.
against Ottomans
by giving up Scutari. This has grave
George II buys aid of Venice
for Montenegro.
consequences
III ; during his reign Stephen
by his youngest son, Balsha
George II dies,and is succeeded
Prince," becomes
Czemovich, the "Black
prominent.
After
repeated battles peace is signed with Venice, Montenegro retains Scutari and
Dulcigno, and Venice pays subsidy, first given in 1394.
Ser^^ans
and enter
Turks
Montenegro, but are repulsed.
conquer
and Turks.
Balsha
defends
Scutari against Venetians
Venice
Republic sues for peace.
again tries unsuccessfully to take Scutari.
dies mysteriously in same
visit to Servian
He
Balsha
is last of
on
a
czar.
year whUe
his line and his death
is followed
by an interregnum, during which Venice and Servia
Ser\'ians are
fight for possession of Montenegro.
eventually successful.
from
returns
Stephen Czernovich
Italy and gainspossessionof Dulcigno.
of Dulcigno.
George Brankovich, who is ruling country for Servia, grants him domain
battle

1387

civil

I, son

1385

Balsha

of Servians.

attention
1373

He

under

districts in Albania

people.

Dynasty

summoned
to Servia
by death of its ruler,and Montenegro is left free for
Stephen Czemovich.
offi^nsive and defensive alliance with Venice.
Stephen makes
Ivan
Montenegrins under
Stephen Czemovich
join Scanderbeg, prince of Albania.
fights,in all,.sixty-threebattles with the .Albanians against the Turks.

Brankovich

Muhammed

II

besiegesKroia

and

is defeated

by Montenegrins and

Albanians.

SUMMARY

CHRONOLOGICAL

1451

Mohammedans

1456

Stephen's son
Stephen makes

1459
1463
1465

1474

defeating Montenegrins

themselves
by
revenge
is killed.
third treaty with Venice

battle

in which

five years.

within

is conquered by Turks.
rule.
succumbs
to Turkish
Bosnia
1466
Stephen dies, and is succeeded
or

in

Servia

Montenegro.
of Scanderbeg.
Death
raises siege of Scutari, which
Ivan

epoch

1468

251

his

by

Ivan

son

the

Black.

He

begins heroic

of

is

their golden book.


Conquest of Herzego\ina by Turks
but unsuccessful
brave
Ivan makes

Turks.

besieged by

Venetians

inscribe

his

name

on

1476
1478

by Turks
1482

Venice

1484

Ivan

besieged

attempt

Scutari.

at

Turkey, leaving Montenegro to fight alone.


lishes
of Turks, and estabto prevent its fallinginto hands
Turks
has ever
since been capitalof coimtry.
at Cettinje,which
occupy
builds
Ivan
a
monastery called after him, and founds first Montenegrin

treaty with

makes

his
burns
himself
lands.

low

by enemy.
Montenegro surrounded
to get provisions to the Venetians

leaves

capitalof Zabljah

printing-press.
1490
1494

by his

Ivan dies,and is succeeded


defeats
and
George meets

lifetime

his country in his father's


him bey of Scutari, under

1496

George is driven
cousin Stephen

1515

II, who
latter

for several

Scutari

name

maintains
about

dies

has turned
Stanicha, who
Turks, who have

or

taken

has

traitor

to

appointed

sides with

Scanderbeg.
takes refuge in Venice.
He is succeeded
by his
rules at
himself
in opposition to Scanderbeg, who
his descendants
the sandjak of
1528, and
occupy

centuries.

is succeeded

Stephen dies, and

and

by Scanderbeg and

out

The

Scutari.

George IV.
Stephen

son

his brother

by

by his son George V.


1516 George abdicates, and retires with
the country to Bishop Babylas.

his

dies in less than

II, who

Ivan

son

year,

is

and

succeeded

his Venetian
With

him

Montenegro

1524

vladika.
becomes
is succeeded
by Germain.
Montenegrins aid Hungarians at

1530

Paul

1520

Babylas

Prince-Bishops

Under

Jayce

Paul

1549

Makarios

1570

Turks,

15S5

Makarios
dies, and is succeeded
by
vladika.
Rufin
I becomes
his attack
Ali Bey of Scutari renews

who

is

vladika.
becomes
summoned
are

and

repulseTurks.

Turks

again attack

1613

after

1620

Turks
Rufin

1623

Montenegro

account

by Ali Bey of Scutari, are

against Montenegro
Pachomije.
upon

Montenegro,

He

is aided

repulsed.

by Bey

of

few

Montenegrins and are defeated.


are
again defeated.

successes

vladika.

becomes

is again attacked

by Turks
Montenegrins are

that

says

I succeeds

and

they

forced

to

probably defeated, although another

are

tribute.

pay

1650

Basil

1680

Vissarion

1687

against Turks.
Montenegrins aid Venetians
Turks
attack
Montenegro, and capture capital. Monastery of Ivan the Black
Turks
soon
depart from Montenegro.
up by monks.
to power.
Sava
I, the last of the Montenegrin elective vladikas, succeeds

1692

to

becomes

power.
vladika.

I of the

Petrovich

dynasty,

1696

Daniel

1703

in 1476, is cho.sen vladika.


"
All Turks
"Montenegrin Vespers.
of

ill-treatment
1707

Turks
Peter

attack

family from

Herzegovina, which

in the country

Daniel.

country

the Great

makes

and

are

alliance

repulsed.
with

is blown

Prince-Bishops

Hereditary

1710

Rumelia,

repulsed.

1612

1688

of

Montenegro.

succeeds Germain.
is succeeded
by Nicodin.

1540

but

in

is governed by prince bishops called vladikas, aided by


1516
to 1833
Its history is a succession
of attacks
subordinate
to them.
by the
repulsed with greater or less success.

Ottomans,

Babylas

1604

dynasty

governors

1516

1600

Venice, leaving government

to

Czernovich

from

Montenegro
civU

wife
ends

Montenegrins.

are

massacred

came

in revenge

negro
into Montefor

Turkish

BALKAN

THE

253

STATES

MODERN

AND

GREECE

1739

refuse to help, add alone they deliver a crushing


Montenegrins, Russians
on
plain of Podgoritza.
abandon
Turks
Cettinje and destroy monastery, but they soon
again occupy
country.
of Russia.
During the rest of Daniel's
Montenegro ruler sets precedent of visitingczar
Tlie monastery
of Cettinjeis rebuilt.
reign tlie Turks are repulsed four times.
Daniel
I dies, and is succeeded
1737
by his nephew Sava II.
or
Elizabeth
of Russia, and
his return
visits Frederick
the Great of
Sava
on
goes to see

1750

Sava

1712

attack

Turks

defeat

1714
1715
1735

Ottomans

to

He

Prussia.
Sultan
as

1766

Basil

dies

returns

the

1792
1797

1807

in
he

once

fight.

severe

has

from

get money

to

gone

and

repulsed.

are

sleep. Peter, grandnephew

in his
has

Sava

Bocche

di

Cattaro

recognises independence of Montenegro.


to France.
Treaty of Pressburg gives Bocche
and Bocchesi, defeats
and, aided by Russians
up
Peace

to

gives Cattaro

without

result.

Montenegrins, aided
and

Russia

of

twenty

Sava, is practicallythe ruler,

asks

Treaty with

1829

Russia

1830

Peter
He

some

help

from

which

Montenegro,

in

overtures

days

Montenegrins,

to

ally themselves

giving Cattaro

with

latter,and

to

them,
negrins
Monte-

of Elizabeth.

emigrate

repulsed.
.\ustria fixes boundary.
subsidies, which
arrear
greatlyrelieve
He

dies,and four years later is canonised.


organises internal administration.

to

Odessa

and

Servia.

needs

of

people.

is succeeded

by his nephew, Peter

n.

repulsed.

1835

Office of civil governor


is abolished.
of Montenegrins capture old
-\ band

1847

Peter

1851

Peter

are

makes

is

Turks

establishes

dies, and

1853

Montenegrins

Congressof

1857

Damlo

Senate

to

defeat
Paris

consents

to

secular

Turks.

power.
Powers

is established.

capital of Zabljah.

four powder factories.


is succeeded
by his nephew

ecclesiastical

1856

Danilo

II.

Peter
He

it to Turks.

restores

changes

the

monarchy

from

Turks

protest.
inter\ene
and stop hostilities.

disregardsMontenegro's

demands.

recognise suzerainty of sultan.

This

great indignationamong

causes

subjects.
defeated

with

1858

Turks

are

1860

Danilo

is a.ssassinated.

1861

Insurrection
in
Turkey declares

He

is succeeded

Powers

Nicholas, in alliance
successful,

great loss by Montenegrins

by

his

nephew

at

Grahovo.

with

Milan

.\rmistice

is concluded
peace
of Ser\-ia, declares war
on

intervene

is concluded

forced

tervene.
in-

to

retire

before

Scutari,August 31st.
Turkey.
Montenegrin arms

in November.

1893
1896

Two-hundredth

Petrovich

again

at

towns
Montenegro recaptures her seaboard
war.
during Russo-Turkish
Treaty of Berlin gives Montenegro additional territon.-.
Conference
of powers
gives Dulcigno to Montenegro, instead of Plava
stipulated at Berlin.
Two
two
da\iglit"rsof Prince Nicliolas marry
grand dukes of Russia.
Four-h\iiulri'dtl) anniversary of foundation
of printing-press
at Ohod.

anniversary of

Powers

Nicholas.

in Montenegro.
excitement
Herzegovina causes
war
against Montenegro. Montenegrins arc

superior numbers.
are

occupies fortress of Castelnuovo,


Czar orders Bocche
to be given

Bocchesi

Montenegrins

1833

his

Cattaro.

agreement

an

1832

an

Peter
French.

Napoleon

obligedto gi\-eit up.


subsidy to Montenegro begun

1820

sends

French.

conclude

1819

stop

to

by English,capture
Austria

of severe
famine
On account
from
Bosnia
Turkish
invasion

1889

of

Austrians.

of Tilsit

1817

1880

peace

title.

dominion.

Austrian
neutral.

are

1878

Sava

good ruler.

Russians

1877

Russia.

more.

in Montenegro, claimingto be the murdered


Peter III of
himself
ruler,Stephen succeeds in establishing
as
regent.

appears
weak
a

1814

1876

Turks.

on

recognisehim

to

Sultan

but

1862

refuse

becomes
vladika.
dies,and Peter
Montenegro helps Austria against Turkey, but in Treaty of Jassy.
of Turkish
only as one
provinces.
Montenegro is mentioned
Montenegrins defeat Kara
Mustapha Pasha of Scutari.
b.as grave
for Montenegro.
This places Dalmatia
Treaty of Carapo Formio
consequences

but
1813

Montenegrins

Sava

remains
1799

being

is killed

Stephen

under

1805

Bosnians

Turkey join against Montenegro,

although

1796

in government.
Inflicts defeat

sole ruler.

ensues.

years

1789

and

Turks

Little"

Sava

makes
and

Venice

defeat

St. Petersburg, whither


from
his retirement
to rule

"Stephen
He

1782

him

but

terms,

easy

at

Russia.

1774

with

II becomes

Basil

suzerain.

Montenegrins

1768

on

peace

BasU

nephew

and

monastery

tries to make

1756

1767

his

associates

retires to

dj-nasty.

and

Gusinge

as

CHEONOLOGICAL

At

874

BOSNIA

Bosnia

and

AND

253

HERZEGOVINA

Herzegovina

form

times
part of lUyria. In Roman
fall of empire country is overrun
by
After the year
Slavs
600 a.d.
Goths and Avars.
began to settle here as o\er
the
whole
of Bosnia
takes place from
peninsula. Christianisation
Rome, and at the same
the east also (Cyril and
time from
Methodius), and this religious di\ision has great
influence
Most
on
politicalhistory of country.
important districts of Herzegovina
Chelm
(Zachlumje) and Tribunja.
are

they

A.D.

of histon'

dawn

V.

SUMMARY

included

are

in

province of Dalmatia.

first Christian
king of
this time that the name

Budimir,
is about

After

Bosnia, Croatia, and


Bosnia

Dalmatia,

; said

appears

to

assembles
from

come

diet.

Slavic

It

tribe of

Thrace.
905
1000

Croatia
Brisimi, king of Servia, annexes
this date Byzantme
After
supremacy
Coloman

1180

1204

dependent

now

are

of Kulin's

End

1238
1245

Hungarian

Bishop Kalocsa

dethroned.
Ninoslav
crusade
by

Third

1300

Bogomiles, although they


this date, Paul, ban
At about
ban.
Stephen n becomes

1353
1377
1391

twelfth

Bosnia.

century

Bosnian

bans

According
gives

to some
authorities,
period of prosperity to

BogomiJes

in Bosnia.

appear

is knovm.
devastates

Hungarian

massacred.

are

into Bosnia.

Ladislaus

king

Bogomiles

countrj*.

crusade

undertakes

1280

1350

and

Herzegovina

last.

not

In

reign.

in Bosnia.
appear
ban whose
is the next
name
under
Bela IV of Hungary

Franciscans
NinOBlav
Crusade

does

union

Hungary.

on

known
is the first one
in Bosnia.
Kulin
by name
He coins money
in his name
and
he is the tenth ban.
About
this time the heretical sect of the
his country.

1232

1322

This

in these countries.
under
the title of ban.

Ban

1230

1250

Bosnia.

first appear
native rulers in Bosnia
of Hunrary
title of king of
assumes

there
1103

and
ceases

IV

does

not

succeed

in

exterminating

conquered.

are

of the Croatians

and

Bosnia, adds

Herzegovina

Bosnia.

to

of Servia adds Bosnia


and Herzegovina to his kingdom.
Dushan
by his nephew Stephen I. Country enjoys last period of peace
Stephen is succeeded
his territory.
and prosperity. Stephen extends
Stephen takes title of king of Servia.
Bosnia
declines under
his successors.
end and
Powerful
to an
Stephen's reign comes
vassals found
independent principalityin Herzegovina, and kings or bans of Bosnia
helpless in their hands.
are
Stephen is succeeded by Stephen Dabisha.
is succeeded

by Queen Helen.
Helen.
Ostoja succeeds
is succeeded
by his son Stephen

1395

He

1398

Stephen

1418

He

1421

Twertko

II

to throne.

comes

He

Ostojich
a
Bogomile;

is

under

Bosnia

him

enjoys

few

years

of

1443

peace.
Twertko
is succeeded
are

by Stephen
persecuted. Forty thousand

1448

Voyevod

1461

Stephen

Stephen
and

throne.
1463

are

period of

countiy.
title of duke, in Slavic,
their

by

civil

war

Bogomiles

ensues.

the

son

Stephen

herceg.
who

Tomashewich,

succeeds

to

calls in Turks.

He

Muhammed

leave

German
killed

assumes

his wife

and

Thomas

II

breaks

prisoners carried

into

King is
Herzegovina

country.

slavery.

into

beheaded.
and

Two

hundred

northwest

Bosnia

thousand

(Jaice) still

resist.
1465

Herzegovina and
conquer
Castelnuovo
Stephen maintain

Turks

1526

Battle

1527

Country
and
for

1689

of Mohacs
is

deliver

make

It is

finallyconquered.
in number.

twenty-seven

it into

until 14S2.
of Bosnia
last rampart

sandjak called

Turkish

governors,

the first half of sixteenth

In

Sons

of

voyevod

to Turks.

governed by

now

Hersek.

two

century Ghazi

himdred

Bey rules

thirty-threeyears.

and

troops invade

Croatian

1697
Bosnia

is

frequentlymade

is

scene

of

Bosnia.

theatre

Venetian

of

In

seventeenth

between

war

Prince

campaigns.

and

eighteenth

centuries

govina
Turkey and Austria, while Herzeon
Bosna-Serai, or
Eugene marches

Serajcvo.
1791

Peace

1833
1851

Ml, pasha of Herzego\'ina, begins to

of

Turkish

Sistova.

Omar

Reforms

are

defeats

introduced

and

acquire considerable

Ali Pasha
country

and
has

power.
insurrection

puts down
a

chance

to

of Bosnian

Moslems.

develop.

in Herzegovina
under
Luka
Vukalovich,
supported by Montenegro.
in Turkey's acquiescence in a local autonomy.
insurrection
in Herzegovina
rule is jomed in by a large part of
against Turkish

1858

Insurrection

1862

Insurrection

1875

new

Pasha

Bosnia.

ends

After the insurrection is put down, sultan

proclaims an

irade

granting reforms.

1878

1879
1882

STATES

BALKAN

THE

254

AND

MODERN

GREECE

and
Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered
stipulatesthat Bosnia
Turkish
is occupied by Austria
sandjak of No\ibazar
by Austria.
and
administered
by Turkey.
Bosnia
Turkish
over
nominally recognised.
supremacy
and
Insurrection
in Bosnia
Herzegovina is suppressed. Since then these districts have
been comparatively peaceful. Colonies of peasants from Austria and WUrtemberg have
of

Treaty

Berlin

founded

been

and

successful.

are

MEDLEVAL

VI.
Declint;

AND
Under

Greece

of

MODERN

GREECE

Romans

a.d.)

(146 B.C.-716

B.C.

146
86
42
31

province.

Roman
becomes
Greece
Mithradatic
war.
Battle

of

Battle

of Actium.

Philippi.

A.D.

53

Paul

54

Nero

67
73

Nero

96

Period

262

visits Greece.
gives freedom

Vespasiandeprives
of

Buildings

by

361

Accession

395

Alaric

426

Last

517
529

Invasion

his

and
of

of second

century.

Ner\'a.

Continued

under

Hadrian

and

countrj- is

prosperous

Roman

them.

municipal system

for Greece.

era

and

invades

.Goths

by

overrun

devastates

He

imposed

tries to restore

Greece.

He

on

ism.
pagan-

is succeeded

by

Huns.
into Christian

churches.

Bulgarian hordes.

closes

Justinian

under

Greece

begins another

temples changed

Athenian

Christianised until middle

Constantinople.

to

Western

the

for

whole

Capital of empire removed


Greece.

with

become

restored.

are

Goths

330

of Julian

not

to Greece.
her of freedom.

prosperitybegins

Antoninus.
stormed
Athens

Attila

does

Greece

visits Greece.

of Athens.

philosophicalschools

This

introduces

emperor

silk

industry

into Greece.
539

Greece
In

last

is overrun
by Huns.
half of sixth century

half of seventh

begin

Slavic

Cities remain

century.

Byzantine
716

Accession

727

Greeks

746-747
783

Pest

Two
to

Slavic
be

invasions.

Slavs

settle

Period

(716-1453

a.d.)

III.

Expedition against

movement.

Irene

defeats Slavs

at Thessalonica

and

Leo

with

Arabs

983
996
1081

Bulgarians take Larissa.


Bulgarians reach Bceotia and Attica, but are defeated
under
Robert
Guiscard.
Appearance of Normans

lose Crete, after

1083

Alexius

1147

in 1084 and 1107.


Coast
towns
plundered

1204

Latins

forces

From

having plundered

Normans

to

retreat.

Grecian

Normans

isles for

Slavs

on

now

are

again
seem

make

on

nearly sixty years.


the

further

Sperchius.
expeditionsagainstGreece

by Sicilians under Roger II.


Constantinople,and Greece proper is divided into
of the
principalityof Thessalonica, of short duration; principality
conquer

of

Slavs

Greeks.

961

Dukedom

is defeated.

in Hellas.

during reign of Nicephorus (802-811).


tribes (Milingiand
Ezeriti) become
tributarj-.

fused

in first

in country

possession of Greeks.

in Greece.

of the empress

Army

of Leo

part in iconoclast

rages

defeated
941

the throne

to

take

in

Athens

(r20.'j-1456).

Islands

are

taken

mostly

three
Morca

by

:
principalities

(120.5-1387);

Venetians.
succeeded

portant
Im-

by the
(.\ndros),Orsini (Cephalonia and Zante,
Sanudo
Tocco, 1357-1479), Marco
(Naxos).
of Servia
1300
Stephen Dushan
Epirus, Macedonia, and Thessaly ; givesThessaly
conquers
to a general and
the Epinis to his brother
to rule.
Turks
1393
take
Thessaly.
Theodore
1395
Corinth.
(I) Pahoologus reconquers
the timariot
1.307 Bayazia I establishes
sy.stem in Thessalv.
Theodore
dies and is succeeded
1 407
in Mistra by his nephew Theodore
II.
Dandolo

names:

1430

Turks

conquer

most

of

Epirus.

CHRONOLOGICAL

Under

Greece
1453

Fall of

1456

New

Constantinople. Muliammed
conquered.

Tuhks

the

tolerates

255

Christians.

Phoc:ra

1457

Lemnos,

1460

Muhammed

1462

Lesbos
War
EubcEa

Samotlirace, and

Imbrcs,
taken

Thasos

tlie Morea.

conquers

with

1463
1470
1479

the

from

annexed

Athens

Ottoman

to

under

comes

Empire.

Ottoman

dominion.

Venetians.

Venice.

(Negropont) conquered by Turks.


between

Peace

and

Porte

di Tocco.

Leonardo

Venice.

Antonio

Muhammed

di Tocco

takes

Muharamed's

1482

Venice

1489

Cornaro
Caterina
breaks
War
out

Cephalonia

and

Zante

from

them.

recovers

besieges Rliodes without success.


Cephalonia to sultan and pays tribute

1480

1499
1500

SUMMARY

array

restores

cedes

of

Cyprus

for Zante.

to Venetians.

sultan and Venice.


again between
Lepanto, Modon, Coron, and Durazzo.

Turks

capture

1502

Peace

between

1522

Knights of Rhodes

1532

E-xpeditionunder

1537

War

and

Porte

breaks

island

Venice

Andrea

Doria

defeats

and

islands

captures

country.
Venice.

of the

Turks

defeated

Archipelago and

at

Corfu.

Barbarossa

^gean.

Andrea
under
Doria.
powers
Venetians
cede
fortresses in the Morea.

Barbarossa

1540

Peace

1566

Chios

1571

1620

Turks
defeated at battle of Lepanto.
complete conquest of Cyprus.
concludes
Venice
humiliating treaty with sultan.
Tunis conquered by the Ottoman
fleet under
KUij Ali.
Turkish
garrison placed in forts of Maina.
Knights of Malta plunder the Morea.
During this whole periodpiracy is prevalent.

1645

Turks

1669

Crete

1670

Maina,

is concluded

Whole

1574
1614

fleet of Christian

of the

1538

1573

combined

Suleiman

disturbs

sultan

l)etween

out

plunders and

Cephalonia.

; latter retains

capitulate to sultan

between

sultan

and

Venice.

peninsula subject to Turkey.

and

annexed

Naxos

by

Turks.

Turks

invade

Crete.

War

with

finallysurrendered
which

1676

Last

recorded

1684

War

between

tribute

Morosini

1687

Athens

1688

Morosini

1699

Peace

and

takes

at

given

reconquered by

Peace

of Pa.ssarowitz.

1764

Greeks

in

1787

War

invade

and

the

in command

of Venetian

troops.

destroyed.

of

Germany, king

of

Poland, Venice, and

Peace

1797

Treaty

of

Venice

obliged to give up her Grecian possessions.


commences
intriguesin Greece to stir up revolt against

Russia

and

Russia

Turkey.

1800

Ionian

Isles made

Jassy.
Campo-Formio.

sacrifices Greeks.
incite Suliotes

Russians

to rebel.

Russian

into

Ionian

Isles

republic under

placed under French dominion.


protectionof Russia and Turkey.

1815

ceded
to Port".
possessions on continent
Treaty of Tilsit cedes Ionian republic to France.
The
at Odes.sa.
revolutionary.society,Hetieria Philike, founded
Ionian
republic placed under protection of England.
Treaty of Vienna.

1821

Greek

War

of

Independence

breaks

Alexander
In

Ypsilantitries

the

Morea

In Athens

1822

Greece

Turks
and

to Turkish.

1823 Civil

war

among

to

insurrection
blockade

proclaimed

of Janina

ing
privateer-

the Morea.

Greece

revolt
out

themselves

independent.

invade
Chios

stir up
breaks

Venetian

out.

Emancipated

1821

the Porte.

waters.

1792

1814

German

Morea.

Russia

in Grecian

1807

Venice.

the Turks.

Kutchuk-Kainardji.

between
of

emperor

revolt.

Cyprus
Turkey.
of

Morosini

Parthenon

between

Morea

Russians

Turkey

again subjugated.

Venice.

to

1718

Treaty

is

Negropont.

1715

1774

war,

army.

Venetians.

of Karlowitz

1770

Ijetween

Cretan

Coron.

by

defeated

Morea

concluded

children.

Turkey.

in Venetian

taken

Peace

independence during

of Christian

Venice

mercenaries
1685

assumed

has

Venice.

Turks.

to

in
in

in Moldavia

April.

Wallachia,
of Turks

but

is defeated.

are

ma.ssacred.

Acropolis.

Disunion

They

and

Thousands

are

Turks
defeat
Ali Pasha
Greeks.
among
fleet superior
successful on
land.
Greek

ravaged by Turks.
Greeks, inspiredby Kolokotronis, lasts until 1824.

1824

BALKAN

THE

256

Another

civil

1825

Ibrahim,

1826

Fall

of

Protocol

Porte

1S31

Capo

to

comes

of

Missolonghi.

Prance,

Germany,

of

aid

of

Philhellenic

sultan.

and

America

join

of

Otto

lands

1834

Capital

1835

King

Otto

1837

King

founds

1843

Revolution

made

of

comes

with

and

France.

leaves

Otto
Prince

George

1864

Ionian

Islands

Insurrection

1869

Conference

the

seven

and

monarchy

is

He

years.

Russia

Russian

too

in

his

Turkey.

tributary

Peace

Turkey.

to

of

by

regency.

Bavarian

ministers

forced

are

to

observe

neutrality

by

land
Eng-

revolution.

king

of

Greece.

Greece.

for

at

Greece.

liy

supported
prepare

powers

but

war,

chosen
to

Crete

constitutionally.

promise.

Crimean

of

rule

to

a^ees

account

on

Greece
of

in

Denmark

added
in

and

governed

Athens.

his

keep

to

Russians

of

first
to

Otto

fails

Greece

Greece.

.\thens.

at
out.

King

1863

Turkey

for

age.

breaks

side

of

Nauplia

university

1862

1868

France

Greece.

Countrj-

from

dismissed.

1866

of

king

Nauplia.

at

transferred

Greeks

for

between

hereditary

Greece

independence

Bulgaria

Otto

Greece

War

and

England,

Xavarino.

at

assassinated.

d'Istria

1832

Russia,

destroyed

this.

ratifies

recognises

of

president

makes

l.oiidon

of

1833

1853

Foundation

Eg\-pt

Sie^e

between

fleet

people.

please

to

Adrianople
1830

GREECE

Primates.

of

England,

Treaty
Turkish

Greece.

appointed

d'Istria

sympathies
1829

the

Morea.

from

Turks.

by

captured

Athens

Capo

of
Ali

invades

Volunteers

MODERN

army.

pacification
1828

War

Mehemet

.\li,

Mehemet

of

son

called

out

Europe.

Missolonglii.

of
Grecian

1827

breaks

war

throughout

societies

AND

STATES

war.

settles

Paris

Candia

question.

Cretan

forced

to

submit

to

Turkey.
1877

Russo-Turkish

1878

Treaty

1881

Demarcation

1885

Revolution

1886

Powers

1887

New

1896

Nationalist

1897

Cretan

Berlin

Grecian

leaves

of

excitement

great

causes

war

of

frontier

frontier

intrusted

to

in

Greece.

question

to

commission

of

be
the

settled
six

by

and

Turkey
and

powers

the

two

Greece.
interested

parties.
of

blockade
troubles

Greeks

war.

1898

Prince

war

George

on

in
of

to

demand

Bulgarian

grandisement.
ag-

Greece.
to

attempt

Greece.

under
After

occupy

Turkish
short

Crete.

Powers

campaign,

in

appointed

high

commissioner

and

intervene
Greeks

suzerainty.

which

December.

Greece

for

compensation

Crete.

government

concluded

Greece

ports.

in

agitation

declares
is

Greek

concerning

autonomous

incites

Philippopolis

of

Crete.

told

Turkey

to

give

withdraw.
is

successful,

Crete

an

Turkey
peace

THE

268

HISTORY

OF

EMPIRE

TURKISH

THE

[500A.D.]

their role to

of other

(lisscniinate the inventions


nations;
apply
thought, it was Chinese thought, it was Iranian thought which
Asia, neither
them, in immense
the}'adopted and propagated. Without
would
have
crossed the
the Chinese
the Arabic
Iranian
nor
thought nor
pohticalfrontiers;as it is,foreignphilosophieshave been extirpatedor at
least confused by the brutal geniusof action and by the militarytemperament

has been
it

and

Arabic

was

of the Turks.
The
insufficient or
the past of the Turkish

thirtyyears by a
historyof Asia in

false notions

people have

people used to liave concerning


completelychanged during the last

discoveries.
Hence
series of remarkable
that
the
Turks.
the Middle Ages to
of

OF

CLASSIFICATION

languages,other

The

which
been

than

the

Aiyan

we

L.\XGUAGES

and

Semitic,which

have

been

spoken

the fifth century in a part of oriental Europe and continental


and
Asia
Indo-China
(Further
China, India,
India) excepted belong
family whose branches are very divergent; in the west we find the Furnish

and

written

since

"

to

shall refer the

and

the

Magyar,

"

in the east

the

Mongolian

have
present time philologians

to the

not

and

the Manchu.

discovered
those which

the

Although up
ship
proofsof a relation-

used to demonstrate
a filiation as
are
as close and
regularas
unity of Indo-European idioms, their communalty of originand their
to recognisethe
family likeness are visible. In all of them it is po.ssible
remains
and the imprint of an ancient monosyllabic state; all are agglutinative
of them in our
day and before our eyes are passing from agglutination
; some
the

flexion.

to

This

which are,
family of languages is divided into four distinct classes,
going from west to east, the Finno-llgurian,the Turkish, the Mongolian,
and the Manchu.
The Finno-Uigurian includes Laplandish,Finnish,]Magyar,
the Uigurian dialects between
the Ural and ^"olgasuch as the Tcheremiss,
the Bashkir, and the ^'ogul;in the Caucasus
the idioms
derived
it embraces
from

the ancient Abar (Avar), and in the frozen tundras of the extreme
north
it in the Samoyed dialects. The Turkish
forms three groups : the
first is western
and includes the Osmanli, the Azeri, and the dialects of Persia;
the second
is much
ancient
more
important and had its most
tA'pe m the

we

find

of which
the modern
offshoots are the Jagatai,the Usbeg, the
Uigur dialect,
Tatar dialects of Russia and Siberia,
the Kashgar, the Turkoman, the Kirghiz,
the .Altai,
the Tarantchi, the curiouslypreserved language spoken by the

Karaimsor
and

Karaites

The Yakut
and of the Crimea
Jews of Lithuania
etc.
the Kalmuck
the third group.
With Mongolian is connected
dialect of Astraklian ; with the Manchu
the Tonguz and probably the
"

"

its varieties form

Korean.
This

long

which
the Turkish
enumeration
shows
the enormous
space
their kinsmen
in
the
either in a sporadicstate or
state of a
occupy,
national
Remarkable
these peoples
also are the tenacitywith which
group.
have
clung to their language, and the truly extraordinaryvariety of the
societies which
selves.
they have established or to which they have adafjtedthem-

people and

Nowhere, never, conquerors


or
or
subjects,have
conciuered,masters
renounced
to the
Turks, the Finns, the Mongols, or the Manchus
fidelity
national
language nor forgottentheir racial heritage. In two centuries,from
the year 800 to the year 1000, the Seljukschanged their religion
three times,
Nestorianisra
Nestorian
and
from
passing from Shamanism
to
Christianity
the

OF

ANTECEDENTS

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

259

[500-600 D.]
A.

to the faith of Islam; but they did


in Hebrew
Jews write the Pentateuch

change

their speech. The Karaim


but in the Turkish language.
and transformed
populationhas moulded
not

characters

centuries the vigorous Swedish


of the Baltic,
through education,and through
through intermarriage,
have become
Scandinavian
to such a degree that their very features
religion,
;
For

the Finns

national
but it is in Finnish that the rhapsodistsof Finland sang their sweet
Finnish
Kalerale
is
in
that
Lonnrot
it
tender
their
affectionately
piled
com;
epic,
consider that the dialects of the Turkish
above enumerit. If we
ated
group
scriptions
employ no less than six different alphabets (without counting the tranin the

character) Arabic, Syriac as

Russian

transformed

by the
Chinese, to which we must add the
Uigurs,Armenian, Greek, Hebrew,
Ls to-day recognisedas Turkish
shall
old WTiting called Tchudic, which
we
of the language,by which its imity has been preserved.
be struck by the vitality
On the other hand, the variety and the mutabilityof the social organisations
"

and

"

and
the Turks
their relatives are
among
The
difference which
of
their
languages.
fixity

from

the

acknowledge
and

be

and

Bashkir

from

Samoyed
distinguished.

that one
Samoyed is so enormous
of
the
origin
Hungarian citizen,the
;

savage

THE

to-day separates

FIVE

TURKISH

the

Hungarian

Bashkir

yet in the fifth century the types

PRIMITIVE

than

hesitates

common

the

less remarkable

not

were

to

herd,
shepnot

to

NATIONS

"The five primitiveTurkish nations," says Abulghazi,"are the Kiptchaks,


The names
the Uigurs,the Kanklis, the Kalaches, and the Karluks."
of the
is
characteristic.
formed
from
first two
old
are
a
wholly
Kiptchak
very
is
which
an
monosyllable
signifies
adjectiveform,
"empty desert"; Uigur
derived from

verb

which

the action

of

assembling,of gatheringin
followinga rule, a discipline.The Kiptchaks are the
groups,
of the barren country, of the desert,"the
men
people of the steppes"; the
Uigurs are the united men
gathered in groups and subjected to law, "the
civilised people."
a

and

that

expresses

of

It is in the fifth century that their ethnical eponym


first appears
among
the Chinese, in the sixth century it is familiar
to the Greeks; the former
write it Tu-kiue, the latter Tourkoi
difficult to recognisethe national
: it is not
Turk

name

under

to Chinese

Greek

the

two

annals,.sent

an

annals, the Roman

king of
The

the

In

king of the Tu-kiue,according


of China,and, according to
embassy to the emperor
of Byzantium sent an
embassy to the
emperor
569

the

Tourkoi.

since the first centurj' of

Chinese, ever

which

forms.

our

era, have

called the

tries
coun-

to-day name
Kashgar and Sungaria,"routes."
They referred
them
the two sides of the Tian-vShan,
and called
to their relative positionon
and
"northern
our
route,"
our
Kashgar, Nan-lu, "southern
Sungaria,Pe-lu,
route."
The
Turks
other
these
countries; they called the
to
names
gave
northern route
"the
five cities,"
besh-balik,
Pentapolis;the southern route
was
alli-ahehr,the six cities,"
Hexapolis. Coming from China by the "northwe

"

route"

em

one

to

came

called this country

by

The Turks
of the Turks," in Turkestan.
botli to their language and to that of

the "home
name

common

Mongols, Tchete, "the frontier,the


Once
marches
go

from

cross

master

of the

of Turkestan.
the

Nan-lu

the Frozen

to

Pe-lu
It

was

and
not

the Iranian

Mountains

"

march."

of

Pentapolis,one
the

with

same

country

"Muztagh,"

of

the

of the
also master
was
In order to
the Nan-lu.

Ferghana, it was necessary


Pass of Pines,Terek-Davan.

to

THE

260

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[214-500 A.D.]

On
and
of

side,one

the other

with

marshes

hunger;

few

only the impenetrableforest,black woods

first met

at

and horses
treacherous soil ; men
it was
attained
the plains. Hence
of the

seed,

lost there and

were

better

to

stay

died
in

the

dig irrigation
canals,and to
into the cities of this province,into Hami, Turfan,
settle in villages. It was
first penetrated,coming from
the south and
and Khotan, that Buddhism
had
contend
it
that
with
to
there
with
it
foreign
was
religions,
east;
Mazdaism,
It was
and later with Christianityand Islamism.
there, in the cityof Kashwritten
(1009) in Uigur dialect the oldest Turkish book which
gar, that was
down
has come
to us, the Kudatkubilik, "the art of ruling."
In the sixth century the Chinese had long since become
acquainted with
and
of the Uigur; they had opened up the two
of the Turks
the ancestors
beautiful

country

Tarim,

to

sow

to

of the north and of the south and had crossed the borders of the marches.
which
name
they gave to these people was
Hiong-nu, "rebel
has
ethnical or national character; it is neither
This word
slaves." 1
no
routes

The

ancient

Mongolian, but Chinese and very old. The Chinese gave the
name
Hiong-nu en bloc to the peoples,almost all nomadic, who lived north
The Great Wall was
built in 214 b.c. to protect China
of the river Hwangho.
Turkish

nor

from

proper

of these barbarians.

the incursions

Outside

the wall there

were

also marches.
NOMADIC

LIFE

be supposed that,as is often said,all the nomads


inhabited
People do not live in the desert when they can live anywhere
else. It was
by constraint that the tribes of shepherds, dispossessedby a
their fat pasturages, shady
to the enemy
stronger neighbour, abandoned
fields
forests
in
and
their roads leadingto
their
abounding
valleys,
game,
cultivated lands and to cities full of marvels.
Sadly they took the road of
in
dismal
themselves
solitudes of frozen and barren
exile and misery, buried
and return.
The
lands, where they nursed the hope of revenge
primitive
ceaselesslytransformed,rejuvenated,
legends of the Turks, their old poems
forms
down
and marvellouslypreserved under
to our
new
day are full of
Thus
the name
these stories of exodus.
Kirghiz-Kazak is formed from two
Turkish words, the firstof which signifies
"wandering," and the second, "one
from
the
from
the
flock."
The
beast which
has left the
nation,
separated
not
It must
"the desert."

"

"

fold and

the

man

has

who

fled from

his tribe

kazaks

are

(hence the word

did not live from his herds but from


Cossack). Then, as
for
which
he
stuffs
and for grain with those who
had
produce,
exchanged
.settle
abodes
which
he
sold
them
for
cash.
When
he
could
fixed
in a
to
or

to-day,the nomad

fertile country like Pentapolis or the land of the Tara he gladly became
But
of the town
when
the villagesor the men
tarantchi,a husbandman.
the destruction
closed the market, when
terrible snow-storms
caused
of the
herds

(which

bore

neighbour fell upon

the
the

mal, "capital"),when

name
expressive

of subsistence

tribe,means

were

few.

powerful

The

victims

of these disasters had little choice but to emigrate into the steppes, where
they sought adventure.
The real country of the Hiong-nu of China, of the Turanians
of Persia,
behind

the marches

of the Oxus, of the Hi, and


western, Kiptchak, and

the
great "voitls"
words
have the same
"

meaning.

The

['Compare

the

of the

the

Hwangho,

eastern, Gobi;

epithet Kiptchak
name

was

Sklav.o]

was

cut

up

these

by
two

given later by

OF

ANTECEDENTS
[500-600A.D.J
the Persians

to

Kiptchaks, Uved
Kara,

there.

Russia, when
The

"void"

it is the country of the


Kisil,Ak and Batak Kimi.

the IH

and

southern

THE

TURKISH

the

STATE

OF

261

"people of the empty

of the west

opens

between

land," the
Caspian
low sands,"

the

sands, "black,red,white, and


The Hi, the Tchu, the Sir,and

Between
make
practicablepaths through them.
of the north and of the west is hollowed out the
that which is in the middle.
for the word means

SOCIAL

NATIONS

THE

TURKISH

the "void"
"

and

the Amu
the steppes

intermediary"sea, the Aral,

NATIONS

The Tu-kiu, according to a Chinese chronicle of the year 545, are a tribe
from
the country of the north Gobi.
of the Hiong-nu, originally
Nomads,
how to tan leather
raisers of flocks,hunters, their tents are of felt ; they know
and to weave
wool, of which they make their clothing. They button their

right to left contrary to the Chinese,who cross them from left to


cut
their hair, which
loose. They are
they wear
right;they never
rough
old
and
esteem
and brutal ; they despise
men
only those who are in the prime
of strength. They proclaim their king by raisinghim nine times on a carpet
written
law or regularprocedure,but render justice
of felt. They have
no
Plot or rebellion is punished
arbitrarily
according to the dictates of custom.
and marriage
by death, as is also the violation of a married woman
; amends
of a girl
the penaltiesfor the seduction
are
; compensation is required for
blows and wounds, and the restitution of stolen objects or cattle to tenfold
robes from

the number

or

value

is enforced.

this Chinese

From

descriptionone gains the conception of a societyconscious


identity,organised and governed. The spiritof hierarchy and
is developed,for insubordination
and plotsare punished by death.
discipline
and
Turkish
customs
itance:
Mongolian
regulatethe wholly unusual law of inheris in a way
the heir,who
fixed to his native soil,is the youngest of
is the ot-jiguine,
the sons ; it is he who
the Mongols says, the tekine,as the
as
Turks say
the "guardian of the hearth."
It is to him that the land reverts;
the elders share the movable
not
goods. The princely families own
only
their herds but a band
of warriors.
The chief bequeaths this band
to the
of his choice,or divides it; and
it is not
seldom
that also a daughter
son
who
Ls unprovided for goes far away
receives a share.
The son
to seek a
father and a mother.
In the legends this takes place most
often as follows :
The son rides a long,long way, until he arrives at a house where he finds an
old woman
is in the fields. The youth says to the old woman,
; the husband
"Be
she
and finallythe old man
The son
returns.
mother";
consents,
my
"Be
and
has
to
when
he
the
father";
him,
consented,
boy
says
cries,
my
"My father and mother, give me a name."
of its

"

It is

fact that the Turkish


adventurer
has not
a characteristic
even
a
The legendary heroes are called Ad-siz, "without
name."
We
find
in historytwo
than one
warrior
who have proudly kept the
kings and more
of "without
Ad-siz.
name
These
name,"
legends portray vividlythe life of
the Turkish
of
Thousands
nameless
Turkish
adventurers
have propeople.
posed

name.

adoption to the kings of the Parthians,to the potentates of Persia, to


of China, to the lords of Sogdiana,
caliphsof the Arabs, to the emperors
their
for
and
swords
of
selling
It was
a
a
name.
sons
family
anonymous
Turks who founded
the empire of the Seljuksand that of the Osmanlis.
"I
am
the grand mogul Baber, when
a wandering knight emperor," said
he was
of the hereditaryempire of Ferghana.
dispossessed
the

HISTORY

THE

263

THE

OF

EMPIRE

TURKISH

[50ft-"00A.D.]

OF

RELIGION

Turks

the

Neither

nor

the

THE

TURKS

Mongols have

ever

been

religiouspeople.

which are so ardent among


religioasimagination,the zeal and enthusiasm
aroused
the apathy of the
the Arabs, the Persians,and the Slavs,have never
The
which
Manchus.
is most
and
the
the
religion
Turks,
Mongols,
pathetic
symThe

phlegmatic character is certainlyBuddhism.


They are
is the only religion
natural to them.
Bucklhists temperamentally. Buddhism
their conceptions. Comparatively easily,without
is foreign to
Islamism
the Turks
and without
have accepted other
enthusiasm
great repugnance,
Alagi,worshipping fire,Manireligionsthan Buddhism; they have become
their

to

chajans, Nestorian

Christians,Moslems; but their


To

to conviction.

conversion

has

been

due

to

for it is conthey are indifferent,


trary
to their mental
placidityand to their militaryhabits. The religions
without
which
they have definitelyadopted they have practisedloyall}',
alteration or discussion,as is befitting
a
people who call civili.'jationobedience,
and the law of the state, yassak, military command.
They have defended
for
the
Saint Louis recomthem like honest soldiers,
offering
one
argument
in
sword
the
menils to the laymen against the Jews
a
belly.
Like the ancient
Chine.se,the ancient Turks
recognised and venerated
The five elements were
five elements incarnated in five persons.
earth,wood,
The
five persons
the yellow emperor
in the
were
metal, fire,and water.
in the south, the white
jn the east, the red emperor
centre, the blue emperor

chance, not

controversy

"

in the north.
The
the black emperor
venerated
most
these old cults was
the arms
iron, the metal from which
were
in all the Turkish
forged. It is mentioned
legends. It was probably iron to
and symbolised by a naked blade
their prayers,
addressed
which
the Huns
emperor

in tlie west,

element

in

called the sword of Mars.


in the
which the Romans
Byzantine ambassadors
held
of
at
sixth century were
the
frontiers
a
on
religiousceremony
present
iron was
offered them.
The old national
the Turkish dominion, during which
Timur, "iron," and Tiniurtash,
names
"companion of iron,"certainlyhave

origin.
religious
This ancient
religionof the five elements,traces of which have remained
to our
day, was succeeded by that of the tangri,"heaven," in dualism with
Even
have not sucthe earth.
ceeded
religions
as
vigorous as Islam and Buddhism
of the old dualistic cult among
the
in entirelyexterminating traces
Mongols and Turks.
Turks
of their ethnical
The
have preserved in their legends the memory
The
all
of
is
tradition
found
the
base
of
them.
at
Il-Ivhan,
following
origin.
is conquered in a great battle,and the Mongols are
the
king of the peoples,"
all exterminated
his nephew
except Il-Khan's yomigest son, Kian (avalanche),
and
two
Nokuz,
girls. Kian, Nokuz, and their two companions flee and
is a beautiful
cross
prodigious mountains; in the depths of the momitains
ants
fruit trees, and game.
Their descendcountry full of rivers,springs,prairies,
land : at the end of four hundred
multiply in this unknown
years they
a

"

wish

out, but

to come

of iron

to

which

find

no

Then

way.

they put fire;the

iron

a blacksmith
melts and a

discovers

through which

they

lived for seven


land."
home

generations. This country is called Erkene-Kum

The

king

Erkene-Kum

emerge

from

the

mysterious country

mountain

is hollowed

path

out,

they have

where
"

the "old

It is Pe-lu.
who
was

was

ruling over

callcil Burte-Tchene

the
"

^longols when
"gray wolf."

they emerged
From

hhn

was

from

de-

OP

ANTECEDENTS

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

263

[214B.O.-907 A.D.]

scended

the

virginAlan

Goa,

who

conceived

miraculous

child without

in the tenth generation was


The
Jenghiz Khan.
father,whose descendant
Mongols, brothers of the Turks, are thus the descendants of Gray Wolf, antl
the virgin who
conceived
their royal family derives its origin from
a
son
and Mongols, beguming
without sin. Such is the legend relatetl by the Turks
like the Moslems, make
it go back
with the thirteenth century; some,
to
like
the
ancestor
others,
Japheth,whom
they claim as their remote
Buddhists,
;
of Buddha.
insert in the series an aureoled virginsimilar to the mother
The exodiLs from the Erkene-Kum
took place towards
the end of the fifth

Less than

century.

hundred

powerful; it is in

very

the

the nation of Turks become


we
see
of China
and
with
the
with
correspondence
emperor
in
of
568 the king
the Turks sent a letter
to whom
A trilingual
written
in honour
of a prince
inscription,
years

later

Byzantine emperor,
Scythian characters.
and Uigur characters,
in Paleo-Turkish
with a Chinese translation,
has recently
in the valley of the Orkhon.
been found
Its date in Chinese
chronology
At this period the oldest known
Turkish
correspondswith our year 732.
writingwas at least a hundred and sixty years old.
in

WARS

In

the

OF

third century

THE

CHINESE

THE

TURKS

Hoang-ti, founder of the


the unity of the Chinese
dynasty
Tsin,
having
than five hundred
Empire, which, more
before,had fallen apart into
years
and then finallyinto seven
some
twenty feudal princij^alities
kingdoms, had
He had
penetrated into the country of the barbarians of the northwest.
chased the Hiong-nu from
the countries which
their descendants
have conquered
times
which
fonn
those
the
of
actual
Shansi
so
since,
province
many
within the great bend of the Yellow (Hwangho) River.
He had driven them
He had, with immense
connected
the local works
beyond the marches.
labour,
of defence which
the seven
had
erected
the
kingdoms
against
barbarians;
of

this

was

In

the

the famous

b.c.

great

emperor

re-established

after

Great

the

AGAINST

Wall

(214-204 b.c).

the junctionof the wall road with the militaryroute behind


the Great Wall, he had boldly established his capital; it was
within reach of
the barbarians of the north and those of the west.
The
retrogradespiritand
the incorrigible
particularismof the Chinese aristocracydefied the work of

Shensi,at

the great emperor.

The people,whose
again divided into eight
country was
by factions,and powerless externally,hid in the marches.
Then a new
of Shensi,re-established the national
Hoang-ti,originally
emperor,
of Honan, "south of the river."
unity,aided by mountaineers
The emperors
Han
work
(from 202 B.C.-220 a.d.) carried on the patriotic
of the Tsin; they attempted the conquest of the marches, the reduction
of
the barbarians,and their assimilation into Chinese civilisation. That which
the Hans
in fact to sinicise the Turks
of the north.
Since
attempted was
then China has never
abandoned
their policy;to conquer
the marches, to
a-ssimilate the people who inhabit them has been the policy of China for the
last eighteen hundred
It will bo seen
that the Mongols, as Chinese
years.
have followed only the traditions of the emperors
and of
of Han
emperors,
their successors
the Tangs (610-907 a.d.).
In the year 121 B.C. Chinese tactics and policybegin to assert themselves.
The idea was
to break, to disintegrate,
united under
of barbarians
the mass
the domination
of a sort of emperor
called the Tchen-yu (in Turkish, TengriTo do this it was
in two the
Kut), "power of God."
to sunder
necessary

kingdoms,

torn

THE

264

THE

OF

HISTORY

EMPIRE

TUEKISH

[112 ac.^6

barbarian

horde,

in order

peoplesof

which

they

far back

crowd

towards

and

the north

A.D.]

the
this side of the
rid themselves, and
would
to retain on
those whom
ilate.
them and the great ^^'all,
they hoped to assimmarches, between
themselves
In the marches
they desired to plant an impassablebarrier
to

west

of Chinese colonies,of Chinese peoples,which would separate forever the two


of the Hiong-nu. In
into which
branches
they had cut the compact mass
northern
in
the
108
112 B.C. the Chinese
masters
marches;
pa.ssed
they were
of
Kami
and
of
Turfan.
The
nomads
southern
of the
marches,
gathered

militaryposts, and became Uigur, "subjects." This side


peoples,miited by the Hiong-nu and without national
later the Alani, the
cohesion, being simply subject to the Tchen-yu as were
absorbed
disintegratedrapidl}%became
Goths, the Bulgars, etc., to Attila
around

the Chinese
the
of the marches

"

"

the

into

the

people arrested

the
up

of

mass

Chinese, and

of the Turkish

branches

language
"

the

at

After

of the

east

the tribes crowded

with

back

to

tender

to

came

the

communicate

marches, and

between

barrier

which

the

two

developed among

was

the branch

which

grew

towards
the northwest
that the
was
the outlets of Pe-lu and to finish the
In 104 they ventured
far into the
too

isolation of the eastern


Hiong-nu.
midst of the Kirghiz and lost an army
well shut up between
the east were
so
the Tchen-yu
acknowledged

the

the west.

the conquest of the marches


their efforts,to open

directed

Chinese

reinforced
the branch

it

in the steppes.
But
the barbarians of
and
the marches
the wall that in 51

his submission

to

the emperor

"holy emperor" as his father,asked


witli him officially
except under

him

of China.
for a name,

He
and

this new
It
name.
of
and
that
the
the
then
sovereigns
was
Hiong-nu
should
have
the one
of the Turks
two
national, the other Chinese ;
names,
the moment
the "holy emperor" adopted them.
the latter should date from
did

not

decided

After
with

that

from

event

that

moment

they

would

make

war

great imperialofficers

as

under

the

or

as

men

endowed

their share in
flag,demand
the empire, and support
the
the right of succession.
by arms
that they were
It was
now
reallyHiong-nu, "rebel servitors."
observe
One
this
time a curioas
the great
at
parallelismbetween
may
Roman
Empire of the West and the great Chinese Empire of the extreme
East.
They received simultaneously the one the joyful tidingsof Christ,
the other the joyfultidingsof Buddha.
Spurred by a new enthusiasm,rough
of the Occident
and determined
conquered the barbarians from the
emperors
appanage
of
revenues
an

Rhenish

marches

to

the marches

from

fairlywell
in the
Just

as

the Danube

of the Hi to the

Chinese

the rulers of the Orient

Caspian Sea.

The

carried

Hans

of China

their sword

correspond

the .\ntonines

confessors
of Rome;
the calendar of Buddhist
Chinese
marches
resembles
that of the Christian martyrs in Gaul.
the Roman
tradition to
opposed the old literarypagan
emperors
to

the old books


Christianity,so the Chinese nationalists opposed to Buddhism
the epoch of great compilersand of the
It was
destroyed by the first Hans.

apotheosisof
In

Confucius.

Chinese

policy obtained a decisive result. The eastern Hiong-nu,


and by the support
by the conquest of the marches
the
in
their
into
broken
trunks ; there Tchen-yu
turn
two
Uigurs,were
given to
in competition with his elder brother.
ish
The latter,conformably to Turkwas
the mobile
that is to say, the army;
right,demanded
part of the heritage,
he collected the bands, by suasion
federate
or
over
by force, won
eight of the conthe
to ask
to
clans,crossed the desert,and came
holy emperor
The
adopt him.
Chinese,who had probably co-operated in the intrigue,
hastened
and recognisedthe pretenderHiong-nu as the legitito accept him
46

separatedfrom

the western

"

"

EMPIRE

TUEKISH

THE

OF

HISTORY

THE

266

[93-552 A.D.]

In the country of Iran


succeed to the Parthians.
to

.\n iron wall

bitter.

was

and

west.

the

Mobed

Against
as

at

the

had caused the Sassanids to


of the Turks
the hatred
Sassanids
Archimedes
of
prevented their access

revolution
the

time

towards the south


the routes
their heavily armed
Iranians were
autonomous;
cavalry
and
maintained
independent of the Turkish mercenary,
the civilisation of the great valleys to the north of the

These

to

"

was

"

national

Sogdiana, of Hyrcania, and

of

the marches

TURAN

AND

IRAN

against the Turk

Their
occurred
at a moment
and of the Sir-Daria.
supremacy
of
the
most
China
terrible
the
Hans,
was
oppressing
when China,
tyrannically
sub-vassals of the Chinese
who
Those
did not wish to become
the Hiong-nu.
with them
fought with rage against the Sassanids; disputed the marches

Amu-Daria

struggleof the Turk with the Sassanid is the subject of the


of Kings, which
Book
relates the
national epic, the Shahnamch,
Persian
Finally the Turks established their rule in the
fightsof Iran againstTuran.
the Oxus
and the Yaxartes, attacking in the rear
of Persia,between
marches
Empire and
engaged in battles agauist the Roman
the Iranians, who
were
its
then
at
Arabic
the
inception.
against
power,
It is extraordinary that the Sassanid
Empire, hard pressedby so many
fall
did
and
not
the
to pieces in the fifth centur"';
west
north,
enemies
on
furiously. The

assistance

but

to

came

it from

the

of the

of the

Turks

The

east.

north, who

had

of

become

the Altai, those


half-sinicised barbarians

descendants
Hiong-nu
the west
and vassals of China, fell upon
as
formerly their ancestors
In
the
of
their Chinese suzerain
had done under the great Pan-Tchao.
name
between
by way of Pe-lu and Nan-lu, the communication
they re-established,
of the
and
the Ta-Tsin, the "great China"
the country of the holy emperor
the Roman
west
Empire. In 552 the king of the Tu-kiu, called by the
"

of the Turkish and Mongolian


that is probably the Dutmnene
the
draw breath in Turkestan,
to
bands
led
his
Pe-lu,
across
stopped
legends
Huns'
Tie-le of the water
the White
then fell upon
bank, shore-Turks
After this exploithe took the title of Il-Khan.
at a blow.
and crushed them
called Mokan-Khan,
these conquests. He was
extended
His second successor
Tu-men

Chinese

"

"

"

"

brother or, in
younger
of
the
unity
Hiong-nu was

European style,
re-established,
reign the
of China ; its sphere of influence was
but this time at the instigation
frankly
vassals China was
In fact, through its Turkish
the west.
directed towards
bounded
Empire.
by Persia and the Roman
and

During

archduke.

title of Tekine

the

bore besides

his

"

IN

ANARCHY

CHINA

religious
sects, as it
societywas disorganisedin China by the new
the
of
the TaoIn
184
in
sect
Rome
Christianity.
disorganised
by
In 194 a
of the "yellow bonnets."
movement
Sse had aroused a formidable
re-established
the
order,
revolt,
overcame
militaryadventurer, Thsao-Thsao,
The

old

had

been

and

made

himself

southern
China
the Great Wall

except by the

was

and
anus

dictator.
divided
the

Blue

His
into

son

was

kingdoms.

two

River, could

of barbarians.

It

not

Hiong-nu, wild people half sinicised by the Hans,


[*Sometimes

called

Ephthalites,also Khazars;

Northern

maintain

employed

China, while
China, between

of northern

emperor

its

integrity
political

in its army
those southern
the Great
who
lived between

they lived along the shores of the Caspian.]

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

267

A.D.]

em

River.

the Yellow

and

Wall

empire, succeedingone

did barbarian

After 308
another

defend

emperors

the

It

only in

was
a

modified

understood

that

Turks, who
cause

of the

with

Hiong-nu

In 562
the Nan-lu

Mokan

and

the northOrient

AMBITIONS

that the

empire was re-established and that Buddhism,


of the Chinese.
It will be
form, was adopted by the masses
of
this
the
of
unrest
northern
period
during
China,
emperors
589

Serving-man,

now

shared

rapidly. As in Rome, so in the


empire againstother barbarians.

TURKISH

under

these Turko-Chinese

had attained
their barbarian
of the south

ruled
the

power

Ancient

by

the

vassals and

Pe-lu, and

support

the Turkish
from

the

of the

with

nations
banks

Turks, made

mon
com-

that the national

and
subjects,

confoundetl

was

over

China

of northern

that

life

China.

the Chinese marches,


he had
the Oxus, which

from
of

limits
conquered by subduing the shore-Turks or White Huns, to the extreme
the
of the Turkish
Volga.
Kiptchaks, to the north of the Caucasus and along
On the east
he had
pal
conquered the Tonguz, the Sian-Pi, as their princination

was

then

called,and

had

driven

them

to

between
Baikal.
and
He held the routes
China, Pei-sia,
"
But it was
a precarious
authoritywhich an Il-Khan, a

the

east

of

Lake

the Roman
I-^mpire.
could
king of tribes,"

THE

268

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[334-635 jLD.]

hold

this incohoront

over

multitude

of

peoples,differingin their

of

manner

his empire at the


and
laws, religion,
language. To maintain
needed
himself
the west
and south, Mokan
he
on
east
China; to maintain
relations with Rome
of establishing
dreamed
(Rum, the Byzantine Empire),
with
the Kiptchaks and Avars, and
its rebellious vassals
at war
which
was
the
enemies
of the Turks
in
the
a
against
struggle
hereditary
was
engaged
breadth
of
this
barbarian
of
With
the
Iranians.
vision,
an
extraordinary

living,in

their

"

Altai conceived
with

states:

the
and

west"

"

the

China
the

projectof forming an
the

on

Roman

and

east

Empire,

alliance

with

with

the

the

with

the

Ta-Tsin,

Turks

great civilised
of
great "China

two

the

serving

as

intermediaries

in the pay of the allies. To do a policeman'sduty between


and
the Danube, to safeguardthe communications
between

men-at-arms,

River
the Yellow
the two nations,to divide up the
China and Rome, to pose as arbiter between
such was
the colossal plan of this Turk, a plan which
his Mongolian
world
which
have
never
successors
forgotten. The revolutions
during the sixth
"

century swiftlyfollowed
caused

it to

another

one

to

come

nothing.

in

China,

In

569

call this king Dizabul, after his Chinese


Greeks
conmiercial
and militarytreaty to Justin II.
a

WITH

CONTACT

The

seventh

century

In disorganisingthe
Mohammedan
Arabic
of
the current
a
part

kept

in the old

The
Chinese

of

new

and

title
The

the

tines,
Byzan-

of Mokan

(the

Ti-then-pu-li)
proposed
measure

had

no

results.

CHRISTIANITY

peoples.

Sassanids and of the Iranian lands, the


turned
into Persia,Asia Minor, and Syria

innnigrationwhich

channel, north

of the
Nan-lu

fatuityof

the

Turkish

of

AND

the

ambassador

critical epoch in the life of the Asiatic

of

revolution

Scythian

introduction
marches

was

empire

ISLAM

and

an

doctrines
Pe-lu

of the Oxus

been
up till then had
and of the Caspian.

the very heart of the


profoundly and altered forever
Christian
Europe and the extreme

of Islam

into

modified

relations between
political
It complicated these relations by adding religious
Orient.
disagreementsand
misunderstantlingsto the problems already existing. The Turk, the natural
armed
an
champion of an
intermediary between. China and Europe, became
Asiatic faith hostile to the faith of the Europeans; the greatest religious
wars
of the Middle
who,
against
were
fought
Europe by peoples
Ages
mentally
temperaindifferent to religion,
had no grievance against Christianityand
nated.
who cared littlefor the faith which, in the eyes of the occidentals,
they incar-

the social and

Christianityhad begun during the fourth century to penetrate into the


In
of Transoxania.
Turkish
and the marches
country through Khorasan
of Merv
In 420 the bi.shopric
.334 Barsaba
was
bishop of Merv in Ivhorasan.
founded
elevated to a metropolitan see.
Towards
503 bishopricswere
was
ish
the Turkand Samarkand.
The patriarchTimothy (7 IS) converted
at Herat
the year 1000 the Kerait
About
Turks up to the
khagan of Karakorm.
heart of the Gobi accepted the Nestorian
faith,brought to them by the bishop
.Jesu.
It was
of Merv, Ebed
in the year 635 that a Syrian monk
brought
In 638 the emperor
the Gospel to China.
Tai-tsung issued a decree in favour
of the new
of a church
in the capital.
and authorised the construction
religion
o
f
and
The famous
bilingualinscription Singan Fu (in Chinese
Syriac),under
the Nestorian
the date of 781, mentions
name
metropolitan by his Chinese
of Ning-chu, as it does the patriarchMar
Hanan
Ishua (Joshua) and Adam,
"China."
In the same
(635) that the
bishop and pope of Tzinista
year
"

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TUEKISH

NATIONS

269

[635-712A.D.]

received
Syrian monk
of the Hejira the Arabs
"

years

afterwards

Persia

the fourteenth
hospitalityof the holy emperor
dispersedthe Persian cavalryat Kadeseeyah. Thirty
adventurers
crossed
invoked
the
Allah,and Arabian

the

"

Oxus.
ARABS

The

Arab

Sogdiana
Merv

and

vigorousthan

TURKESTAN

TIBET

AND

the Turkish
to invade
marches
organized in Khorasan
south
followed
old
of
the
route
the
Oxus
military
Ferghana

bands

Balkh.

and

IN

On
has been

the other

side of the Oxus


But

the

had
religion

supposed.
of the country was
extraordinarydisorganisation
Not
till the year
facilitated the victoryof Islam.

resistance

little to do with

the

was

of
via

more

it.

The

which

principalcause
Hejira (712) could
in Bokhara, and then they had to make
the
the Arabs build their first mosque
concession
unprecedented in Moslem experience of performing the service
94 of the

"

"

-^;

Turkish

Farmhouse

For a long time afterwards, in this country conquered by Islam,


the faithful went
to the mosque
only in groups and armed.
of Sogdiana the Arabic invasion was
not
For the Christianised inhabitants
in
for the Turks.
Indeed, the sectarian Zoroastrians saw
as it was
a surprise,

in Persian.

of Islam deliverance from an odious state religion. Furthermore,


all of them Arabian
of the Nestorian
church were
Syrians,and
dignitaries
therefore compatriotsof the Arabs, whose
faces,customs, language,costume,
Even
the new
in
seemed
familiar to them.
and way of thinkingwere
religion
of
their
Nestorian
of
its
features
familiar.
Without
ceding any
dogma,
many
in placeof the official
Islamic enthusiasm
these Christians chose unhesitatingly
of the
fanaticism
themselves, they preferred these new
magi. Heretics
who
their
ity
heretics,
spoke
tongue, to the fire worshippers. Semitic Christianmade
no
oppositionto Semitic Lslam.
In the firsthalf of the .seventh century peoplesof different origin,
livingfor
call Tibet,
in the country which
the most
we
now
part from cattle-raising
inaccessible
converted
In the high valleysand almost
became
to Buddhi.sm.
this religion
the Himalayas and the Kwanlun
to find its
was
plateausbetween
the
Tibetans
to be
its
citadel.
At
the
and
began
same
period
asylum
holy
P^stablished
redoubtable
invulnerable point at the southwest
at an
to China.
Nan-lu.
and
between
China
of the Great Wall, they cut off communications
At
then
invaded
the end
of the seventh
turning
Nan-lu,
century they
the doctrine
the

HISTORY

THE

270

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[715-900 A.D.]

sharplyagainst the Chinpse


and, entering through the
of

coast

Yellow

the

pillagedby

these

the shores of the Blue


them on
in the Great
the
Wall, overran

defeated
break
The

River.

pious savages,

who

Buddhists

offered

Maitreya Bodhisattoa and

Lake,

whole
voluntarilylet themselves be
tenth of their jilunderto the

the ground with their foreheads


For these hardy mountaineers
before the altars in the abbeys of the land.
to scale rocky peaks and traverse
of Tibet, accustomed
the Tianglaciers,
their
did
the
march.
In 715
not
Shan was
obstacle,nor
an
Tsong-lingimpede
the
of
these
Pass
crossed
mole-hills,
passed through
Terek-Davan,
Pines,
they
and plundering. When
into Ferghana, killing
the Arabs saw
and descended

monasteries

of

touched

them
descend, the hea\'y national cutla.ss about
stick in their hands, the adroit imaginationof the

their loins,an iron-pointed


conceived the plan

Moslems

so
against the magi, against the Turks who were
pagans
that great China which
militaryloyalty,and againstChina
preachers and talkers,despite all their bombast, feared
Become
adventurers
and
suddenly the best of friends,Moslem
exceedingly.
the
Pass
of
Pines
and
recrossed
went
Buddhist
(716)
together
highwajmien
and Uigur cities.
into Nan-lu
to besiegethe Turkish

of

employing

these

obstinate in their
they, the Moslem

TURKISH

"

MERCE\.A.RIES

IN

SERVICE

OF

THE

C.\LIPHS

of Persia, which
had formerly been unapproachable,
The military
anarchy opened a new
path for the Turks.
emigrationof the Turks,hitherto directed towards the northwest,towards the
diverted to the southwest
to Azerbaijan,
now
country of the Kiptchaks, was
Moslem
of
and
the
Asia
Rum.
The
Minor, Syria,
Transcaucasia,
country
which
the
Abbassides
into
hastened
revolution
brought
emigrationand
power
this
the service of
channel.
entered
it
into
turned
new
By degrees,as they
to Islam, submitted
to the
the Moslems, these Turks, so refractoryat home
to them
absolutelynothing of it; it was
religiousrule. They understood
and as such demanded
obedience.
merely a part of their militarydiscipline,
Sunnite
Moslem
Turks entered the orthodox
The
church, not as catechumen
recruits,without bowing their heads.
neophytes,but as militarj'
of
the
The
caliphstowards these terrible Turkish adventurers,with
policy
could
not
whom
dispense,was to offer them all that they could gain by
they
in the western
the sword
marches; they were
given fiefs taken from the
in Asia Minor
It was
and
thus that in northern
Romans.
castellanes
Syria
marches
between
Islam and
and Turkish marquisates were
founded, and new
the Christian
ish
the country of the Holy Land
countr}'. The crusades of Turkcondottieri againstRum, the exodus of great companies in quest of lands
and castles in .\natolia and titles and honours at the court of the caliphswere
But
the place left vacant
incessant
after the end of the ninth century.
by
taken by
at once
these knightsof adventure
was
seekingtheir fortunes in Rum
men
equallyunencumbered
by possessions,
equallyrich in hope and bravery.
if
of China, whence
Turkestan
and
the
marches
It seemed
as
emerged these
after
heroes
inexhaustible.
Since
the
another, were
one
needy
triumph of
in
Iran
and
the
in
the
marches
the Abbassides,
Arabs, there
disorganisedby
influx
of Turks seekingplaces,
had been a constant
pensions,and lands.
feudal
landholders whether
Once implanted in the country, become
they
with all the militaryoffices or with those reputed to be
would or not, endowed
have
others
such
for they would
none
they yet understood nothing of the
the government
ofTices they filled. At their firstopportunitythey overthrew

At

the south, in the marches


Moslem

"

"

"

"

OF

ANTECEDENTS

TURKISH

THE

NATIONS

271

[1004-1130A. D.]
in power.
Thus
and installed the captain of their company
w
ho
condottieri,
succession of the great Ghaznevid
conquered
who
Seljuks,

1004, the

that

year

same

caliphateand

MASTERS

MANCHUS

THE

In

of the

masters

were

OF

Mahmud,

of Asia

NORTHERN

the great

ignorant,to
and

in the tenth century


patronymicof these

retreat

before

the eleventh

about

the

of the

Mmor.

CHINA

Ghaznevid,

masters
India, the Turkish Kara-Ivhitai of the Liao became
known
the
Khitai
in
lived
of
the
nation
to-day
country
in China, had been
of its emigrants,instead of settling
many

of which we are
to the northwest

came

India,and

started

in China.
as

Manchuria;

obliged,for

century

to

for

This
but

reasons

the country
the Khitai

The
kazak.
leadingclan among
distinguished
by the epithetKara, "black," and the
hereditarychiefs,
according to Chinese orthography,was
to become

was

Ye-lu.
In the troubles which
had rendered services to

preceded the

Tangs this family of the Ye-lu


td
factions,attaching itself principally
had
been
with
Their
bands
the
ocre
medinorth.
of
content
the
those
poorlypaid
When
the Ye-lu took the official
fief surroundingthe walled cityof Yen.
Yen
became
their capital
the Petchili,
called
over
; the Chinese
protectorate
The
it Peking (Pekin),"capitalof the north."
country had need of security;
At the beginningof the
resistance.
it acceptedthese protectorswithout much
eleventh century the family of the Ye-lu governed China up to the Blue River ;
who
the only ones
have deserved
the
all the Turks
these Ye-lu among
are
South of the Blue River the national
honour of beingregrettedby the Chinese.
dynasty of the Sung had with as much good as harm re-established unity in
the

fall of the

Chinese

one-half of the empire.


tary
audacity to substitute their herediof
princesfor a Chinese family. At Peking, the capital the north, they
maintained
of the holy emperor,
a representative
just as their Seljuk brothers
ruler similar
to the caliphs at Baghdad.
at the same
a
epoch maintained
of China
called
1001-1125
the pretended emperor
From
(of the north) was
The

Turks

of the Liao

had

not

had

the

called Ye-lu-ta-shi.
This
the Turkish Khitai, was
Tien-tso ; the real emperor,
of
letters
of
his
and
like
the
occidentals
was
was
a
Turk, moreover,
patron
race,
tions
relate that in 1115 he passed examinahimself literary;
the Chinese annals
of the Hanlin
for the doctorate.
He was
Academy and founded
a member
remained
in his sympathies such a
Linya. This Chinese academician
three
he further
thorough Turk that, having already dethroned
emperors,
When
the Tonguz Niuin the following manner:
asserted his predilections
of the
of to-day, forced the barriers
of our
Manchus
tchi,the ancestors
empire,took possessionof Peking, and founded the dynasty of Kin (the word
the necks of the Chinese
signifies
gold),he, placidlyand without scruple,
wrung
with
horse in company
formed
his civil cabinet.
his
ministers who
Mounting
the peopleof his militaryhousehold, he then took the road for the open country
the
kazak
in the great asylum of the northwest, on
and went
to become
asm.
enthusihailed
with
of
the
In
the Kirghiz (1120).
Pe-lu
fugitivewas
steppes
cities (sedentary
In a generalassembly he gathered the chiefs of seven
Turks) and of eighteen tribes (nomadic Turks) and had himself proclaimed
kvT-khan (khan of the camp).
and
Ye-lu, academician
was
just as brave with a sword in his
politician,
hand as he was
his fingers. This sinicised Turk
fluent with a pencilbetween
understood
the firstcaptainof his day. His firm policywas
was
by the Turkthat of

HISTORY

THE

272

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1120-1162

A.

D.]

selves
longer individuallythat they had to establish themof the body politic.On
in the Iranian
the west
land, but as members
destined for the Turks; they had defended it,
the east the country was
on
as
land
in
it
the
laboured
had
belonged to them as far ;is they could find
;
they
The
became
Turkish.
Kara-Ivhitai
of Pe-lu, of
masters
talking
a
person
the Buddhist
the
Nan-lu and of its Hexapolis,where
and
Uigurs,
Christians,
ish

It

masses.

was

no

welcomed
the pagans
who
these conquerors

The

them.

Moslems

did

not

tlare to

look

askance

at

their

spoke
language. Indeed, they preferred them to
and to the iranised Turks of Transoxania,
their Tajak (Irania'n)
co-religionists
of the disparityof religions,
they could not express the
although,on account
sudden
of
the
This
Kara-Khitais
rendered desperate
ascendency
preference.
sultan
the positionof the last Seljukof central Asia, the noble and unfortunate
in
of
and
Persian
the
the
in
Turkish
the
Iranians,
eyes
Sanjar.
eyes of all
who
had a drop of Persian
those Turks of the north and east who hated anyone
The
crusaders
could Sanjar do?
had no conception
blood in his veins, what
of
in
of
the
the
rulers
the
house
of the fear inspired
Seljukby
advancing mass
in the west
of Turkish
people. Atabegs in the south and sultans of Rum
in central Asia.
In 1 141 the unfortunate
trembled at every movement
sultan,
the last of the Seljukson Turkish
soil,lost his final battle against the kurtime was
founded
another Turkish empire,that of KhwarAt the same
kaan.
ezm
(Khiva).

THE

TWO

CHINESE

EMPffiES

AND

THE

MONGOLS

sinicised Turks, the Kara-Khitai, and the Uigurs were


sharing
ami Kalatch, the Manchus
Asia with the iranised Turks, the Kankli
ing
assertwere
The
Chinese
Niu-tchi ; the Turks
called them
in China.
themselves
and
While

the

But
Tchortcha.
these Niu-tchi
called
their nation
Mongols called them
dialect Aisin,Aij
nese
in, "gold" or "gilded,"which the Chiaccordingto their own
their empire in China Aisin Gurun, the
translated by Kin.
They named
In 1120 the king of the Niu-tchi
forced the defiles which
"gilded enclosure."
in
his
1153
or
established
led to Petchili and seized Yen
successor
Peking;
He
of
lord
China
far
court.
his
the
was
there
as
as
imperialgolden
YangtseKiang. In the south ruled the dynasty of the Sung, with Hang-Chow for its
themselves
of the Niu-tchi,
the
againstthe encroachments
capital. To secure
far
the famished
north, and found them among
Sungs sought soldiers in the
princes,who depended for their precariouslivelihood upon the chase and upon
the booty of war.
By treaties of protectionwith merchant
guildsand with
of their leased cattle,these had
and by the meagre
the "loyal" cities,
revenue
The
first to offer himself was
been able to drag on a miserable existence.
a
He had property in the neighbourhood of Almalik,
chief of the Kerait Turks.
and Christian city in Pe-lu.
the pommery," a loyalTurkish commercial
He
associated with himself a comrade, a brother
of
by adoption, Turkish lineage
the mother's side. This associate was
called Yesuguei, and had the militarj'
on
"

of

A
dozen
after
Bahatur, the "brave," the "valiant."
years
he named
this alliance,in 1162, Yesuguei had a son, whom
Temujine.
The family of Yesuguei enjoyed great consideration
all the nations
among

surname

strugglingto live,miserably enough, at the north of the Chinese marches,


between
the Sungari and the Irtish. His descendants
called the Borjiwere
"blue
The
Buddhist
them
eyes."
a miraculous
Mongolian
legend
guene,
gave
married
the
Dobo
conceived
in purity,
origin.
Merguene
virginAlang Goa,
or,
without
In her
should
her
he
had
and
died.
two
as
we
sin; by
sons
say,

HISTORY

THE

874

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1145-1182 A.D.]

drink

with

his officers without

him.

speai"to

He

put

of his

ceasing.

The

magistratesno

the

tituhir empress
to death
and
short time afterwards
he caused

longer dared

abducted

to

the wife of

of his wives to be
one
generals. A
he put his son
to death."
One
During an alcoholic debauch
can
easily imagine that this furious drunkard, execrated by his people,suffered
one

killed.

the defeats of which

the Chinese

JENGHIZ

In

the

1162

Manchus.

Khan,

of the

at

was

Life had
born

same

of

defeat

MOXGOLI.\N

of

E.MPIRE

in their turn

conquered by the
Temujine, the future Jenghiz
were
unwillingto incur the natural
consequently Keraits and Mongols
Manchus, so that thirtyyears later

were

in which

year
The
Sungs

reconciled

this time

THE

the Keraits

into the world.

consequences

Temujine

the

was

.\XD

and

Mongols

This

came

became

KHAN

tell.

1162, and
with

the

in their hire.

been

mercenary
hard for him

the

same

in his

mother, and

youth. He was
only thirteen

was

the eldest of five brothers


when
his father died.

called Kiat
ing
(the avalanche). AccordBorjiguenes was
the j'oungest brother,as we
have
Mongolian custom
the
With
inherited
of
domain.
thirteen
to
conmiand
a
patrimonial
boy
seen,
the riders,
to govern
to hold in check the landholders,
thirtythousand nomadic
families followingthe professionof war,
and with a child of five to guard

This

the

branch

of

the

Turkish

to

the national

Scarcely

was

and

sanctuary and-the
the

mourning
royal quarter

for

hearth,

the

Yesuguei

state

could

not

fail to fall

apart.

finished,when

the clan of the Taiwithout


doubt
been called

where
the nobles had
jiutsleft the
for
funeral
ceremonies.
of the other nobles folthe
Three-fourths
lowed
together
the Taijiuts. One-fourth
only remained
loyal.
When
the state
fell the widow
of Yesuguei smimioned
the few nobles
who
remained
them
She put herself at
to mount.
loyal and commanded
of her dead husband
their head, and carryingbefore them the standard
gave
chase to the deserters. Most of these gallopedahead and then dispersedin all
directions in their haste to rejointhe yiiriand to provide for their own
safety.
She caught up with
the least expeditious,those who
had no
property to
When
of war
these men
of mourning,
the widow, in her gamients
secure.
saw
of battle about
which
holding in her hand the standard
they had so often
ridden, their hearts reproached them ; they turned about and followed the
old banner.
The widow
the sources
led them
back to a point near
of the
where
standard
with
nine
the
white tails,"military
Onon,
were
planted
of the protectinggenius of the
sjTnbol of the nation, and the "standard
With
the
Borjiguene with four black tails,"religious
s}mibol of the Xirun.
firm determination which had led her so bravely to hold the flag,the great
widow
undertook
the regency.
To her people she was
knowii as "lady of
of cold resolution."
Her
and
honour, of counsel, of reason,
family was
"

related to the emperors


to her

great lords,for

Niu-tchi, of
Olun was
should say.

name

the Golden

added

Enclosure,

the Chinese

or

to

title of

one

of their

Fu-jin
"

the

as
we
dowager-princess,
Yesuguei, before his death, had done his best to provide for the future of
the young
Temujine, of his brothers, and of his people. In the first placehe
had
affiliated a new
family in ca.se of misfortune ; he had pledged the cup
with the grandson of Marghuz, the king of the Christian Kerait Turks, so that
This chief was
"brothers."
called by his war
name
Toghrul,
they became
fortified
him
the west, he had arranged an alliance
on
(the killer). Having

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

275

[1182-1188A.D.]

powerful house of the Kungrads, which was allied with


the Turks,
Tatars, and the trans-SungarianManchus; he had affianced
called Dai Setzene.
him to Burte-Jujine,daughter of a Kungrad chief who was
The
final marriage was
when
concluded
She was
only nine.
Temujine was
eration.
(1182-1183).He made the Kungrads enter the Mongolian confedseventeen
When
the great dowager had gathered around
all the partiher son
sans
the flagall the defenders
she could nmster,
she could find,and around
The
alliance with the Kungrads would
she took counsel.
undoubtedly prove
had grown
in
time
her son
but
the
valuable when
mean
they must live.
up ;
had
The appeal to the Keraits was
a last resort.
a grown
Toghrul
son, Sengun,
the people of Yesuguei he might be tempted to
whose
rightsas auda^ over
that
the lad should
defend himself
It was
enforce.
alone,at all
necessary
and that his protector should never
become
risks and perils,
a rival,a pretender.
she needed.
He
of high
found the man
His mother
was
a
person
called him Etchigue,(father).
lineagecalled Minglig. The Mongols respectfully
who
This reverend father,St. Minglig,had a son
performed miracles ; he was
mounted
It was
related that he used to flyto heaven
called Keuktche.
on
a
with
horse the colour of the clouds, and that he conferred familiarly
Tangri
to hold the
(God). To hold the saint and his son, the doer of miracles, was
of
The
under
the
to
protection religion.
period of
put Temujine
sanctuary,
finished
when
the
widowhood
caused
was
hardly
by
great dowager
delay
the young
married Minglig Etchigue. Now
Temujine could wield his sword
him
the
with a glad heart ; she had kept the flag for hun ; she now
gave
the east

on

with

the

the

sanctuary.
temujine's

first

battles

In that terrible
Temujine proved himself a son worthy of his mother.
until
his
trial
which
lasted
of
life
thirty-secondyear, no
was
chance,
spared
Two
heroic
friendshipssustained
him; he emptied the cup of bitterness.
in his simplicityone
him, caused him, as we are told by Abulghazi, whom
the friendships
and the bitter."
These were
likes to cite, to taste the sweet
of his rough brother JujiKhassar
(Jujithe Tiger)and of his faithful companion
able
Bogorji. Relatives and neighbours from all sides had fallen upon the miserThe
of Yesuguei's inheritance.
bitterest were
the Taijiuts.
remainder
also was
inimical.
The clan of the Niruns, the Juirats,
and
Juirats
The
the
tracked
agreement
Taijiuts
Temujine with fury. Their dis"

saved

him.

Ten

of

times in the alternations


had

and

success

reverse,

to the desert,
to
enemies, the Borjiguene had
pressed by many
He
never
scouring the country as a kazak among
traps and ambuscades.
of the lady "of high respect" won
the
ceased to act like a king. This son
of
He
had
the
of
enemies
and
friends.
both
even
genius
authority
;
respect
it impewhen reduced to extremity he begged aid of no one, but commanded
riously
In
tribute
due
then
his
house.
to
1189,
being
twentyas an
obligatory
seven
acknowledged as khakdn (emperor) by the Arlads,on
years old, he was
the field of Kerulun, and took the title of Sutu-Bogdo (givenby God).
Either a little after or a littlebefore his recognitionby the Arlads, about
1188, it is certain that Temujine was strong enough to fighta pitchedbattle
The
battle was
with the Taijiutsand with their confederates.
fought at
of
the Onon.
the sources
of the Baljuna, a little affluent of the Ingoda, west

The

combat

was

fierce ; six thousand

became
['ToRhrul's fon
the fathers.]

between

auda

or

son

confederates
to

Yesuguei when

take

remained
"

on

brotherhood

the field.
"

was

It

pledged

HISTORY

THE

276

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1193-1203 *.d]

the first great

was

in

of

thousand

Asia

of upper

army

an

Mongolian victory.

bodies

knights into

his

In

in

this combat

Temujine had divided


This division by a thousand,
innovation, a veritable tactical

each.

men

1188, was

an

revolution.
sometimes
times
by force of anns, some1187-1193, slowh- and patiently,
and
established
his
marriages,
over
Temujine
authority
negotiations
by
situated
at the mouth
the tribes of Turkish
origin both Mongol and Tatar
and
Kcrulun
the Selenga,as far as the desert towards
of the Gobi, between
far
the north.
Further
towards
and
south
as
north, on the
the
Ingoda
as
his
old
enemies
the
of
Lake
sides
Baikal,
two
Tonguz Mergueds, who had
remained
of
and
all the malcontents
of the
the
that
collected those
Taijiuts
bit
which
he was
broken tribes
incorporating
by bit into his future Mongolian
From

"

Empire, still held


In 1193, after

against him.

out

of
years
many
abroad.
With

so

combination
political
his genius, he chose
and

his forces

"

the gr("at good sense


modest
undertaking, one

very

of success;

sure

patience,he risked for the first time

one,

which

moreover,

which

proportionateto
serve
a point
as
Temujine, in 1193,
people made
up of
saries,
adverthreatening

could

departure for greater enterprises. Certainly when


in his dominion
over
a
poorly established as he was
scattered tribes,and surrounded
by suspected allies and
conceived
the idea of offeringhis sers'ices to the
of his people and
of Gold, to the hereditaryenemy
Enclosure
of

ised
character-

of the
he
had
family,

emperor

far-seeingeye.

affair was
\'igorously
conducted, for the "emperor of Gold" paid
Temujine received the Chinese brevet of "commander
against the
he bears in
rebels," and perhaps his universitydegree of Dai Ming, which
his titles of Sutu-Bogdo (son of heaven) and
the Mongolian legend among
(inflexible
emperor).
Tchinghiz Khakan
afterwards
He attacked the
attempted a rash venture.
Tenmjine .shortly
If
real
he
could
have
the
Manchus.
succeeded, all the Turkish
Solongos,
nation his wife belonged,
the
which
the
extreme
nations of
east,
Kungrads, to
Kara-Khitais
of
the
ancient
of Peking and
all the
masters
and above
Liao,
The

well.

of

the master

been

Already

have
arisen and acclaimed
him ruler ; he would have
the eastern
Turks, their avenger
against the Manchus.
northern
in
China
his
pos.'iession.But he
Peking
open,

China, would

of northern
he

saw

his forces

He had miscalculated
enterprisetoo soon.
His
faithful
followers carried
(1197).
severely
the

undertook
beaten

him

and

half -dead

was

from

the battle-field.
The

state

blow.
Once
re-established
mounted
The

which

had
the

been

founded

again
everything. Although

her

horse,
remiiuled the

^"aliant chief

reunited

so

of nations"

"mother

the

old

remnants

people of her husband


fought,overcame

"

painfullyfell to pieces at
the "lad)'of high honour"

and

broken,

of the

anny,
Minglig,of the

Mukhuli

the enemy,

she

seized

the

one
"

flag,

cated,
reassured, suppligreat St. Keuktche.

and

ended

ing
by repuls-

him.''
Little
tinie

had

were

by little Temujine extended


the Keraits

and

the

His chief rivals at this


of whom
his father
the former
his
father's
of
of Toghrul, was
jealous

his domains.

Naimans,

with

friendship. Sengun, the son


it came
"adopted" son Temujine and incited his father against him; when
defeated:
was
to the battle the Keraits
Toghrul, fleeing,
were
completely
and
after
died
Tibet
killed by vassals of the Naiman
to
king; Sengun escaped
after the defeat of the Keraits (1203)
miserable years of wandering. Soon
in
likewise
the Naimans
were
overcome
a sanguinary battle."
sworn

ANTECEDENTS
[1203-1306

A.

OF

TAKES

TEMUJINE

TURKISH

THE

the

of

NATIONS

IMPEUIAL

277

TITLE

designsof Temujine regarding the Turks

The
and

THE

".]

of

marches

Transoxania

were

of

evidenced

Pentapolis,of HexapoHs,
by the care which he

to concihating these peopleand


by the precaution he took to teach their
decided him to move
They finally
language and literature to his children.
In 1206 he took up the standards of
the seat of his government to the west.
his familyand of his tutelarysaints to carry them
to the old Turkish
capital,

gave

plant the standards at Karakorm


was
again
Hiong-nu Empire ; it was to take the imperial
the scrupulous legality
which
title. Temujine took it. With
characterised
kind
of
he
had
first
assembled
the
his particular
kuriltai,the
despotism,
It was
this general assembly which
general assembly of the Tarkhans.
and the il-khans,
admmistered
the oath, and assured
appointed the khakans
his privileges.
to everyone
But
this worn-out
not
what
was
title,this restricted power,
Temujine
him
wanted.
What
to
other
was
was
no
sovereign
having
necessary
power,
limits than the law, and not open to dispute. The kuriltai granted it to him.
He
was
Sutu-Bogdo, son of heaven; he became
Tchinghiz, lord inflexible,
The
autocratic.
law
introduced
immovable, absolute,
was
by hun, and he
it.
It
consisted
of
the
observe
of the
to
and
the
swore
tura; the name
yassak
the
first signifies
second
ordinance.
The
ible"
inflexrule,
usage, customary law,
and
was
throughout his life the strict executor
punctilious
emperor
codified the old Turkish and Mongol usages.
slave of this body of laws, which
his
No despot ever
between
respected so faithfullya compact concluded
peoplesand himself. In the most terrible rigoursof Jenghiz Kh"n his worst
been able to discover caprice. His worst
enemies have never
tyrannies were
to

The

Karakomi.

act

was

decisive

to

the ancient

to raise

"

of the law and of the ordinance.


No
the literal execution
the
deluded on the subject;Joinville and Marco
most
Polo,
in him the firm legislator.
saw

The

unity
had

of

government

resulted

and

law

in

established
of

contemporary

was

directlyinformed,

by the "inflexible"

peror
em-

the

nation.
The
kuriltai
complete homogeneity
there
which hailed Temujine for its Jenghiz Khan, the assembly in which
Turkish
and
figurednineteen
Tonguz peoples, with twenty-six Mongolian
of tribes but a
clans,
properly so called,no longer representeda confederation
out
Withhomogeneous nation, in which the autonomy of the tribes was broken.
doubt every tribe remembered
its own
genealogy,but only as a personal
neither
title. Taken
Nekrins, nor Umiannow
as
a whole, the people were
Tatars,
nor
nor
Mergueds, nor Naimans, nor
guts, nor Oirads, nor Taijiuts,
gols,
MonKoraits, nor Barlass, nor Barins, nor Arlads, nor Jelairs. They were
the Blue Mongols, the first nation
of the world.
Jvhan
Proudly Jenghiz
spoke to them, when, before the kuriltai,surrounded
by the sacred stamlards,
from
and having beside him
the great St. Keuktche, descended
heaven, he
oath :
This people,which
in the face of tribulation and
the national
swore
when
I have
been
itself inseparable
sorest
pressed by adversity has made
from my
this
has
with an
and
which
sorrows
people,
accepted
joys
;
person
equal cheer and has realised my idea in the form of an active government;
this people,pure as rock crystal,
all dangers has made
its loywhich amidst
alty
"

shine to the end

Hiong-nu Empire

of my
efforts
bear the name
Blue Mongols.
I wish to have
in power
To re-elevate
the banner
of the
and glory !"
and
of its heir,the Turkish
Empire, was
equivalent to a

declaration

upon

May

"

it excel

of

war

northern

China, the Enclosure

of Gold.''

HISTORY

THE

278

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[120C

1209

A.D.]

the

Jenghiz Khan

war
began
against China in 1206 by attacking Hia, the
who
of the Tanguts, a land occupied chiefly
were
by brigantls
a
present home
the occupation of which
could be of great
to their neighl)ours,a hind
terror
In 1208 he drove
the people of Ilia out of Penstrategicadvantage to him.
free to
anel by 1209 the north was
was
concjueredanil Jenghiz Khan
tapolis,

A change in ruler at this


against the Chinese Empire.
scrupulous Temujine of his feudal obligationsto the old

relieved

march

time

the

emperor

he

his succession

to

Kh.\n

Jenghiz

(1162-1227)

insulted the ambassador


the throne, and the war
Enthusiasm

by

so

many

beat

petty

of the

high

wars,

new

ruler,come

to

announce

began."
in the

and

sent

j'oung
out

now

Turkish

and

Mongolian

for the first time

on

an

army,

tried

expedition

of real importance. Jenghiz Khan, true leader of men


there was
if ever
one,
his men
with conscience,with passion; he had lightedlike a torch
hatl imbued
the idea of country, of nation.
It is Abulghazi with his simple Turkish who

OF

ANTECEDENTS
[1210-1341A.D.]
best

THE

TUEKISH

NATIONS

279

"

impressionof Jenghiz Khan's

speech : Then he gathered the


of the Mongol lords in a
perors
place and said to them : The emmuch
of China, that is those of Gold, have done
injuryto my ancestors
the victory.
to me
relatives.
Now, the very high God assures
and to my
of its emperor
the person
of Gold, he gives
In this kingdom of China, upon
the right of my
ancestors.'
to revindicate
the opportunity,the power,
me
Turkish
nation.
All
those
of the east,
formed
the
relatives
Khan's
Jenghiz
and
Keraits
and NaiKarluks,
Kungrads,
Manguts
Onguts,
Khitais, Uigurs,
of
the
the
of
descendants
children
and
Oirads
I\lian,
Oguz
Torguts,
mans,
the
suite
of
Khan
national
the
in
to
hastened
on
Jenghiz
avenge
Gray Wolf,
to their ancestors,
the Chinese had done
the Manchus, the illswhich
on
army,
gives the
assembly

'

certain

"

the Hiong-nu
Kins

The

totallyunprepared. The
and beautiful "imbecile,"was

were

noble

beard," the
were

of old.

in

orders, his troops distributed

without

Mongols,
the

upon

and

of

brave

captain

Niu-tchi.

He

The

Niu-tchi

downfall.

nation
the

When

had

the

bewilderment

had

of March

to

This

was

in the

face

"superb
generals
of

centrated
con-

menced
comprestidigitator

him

of the

his

two

armies

collected

Khingan Mountains, by

taken.

itself after this terrible


recover
power
of the first defeats had
passed away its
to

later,the Mongols, who


(from the
Europe, two months
May, 1241) sufficed Sabutai, who was
ported
sup-

of

the middle

cordon

before

constancy and courage reasserted themselves.


central
far from
their country, attacked
were
end

like Jebe.

in haste, close to the defiles in the lower chain


One
the Great Wall.
strongholdafter another

the

of
poor
emperor
taken
unawares;

When,

Germany, for the defeat of the militaryforces of


Poland, Siberia, Moravia, Bohemia, and Hungary ; this same
Sabutai,aided
and
others,
required
twenty-four
by Jebe and Mukhuli
years, during
many
which fightingwas
incessant (1210-1234), to get the better of the Niu-tchi,
who were
implanted in China, and were
fightingagainst the people of Hia,
rebellion
and
the
Chinese
against the national dynasty of
against
jacquerie,
of the Liao, and who
trayed
bethe Sung, against their implacable enemies
were
their
times
these
tumultuous
ten
own
by
nobility. It
during
years
Hosao, an abominable
was
a
as
traitor,
great lord of royal blood, known
assassinated
into ambush,
who
lured the faithful and
him,
loyal Turkan
the
of
militia
and marched
the
Five
hundred
men
bourgeois
capital.
upon
Chinamen
and were
killed ; it was
a
fought for the Manchurian
emperor
chamberlain,the eunuch
Litze, who killed his sovereign. At the palace there
She held the seal of the
showed
who
was
only one woman
any
courage.
and
it.
while
would
She
not
treasury
insultingthe officers
fought,
relinquish
the seal of state
of the palace,callingthem
Steal
and
cowards
ungrateful:
at the order of a rebel subject? I will die, but I will not give it up !"
One
this narrative
receives from
an
impression of loyalty,of popular
honour, of high national dignity,which the Mongols did not fail to recognise.
When, after the disaster of Tien-ling,the last surviving Manchu
general all
by the empire

"

of

"

"

"

the others

had

refused

command

led
quarter was
kneel, "for it was
"

the general to
After the treason
of Hosao, the new,
the

struggle; it
stilldirected successful

was

before

the

well known

he
conqueror,
that he would

did not
refuse."

legitimatesovereign Hwen-tzong

fierce warfare

without

cessation.

campaigns against the people

of Hia

The

and

tinued
con-

Niu-tchi

againstthe

Manchus, however,
Sungs. Against
In 1215 Hwen-tzong accepteda
they were
treaty
constantlyunsuccessful.
by which he recognised the protectorate of the Mongols over Liao, governed
by a Kara-Khitai
Jenghiz Khan gave the investiture,with
prince,to whom
the cold tactics of the able and

tenacious

HISTORY

THE

280

TURKISH

THE

OF

EMPIRE
[1216-1218 A.D.]

the Shansi, and over


the
direct authorityover
a part of the Petcheh, over
his
he gave his sister in marriage to Temujine and moved
As security
Shensi.
the Kai-fung Fu
Yellow
of
the
to
of
north
the
to
Pian-king,
River,
capital

accepted by the people. War began


of his generals,
while he remained
at
afresh.
and
in
either
advance
to
direction, watching
the centre ready
governmg."""
the Mongol army
fifth month
The
captured the capitalof the Centre;
killed by rebel
General Tzong, who defended
it,took poison; the others were
the Mongols took the pass of Tong-kwan.
Buluko
soldiers. The tenth month
fall
vanquished and killed. The disaster was complete (1216). In this downwas
ness,
idleof the enemy,
Sabutai, having nothmg to do at his post,and disliking
In 1217 Jenghiz Khan
that
himself by conquering Korea.
amused
saw
that
in
and
his
the
he
desired
affairs were
as
country was
progressing
presence
in
his
lieutenant
the
He
left
China
as
trustworthyand
longer necessary.
no
hun
civil
and
and
methodical
militaryauthorityand thirty-five
Mukhuli,
gave
Peace, however,

Polo.

Marco

Jenghiz Ivhan

not

was

forward

sent

one

"

thousand

men.

DESTRUCTION

THE

THE

OF

KHWAREZMIAN

EMPIRE

been
the
of Jenghiz Ivlian's victories had
The renown
prodigiousamong
the
of
Rome
of
and
that
had
the
Turks of Transoxania
grandeur
caliphate
;
of an ahnost
admiration
the memory
not effaced in their minds
superstitious
had so often
of all splendour,type of all empires,which
for that China, model
At first they did not wholly believe in it.
dazzled or conqueretltheir fathers.
whom
the Fighterpressedwith questionsthe ambassador
Muhammed
Jenghiz
had

Khan

him

sent

this

was

in his nationalism

fanatical

of the

emperor

Mongols.
'Thy khan,

Moslem

devoted

and
"

Turk,

body

called Mahmud

Yelvaj,who

was

soul to his master, the pagan


took Mahmud
to the chase and

and

day Muhammed
reallyconquer
jewel of infinite value
One

and he
land of China?'
and made
a present of it to
Mahmud
Yelvaj." The secrecy of the interview,the solemn oath which was
of the
attitude of those present,all betrayed anxiety. These Turks
the
taken,
the game
contest
Occident
felt that they could not successfully
a
against Turk
said to him:
from
detached

who

his

master

was

sultan of

The
blind not

to

see

arm

did

he

the

"

of China.

Persia,and
approaching storm.

Khwarezm,
the

Transoxania
He

was,

must
moreover,

indeed have been


a weak-headed

Ever
of its virtues.
since
and none
all the faults of his race
"
his
of
second Alexander," after
the name
victoryover the
Jenghiz had won
the Fighter was
hunted and betrayed Kurkhan, Muhammed
no
longersceptical.
divided
of India
Southern
were
Persia, Afghanistan, the marches

individual,with

of Turkish
of feudal lords,most
of them
origin,calling
a number
the
chief
their
and
themselves
"father
as
using
governors,"
weapon
atabegs,
them
the
of
who
sold
of
of
the
the
name
caliph Baghdad,
spiritual
sovereign

amongst

of his suzerainty. The


privilege
Fighterhimself was only the delegateof the
the
caliphthrough
heritageof the Seljuks. To attack the atabegs without
askingpermissionof the pope of Baghdad was to revolt againsthim, to begin
The pope protested;the Fightergot angry, and,
a "quarrelof investitures."
in

access

an

was

the
the

of rage, marched
time that he

upon

Baghdad.

with the pope of Islam the Fighter


quarrelling
of fury after drinking,he killed
his own
alienating
subjects. In an access
the
sheikh
of
ad-din
pire,
authorityof his emBokhara,
Ahuljd
highestMoslem
the primate of Transoxania, accusinghim of being the lover of his mother,
The old
sober he perceived his mistake.
Khatun.
Become
old Tm-kan

At

the

same

was

HISTORY

THE

282

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1219-1230 A.D.]

The garrisonof the city twenty


khara in the rear of the sultan of Kwarezm.
tried to cut its way
chronicles
thousand
out, probably
men,
say the Moslem
"
the
hoping to rejointhe sultan at Samarkand; it was defeated,and Bokliara
"All the sheikhs, the moUahs,
holy" opened its gates to the pagan emperor.
the cityto put
out from
the muftis, all the inhabitants,great and small,went
"

"

themselves

at

Ivlian hastened

the mercy
to

of the

khan"

(April,1220). From

Samarkand, where
there

the sultan

Muhanmied

Bokhara
had

Jenghiz

abandoned

about

forty thousand
disorganisedand
men,
and
the
by
departure of Jelal ad-din.
by
the
battle
and
fell
Mongols, while these were
They bravely accepted
upon
the
invest
place they repulsedthem and made some
manoeuvring to
among
driven back behind
them
the walls.
prisoners,but the next day they were
The clergyand the citizens then took flight
the cadi
; the sheikh ul-Islam and
opened one of the gates wliile the garrisonwas beuig massacred in the defence
his anny.
demolished

There

the

were

flightof the

sultan

of the other gate.

The

city escaped plunder by paying

thirtythousand

men

of arts and

crafts had

of 200,000 piecesof gold, but


leave their hearths to go to Karafor the " inflexible "
his
emperor,

tax
to

korm, to China, and to Siberia, to work


princesand his nobles. This was the commencement
of recruiting
by force,of compelling the service

of the

Mongolian system
of confiscating
industries
artisans,
for the benefit of the nation.
It was
of
by their brutal requisitions
that the Mongols renewed
art and opened new
patLs for the imagination.
men
China owed to them the preciousadvantage of enteringinto communication
for a century (1260-1368) in
with occidental civilisations and of participating
of exchange which the}-promoted over
the vast movement
the whole civilised
In China, as everywhere else where
world.
they established themselves,the
Mongols caused a moral revolution by bringinginto relations with one another
^
peopleswhich had tillthen been strangers."
without one
The first days of April,1220, had arrived ; during five months
of
successful
of
two
Samarkand
Bokhara, one
one
sieges,
singlepitchedbattle,
who
hundred
thousand
defended
and
men
were
by a
poorly commanded
brave
had enabled the Mongols to conquer
poorly organised,but who were
The four armies then joined forces
Turkestan, Ferghana, and Transoxania.
before Samarkand.
men
Jenghiz Ivlian could detach twenty-fivethousand
There is nothing in militaryhistoryto be comfor the conquest of the ^Yest.
pared
of the twenty-fivethousand
from
with that fantastic excursion
kand
Samarand the Don.
It was
the most
to Feodosia
extraordinaryfollywhich has
been commit
tetl against war,
a learned
ever
extravagance, a mathematically
reasonable
calculated romance,
a
absurdity. Precursors of the great conquest,
for the army
which took
they went at a gallop,marking out the stopping-places
the
of
follow
them.
The
Turks
menians,
fifteen years to
Persians,
Azerbaijan,the Arthe Georgians,the Circassians,
the Alani, the Turks of the Kiptchak,
the Venetians of the Crimea, the Russians, the Bulgarians,and the Hungarian
Bashkirs saw
of dust the Mongolian standard,always victorious.'
pass in a whirlwind
of

"

"

"

and the generalswith him, who conducted


Jebe, the son of Jenghiz I'Qian,
expedition,had orders to track the sultan Muhammed.
They came
up
with him on the Caspian, the sea of ravens," but found that he had justbeen
buried on an island near
structio
by. After a short halt to recuperate and obtain infrom headquartersthey continued
their career
of conquest, crossed
the Alans, the Circassians,
the Caucasus, fell upon
and 'the Lesghians (old
the

"

'

Paleologue, VArt

Chirwis.

ANTECEDENTS
[1330 1226

A.

as

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

283

D.]

The

Avars).

OP

Kiptchaks,who

brothers

property and

were

or

too

had

been in doubt

whether

to receive

these

comers
new-

them
foes, when
they saw
taking possession of their
weak
fied towards the west, towards
to resist,
the Don."

an
unpardonable crime in the e3'es of the Mongols. It
the
wandering Turkish lambs back to the fold and to
bring
necessary
learned that a certain nation, called
chastise the leaders. Meanwhile, it was
under
the
its protection. The Mongols determined
was
Kiptchaks
Russia,
taking

This

desertion

was

"

to

was

did not concern


not to interfere in affairs which
to teach those Russians
of
the
orders
the
and
"inflexible"
to
After conquerrespect
them,
emperor.
ing
Sabutai
and
Jebe
hastened
the
Kalka
to
(1223),
Dnieper. There they
them back or else themselves
decided to return.
either received letters calling

have been in correspondencewith Jenghiz Ivlian. The two heroes


must
left of their twenty-fivethousand
led back those who were
men.
Descending
the Bulgariansof Great Bulgaria,and on the
the north they defeated
from
Kanklis
Kama
they gave themselves the pleasure of attacking the Turkish

They

of killingtheir khan, who


had the madness
this region, and
to
ordu
re-entered
the
of
their passage.
Finallythey
(camp)
Jenghiz
Sabutai survived
Jebe,being betrayed,died a short time afterwards.

settled in
obstruct
Khan.
him.!*

^Vllile this conquest was


taking place in the west, Jelal ad-din, son of
Muhammed, raised a revolt in Khwarezm, rallyingthe atabegs and the districts
The rising
to his cause.
of Ghazni and Kabul
was
put down with cruel severity
the part of Jenghiz Khan.
made
that he never
was

One

characteristic of this great

ever,
monarch, howand Moslems
religion.Pagans, Christians,
his comicil table and he was
united around
were
equallyjusttowards all."
in subjection
Nan-lu
and Pe-lu as far as the Caspian
At last Asia was
; from
and Caucasus, the Turks dominated, the Iranian
was
subdued, the Mongolian
could
Khan
home
return
(1225). Never before had tlicre
recognised;Jenghiz
reignedso profound a peace.
During nineteen years, from the year of the
of
the Dog, the sovereignemployed himself by establishing
Dragon to the year
his great people; he founded
law and order among
the empire and the government
for his people,and increased
on
a solid basis,procured peacefullabour
with the happinessof the
to such a degree that nothing can
prosperity
compare
khakan and of his subjects." His .sons, with the exceptionof Juji(the eldest),
who
had remained
in the west, in Khwarezm, had rejoinedhim since the beginning
of 1223.
When
died
Sarai
the
lower
his
at
Batu
on
son
Volga,
Juji
and
received from
the emperor
the investiture of his father's dignities
power
in Kiptchak. In Pe-lu Jenghiz Khan
installed his younger
son
Jagatai,who
took up his residence in Ahnalik
; thence he governed Turkestan,Transoxania,
Khorasan, watched over Irak, the roads to Rum, and the feudal government
of the atabegsin the Iranian land.
The emperor
took with him his two youngest,
Ogdai and Tule.
time that he returned.
had just died in China ; Jenghiz
It was
Mukhuli
Klian's own
brother,the legendary Juji the Tiger,having been detained at
in idleness,
had become
home
bored and had begun to intrigueand to create
the people of Hia, suspected allies,
and the wild Tibetans,
a party; finally
of
in
of
ing
knowthe
their
mountains
talk
no
hearing
or of army,
depths
emperor
and
affairs
that Mukhuli
balanced
between
the Mongols,
dead,
seeing
was
the Kins, and the Sungs, thought that their time had come.''
Jenghiz Klian
first won
back his brother to his former loyalty,then sent Sabutai
against
From
1225 to the end
China,whilst he himself dealt with the people of Hia."
of 1226 the land of Hia, the Ho-si, "at the mouth
of the river" of the Chinese,
between Hwangho
and the Hexapolis,was
devastated.
The brigands
fearfully
on

war

"

on

HISTORY

THE

284

THE

OF

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1236-1228 X.D.]

exterminated

with

such

terrible slaughter
and of Kan-su
were
that even
to-day,according to one traveller,the inhabitants of Ala-shan hear
in the desert the wailingof the souLs of the people massacred
by the Mongols.
started through China
Order being established in the Ho-si,Jenghiz Khan
small town
of inspection. He fell illon the journey and died in some
on
a tour
of Ala-shan

body on its funeral car, decorated


with
five standards," to the Turkish
capitalof Karakorm; "the car refused
the old companion-at-arms of Jenghiz, the old Kilukene,
Then
to move."
don
spoke to the emperor : Son of heaven, wilt thou remain here alone,and abanthy great people? Deligun-buldak, on the border of the Onon, the place
of thy birth
all is yonder. The field of Kerulun, where thou wast
proclaimed
all is yonder. Thy great people, very
all are
faithful
yonder."
emperor
The car, which had been motionless, began to move
and rolled towards Deligunbuldak.
The Mongolian faction triumphed over
the Turkish : from that time
in Shan-si.

One

party wished

to

take the

"

"

"

"

"

it could be foreseen
that
capital,

that Karakorm,

the

Turkish, would

only the occasional

be

the

into
imperialthrone would not stay there but would be moved
for
be
of
there
could
to
territory, Peking,
no
a
question
establishing

Chinese

the West
and
capitalat Deligun-buldak ; it was necessary to choose between
the East, between
Turkish Asia and China.
The Mongols chose China ; the
day after the death of Jenghiz the dissolution of his empire was inevitable.

THE

"

SUCCESSORS

JEXGHIZ

OF

KH.\X

Pay good heed

son

of the littleKhubilai ; they are


full of wisdom,"
to the words
of his life. This little Khubilai
the emperor
the
at the end
was
of Tule.
It was
understood
that the hereditarydomain, Deligun-buldak,

the

holy places near

said

Orkhon, and

But the acquisitions,


how
that empire "founded
on
horseback"
first time

would

the

city of Karakorm
they be disposed of?

horseback

but

have
who would
a hand
those indomitable
conquerors
whom

could

strong enough

"

longer there

which

hesitated.

to

The

would
fall to him.
And
the empire
"

be

not

govern

governed
it?

"inflexible"

For

on

the

emperor

"

they to choose as khan, power of heaven,"


the earth ? After his death Jenghiz seemed
dared
on
so
great that no one
take his place. They were
inspiredwith his spiritand administered affairs
and on
according to the yassak. Tule. preserving the hearths on Orkhon
Onon, governed the hereditarypeoples Mongols and Keraits
directly.Over
the others he ruled at intervals like a regent established to guard the national
He
the seals,
had
and his father's ministers, but he was
never
compact.
ruler.
proclaimed
afterwards
called Sain Khan
Juji'sson Batu, who was
(the Debonnair),
off in the west
quarters
life between
his headwas
willinglyleading a nomadic
away
the \'olga anil his fair fields of the Kuban, north of the
at Sarai on
Caucasus.
He
the Kiptchaks, Kirghizes,
governed with comparative quiet over
Bulgariaas,Bashkirs, Ra^s^ians,and others,fightingagainst tho.se who
were
unsubmissive, without particularexertion ; he had no orders from the
khan.
khan; there even
was
no
Receiving no orders,the Debonnair managed
his peoples and enjoyed life.
was

no

were

"

Jagataihad
his father

was

received

the

still alive.

Mongolian conception

of

"

while
investiture of Transoxania
and Khorasan
the
The strugglewas
between
plainlybeginning

lay state based on nationalityand the Moslem


without
distinction of nationality. With
religion
the great Timur, however, who
was
thoroughly Turkish in heart and spirit,
idea of

state

foimded

on

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

285

[1229-1341A.D.]

that is to say, on the sJieriat,


the Moslem
religion,
law,
Under
the
of Jagatai the
to gain the victory.
vigorous administration
was
national idea became
so
prominent that it has been preserved in the most
Turkish
that of language. The
dialect actuallywritten and
durable form
spoken in the countries governed by Jagatai in the thirteenth century is
of Jagatai. If Jenghiz
stillcalled by his name,
Jagatai Turkisi, or Turkish
the father of a people,his son Jagataiwas
Khan
was
godfather to a language.
tired of waiting; an emperor
In 1229 the great empire became
needed.
was
into a testament
formulated
The council of Tul^, directed by Ye-lu-tchutsai,
had given his people and which
the verbal instructions which Jenghiz Khan
the
his
The
action
of Ye-lusuccessor.
designated
insignificant
Ogdai as
tchutsai and of the Chinese party is visible in the election of 1229.
Ogdai
it was
that they first conducted
to China
their man;
the emperor;
after
was
dead (October, 1232) they sequesteredOgdai Khan
Tul6 was
at Karakorm,
He died of alcoholic
made him assent to all they wished, and left him drunk.
March
1241.
11th,
on
poisoning
for the removal
of all obstacles from
Ye-lu-tchutsai had prepared the way
In the kuriltai,
the "generalassembly" had decided
the inheritance of Tule.
in the house
of Ogdai, the first
should remain
that the imperialsuccession
after
Khan.
The
Chinese
had
khan elected
Jenghiz
pretended to accept
party
that "little Khubilai"
whose
"wise
him, but it surreptitiously
kept in reserve
words
had been vaunted
To avoid all rivalryof the
by Jenghiz Khan.
founded

the state

on

"

"

into the west


elder branch, Batu
sent
to make
was
conquests; on the same
occasion the Chinese
party got rid of the children of Ogdai, the legitimate
and of those of Jagatai,the eventual heirs,to whom
due the honour
heirs,
was
and the accastomed
of
far
from
to
home
as
going
as
right
fight
possible.
away

When
the Mongols completed the conquest of the whole
of China, that
of the Sungs after that of the Kins, they had
been
already
conquered by
her. After 1230
the Chinese
spiritand that of the Uigurs, who had long
since become

Chinese,began to appear
Mongolian bureaucracy and red tape.

in the formidable

fiscal system,

in the

The

sovereigntyof Ogdai (April,1229December


of compromise between
the Chinese
11th, 1241) was
a government
party who did not wish the "empire to be governed on horseback,"and who
of the ancient glory of the Hans
dreamed
and
the Tangs under
a Mongolian
and
between
the
Turkish
dynasty become
sufficiently
Chinese,
party who
wished
the
with
its
of
enforced
only
"empire on horseback,"
policy
conquest
limits of the territories within which
conquest pursued to the extreme
those furious patriots,
those chauvinistic fanatics imagined that they would
"

find Turks.

BUDDHISM,

CHRISTIANITY,

AND

ISLAM

When
there were
no
longer any Turks, they would imagine Turks ! For
them
Turks
there were
the whole
face of the
now
everywhere, for it was
"
earth which they desin^d to conquer.
chronicle
of the
Kushai,
Tarikh-i-jihan
of
is
the
An
the
Juveini givesto his annals.
world,"
name
conquest
imaginary
of the "inflexible"

testament

is

so

much

an

the testament.
Chinese

article

of faith

From

emperor

that

this time

on

is invented; the conquest of the workl


of
the existence
the side of the

Plan-Carpin believes in
the Buddhists rally to

and
back"
the Mo.slems
Christians to the party "on horseand of conquest.
the party of enforced war
Buddhism
was
passing
througha crisis; it was emerging from its long evangelicand purely doctri"

"government,"

THE

286

OF

HISTORY

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1225-1237 A.D.]

takingshape,was founding a church. The lamian reform,


of a hierarchy,was
time as the
the estabhshnient
acconiphshed at the same
great Mongohan centralisation;the kaan and the dalai-lama,the emperor
twins ; it was
inevitable that the emperor
and
should adopt
the pope, were
This
Buddhist
of the pope.
L^
in so far
individualistic
the religion
papacy
founded
it was
by anchorites "of the country of above," on the terrible
as
plateausof Tibet, in the desert,in the midst of acknowlerlgedbrigands and
At the time of Marco
Polo it
sanguinarj'savages, the highwaymen of Hia.
the
Tibetans
that
the
stillsaid
were
anthropophagoas. Among
was
glaciers
anchorites established their enormous
the Buddhist
and precpiices
monasteries,
of the world, made
of him
watched
the Mongolian catechumen, the conqueror
their armed
knight in China, against the TaoLst,against the Manicha;an
dualist,againstthe philosopherof the school of Confucius.
The
Nestorian Christians had no church properljsjx'aking.Their liturgy
was
Syriac, that is to say, almost Arabic ; their bishopricswere
Almalik,
and
guage,
lanthe
their
Merv,
conquered
by
country
Mongolian country,
Mongols ;
Turkish
and Mongolian. "Were there a crusade
their nationality
were
or
a
Mongolian war against
against the adorers of the impostor Mohammed
the Seljuks of Rum,
against the Tajaks, against the Iranians, against the
of the
Turkish
Moslems
dreamed
to a jete. The
as
caliph,they assembled
of
of
of the kaan,
conversion
Bokhara, of a Turkish pope in
an
empire
of the Iranian
heretics. Like their Christian
Transoxania,of the extermination
compatriots,they asked nothing better than to attack the West and to put it
periodami

nary

to

was

the sword.
ATTEMPTED

REACTION

OF

KHWAREZMIANS

the defence
of the caliphate,upheld
now
seen
singular thing was
.Moslem
Jelal
orthodox
ad-din,by pagans, Buddhists,Christians,
against the
the caliphateas soon
to suppress
and by Mongolian Moslems, who
were
as
had disappeared; and this extravagance was
its orthodox
perfectly
enemj'
returned
suddenh'
Jelal ad-din, thirstingfor revenge,
from
logical. When
Iran
and
inflexible
aroused
India after the death of the
against
emperor
the Mongols, his first thought of vengeance
was
against the caliph. His
march
In
Iranian
the
(1225-1226).
was
a
triumphal
country, at Ispahan,
and
he
resuscitate
the old Iran of the
to
this Turk
attempted
was
welcomed,
it to the Mongolian Turan.
and to oppose
^Mien
the Persians
Shahnameh
ad-din
arrive
with
four
thousand
faitlifulriders
Jelal
brought from the
saw
with
his
the
the
sultan of Delhi, with his
heart of India,
wife,
daughter of
exotic train as of a wandering knight, their southern
imagination took fire;
in person
it was
Rustam
returningfrom the land of elephants,and with him
Timur-melek, the "paladin," the hero of Khodjend. There was an explosion
and
of knigiitly
In Kirman, Jelal married the daughter
enthusiasm.
literary
of the sultan Berak; in Fars, the daughter of the atabeg Saad ; never
was
of marriages seen
In a few weeks
the feudal marriages
such a maker
before.
and
him an army.
created an empire for him and gave
popular enthusiasm
A

"

"

"

He

all of

held

companions

of

Persia

and

Khorasan.

adventure, and

Princes

and

sultans

great lord,the chatelaine

rode among

his

Nish, was

his

of

secretary.
The
had

not

"The
inflexible" emperor
year 1227 arrived.
been
chosen ; the best troops and the best

China

in

Shites

were

was

dead

generalswere

his

successor

engaged in
prince;the

fierce warfare; the Iranian


people hailed a TurkLsh
to the orthodox
taking fire for his cause, seeingin him an enemy

ANTECEDENTS

OP

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

287

[1330-1231A.D.]

caliph;the Turkish

militarynobilityof the south

and

west, proprietorsof

from
the north
the time of the Seljuks,furious at the parvenus
The
his
standard.
that
the
hastened
to
and east,
proof
Mongolian invasion
but
and
not
1220
1225
organised conquest lies in
was
an
an
between
irruption
in
in
Khorasan
Transoxania,
the fact that in
Khwarezm, where Jelal
proper,
had reigned,not without
ad-din's father and ancestors
honour, there was no
the influence of the students
In cities like Bokhara, where
an
always
uprisal.
estates since

"

turbulent element

in Moslem

society

great that after

so

was

"

1230

the

good

dowager-empress Serkuteni,a Christian and


of Tule, built a collegefor them,
the widow

quiet. The Mongols had


the
succeeded
on
imposing themselves
ish
Turkthe
it
had
done
nation ; they
through
istrators
through the skill of adminnationality,
Mahmud
such
as
Yelvaj and
of a
Masud, through the strong discipline
and
the
like
through
prudent
Jagatai,
king
and queens.
goodness of their empresses
everythingwas
in

the bold and adventurous


That
of recommencing the
ad-din dreamed
but that he saw
is
possible,
romance
the

beginningwhy it was

too

Jelal

Seljuk
from

late is

able.
prob-

lacked
the
material
for the
those atabegs
riders,
; the Turkish
Iranian
welcomed
him, had become
were
knights of the Shahnameh; the
He

romance

who
and

the soldier
great family; body and
real Turk

had

"

"

rallied to

soul he

had

the

given

With a remarkable
kaan.
surety of vision the counsellors of Jagatai
himself

to

the

that the knightsof Jelal ad-din


nothing against Mongolian corchauvinism.
They
poralism and Turkish

saw

at

could

gave

once

do

free rein to the hero of

He

romance.

Usher

Turkish
as
as
fought desperately,now
king, now
prolonging
captainof unorganised soldiers,
the adventure
being
during six heroic years (1226-1231), but without once
able to encroach
Mongolian territory. Finally this .son of an emperor
upon
in Asia Minor.
landowner
of a Kurdish
perishedin a miserable ambuscade
their life of adventure.
His highwaymen
and
continued
enlisted in Rum
there was
fighting. Most of them went into Syria,
They were found wherever
braving Moslems and Christians together,fightingfuriouslyagainsteveryone
they met.

IN

CONQUESTS

EUROPE

In order to prevail
The command
in the west
belonged legallyto Batu.
adviser and his
to him
sent
to march, Sabutai
as
was
upon the Debonnair
staff as a council.
Never was
a conqueror
so
rudely led about as poor Batu.
of the younger
Sabutai reprimanded him
occasion
on
; his cousins
every
and
branches mocked
Buri, a brutal
two
drunkard,
a
him,
Guyuk,
especially,
swordsman.
Batu
was
he
glory
complained in

conqueror

in

writing to the

spiteof himself.
kaan

Ogdai:

"O

height of his
uncle.
my
emperor,

At

the

THE

288

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1231-1342 A.D.]

the eleven nations

have

been

subdued.

held; all the princeswere

was

the return
of the army
a banquet
Being the eldest,I emptied one or

On

present.

goblets of wine before the others. Buri and Guyuk became


furious,
their hor,?es and vilified me.
left the banquet, mounted
Buri .said : Batu is
not my
superior; why did he drink before me ? He Ls a bearded old woman
;
at a blow.'
I could knock him down
Guyuk said :' He is an armed old woman
;
Another
I shall have him beaten.'
tail to me.
proposed to fasten a wooden
Such is the language held by the princeswhen
meet
to deliberate on serious
we
with
nations."
It was
Sabutai
the soldier
so
questions after a war
many
two

'

conducted

who

Europe

to

its ultimate
which

inviision

humiliated

which
of

an

"

the

this invasion

success

founded

the

of

and

eastern

dominion

central

Mongolian
Rassia, and
knighthood of Poland, of Bohemia, of Germany, and
in

Hungary.

of the Mongolian armies which


What
the fightingnumber
marched
was
the Volga to the Danube
from the Ural and
and the Adriatic?
victorioasly
The
Mongolian, Turkish, and Chinese chroniclers give in all 150,000 men.
The
number
is largeenough if we
the mass
take into account
of horses,the
state
miracle

of the roads, and the extreme


poverty of the countries traversed.
is not that Sabutai defeated the Hungarians and Germans, but

succeeded

he

troops

across

and
The

was

great

in

conducting

Russia, Poland, the


able to bring them
of the

mass

corps and
army
Kiev
When
It

troops came

and

of regular
men
fiftythousand
the Adrithe
Danube
and
atic,
Carpathians,to
time
and
together at the appointed
place.
from
of the
China, as Ls seen by the names

by those, of their chiefs.


to

known

was

and

taken

was

princes tried
anxiety.

hundred

one

The
that

its defender

Meungke

get away;

that the kaan

was

Dmitri made
and Guyuk
ill.

golian
prisoner,the Monwere

devoured

with

Suppose, thought they, that

the kuriltai get the election in their absence.


Batu, for his
had
the
Debonnair
tried
to
the sly.
seen
enough conquests;
on
part,
escape
who
in
the
first
succeeded
did
desert
until
not
Meungke was
escaping; Guyuk
Batu
of
and
had
remained
under
the
hand
the
march
after
to
iron,
victory.
he .should die and

'

he would
to follow the orders
whether
or
given him respectfully
by
no, and
which
Sabutai
the Soldier.
That
the Soldier wished
his terrible servitor
of the Kiptchaks, of the Bulgars,and of the Magthe absolute submission
was
yars;
have
been a national
it would
their policyto its
not
to pursue
di.sgrace
end, not to subdue the hosts which had emigrated from great Hungary, from
"

great Bulgaria to the distant lands of the Tuna.

well knew
The Debonnair
would
the
have
him.
not
that he could not withdraw
Then he
obeyed
;
troops
invaded
c
lear
to the
Poland,
Bohemia, Silesia,Moravia, Illyria,
Hungary,
far
The Mongolians went
Udine.
Adriatic.
as
as
to Udine
The Venetians, who were
so near
by land,did not have an emotion ;
had
But that the pope and the German
to deal.
they knew with what they
emperor

should

marched

troops should
of

have

rested

tranquil,that the Mongolians .should not have


that encomiters
them
between
and the imperial
been limited to a few skirmishes (which have the appearance
so

Vienna, and

upon

have

beingarranged beforehand)is

THE

mystery which

ELECTION

OF

may

be left to

investigators.

GUYUK

became
11th, 1241, Ogdai died. Allien the news
officially
in
it
Sabutai
retain
Batu.
known
Hungary,
1242, was no longerpossibleto
the country from the Adriatic
that fact and took steps to evacuate
recognised
On

December
in

HISTORY

THE

290

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1250-1262 A. D.]

"Remember

them:
modest

ancestors;

your

this field; it is the

preserve

of

grass

simpUcity."

Khuonly the plans of .Vrik-buga,


brother.
bilai's younger
brother, but also those of Hulagu, another younger
He
disposed of by receivinga magnificent compensation the Moslem
was
The
Moslem
national
to contjuer.
Occident
political
good
party with much
and furthered it with all its
sense
accepted this Chinese and Christian j)rojcct,
that a plan of conquest was
us
proposed by Meungke
might. Rashid assures
orders which
The
istic:
in person.
Memigke gave to his brother are very characterin the province of Iran; the
"Thou
shalt go to the country of Turan
in their totality
and
in their most
and the yasxak of Jenghiz Khan
customs
the banks
of the "Jihun (iVrau-Daria)
minute
details thou shalt impose from
Do
fail under
all circumstances
not
to the farthest part of the country of Egypt.
and
take
her
advice."'
To
consult
to
to
Dokuz-khatun,
explain the
of
this
last
the
submission
to Dokuz-khatun, we
counsel,
give fragments
importance
of a sketch
which
the Moslem
Rashid, in a book written for Moslems,
of this princess:"She
makes
belonged to the great nation of the Keraits,was
As the Keraits had long since embraced
daughter of Iku, the son of Ong Ivhan.
who
Christianity,Dokuz-khatun
constantlyprotected the Christians,
in a prosperous
condition.
Hulagu, for the sake of
during her whole life were
favore
this
tokens
and with
the
Christians
with
pr'mcess,
heaped
pleasing
of Ivhubilai frustrated

election

The

not

"

of

consideration

his

daily; and

the

at

; this

gate

of

carried

was

the

ordu

far

so

of

that

churches

new

Dokuz-khatun

were

raised

lished
estabchapel was
general commanding
a

there."' The
permanently and bells were
rung
the Namian
At the same
the Jlongolianarmy,
time
Kitboga, was a Christian.
the
the
of
the
that the vanguard of Kitboga was
caliph
marching against
envoys
the emperor
in Cyprus. The gootlking,to whom
kaan were
of
sent to St. Louis
first
in
the
firm
alliance
offered
the
a
world,
China, the
militarypower
against
with the promise of ceding S3Tia to France, repliedto this embassy
Moslems
St. Louis received in
by sending a beautiful little chapeUe with two monks.
reply a most cavalierlike letter,in which the kaan treated him like a vassal.
of St. Louis, the unintelligent
The candour
bigotism of the monk Rubruquis,
of judgment ami the lack of information
sent by him to Meungke, the narrowness
in every
is full of eloquence
manifested
line of his correspondence,which
hard
but lacking in seriousness,saved Islam, which
was
pressed between the
French
crusade and the Mongolian. Profitingby the great mistake
of the
all
who
the
of
those
hated
the
crusaders,
people
Kiptchak
Mongols namely,
who
had
been
deported by Sabutai, the last opponents of Jelal ad-din
standard
raised
which
was
poured into Egypt and flocked to the Moslem
the
of
who
French.
These
old
had
conquered
against
highwaymen
Kiptchak,
"

"

at

Mansurah

(1250), could

Joinville

kaan.
Chinese

well

not

believe that

remembers

them

the

with

French

not

were

their vermilion

allies of the

flagsnotched

in

fashion.

While

the crusade

of St. Louis was


ending in failure in Egypt, that of Dokuzcarryingeverything before it in Persia, in Rum, in Mesopotamia,
and in central Syria. The Isinailians were
crushed, their eyrieat Alamut
tured,
capPersia conquered, Baghdad held at bay.
Sunday, the fourth daj-of
Safar of the year
the month
656 (1258), the caliphwent
out of Baghdad; he

khatun

was

"

had

with

him

his three

he

presented himself
(juestionedhim with
'

Command

take

the

the

sons

before

The

three

Hulagu,

gentleness

inhabitants

census.'

and

of

and

thousand
who

displayed

no

kindness,

after

lay down

Baghdad
caliph despatched
to

cadis;
saids,iinanhs,
and
him
against
anger

persons,

which

their

he

arms

deputy who

so

said to
that we

proclaimed

him

may
in the

ANTECEDENTS
[1360-1374A.D.]
streets of the

TURKISH

NATIONS

down

citythat the populationshould put


inhabitants

disarmed

The

the walls.

THE

OF

in

came

its

291

and

arms

troops to surrender

to

go outside
gols,
the Mon-

them
who
massacred
inmiediately."
(1260).
Syria was not slow in being conquered, with Aleppo and Damascus
of the sultan
of Egypt, Saif ad-din
the Kiptchaks, the Khwarezmians
But
He who commanded
the
Kotuz, ilefeated Kitboga near Ain-jalutin Palestine.
of the Kiptchak tribe,
adventurer
under the orders of Kotuz
Moslems
was
an
the
called Bibars, the Panther,surnamed
Bondokar, the Crossbow-man, whom
Victor
Venetians hatl bought from the Mongolians and sold to the Mamelukes.

faith,the Panther

for the

had

who

down

Dokuz-khatun

the devoted

which

had

of which
caliphates,
Mongols he incited

he

got

the

most

the last

Syria,drove

the

sins
assas-

churches

the Franks

out

after another

pseudothey troubled him.


Against the
dangerous enemy
they could positivelyhave
the khan
His agents converted
of Kipto Islam
tchak,
rid

as

soon

one

two

as

"

that is to say, themselves.


the brother

built in

Antioch, created

from Cffisarea,
Arsuf,Jaffa,and

Bereke,

his master, took into his pay


by the Mongols, pullet!down

stabbed

hunted

been

of Batu

broke

War

( rJ()2).

between

out

the Mongolian

it

Russia;
was
Mongolian empire
put down
broke
far
out
it
again. The
Peking; then, as Peking was
by
away,
between
the
the
national
law, and
Mongolian
beginning
yassak,
strugglewas
the
Moslem
law.
The
national
the sheriat,
by
religious
empire founded
sional
to break
into territorial divisions and into confeswas
Jenghiz Khan
up
of Persia

empire

and

the

of

of

the kaan

groups.

THE

JENGHIZ

LAST

KHANIDS

After the triumph of the Chinese party in the election of Meungke and then
broken up into
of Khubilai,the immense
Mongolian Empire tended to become
The
of
led
force
of
circumstances
independentstates.
Peking was
by
emperor
of his

the autonomy

to allow

and

to develop in Transoxania,Persia,
representatives

Kiptchak.
his distant

For

Chinese;

the

brought up
the end
to

nine

the emperor

wars

Mongolian generalsof

in the school

of the

thirtythousand

were

disasters.

Mongols

; the

which

the
not get along without
stock, those great mana'uvrers,
Baian, who was the militaryglory of

old

nothing
The

of marine

warfare.

of 1274

numbered

armada

vessels,carrying seventy

the fleet ; of the vessels

thousand

generalsdid

not

thrown

on

were

Chinese
agree, and
the

island

and
a

of

The
no

tions
expediless than

Koreans

and

tempest dispersed

Ping-hu,

"

no

one

again," say the Japanese. The Japanese gave no quarter to the


Chinese ; but the Turks, the Mongols, and, without
doubt, the western
cenaries,
merA second expedition
had their lives spared and were
sold as slaves.
failed even
before the start.
It became
to give up Japan.
necessary
In Yuman, at Tongking, in Burma, in every placeto which the Mongols had
the
access
by land,victoryremained with them ; but even then in spiteof success
could
Chinese contingent,without which
they
accomplish nothing endurable,
The
slippedaway.
Mongolian generalsgained battles and took cities,but
fever and sunstroke, more
and
of the Annamites
dangerous than the arrows
the elements of the Burmese, decimated
their Siberian,Transoxanian, Alan,
If they
and Russian soldiers.
After every
recall.
conquest they demanded
in the sun.
of the north melted
remained, these men
Finallythey paid
away
attention
to Indo-China
no more
; but the seizure by the Mongols of the great
ever

heard

Peking could

the

Sabutai, like

understood

century,

Japan

hundred

of

of

OF

HISTORY

THE

292

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1275-1290

forgottenby

peninsulawas

not

the

marked

route

was

out

; the

the Chinese

dynasty
Chinese,again become

which

succeeded

masters

at

A.

D.]

them;

home,

took

it for themselves.
THE

GREAT

COMMERCIAL

ROUTES

they had met with in Japan and of their disasters in


Indo-China
By the end of the
Java, the Mongols had reached the sea.
had
of
thas
three
thirteenth century they
communicating with the West:
ways
of
the two land routes, that
Pe-lu,continuallyinterruptedby revolt in the
at the discretion of the sultans of Transoxmarches, and that of Nan-lu, now
and
and the old maritime
at autonomy;
more
aiming more
ania, who were
and of the Arabs.
It lay
This last hatl been the route of the Chinese
route.
of the Euphrates, near
the peninsula of
and
the mouth
Canton
between
the land of the kaan
and the ports of India,and led from
to
Malacca, Ce3'lon,
of the caliph,who
the
that of his cousin and vassal,the pagan
was
successor
It became
il-khan of Persia and of Irak.
simpler to go from upper Asia to
China and by
and
the
Mediterranean
Minor
to
Asia
by crossingwell-policed
risk
in
the
warlike
marches
than
to
being plundered
taking the sea at Canton
In

spiteof

the check

and

at

Transoxania
and
and the exactions between
endure the castom-houses
under
of Asia
had the
continental domination
Thas
the union
Persia.
one
of the continental
to the detriment
singularresult of reopening the maritime
or

to

of which
routes, for the possession

Chinese, and

after them

Turks

and

Mongols,

China
The Mongolian Empire bulged out towards
liad fought for centuries.with its veritable point of support, the country
and the sea, losingcontact
the Blue
between
Altai,the Celestial mountains, and the Black Mountain
old
the
(Karadagh),
country of the real Kankli TurLs.
remained
that is
As long as the sultans of Persia and Transoxania
pagan,
could be certain that the relations
religions
matters, one
of China, hereafter Buddhist, and his occidental
the Mongolian emperor
would
remain
be loyal,and that communications
vassals would
open
and regularbetween
their states as long as might be permitted by the perils
in the north.
On the
of the sea in the south and by the hazards of politics
Iran and Tusan
Nan-lu and Pe-lu routes
the old antagonism between
was
awakening,
reand the people of
between
the people of the north in the marches
and Persia, between
the south in Transoxania
rural people whom
the transfer
whom
the
nomadic
citizens
a
nd
of the capitalto Peking abandoned
to a
life,
to

say,
between

neutral

in

of the great cities like Bokhara


and Samarkand
reduced to inertia.
sultans of Transoxania
did not see without jealousythe greatness of their

attraction
The

in the country
cousins,sovereignsin Persia,heirs of the caliphateall-powerful
of Rum, masters
of the best roads which led to the Occident, while they themselves

disputed passage, under the vigilantcontrol of


the
made
them
arbiters between
their states
ment
ferif
the
marches, Kiptchak, and Persia. If they became
religious
Moslem,
added
the Mongolian Empire would assuredlybe
to the political,
were
onlj^guardians of

were

the

kaan.

cut

in two.

The

situation

of

RELIGIOUS

For

two

REVOLUTION

and more
Islam had been seducing all the old Iranian
the Turkish
witli them
families who
in possessionin the
were
with
the prosperityof Almalik
was
Christianity
fleclining
tog("ther
centuries

families and

country.
and

where
Pentapolis,

it had

its spiritual
and
capitals

its fortified strongholds;

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

293

[1292-1371A.D.]
it

becoming

was

urban

an

and
religion,

in the

losingground

was

devastated

Christian men-at-arnis
were
no
longerseen in the Mongolian armies.
country.
its
zeal contributed to the decay of Christianity
The Latin church by
among

Nestorianism, plantedcenturies before,had had


a national,indigenousplant; Roman
religionof strangers. A Turkish Christian,converted

the Turks.

only a

entered

national union; he was


Khubilai,that the

It

The

Clement

him

sent
seven
Pope
corvin
Montto consecrate
bishops,who were
as
archbishop of Khan-balik
(Peking)and primate of all the extreme
Orient.
to be his suffragans.
They were

in 1307

Clement

In 1312

of

of Florence.
from

three

was

minor

he

had

been so great that


brothers,with the rank of

fragans
suf-

more

aichbishop of Peking;
Thomas, Jerome, and Peter
In

1320

appointed bishop
seen

sent

root

the

to

brothers

church, but

of his mission

success

was

de

Franciscan,Jean

in China.

arrived

deserter.

to take

Catholicism

sionary,
by a Latin misemerged from the
towards
1292, during the lifetime
Montcorvin, sent by Pope Nicholas

of the universal

the bosom

of

IV,

time

the soil like

it held to

in

this Jerome
the Crimea.

this transference

of the

was

It is

bishop

Jerome, suffragan at Peking, that the


government of the Latin church in the

Mongolian Empire
to

relations

the

was
partially
adapted
the
existingbetween

suzerain state of the khan and the khan's


vassals,such as those of Kiptchak
Crimea.

In

Montcorvin

1333

Ili-balik;

a Frenchman,
professorof theology in
In
Paris,succeeded him.

its chief,
was

as

at

Nicholas,former

mission, with
gogne
in the

died

the

facultyof

1338

Richard

de

founded

ciscan
FranBourPe-lu

territory of Hi, in the domain


of Nestorianism; tliis compromised the
native Christian population and brought
forms
the two
of Christianity into conflict.
The

result

was

inevitable.

tianity
Chris-

in

Costume

Worn

on

the

Coast

of

Syria

The
1342.
destroyed
Chinese
reaction
against the Mongols
and againstall that recalled their domination
tianity
completed the ruin of Chrisin China.
Francis
of Podio, sent as legateto China with twelve companions
of Florence,
James
(1371), disappeared without leavingany trace.
fifth bishop of Zeitun, was
massacred
in 1362.
Nestorianism
left to itself
have
of
disastrous
survived
the
intermixture
to it.
was
might
foreigners
;
While Christianity
Islam
With
was
a marwas
declining,
gainingground.
velloas insightit adapted the form of its doctrine to the peoplewhom
it wished
and
in Kiptchak, mystic in Transoxania, political
to reach,becoming apostolic
was

in Persia
literary

its neck, and

and

in the marches.

In China

it gave

way

to

Buddhism,

bent

resigneditself,
interfering
only in finance and business; it was
that it could hope to live; Islam, which is supposed to be
only by such means
in Mongolian "\sia ; it knew
showed
the most
80 rigid,
extraordinarypliability
how to lend itselfto every need, to profitby every occasion,to cede its dogma

OF

HISTORY

THE

294

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1262-1342 A.D.]

understood
scruple. The redoubtable
Islam
well the use to be derived from
; in his struggleagainstthe
mar\'eIlously
Mongols, which was supportedby all the fierceness of a vindictive Kiptchak,
skill of a brave and crafty
his extraordinarj'
policysurpassed the common
conversion
of
had
He
fliis;hesof genius. Tlie sudden
soldier of fortune.
of
the
house
of
and
of
the
khan
of
the
Juji,
princes
(1262),
Iviptchak
Bereke,
it not for the
were
than half Christian,would be inexplicable
who were
more
of
Unsultans
Persia.
the
and
of
alliance
Mongolian
Egypt against
Kiptchak
Russia
lems,
Mosin
southern
of
the
men-at-arms
were
Kiptchak
doubtetUy many
time that the Mongols and
not ; at the same
but the reigningfamily was
gary,
the
of Rui^-;ia were
Kumani, or Kiptchaks of Hunthe Turks
adopting Islam,
mk-^ionaries
who
If
the
Latin
Christianity.
were
being converted to
Russia
in
to
their Kiptchak subjects
converted
the Jenghiz Ivlianids and
not the agents of Bibars, they at least servetl him faithfully.They
Islam were
without

soudan

of

Egj-pt,Bibars, had

golia
slow in informing him of their success, for the alliance of Ru-ssian Montaneous.
Eg}-pt and the conversion of the princeof the house of Jujiare simulwho
in S\Tia, the Kiptchak adventurer
in Cairo and
Master
master
had conquered the Christian crusaders with St. Louis, and the Mongolian
the caliphsof his creation, giving
crusaders with Kitboga, held in resers-e
Persia
when
of
the
them up to
they became troublesome; he tamed
Mongols
in his service; he
hired murilerers
and
made
them
the fanatical Assassins,
were

not

and

in the
of Kiptchak with his own
of the sultan
humbly associated the name
his
the
devotion
to
pagan
publicprayer, and conspiredagainsthim, protesting
and
kaan
of Peking. He had
a
perfectunderstanding with the Venetians
knew
them well
he, the old crossbow-man, sold by their slave dealers as a
counselled the people of Kiptchak
into Egj-pt. He
recruit beyond the sea
land and sea,
should control
alliance "nith Byzantium, which
to make
an
with
the Crimea
and
His
alliance
S\Tia.
in
his
Egypt
through
possessions
of the Red Sea and the
and with southern Russia had enabled him, by means
Black Sea, to block the Mongolian Empire againstPersia and Transoxania, and
with
He
the Occident.
to separate it from
monopolised the communication
and
central
in
land
the
i
t
on
route
to Aleppo
Syria,
by
China,establishing on
the
After
and
Suez.
beginningof
sea
by the route through Eg"-pt lia Cairo
forms
isolated stripand has
the fourteenth century the empire of Kiptchak
an
East
than those leading
with
the extreme
of communication
other routes
no
through Moslem Egypt,
through the savage north, or down through the south
which are also the routes of the pilgrimage
routes
jealousguardian of the commercial
the protectors of the holy
The soudans of Eg"'pt became
to Mecca.
time the gatekeepersof the two seas.
cities and at the same
"

"

MOXGOLIA.V

EMPIRE

.\T

THE

BEGIXNIXG

OF

THE

FOURTEENTH

CEN'TTRY

curious of contemporarj' maps


givesan idea of the extent
of the territorial divisions of Asia at the
of the Mongolian Empire and
in 1331, was
part of a
beginning of the fourteenth
century. This map, made
the institutions
of the Mongolian dynasty, published at the same
work
on
One

of the most

be reganled as official. On this document, which is registered


it may
archives of Peking, the western
dependencies of the empire form three
of their sovereigns Du-lai Tiethe
which
names
are
designatedby
kingdoms,
Bu-."a-vin
of
Dua
(Abu Said,
1321-1331),
Timur,
son
(Dure
Timur,
mur
Tliat
is
Yue-"lzu-bie
to
and
1
312-1342).
(I'lzbeg,
1317-1335),
say: (1) Jagatai
and
Ivhorasan
w
ith
eastern
Afghanistan,
Turkestan, Transo.xania),
(Siberia,

date, and
in the

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

295

[1260-13C0A.D.]
iiiiiuisthe country of Herat

Baluchistan,Merv,
; (2) Persia,with Seistan and
to the Indian
Baikh, Bost, and the access
Ocean, Hormuz, and Bahrein;
(3) Kiptchak, which includes Bu-li-ar (Bulgar, the great Bulgaria of the
A-lo-sze
\'olga),
(Rossia,Russia), Sa-gi-la(Solgat,the great port Sudak in
the Crimea), and farther south Kin-sha
(Kiptchak, the steppes of Kuban),
A-lan-a-sze (the country of the Alani or A-su), and Sar-ko-sze (Circassia,
the
does not mark
boundaries
of
west
but
Caucasus). The map
it
Sudak,
any
notes Damascus, Constantinople,Damietta, and Cairo.
this

At

epoch the feudal unity of the empire, so visible on the map, is


of its vassals
in the Occident
proved
by the appanages
having fiefs in
In 1336 ILsbeg,the khan
China.
of Kiptchak, sent to the kaan an embassy
the arrears
of his fiefs in China.
In 1312-1313
chargedwith collecting
Euljaitu,
sultan of Persia,had sent ambassadors
to China
to verifythe accounts
of the
also

lands which
occasion of

he

and
po.sses.sed

famine

collect the

to

arrear

rents.

In

1315,

on

the

in

Transoxania,Dure Timur of Jagatai received subsidies


of Peking. The
from the kaan
Chinese annals, dating from
1330, register
of twenty king of land,north of Peking, granted to the "conthe concession
stantly
faithful Russian
As
the
to
guard."
compensation,
were
possessors
furnish the imperial table with all the game,
taken
in
the
fish,etc.,
forests,
In 1334 the Russians
recruited
rivers,and lakes of the said domain.
by the
mentioned
for the last time
sultans of Kiptchak are
in Chinese
annals; a
the guards of the Mongolian, KipgeneralBaian is appointed to command
tchak,
and

It

Russian

corps.

be

relaxed may
have become
the
seen, therefore,that however
of Russia,Persia,and Transoxania
federal bond unitingthe Jenghiz Khanids
who reigned at Peking, that bond was
to their suzerain,the holy emperor
by
broken even
half of the fourteenth
at the beginning of the second
no
means
can

century.

From

the

of

on

sea

Only
Moslem.

the

Black

Sea

the

Chinese

Japan,

he

There

was
was

the country where


the bond

the Persian

the

Ocean
and
indeed
heaven," was
kaan, "power
peror.
emand his vassals,mediatised
Bufldhist,
kings,had become

no

to

Gulf,

on

Indian

of

Were
force to arise in Transoxania,
a religious
pope.
of the East and Turks of the West
into relationship,
come

Mongols
would

be broken

the dissolution of the

Mongolian Empire
Tinmr;

would be complete. This religious


force was
not created by the great
he found it alreadyorganised,and himself merely set it in motion.

STATE

OF

TRANSOXANIA

In the hundred
between
and 1360
the kingdom of Jagatai,
1260
years
and the marches, besides Siberia,had no Ie.ss
includingnominally Turkestan
than twenty-fivesovereigns, phantom sultans.
The
actual
rulers were
the
heads of the four houses of Arlad, of Barlass,of Jelair,and of Aiberdi,and
the vizirs whom
of Jagatai. So long
they imposed on the feeble descendants
of
the
bore
besides
his Chinese one,
as
a
Peking
Mongolian name
emperor
saved and the Jenghiz Khanids, princes of the house
of
were
appearances
kestan
TurMoslem
Jagatai,were
over
Transoxania, over
supposed to reign at once
and half of the pagan
marches.
With the fall of the Mongolian dynasty
in China everythingcollapsed. From
the Oxus
there remained
to the marches
only two powers: Islam, representedby the religious
orders; and the military
aristocracy,
representedby the great Turkish houses and those of Mongolian
originholdingfiefs in Transoxania.

HISTORY

THE

296

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[133ft-i:io8
A.D.]

nobility,attached

feudal

This

observed

the

rites of

its

its tratlitions and

all to

above

religionless closely than

it

pretended

privileges,
to

do.

At

gentlemen alike remained Turkish; they were


themselves, they
Always ready to fightamong
the- Iranian
canaille,the Tajaks, or Sarts as they
in their quarrels. They came
to an
agreement

heart great lords and country


Turks before everything else.
all

at

not

were

them,

called

willing that
mix

should

cjuicklyagainst

th(!se rustics.

But

in

1330

one

of

these

peasants

had

the

sleepand to make himself king of


audacity
Kert
and
called
Husein
He
Ivhorasan.
posed as protector of the
was
and the heretical popbetween
the
orders
faith.
religious
Steering
endangered
ulace,
of
his
relatives
blood
and
defender
natural
by
language, the bourgeois
and the Sart pea,sants,he had quicklygained popularityin Khorasan, which
trodden down
by Turkish exactions, in Seistan, and in western
istan,
Afghanwas
to

the old Iran

arouse

in the

out

of its

land of the great adventurers

where

the Iranian

heart

stillbeat

sturdily.
cause
common
against the
Immediately all the Turkish nobilitymade
far
of
to mix
The
of
the
hou.se
too
sultan
was
Jagatai,
Kazan,
Tajak.
away
in these quarrelsbetween
bourhood
people of the south ; he was hunting in the neighof his
in the hands
of Almalik, leaving the affairs of Tran.'^oxania
but
of
of
low
constable and vizir,the emir
lineage
a
man
great
Kazgan,
who
by his audacity and his profitablealliances had succeeded in
renown,
establishinghimself. Jelair, Barlass,Arlad, all the party of the country
of Kazgan, who
into the arms
squires,being infatuated, threw themselves
the
democratic
revolution,
budding
put himself at their head, extinguished
Husein

defeated

Kert, and

(cityof verdure).
this

year,

same

On

Timur

threw

himself

into

Ivhora.san

(1333).

called Shehr-i-sebz
of Kesh
suburb
of
Shaban
Tuesday evening, the 13th of the month
Thnur's
father had the title
into the world.
came

the

birthplacewas

His

aristocratic

belonged to the great house of Barlass, but was a comparatively


His fortune
was
slender,so that he supgentleman himself.
ported
insignificant
vizir
From
the
four
three
horsemen.
Kazgan he had received
or
only
in Transoxania, south of the
and of Nakhsheb
as
a fief the province of Kesh
of his clan or family was
The
of
Khorasan.
name
Oxus, in the marches
he
himself
hail the old Turkish
"the beautiful";
Keurekene, which signifies
of
of Taragai, or swallow.
Arlad, of Jelair,and
Although the houses
name
duced
has been introof Solduz are surelyof Mongolian origin,although the custom
of calling Mongolian the empires founded
and, afterwards,
by Tinmr
over,
to be rather of Turkish
origin. Moreby Baber, the house of Barlass seems

of emir

; he

in the fourteenth

century

the

clans

issuing from

these

four

houses

and

and in Turkestan
established in Transoxania
were
wholly Turkish in language,
Moslem
faith, just as the
and in their confession of the orthodox
in spirit,
had
become
established in England at the same
Normans
English. It
epoch
for a Mongolian as to take the
of a mistake to take Timur
would be justas much

Black

Prince

for

Frenchman.

The
Kazgan revolted openly against Kazan and defeated him.
Turkish
master.
loyalty
However,
.sovereignbeing dead, Kazgan remained
stilltied his hands; he himself set up another king of the Jagatai tribe,but
assassinated and replaced him
at the first sign of independence he had him
While
He
five times.
Kazgan
as
as
pursued this course
by another.
many
watching for his
Kert, who was
was
making and unmaking kings,Husein
took up arms
again. In 13.")S Kazgan united all his Transoxanian
revenge,
them
contingents and conducted
against the Iranian and his heretics,into

In

1343

the very

heart of Ivliorasau.

HISTORY

THE

298

THE

OF

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1355-1369 A.D.]

Kazgan, conceived the idea of giving the country as an


Ihaz Klioja,hoping thereby to guarantee
his ov\-n position
Timur, although he had the support of the church, realised

he, fearinga second


to his
appanage
in Transoxania.*

that the time


too

son

had

not

many

he fled to the
full of romance

kane, played

and

for the fulfilment of his

come

adventure

ambitions; he stillhad

to

and

return

him
There

in the

saddle,

he led

a life
his wife, the fair princessOljaiTurincreased until he
Gradually his power

in which

conspicuous part.

strong enough

was

yet

Consequenlly,taking hLs wife behind


to follow the existence of a kazak.
prairies,

enemies.

Iliaz

attack

Khoja,

whom

he

drove

across

the Oxus."
TIMUR,
Tlie

KING

OF

TR.VN'SOX.iXIA

10th of Raraazan, 771 (Ai^ril


elevated
was
8th,1369),at Balkh, Timur
felt and proclaimed king of Transoxania, according to the old
and ceremonial.
With the subtiltyof a casuist he chose Balkh

the white
Turkish form
on

place of his coronation,for this city did not belong to the sultan of
After the
thereby avoided offendingTurkish formalism.
Jagatai,and Timur
the
death of Iliaz Ivhoja,in 1.362,this sultan had officially
eignty
soverrecognised
Timur
of another Jagataiid a straw
Shah.
was
king called Kabul
The situation was
onlyhis executive agent in Transoxania.
ambiguous ; the
could not .ser%'e two
reverend father .\liShah had already declared that one
at the same
masters
time,that there could be only one legitimatevicar of the
Most High.
church
took upon
itself to decide the question. First Timur
The
sented
preof his authority. "AMien
I had promulgated my
the warrant
laws,"
I had re-established the law (the sheriai)
when
he said,"concerning religion,
the

as

"

favour:
in the cities of Islam, the doctors of Islam returned this brief in my
In everj' centurj- the Most High has raised up a defender and propagator of
of the prophet Mohanmied;
in this eighth century of the Hejira,
the religion
poral
Timur, possessor of the Holy Scriptures(mhib Koran), chevalier of the tem'

shall be regarded as the restorer of the faith.' "


power,
In an instant this modest
Timur, who usurped no titles nor

prerogatives,

in the name
of a sovereignwhom
who coined money
he had
put aside and
caased prayers
in the churches,changed the entire governto be said for him
ment
of

the state.
He
replaced the Tiu-kish and Mongolian tradition by
tradition refashioned
to his taste; for the old sovereignlaw (yassak)
law
(edeb) he substituted a new
sovereign law {teuzuk) and
customary

Islamic
and
a

law (sheriat).
religious

TTMUR'S

theocratic

system

of

GO^"ER^'ME^"T

According to

the ancient Mongolian and Turkish law, as the yassak of the


had formulated
bound
it,the sovereignwas responsible,
emperor
the civil law.
in
the
with
the
sheriat,
new
According to
code, conformity

"inflexible"

by

the sovereign was


releasetl from
Got! and to the church.
The

the

civil law

and

was

only
responsible

to

which
the
Timur
pro\'ision
put at the head of his ordinances was
subjectsinto twelve classes. In this di\'ision the descendants
of the prophet passed to the first rank.
The class of the king's household,
the first in the old Turkish
and Mongolian society,
or
tarkkans, which was
disappears. That is where the real revolution took place. Retaining the

di\Tsion of his

THE

OF

ANTECEDENTS

TURKISH

NATIONS

299

[13G3-1376A.D.]

guiseof Turkish forms, Tiinur destroyed the old


which
first concession
it by a cahphate. The

Turkish

society and

Timur

made

to

report

to me

repLaced

the

church
of all the old tarkhanliks,feudal estates,
the administration
inalienable.
The inquisiall at once
and unclaimed
tion
estates, which became
the faithful
to turn
established : " in every province there was
a doctor
was
founded
forbidden
from
by the state; "in every
things"; missions were
appointed to explain the principalarticles of
city religiouspersons were
"I
with religious:
civil
faith."
completely confounded
justicewas
Finally
to

was

to it

grant

the civil judge (cadi)should

ordained that the sadr and

pertainingto
could

How

by

to them

all matters

religion."

accept such a regime? Timur


personalstatute creating exceptionallaws

made

the Turks

it endurable
"

in their favour.
I established

also

for the army


and another
people.
justiceto inform me of the differences which arise between my
other subjects." Dispossessedof his largeterritorial property
soldiers or my
by the church and by the sovereign,who divided it up and sold or rented it
positionwho
to common
peasants or sarts, Turkish gentlemen of mediocre
At the
nomads
became
the
in
court
at
not
again.
or
employed
were
army
had been so rudely broken
time of Timur, the unity of the tribe which
by
will
find
in
"inflexible"
even
our
the
reconstructed; one
days,
was
emperor
the Kirghizes and
Kiptchaks in the different confederations,clans
among
of Kankli, Jelair,
which bear the old names
Kiptchak, Arlad, Mangut, Kerail,
called
In administrative
and constitutional language Timur
Naiman, etc.
these clans UIuss (in Turkish,people,line,tribe).

appointeda

minister

for the

cadi

of

FOUNDED

EMPIRE

BY

TIMUR

have been preserved: "He


The followingportraitsof Timur
was," says
with
his detractor Ibn Arabshah, " of medium
a high forehead
height,slender,
much
colour
fair
and
he
in his face ;
had
his
and a big head ;
complexion was
r
ather
he was
built with broad shoulders,round
longishthighs,and
fingers,
himself
liked brave
He
being a valiant man
men-at-arms,
strong limbs.
and
himself
honoured
to make
obeyed." Paolo Giovio,
informed, praiseshim expresslyfor his chivalry: "Strong and
which
of Tatary, pulling the cord to his ear
he drew a great bow
straight,

and

knowing how

who

Is well

few

people

"

The

can

first use

drive back
descendants
the banner

the

do."

princesand

of the
of

Timur

which

made
of his power
the families which
else pose

Mongols or
people from

this Turk

as

was

to

free

Transoxania, to

might impose their claims as


champions of the yassak. Under

the south

were

for the first time

seen

impassable to the Achemenids,


which
That
the Sassanids.
the Macedonians, and
Cyrus, Alexander, and
of a Transoxanian
Khusrau
to undertake, the son
had not dared
hidalgo
of an
obscure family of Turan,
undertook
and realised. He, a descendant
to cross

the

Yaxartes,

took

on
revenge
centuries
during

barrier

Iranian

which

Rustam,

and

had

been

turned

aside forever

the torrent

which

the north and east, from


land
highand mountain, upon
the valleysof the south and the plainsof the west.
tan
advanced
into TurkesFive times in six years (1370-1376) the Transoxanians
of Pentapolis,treadingon the dust of heroes.
and into the march
The
heart of Oljai,the companion of his adventures, his dearly loved

wife, must

have

6corcheurs,now

hat!

precipitateditself from

swelled
become

the old captain of


pride when
daughter
king,led into his harem a Jagataiprincess,
with

all its feudal

OF

HISTORY

THE

300

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1370-1380 A.D.1

adHlin, the beautiful


of the sultan Kaur
the north that a sultan of the south had

Dilshad

jealoiL^.
During the struggleagainst the Tchetes the
the old nation
disappeared. Henceforth
Oljaiwas

last Christian

our

tainly
Cer-

arms.

Turkish

tutions
insti-

of the

Kerait,that of Priest
Kirghizes,who were Moslems,

the
clan,lost among
tlestinyovertook that of the Naiman
days have preserved their tamga (seal).
obscure

an

like the rest ; the


to

force of

princessof

not

John, remained
down

the first

Aga,
conquered by

; but

same

these clans

of the apostle
suppressingthe Mongols in the name
in
them
of Confucius.
the
out
name
dnving
carried off the Mongolian d\Tiastyof China, to
replaceit by that of the Mmg, swept away all that recaOed the remembrance
Nestorian
of the detested Turks, and
Chrbtianity with the rest. Between
of Pentapolisand HexTransoxaiiia
and old reborn China the Turk
Moslem
apoliswas smothered ; he had no longerspace in which to breathe ; he perished
driven back into the steppes of the north,reduced
for lack of air,or else he was
forced to wander
about the country, separated
to the condition of kazak, and
in
limited to that of a shepherd who
from
the rest of humanity, his horizon
leads it to the yailak.
the winter pastures his flock in the kishlak,and in .summer
Timur

while

But

was

the Chinese were


Mohammed,
The
revolution which in 1370

At

the

that he

time

same

Timur

was

ruining the Turks


those

in the marches

of the

fallingpitilessly
upon
was
marches,
reducing the Turkomans
by robbing them of land wherein they could have
was

and

OF

CONQUEST

the national

to

led

of the northwest,

northern

and

western
south-

of

brigandage
simple pastorallife.
state

a
a

KHOR.^.S.VN'

Iran, Khorasan, protected from


of the Oxus, had nothing to fear
from the
by way of Hyrcania, by the lower Oxus,
that their warlike bands, summoned
and favoured
merly
by the Parthians, had forwhen
of
river.
into
the
the
shore
the
countn,'.
Later,
poured
following
infiltration grew
when
the marches
of Transoxania
the Turkish
came
betorrential,
itself was
onh' a frontier,
the
out
Tuikish, Khorasan
through
spreading
countries,Fars (Persia proper, Faristan),Kliuzistan,etc.
pure Iranian
As

long

Transoxania

as

that

Now

life endured

and by the
by marches
It was
people of the north.

the

capitalof
the learned

central

in

channel

had

Asia

advanced

Almalik

from

kand,
to Samar-

talked

that
and the literatures
now
Jagataiishat Bokhara
sultan of
of Transo.xania
rhymed in the barbarian language of Pe-lu, the new
coukl not stop on the rightbank
of the Oxus, and leave on the left
Samarkand
that

bank

Moreover,

splendid frontier,Khorasan, to the mere}' of


had claims upon
it by right of conquest.

he

alreadyheld
The prizewas

the two

Tran.soxania

too

banks

rich not

there

was

an

of the lower

Oxus

; Khorasan

Iranian
the

On

was

almost

heretics.
north

he

enclosed.

and exploitedfor the benefit of proud


culture of cereals kept up by a marvellous
the noble
manufactured;
superb carpets were

to be seized

extensive

and
system of irrigation;arms
the
Me.'ihhod
Holy, Xishapur the Ancient, Merv, Queen of the World,
cities,
situated
Herat the Brilliant,
there.
were
governmental
Many estates, many
offices
invited
distribution
the ever-needy Turkish
districts,many
among
for the treasury, there were
nobility; there was revenue
giftsfor the church !
Timur
wished indeed to defend the south against the barbarians of the north,
but

had
an

condition that it belong to him


spoken and advocated his cause.

on

army

and

remained

on

the church
ad-din, lord of Khora.san, raised

wholly to

"

"

Gaias
the defensive.
I

was

him.

warned

Moreover

by

note

from

the

rr,"w

,1

Cir'vii

rr,"l

Cl/inrut

/"," Brn.u

""

Co-

DOOH

OF

l-r..in

t
TIIK

ihi-

I'AI.Al

|"ii.iliiiL'
l".v\asili

OK

TA.MKKI.ANK

V"Ti-"licliuginl

OF

ANTECEDENTS
[1381-1404A.D.]
director of my

to all sorts

givinghimself up
could
defender of religion,
and

was

doubt

not

thought

of Khorasan

orthodox

The

ad-din

that Gaias

conscience

TURKISH

THE

NATIONS

abandoning

was

301

himself to tyranny,

of excess."

Tiniur, redresser

that he

called

he

as

was

of wrongs,
these evils.

to redress

thought. Promptly they accepted


the cause
of the good princeTimur

the decision of the church and undertook


"
the greatest diligence,"says Timur,
I made
againstthe tyrant.
buried
ad-din
in the sleep of
Gaias
I
where
surprised
at Herat,

by all,he came
kingdom. IQiorasan
(April,1381.)''

Abandoned

out

and

was

me."

The

narration
he

After

here.

far

penetratedas

as

Persia,

having
He

in 1398.

to

its emirs

distant west

more

conquering
Moscow, and

India

he invaded

and

subdued

in the

of Timur

conquests

city,surrendered

of the

Asia

than

more

to

to need

in

Russia;

all of central

at that time

was

obedience

well knowTi

too

entered

reduced

to arrive

negligence.

treasure, domain,

me

rendered

are

Timur

"

1394

mission,
to sub-

sixtyyears

of Hindustan
from
the Indus
There
he conquered the whole
to the
of age.
in the spring
to his capitalat Samarkand
of the Ganges, and returned
mouth
of booty with him.
The next
amount
of 1399, carryingan immense
year he

captured Baghdad, Aleppo, and Damascus, and


territory,
sultan Bayazid on the plain
victoryover the Ottoman

into Turkish

broke

decisive

gained a
of Angora."^
in 1402

TIMTTR'S

relations

with

EUROPE

of Henry III of
Samarkaijd, in Transoxania, that the ambassador
de
who
Gonzalez
then
surrounded
was
Clavijo,saw Timur,
Castile,Don Ruy
the seigneurwas
seated
on
something like little
by splendour (1404) : "And
of silk and was
mattresses
leaninghis elbow on round cushions, and he was
It

at

was

clothed in

high white

robe

to
ba.s.satlors
he could not

old

pink
a

silk without

balas

roused

relations
The

between

the

his

spoke
son,

in

king;

your

see

them

wore

the

a
am-

better,for

very drooping." This


I give my
manner
:
"

animated

an

he

seigneurtold

to

so

eyelidswere

his head

on

the

on

that

and

himself

benediction," he said, "to my


presents; you and this letter are
The

embroidery, and

the crest ; and


I think that he did

ruby

forward, and
well,being so old

come
see

then

man

of

cap, with

he had

no

need

to

send

me

with

the

sufficient."
and

French

chief

the

of

Mongols

did not

cease

in

succe.sfsors
Persia, Abaga, Argun, Gazan,
Hulagu
princes and the
Khodabendeh, constantlysought alliance with the French
Argun wrote to Pope Honorius IV and
popes againstthe Saracens of Egypt.
Nicholas V the Genoan
Under
Buscarelli was
to PhilipIII of France.
charged
of the khan.
He came
back in 1289
to follow up this negotiationat the court
with a letter from
that prince to Philip the Fair, looking to closer relations

crusades.

between

the two

countries.

of thejJenghiz
Ivhanids in Asia,
conquered the possessions
with
the
who
were
French,
no
adopted
friendship
longer
of Egypt but against the Moslems.
allied against the Saracens
Charles VI
the victory over
on
Bayazid, which the Most High had
congratulatedTimur

When

he

their traditions of

accorded
and

him

; he

promised

France.
civil

had

Timur

wars

The

between

death

in

throughout

thanked

him

Timur

for his offers to

reciprocalconsideration
of

the

distance

Timur,
the
France, and, finally,

the

countries

the house

of Timur

of

Europe
and

that

protect French

towards

Turkish

the two
.separating

decline

reduced

of

the

this

of \'alois to

merchants

merchants

in

peoples,the

spiritof the crusades


hopeful correspondence
an
sequence.
episode without con-

HISTORY

THE

302

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[U0i-1M9

DEATH

THE

OF

A.D.)

TI.MVR

8th, 1404, to protect Turkestan against


the Sir, overcome
on
by fatigueand
his physician,
to rise again. When
seized with a cold, he look to his bed, never
like a good
Fazl Ullali,told him franklythat all hope was
Master
Tinuir,
gone,
and a good king,thought only of the fate of his empire and of
Mohammedan
he appointed his grand.^onPir MuhamAs successor
the safety of his soul.
brave.
Several
times he asked for his favourite
who
and
both
was
metl,
pious
in
his
of Khorasan, but it was
who
had
too
stayed
Rukh,
appanage
son, Shah
orders
The
to have his body taken to
late for him
to come.
dying man
gave
he had caused
for his pir,the
the tomb
to be made
was
Samarkand, where
he comHere
in that tomb
beside that holy man
Said Berke.
manded
great monk
his own
body laid. Being no longer able to speak he made a gesture
Heibet
Ullah
shoukl recite the last
with his hand signifyingthat the mollah
left Samarkand

Timur

an

of the

invasion

prayers;

he gave

up

7th,1405),at

on

December
At

Chinese.

Otrar

his soul at the vesper hour, the 7th of Shaban, 807 (February
his
of
and
with
the
church
with
Transoxania
people
peace

of God.

Scarcelywere
despicableMiran

the funeral

ceremonies

ended

when

Khalil Mirza,

son

of the

grandfather,pillagedthe
Samarkand
appointeilsuccessor, Pir
against
treasury
His mistress,the famous
Muhammed.
Shad-i-mulk,urged on to adventures
When
he was
this boy of twenty-one years.
vanquished (1409) he was ready
of
conditions
in order to keep her; and he resigned in favour
to accept any
It was
the son of Shah Rukh, the brave and excellent Muhammed
Shah Rukh.
in Europe by his surname
of Ulug Be}%
the great
Turgai, better known
nomical
(1428) the observatory in which the astroprince,"who built at Samarkand
tables named
after Ulug were
calculated.
When
Shah Rukh
died,in
him
did
succeeded
but
that
have
the
not
learned
1446, Ulug
vigour
prince
;
the rough Transoxanian
to manage
aristocracyantl to impose his
necessary
Abdul
Latif, revolted
authority on the all-powerfulclergy. His own
son,
him
of
and had him assassinated (1449). The history
the bigoted
against
kingdoms of Transoxania,Khwarezm, Turkestan, and Khorasan
began with a
Shah,

violated
and

of

the last wishes

of his

revolted

the

"

parricide.
CIVILISATION

OF

TRANSOXANIA

the Turks, and after them the


breaking with the Chinese tradition,
as
in
had
restriction to the
themselves
Mongols,
interpretedit, giving
up without
orthodox Transoxanian
TurLs
of
central
.\sia
the
church,
were
beginninga new
life. During nearly a century the philosophy,literature,and
art of Islam
became
penetratedthem so profoundly that they
strangers to their native soil
In

and

ceased

to

understand

century, and

Turks
of the thirteenth
another.
The Transoxanian
and of Russia,
the Kiptchaks of the Caucasus
the braves who came
recognisedtheir relatives among
one

even

although Moslem, had


from
teenth
distant Cathay under the Mongolian banner; but at the end of the sixthe language,although they
century, although they still understood
could not repudiate the blood relationship,
they yet repelledwith horror the
idea of moral
with these infidels. Those
contact
of the east are now
only
Chinese to them, those of the northwest
and west
(that is the
only KalmaLs
word of which we have made
Kalmuk) and Nogair. In spiteof their aversion
of
the
ami
their
hatretl for the heretical Iranians, they feel nearer
to
Tajaks

HISTORY

THE

304

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1400-1500 A.D.]

and the gardens,and the women's


apartments, antl the edifices which had
mosaic
Those porticos,
cloisters,
been buildingfor twenty years.
pavements,
filledthe hidalgowith astonishof gold and azure
those marbles, and potteries
ment,
Even
the citizens at Paris,where are
the most
ful
skilAt Samarkand
there is still
be dumb
with admiration."
artists,would
praisedby Baber, who was a
greater magnificence. There stood a mosque
in which wove
and
and
there
were
seen
gardens,
menageries,
connoisseur,
deer,
and

he exclaimed,

"

laboured
pheasants,and elephants; and an arsenal where a thousand workmen
and
halls
cuirasses
ornamented
and
basinets;
painted in
daily at making
l)road
and
and
and
commercial
street
which the
baths,
hosjiitals, a
fresco,
do
laid
down
houses
in
order
to
so.
out, tearing
"seigneur" iiad
the monks
It is true that the corporations complained and
remonstrated,
that that ([uarterbelonged to him, that he had
tiieseigneur answered
to which
which
would
bought it with his money
; however, though he possessedmaps
would
of
love
and
for
his
he
for
them
the
out
his
land
claim,
peoplebuy
prove
Nor
did
Timur
works
of
for
and
good
neglect
generalutility.
again
money.
During his reign the culture of silk was
greatlypromoted. In Transo.xania
canals
covered
the
fields
with
The
a
carefullyguarded network.
irrigation
flax
into
and
introduced
the
culture of cotton
was
try,
coundeveloped,
hem|) were
founded
factories were
Samarkand, antl a bridge of boats was
near
paper
established

over

the Oxus.

of China

and

to

Strenuous

attempts

were

made

to

become

pendent
inde-

get rid of her industrial hegemony.

under the successors


The taste for architecture and paintingcontinued
of
Baber
of the principal
monuments
Timur.
erected
givesa listand description
by those princes. He mentions, at Samarkand, the gate of turquoises,the
in India were
the battles of Timur
kiosk in which
painted in fresco,the baths
with paintingsin
of Mirza, built by Ulug Bey, the carved chapel ornamented
Meidan
the
of
the
Chinese
stjde,
observatory
Ulug Bey,
Bag-i
(esplanade
garden),with the buildingof fortycolumns, the cabinet of Chinese porcelain,

chapel,etc. ; at Herat, the garden of Ali Shir,the paper manufactory,


the palace of the throne.Belle Vue, the fish ]3ond,the palace of crystal,
the
gai^en of Zobeid, the twelve towers, the royal market, the big market, the
of Intimacy, Ali Shir's mausoleum
house of Ali Shir,known
and
by the name
called Purity,his
the great mosque
adjoining,called the Holiness, his college,
his baths and his hospital,
named
Cleanliness and
convent, called Purification,
When
remember
Ali
Health.
that
Shir
of
we
was
we
simply a man
letters,
get
the Echo

idea of the respect which the Timurids


accorded to writers and artists.
Herat was, moreover,
the artistic city par excellence.
Baber relates that
in
the
in
where
the
sultan Abu-Said
the apartment
at a supper
palace of Joy,
and
had caused his combats
his feats of arms
to be depicted,a concert
was
an

were
given before him: "Among the musicians
Hafiz-Haji,Jelal ad-din Mahand Shad-i-Betchek, the harpist. The musicians
of
mud, the flute-player,
without
the
in
Herat
with
and
Prince
voice,
measure.
forcing
sang
grace
Samarkand
musician, who sang with full voice,
a
Jihanguir had summoned
harshly and unequally. The Khorasan
people stopped their ears and made
it was
faces ; if they did not hiss,
out of respect to the prince." Of all the arts,
music, which is least persecutedby the church,is the best supported in Traas-

and

oxania

Khorasan

European ear.
Miniature,and
Islam during the

the modern

Turkish

airs of central Asia

are

agreeable

to a

Ali Shir

works

are

in

adorned

of the

same

particularportraitminiature, held

its ground in

spiteof

whole

of the fifteenth century; the beautiful manuscripts of


with miniatures
which
in no way
inferior to occidental
are

epoch.

Baber

mentions

among

the

paintersBeh-Zad,

"an

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

305

[1300-1500 D.]
A.

to beardless faces,"
artist of a very fine talent,but who gave a bad treatment
work
relative
also
"a
who
to the mystic
wrote
and Shah Muzaffir,
literary
he
mentions
Mervarid
and
musicians
the
Kul-Muhammed, "who
life" ; among
the
which
he
with
art
composed preludesand for his
held the first rank for
theme."
of
the
skOl in the development
incomparable
the
the Turkish
In the reign of Timur
language had triumphed over

in Jagataish,
Transoxanian
renaissance wrote
no
longer
Yesevi
of Turkestan, the first and
them
I-GiojaAhmed
the greatest of the central Ai5ian poets, had already
in the ophiion of some
of the court
wTitten in the vulgar tongue; but the language of scholars and
from
historical
works
the
be
mand
written,at the comseen
Persian, as may
was
Rashid
Turkish
etc.
of Mongolian princes,
ad-din,Vassaf,
by Juveini,
after the time of Ahmed
Yesevi,
imposed itself to such a degree,especially

Iranian;

of

men

the

Before

in Persian.

propaganda, such as
religious
Nameh, "book
(1442), the Bakhtiar
Tezlxret
ul-Eiiia,"attestation of the saints,"are

that the works


of ascension"

of the

the

"

book
fortune"
(1437), the
in dialect and in Uigur

Mihraj Nameh,

of

characters.
church
thought itself strong
only after 1450 that the Moslem
and
to
the
old
Nestorian
impose the Araboalphabet
proscribe
enough
the Turks
in
that
date
its
to
Persian orthography. Up
propaganda among
the
to
it had been obliged
use
orthographicsystem formerly brought into
no
longer sees in
Pe-lu by Jacobite monks; after the fifteenth century one
of
Stele
the
central Asia those gloriouscharacters from
Guj^k Tekine, with
which Turkish
proutUy adorned their missives
kings and Mongol emperors
of
to the popes
of China, of Germany,
of Constantinople,
to the emperors
The Nestorian
writing had resisted even
Rome, and to the kings of France.
which had devoured
the development of Chinese literature,
Buddhism, even
and assimilated the old writingsof India, of Indo-China, of Korea, and of
gols
the Turks
it was
finallykUled by Islam. Only the MonJapan ; but among
Chinese
and
in
of
the
and
in
and ManchiLS,bravely
spite
piously, spite
of Buddhism, have preservedthe old Christian alphabet.
writers of the fourteenth
and Khorasanian
Among the principalTransoxanian
is
mention
after Timur
himself,whose Teuzukat
century we must
in Persian
verses
work without
equal, and his grandson Khalil,whose
a
the mysticsSaid Ali Hamadani
(died 1384),
have been preservedby Ali Shir
of
Nakish
founder
the
the
real
ad-din
Beha
(died
bendi),the
1388,
Khoja
of Kerman
ad-din
of
Ahmed
Kemal
fullah
of
Lat
Khojend,
NLshapur,
poets
the
Timur
life
of
in
author
of
jurisconsult,
(the
grammarian,
verse),Teftzani,
a
the lexicographerJezeri,author of the most
and exegete (1322-1381), and
Arabic
volummoas
dictionary.In the next century wrote Jami, the divine,"
grammarian, and poet; Suheili,translator of
exegete, moralist,philosopher,
the fables of Pilpay; Moiin ad-din, "dispenserof light,"
a mystic (died 1433) ;
in verse
more
highly esteemed than that of
Hatifi,author of a life of Timur
of Kerman
Ahmed
taught rhetoric to Ulug Bey ; Husein Ku; Bokhari, who
of
the
descendant
berai,a
great Nejm ad-din Kubra, killed by the Mongols at
It

was

to

"

"

"

for his repartee


Ivhan ; the satirist Mollah-Binai,renowned
entitled
Sheibani
author
of
the
Muhammed
(died 1516);
Nameh,
Salih,
epic
of the famous
and of the arrangement in Turkish
romance
Mejnun and Leila;
in verse, "S7(a/tu dervish,"king and monk,"
and Helali,
author of a romance
which the scepticBaber
Be3'ond all,
designatedas an "improper" work.
moralist,poet, the
must
we
speak of the great Mir Ali Shir Ncvai, historian,

the time

of

real creator

Jenghiz

of the classic

in the Turkish
H.

W."

language,no
VOL.

XXIV.

Since poems
has written such numerous

Jagatailanguage.
one

have

and

been

written

such excellent

HISTORY

THE

306

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1500-1723A.D.]

ones

he.

as

of merit

Men

of talent

Having started out


of a bey and held

to
given to few men
of
he
the seals,
guard

the

as

for

some

of

career

time

had

never

It has been

to Ali Shir.

renounced

and

do

good

supporter comparable

in the

attained

degreeas he.
maturity the dignity
Astrabad.
Finallyhe
same

in

the govermiient of

arms.

of ICliiva,
Hosani
and above
should be mentioned
the moralists
Allah Ahrar, who was
loyalto his motto, "My poverty is my pride."
died in tlie odour
He
of sanctityin
he cultivated his tiny farm.
Unaided
The
of
Samarkaiul.
and
his
is
tomb
at
a
place pilgrimage
dogmatic and
1489,
and
.Mollah
Mevlana
ad-din
Fasih
Abul Gaffur
works
of
(died l.'ill)
exegetical
of
of
The
Dehidan
cla^^sics
(school
to-day.
religions) the Orient
(1510) are

Among

all Obaid

author.
At the end of
epoch by an anonymovLs
his
book
India and on
wrote
the fifteenth century the geographer Jami
on
China.
Among the historians,Sherif ad-din,Abdur-Rezzak, and Mirkhond
In concliLsion,
well knowTi to need no further mention.
are
sufficiently
we
of
in
the
best
the
master
the
all,
Jagatai
prose-writer
name
Turkish,
may
After him
decadence
ture
began, and outside of oral literagreat mogul Baber.
in the seventhere is fountl only the rough Abulghazi, khan of Khiva
teenth
in his imaffected
Turkish, which is not without skill
century, who
the maaly and vigorous sobrietyof
and beauty, has been able to preserve

composed

was

at

this

same

his great ancestors.^

THE

SPLITTING

last descendant

"P

OF

TATAR

POWER

defeated in
Ali, was
Persia,Hussun
Turkomans.
Uzun Hassan,
sheep
by
in 1502 to
and Hassan's
last descendant,Sultan Murad, had to give way
Shah Ismail,the founder of the native dynasty of vSufi. A grandson of Timur's,
Zehireddin
called Baber, i.e. Tiger, in 1519
established the
Muhammed,
empire of the grand moguls in India,which fiourLshed under his grandson
Akbar
from 1556 to 1605, but which fell in piecesafter the reignof the tyrant
from
the throne
on
1656-1707, and which
Aurcng Zeb, who was
finallyin
under
Shah
last
the
of the
became
Allura,
a
dependency
1782,
grand mogul,
This
occurred
the
that
the
last
of
at
time
renmant
same
English.
Mongolian
The

the khan

1470

dominion
Khan

in the Crimea
Tatar

The
in

of the

of Timur

fell to Russia.

dynasty

China,

in

Ak-koin-lu,i. e. white

of

maintained

the

Yuan, founded
by Khubilai
itselffor seventy-two years after his death,which

Yuen, Yun,

or

Nine emperors
placein 1294.
reignedduring this period,and the last of
these,Shunti, Mongolian Tokatimur, had to retreat in 1368 into Mongolia
of the native
before the founder
dynasty Tai-Ming Hong-wu. There he
founded
the dynasty of the northern
Yuan, at Karakorm, which remained
under
then weakened
kaans
until 1691, but was
independent
twenty-two
a
nd
internal
from
rule
of
the
dissensions,
Changhi,
by
during
1662-1722,
and more
it is stillsubject.
became
more
subjectto the Chinese, to whom
and
When
Timur
conquered the rebellious Kiptchak khan Toktamish
devastated
his realm
had
far as Moscow, Toktamish
fled to Lithuania.
as
The
prince of that country, Withold, not only repulsed the inroad of the
Tatars from Poland, but in 1.397 crossed the Dnieper with an army
composed
of Poles, Lithuanians, and
the territoryof the
Russians, and devastated
Tatars
notably that of Prince Edigei as far as the Don, and took back to
took

"

"

Lithuania
their

new

"

many

home

thousands

of

Tatars

these renounced

Islam

with
and

their wives
mingled with

and

children.

the inhabitants

In
of

ANTECEDENTS

OF

THE

TURKISH

NATIONS

307

[1400-1480 D.]
A.

Withold
and his protege the khan
the country.
Vorskla
the
on
August 5th, 1399, by Edigei and
had
he
had
whom
put on the throne and who

Toktaniish

by

the

been

defeated

were

khan

KotUog

confirmed

on

Timur,

in his office

died on
October
Kothlog Timur
29th, 1399, and Edigei made
his brother Shad-i-begking. Shad-i-beg caused
Toktaniish
to be murdered
afterwards himself deposed by Edigei,wherein 1408 in Siberia,but was
soon
upon
of Kothlog's,Pulad.
the latter elevated a son
in
Edigei wished,
1409,
to march
against Lithuania,supported by the king; but since the Russian
grand duke Vasili Dmitrievitch (1389-1425) refused his alliance they opened
him
instead,and with terrible devastation of the country reduced
war
upon
Pereiaslavl,
Rostov, Dmitrov, Serpukhov, and Nijni-Novgorod to ashes.
Only
withstood
stormed
Moscow
for three
bravely, although it was
by Pulad
December
The retiring
Tatar
weeks beginning on
carried
1st, 1410.
army
prisonerswith it that every soldier had forty as his share of the
so
many
time, however, another son of Kothlog, Timur, had
booty. In the mean
usurped the throne,and in July, 1411, forced Edigei with his puppet khan
in the same
Pulad to flee. Timur
dethroned
was
year by Jelal ad-din,a son
in turn
murdered
of Toktamish, but Jelal ad-din
was
by his brother Kerim
Berdei in December, 1412, in a battle in which
defeated.
This
Edigei was
in 1418 by another
fratricide was
murdered
of his brothers,Yarim
Ferdei or
Edigei conspiredwith Withold of Lithuania.
Tschappar Berdei, againstwhom
in opposition to him.
Six other opposition khans
They set up Tschekre
time.
Ulu (i.e. the great)Makhmet, who drove out Tschekre
at the same
arose
victorious
all his rivals,
and took Edigei prisoner,
and
after
was
over
finally
Kutchuk
1427 ruled for a short time alone.
(little)
Muhammed,
however, a
of Timur's, and Gaias
then arose
son
ad-din,a son of Shad-i-beg's,
against
Abu-Said
Said Ahmed
or
Janibeg,the son of Barrah ; Gaias ad-din also drove
killed by Kutchuk
Ulu Muhammed
out of Sarai,but was
Muhammed
after a

by

Timur.

and

month

half.

Although
was

power

Kazan,

Muhammed

was

limited,for

and

Ahmed

Said

khan

now

still very

Ulu

of the
Muhammed

Golden

Horde

founded

(ordu) his

another

khanate

ruled

independently at laik and Haji Girai or


Gherai in the Crimea and on the lower Volga. All these hordes were
some
troubleand Poland
of their devastatinginroads, but they
to Russia
account
on
and more
became more
weakened
med
through internal dissensions. Ulu Muhamat

killed by his own


Mahmudek
was
son
establish himself between
and
the Don
the

Haji

Girai in 1445.

and

sent

to

harass

to

He

Kovno,
Russia

was

where

and

he

in

1446; Said Ahmed

until

1460.

There

because
the Russian
the khan of Crimea, Haji
the peace.

grand duke Ivan


allies and
Girai,were

When
khanate

Haji Girai
Kazan, and

in

for nine

years

Golden

Horde

died

subdued

refused

to

pay

in

1466, Ivan
it in 1469
tribute

to

was

no

one

Vasilievitch
after

Kutchuk

three

back

the dominion

then

peace

Vasilievitch

ventured

ventured

to

Ivan

it the

khan

five
and

disturb

to attack

years'war.

Kazimierz, the

for

(1462-1505)

Muhammed,

that King
Sarai, but now
of Russia,offered to aid him, Muhammecl
esteemed
win

to

driven out by
was
V of Poland
taken prisonerby Kazimierz
finally
died in misery,although his horde still continued

Podolia

years,

wished

Dnieper, but

of

the
had
the

bitter opponent
proper

time

to

of 1480 he declared
Russia,and in the summer
The grand duke, however, very
war.
cleverlyallied himself with Mengli
Girai,the khan of Crimea, the son of Haji Girai,so that the latter was forced
to fall u()on Podolia
and
made
it impossiblefor the king
Volhynia, which
of Poland
could not
to send help to Muhammed.
Since the Tatars
pass
over

THE

308

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[t4S0-14Sl A.D.]

was
by the Russians, they turned towards Ugra, hoping
Oka,
of Poland
there to see their ally Kazimierz
coming to their assistance with
and the Russians, urged on
Ho
did not come,
by the clergyto
an
army.
fight for liberation from the heathen yoke, flocked togetherin such numbers
that their camp
covered a space of forty-five
miles,aiul tlrove back the Tatar
From
October
Sth until December
the Ugra.
vanguard which wished to cross
7th the armies, separated by the river,stood facingeach other, inactive

which

except for

fortified

skirmishes.

few

the khan

since

The

demanded

duke

of peace, but
propo.sals
surrender,
debasement, and

grand

made

servile

unconditional

the tribute which


for

nine

years,

had

been

the

in

terms

arrears

not

were

tivity
accepted. But this delay and inacdiscouraged the Russians so
nmch
that they were
seized by a
jnuiic for no especialcau.se, and on
November
7th took flight.
At
the same
time, however, the
khan

Kutchuk

Muhanuned

also retired
received
news
not
that Kazimierz
hard pressed
was
had

he

because

only
b}'Mengli Girai and could not come
but also that the
to his a.ssistance,
grand duke had sent down an army
imder the Crimean
prince Nurdewlet
and
the voyevode of Sweingrod on
the Volga to attack his capitalSarai;
he had cause
to fear also that Mengli
in the rear.
attack him
latter had incited Iwak,
of the Sheibanian
lords of

Girai would
In

fact

the

the

khan

.lumen,

fall upon

to

Sarai

from

laik,

destroy the yurl of the khan and


his family,then to cross
murder
the
and
forces
with
the
teen
sixjoin
\'olga
thoiLsand Nogaian Tatars under
brother-in-law
of
Yaghmurjei, a
to

thrctitened

had
of

Messenger,

Turkey

In
Iwak

the latter in his

Thus

tent.

own

died

this
and

Kutchuk

of the year 1481, in the forty-third


year of
who
(iolden
Horde
khans
rulers
of
the
as

ever

since

terror

1221, indeed, when

himself in

Russia

less

warlike

her

Kiptchak.
through her own

of their power

thus

Kutchuk

retired to the neighbourhood


to winter
there.
he was
attacked
by

Asov

had

for

wide

killed

anil

.Muhanuned, at
his reign; he was

far and

was

sides.

place
Yaghmurjei

of the

sixtyyears spread the

all

on

Muhammed
A

who

Muhammed,

Kutcluik

by
beginning

the

the fiftieth

hundred

two

in Asia

and

and

Europe,
Juji,the .son of Jenghiz Khan, had established
the yoke of the Tatars,
at length free from
was
strengththan through the inner dissensions of

oppressors.

The

fragments still remaining of the

of the Golden

Horde

were:

in Siberia ; (2) the khanate

once

(1) The khanate


of Astrakhan
on

so

powerful Kiptchak

of the Sheibanian

the lower

Volga

horde

and

on

khanate

at Jumen

the Don

ANTECEDENTS
(1475-1784

steppes

first

The

the

all
to

was

conquered

really

had

Porte

by

chosen

and

effected

1783,

declared

Porte

was

the

the

of

Its

who

the

I, and,
in

there

became

lost

through

which

language

and

that

continuation

in

1402,
land

Muhammed
a

the

been

19th,

provision

the

afterwards,
Turk

great

heavily

Abdulthe

of

last

Europe.

eastern

on

fragments

hundred

they

Tatar

habits

fifty
of

and

and

customs

Turkish

Turkish,

far

scourge
c

as

When

lands

established

under

1355

invaded
as

and

Europe

in

II.

western

Ottoman

the

had

disappeared

years,
so

last

eastern

region

the

devastating

religion,

of

of

part

stronghold

chiefly

the

the

ruled

of

kingdom

the

India.

this

all

sixty

to

be

sion
oppres-

Turkey

the

the

1774

April

on

this

to

of

weighed

seized

English

only

in

had

To

it

Dolgomki,

Turkish

and

but

election
of

went

command

Crimea
;

was

whose

pension,

Girai

and

the

Peter

which

province.

the

at

confirmed

uivaded

account

on

subject

far

so

and

II,

were

outlasted

devastation

state,

Girai,

him

1784.

hundred

into

were

in

and

Kutchuk-Kainardji

khan

gave

became

it

Catherine
of

Russian

southern

under

1453

surname

Crimea

appointed

extensive

obliged

was

power

which

the

broke

as

hammed

justice

in
first

Adrianople

whom

in

mogul

place

five

power

period

same

grand

the

Tatar

the

Russia

to

repeatedly

caused

The

Rhodes

at

after

they

independent

Russia,

be

1475

that

Peace

an

acquiesce

death

to

the

Khwarezm

bore

the

in

After

Empress

people.

to

to

Thas,

of
the

This

Crimea

put
I.

vestige
At

by

subjection

armies

raids

as

the

Russia.

obliged

was

Hamid

from

to

in

them

confirmed

retire

to

Russian

general

and

all

founded

II,

their

ancl

them,
recognise

to

prince

and

that

into

Mongols.

I69S,

by

1771

understood

Sir-Daria

which

of

klianate

Muhanimed
in

on

be

to

are

the

princes

came

the

the

by

inhabitants

until

not

the

soon

under

Beginning
its

as

state;

foundetl

kaan.

the

that

Ottomans,

because

309

Oirai.

Haji
khanates

hito

states

the

NATIONS

which

Signakh

Crimea,

founder

three

incorporated

far

as

thp

in

its

from

Girai,

TURKISH

under

Kiptchak,

Aclituba

khanate

the

(4)

the

of

Desht

in

khanate

the

(3)

THE

OP

D.]

A.

in

Salzburg,

conquered

their

adopted,
Christian

the

chose

under

Mu-

tinople
Constan-

we

may

Europe

of

Tatars,
in

army

power,

mans,
Otto-

They

Turkish

the

among

in

the

Batu's

in

maintained

1415

that

consider

we

they

by

Suleiman.

Germany

thousand
Asia

taken

was

1241,

hordes,
and
say
is

whose

with

only

u) C ) 1

II

CHAPTER

THE

PERIOD

AGGRANDISEMENT

OF

[1200-1520 A.D.)

About

six centuries

families

and

journeying

was

armed

PZuphrates. Their

half ago

westward

pastoralband
from

of four hundred

the

upper
four
hundred

ish
Turkriver

the

and

of
forty-four
the rightErtoghrul, whicii means
in sight of
hearted
As they traveUed
man.
through Asia Minor they came
which two armies of unequal numbers
field of battle on
were
strivingfor
a
the
the mastery.
Without
right-hearted
knowing who the combatants
were,
man"
took instantly the chivalrous
resolution to aid the weaker
party, and
his
warriors
the
and
with
larger host,
charging desperately
victoriously
upon
he decided
the
oriental
historian
the fortune
of the day.
to
Such, according
the
is
the
recorded
of
that
Turkish
which
first
branch
of
race
Neschri,*
exploit
from
of
the
been
nation
has
called
the
Othman,
Ertoghrul's son, Osman
or
and

horsemen,

consisted

of

streams

force

tlieir leader's

name

was

"

Ottoman

Turks.

foundation

of their

that has been


The

And

this, their earliest

empire, we

their

may

characteristic

little band

of

trace

down

the
to

l']rtoghrul
wa.'^

our

feat

same
owm

fragment
Ertoghrul's father, Suleiman
Shah,

wliifh, under
in Khora.san

in

and

left this country

sojourned
also, and

for

time

of

which

arms,

led

to

the

spiritof haughty generosity


times.
of

tribe of

had

in Armenia.

followingthe

Turks

Oghuz

left their settlements


After

few

years

they

towards

of the

course
Euphrates
in that river.
The greater
accidentallydrowned
of
of
tribe
the
followed
it
then
of
remnant
little
two
a
disperserl
part
; but
seek
and
who
Suleiman's
determined
to
Dundar,
a
dwelling.=;ons, Ertoghrul
(Ala-ad-din), the
place in Asia Minor, under the Seljukian Turk, Aladdin
It so
Aladdin
himself who
sultan of Iconium.
comhappened that it was

Syria, when

'

by

their

leader

were

was

the authority of Mewlana


this on
states
Ayas, who
had
stirrup-holder of Ertoghrul's grandson Orkhan, who

Neschri

the

and

had

told

it to

his followers.

310

had
heard

heard

the

it from

battle

narrated

Ertoghrul

self,
him-

THE

OF

HISTORY

THE

312

EMPIRE

TURKISH

[12oO-12SS A.D.J

race,

and

and

fresh honours
In

services by
feudatorj''s
of territory.
lieutenant,fought against a mixed

Aladdin's

Ertoghrul, as

of his

by increased donations

and

of confidence

marks

battle which

Bru^a and Yenisher, he drew up his troops


the enemy
cavalrv, called akindji,
a cloud of light
upon
completelymasking the centre of the main army, which, as the post of
of GreeLs

army
so

gladly recognisedthe value

Aladdin

to throw

as

thus

anil

Mongols,between

forward

termeil the "sultan's station."


Ertoghrulheld the centre himself,
who
his own
of the four iiundred and forty-four horsemen
were
for
Aladdin
and
whose
scimitars
had
the
when
won
day
originalfollowers,

honour,
at

was

the head

his

they first charged unconsciously in


by Ertoghrul of wearying the enemy
troops,and

then

pressing him

with

cause.

by

The

of the best

reserve

The
tactic of hLs descendants.
long and obstinate, but in the end

the favourite

employed it was
complete victory. AJaddin, on being
gallantand skilful vassal,bestowed on
Shehr, and

of the

in memory

Aladdin

to his

gave
front."

informed
him

the

prmcipalitythe

of

this

adopted
irregular
for
he

in which

Turkish

chief

additional

turies
cennow

won

of his

achievement

territoryof Eski-

which
of Sultan-Qilni,

name

of

soldiers,was

battle
the

now

mass

Ertoghrul had arrayed

in which

mode

system

collision with

his army

means

tan's
"sul-

territorywhich received that name, and still bears it,as one of the
Empire, is nearly identical
sandjaks or minor governments of the Ottoman
rich in pasturage, both in its
with the ancient
Phrj'giaEpictetos. It was
and
alluvial meadows
along its mountain
slopes. It contained also many
and
the romantic
lands and vifieyards,
fertile com
beauty ..ofevery part of
the traveller's
and well-watered
still attracts
its thicklywooded
higlilancLs
The

admiration.''

According to another accomit, Ertoghrul and his followers were pagans, and
was
only by contact with the Mo.slem inhabitants of the country that they
Oriental historians relate that Ertoghrul
graduallybecame converted to Islam.
first became
acquainted with the Koran"' when on one of his journeys he
of a pioas Moslem.
entertained at the home
was
Seeing a book in the hands of
it

his host,he was


told that that was
the word of God as it had been announced
by his prophet. "Wlien his host had gone to bed Ertoghrul took the Koran
and read it,standing,all nightlong. He then fell asleep,
and, dreaming,heard
"
from
above
eternal
word with so much
Since
thou
hast
read
a voice
say,
my

respect, thy children and

thy children shall be honoured


succeeded
in 1288, and was
died
Ertoghrul

the children

generationto generation."

from

of

by

his

Osman.

son

The

A.D.)

(1288-1326

OSMAN

this
of limbs."
"breaker
It was
signifies
Under
the
Osmanlis
Ottomans.
or
people,
The
Osman
taken in the path of Islam.
a new
princeoften
step was
young
went
to visit the learned and pious sheikh
Edebali, livingat Ithuruni,a village
Eski-Shehr.
He saw
the sheikh's daughter, Mal-Khatun, asked for her
near
But one
hand, and was refused ; he was stilltoo insignificant
night he
a lord.
dreamed
Osman

that

he

there

their shadow
and

the

became

Othman
or
that of Osman's

saw

that she grew

Thereupon
with

Osman

name

which

name

grew

the

moon

arise from

Edebali's

biggerand biggeruntil,when
out

covered

breast.

It seemed

full,she hid herself

to

in him.

of which
of his loins a colossal tree, the branches
umns
lands and seas, domes
and obelisks,triumphal col-

pyramids. From the


Tigris,Euphrates, Nile,and

roots

of

the

Danube;

tree

four

flowed

earth's

great momitains

great rivers,
"

Caucasus,

THE

PERIOD

OF

AGGRANDISEilENT

313

[1288-1326A.D.]

supported its boughs. Suddenly a violent wind


Balkan, Taurus, and Atlas
which
antl
its
in shape like sword-blades,
leaves,
were
turning
elongatetl
arose,
all
toward
This
caused them
to point
a single
city.
city,situated at the junction
and continents,looked like a ringset with two
of two seas
sapphiresand
"

Osman

emeralds.

two

God,

and

hastened

put it

to

his

on

when
finger,
it to be

had

have

to

was

incalculable

crowd

been

influence

mixed

of

he awoke.

He

sign sent from


preaching of Edebali

him
the hand
of his daughter. The
gave
of Osman
and of his people.
the conversion
conversion

The

about

was

to his host ; the sheikli understood

related his dream

with

history. The
Turkomans, perhaps
upon

only a
nomads,
nation
of them.
a
religionmade
Furthermore,
Mongols. The new
for
them
do
what
Mohammedan
orthodox
had
orthodoxy was to
Christianity
of Byzantium
it was
the power
to give them
done for the "Romans"
to
On
the other hand
attract and assimilate heterogeneousforeignelements.
Ottomans
with

"

Islam, which

exhausted

had

itselfamong

the

Arabic, Persian,and

Berber

races,

would have fallen five hundred


impotence
years earlier into the state of political
had not, through the powerful
it to-day,if the Turkish
in which we
see
race
of the Ottoman
and
the severe
of the Ottoman
state
discipline
organisation
army,

infused into it

barbaric
and new
fanaticism.
The
life,
alliance
of
like
the
the
Franks
with Catholicism
Islam,
eighth centuries,brought forth a world. "^

alliance of the Turks


in the fifth and
Osman's

partlyat

youth, new

new

with

conquests

were

extended

soon

of rival Turkish

the expense

fortress after fortress and

beyond

region after regionfrom

close of the thirteenth century of our


era
far
advanced
northwestward
as
were
short march

of the

important

Greek

the limits of

Sultan-CEni,

chieftains,but principally
by wresting
the Gi'eek

Empire. At the
headquarters of empire
city of Yenisher, within a
and Nicsea,which were
now

the Ottoman
as

the

cities of Bru.sa

special
objectsof Turkish ambition.
It would, however, be unjast to represent Osman
as
merely an ambitious
marked
less
was
militaryadventurer,or to suppose that his whole career
by restFrom
rapacityand aggressiveviolence against the neighbouring states.
the

1291

to 1298

he

A.D.

commencement,
of other Turkish

was

at peace;

defensive

one

on

envied

emirs, who

and

the

war

that next

followed

his part, caused


by the
and who
his prosperity,

at its

was,

jealousaggressions
aided by some

were

in the vicinity. Thus


of the Greek commandants
roused into action, Osman
showed that his power
had been strengthened,
not corrupted,by repose, and he
The effect of his arms
his enemies
in every
direction.
in winning new
smote

subjectsto his sway was materiallyaided by the reputationwhich he had


acquiredas a just lawgiver and judge, in whose dominions Greek
Turk,Christian and Mohammedan, enjoyed equal protectionfor property
It was
about this time (1299) that he coined
person.
the publicprayers to be said in his name.
and
caused
effigy,
oriental

regarded as

nations,are

the distinctive marks

of

with

money

his

ourably
honand

and
own

the

These, among
royalty.

In 1326
his
on

surrendered
the great city of Brasa
to the Ottomans.
Osman
that
his father Ertoghrul had
was
death-bed,at Saguta, the first town
his son
effected this important conquest ; but he lived long
possessed,when

enough

to hear

writers narrate
advice to his

the

glad tidingsand

the last

to welcome

of Osman's

scene

The

the young

life,and

fair Mal-Khatun

hero.

professto

"My son," said

Osman

becaase I leave such

to
successor

Orkhan, "I
as

thou

am

art.

before

oriental
his

him

dying

the
gone
whom
had
but
the
brave
she
borne
Orkhan
and
two
him,
sons
Aladdin,
grave ;
and a few of liLs veteran
deatli-bcd.
at the monarch's
captainsand sages were
successor.

had

The

record

to

dying; and I die without regret,


Be just; love goodness,and show

OF

HISTORY

THE

314

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1326

subjects,and

A.

D.]

extend

the law of the


Give equal protectionto all thy
mercy.
and
it
is thus that they
prophet. Such are the duties of princesupon earth,
Then, as if he wished to take actual
bring on them the blessingsof heaven."
advised

there, and

his son's

with

himself

to associate

seisin of Brusa, and


he should be buried

his

to

son

make

glory,he directed that


that city the seat of

empire.
His last wishes were
loyallycomplied with ; and a statelymausoleum, which
destruction by fire in the present age, marked
the last
its
until
stood at Brusa
his
of
the
descendants.
and
of Osman,
proved
pious reverence
resting-place
His banner and his sabre are stillpreservedin the treasury of the empire ; and

girdingon that sabre is the solemn rite,analogous to


Christendom, by which the Turkish sultans are formally
of

the martial

ceremony
of
the coronations

invested with sovereign power.


the firstsultan of his race ; but neither he nor
is conmionly termed
Osman
He had,
assumed
than the title of emir.
his two immediate
succe.ssors
more
and

had

independent emir twenty-seven years,


thirty-nineyears of his life of sixty-eight.
the
buoyant courage, the subtle watchfulness,the
fullydisplays

His

career

death, reigned as

of his

at the time

chief

been

resolute decision, the

strong
and

affections

wielding the

an

of his tribe for

and

common-sense,

energiesof

other

the

wliioh

men

of winning and
power
the
usual attributes
are

empires. And, notwithstanding his blood-guiltinessin his


believe him to have been eminently mild and gracious
uncle's death,* we
mast
with
which
oriental sovereign,from
the traditional attachment
his
for an
cherished
his
which
is
the
still
and
is
at
accession
by
expressed
nation,
memory
of the people'sprayer,
sultan by the fornmla
of each new
May he be as good
of the founders

of

"

as

Osman."
(1326-1359

ORKHAN

A.D.)

sleptat Brusa, and Emir Orkhan


reigned in his stead.
Fratricide was
not yet regarded as the necessary
safeguard of the throne,and
Orkhan
eignty
earnestlybesought his brother Aladdin to share with him his soverAladdin
division of
and his wealth.
to any
firmly refused to consent
had
the will of their father, who
addres.sed
the empire, and so contravene
would
Alaildin
his
Nor
of
the
Orkhan
more
successor.
as
only
paternal
accept
of a singlevillage
Brusa.
Orkhan
then said
near
property than the revenues
Osman

Emir

to

him,

"

now

brother, thou

Since, my
thou

thee, be

offer

the

in the Ottoman

"vizir"

of

shepherd
language means

him, according to the

oriental

his
historians,
of his successors
did not, like many
in
the armies
of his race, but he occupied
often command
in person
that office,
himself most
with the foundation
and management
of the civil and
efficiently
in

accepting the office,took

take the flocks and the herds that I


people; be my vizir." The word
my
the bearer of a burden ; and Aladdin,

wilt not

burden

brother's

.semblance

of

to

some

of his country.
authorities,it was

vas.salageto

effigyand using his name


These
changes
but

in his time and by his advice that the


the ruler of Konieh, by stamping money
with his
in the publicprayers, was
discontinued
the
mans.
Ottoby

are

more

all the oriental writers


of

["In

Aladdin

of power.

militaryinstitutions
According

on

1299

laws, which
Osman's

old

endured
uncle

Kiiprihissar,urging caution.
his otlier followers, sliot him

tripd to dissuade

Osman,
dead

self;
himcorrectlyreferred by others to Osman
in attributingto Aladdin
duction
the introconcur
for centuries,respectingthe costume
of the

on

perhaps
tlie spot.

him

from

for fear that

a]

attacking the Greek


the old

man's

advice

stronchold

would

of

affect

THE

PERIOD

OF

315

AGGRANDISEMENT

[1326-1359A. D.]

subjectsof the empire, and


regulartroops and provided funds
various

advice

and
of

corps

that

of

of laws which
of
created a standing army
for its support.
It was, above
all,by his
Turkish
that the celebrated
statesman
contemporary
neously
formed, an institution which European writers erro-

was
janissaries
fix at a later date,and ascribe

to

Murad

I.

Military Organisation
be truly said to have organised
Aladdin, by his militarylegislation,
may
He
for
for
the
Ottoman
race.
originated the Turks a standing army of
victory
and
disciplined
paid
infantryand horse a full century before Charles
regularly
established his fifteen permanent companies of men-at-arms,
VII of France
kno^\Ti in modern
tory.
hiswhich are generallyregarded as the first standing army
at the
Orkhan's
predecessors,Ertoghrul and Osman, had made war
vassals and volunteers who
head of the armed
thronged on horseback to their
and who were
disbanded
when
summoned
for
each
banner
expedition,
prince's
insure
and
Aladdin
tletermiued
to
the
was
over.
improve
as
campaign
as soon
which
should
be
of
future successes
kept in
paid infantry,
by forming a corps
called
readiness
for
service.
These
constant
Yaya, or Piade, and
troops were
under
their respective
divided
into
and
thousands,
tens, hundreds,
they were
and
their pride and
decurions,centurions,and colonels. Their pay was high,
made
them
turbulence soon
objects of anxiety to their sovereign. Orkhan
with
wished to provide a check to them, and he took counsel for this purpose
who
with the
and Kara
Khali Tschendereli,
connected
his brother Aladdin
was
and the vizir a
royalhouse by marriage. Tschendereli laid before his master
of
of
renowoied
the
which
the
out
so
long the
arose
janissaries,
project
corps
of
their
of
Christendom
the
terror
own
also,
sovereigns,and
so
long,
scourge
the
himself.
which was
sultan
finally
extirpatedby
Tschendereli proposed to Orkhan
to create
an
entirelycomposed of
army
Mohammedan
who should be forced to ailoptthe
Christian children,
religion.
Black Khalil argued thas :
The conquered are the property of the conqueror,
of them, of their lands, of their goods, of their wives,
who Ls the lawful master
and of their children.
We have a rightto do what we will with our own
; and
which
I propose
the treatment
is not
only lawful,but benevolent.
By
of these captivechildren to the true faith and enrolling
the conversion
enforcing
"

"

them

in the ranks

of the true believers,


of the army
consult both their temporal
we
in the Koran
eternal interests ; for is it not written
that all children
He
also allegedthat the
are, at their birth,naturallydisposed to Islam?"
formation of a Mohammedan
children
would induce other
out of Christian
army
and

Christians to
recruited not
crowd

of

force would
be
adopt the creed of the prophet ; so that the new
only out of the chUdren of the conquered nations, but out of a
their Christian friends and relations,
who would come
volunteers
as

ranks.
jointhe Ottoman
Actingon this advice, Orkhan selected out of the families of the Christians
whom
he had conquered a thousand
of the finest boys. In the next
year a
to

thoasand
children

more
was

were

taken

continued

and

for three

this annual

enrolment

centuries,until the

of

Cliristian
thousand
Muhainmed

reignof Sultan

did
in the campaign of the year
prisonersmade
not supply a thousand
serviceable boys, the number
completed by a
was
levyon the families of the Christian subjectsof the sultan. This was '^hanged
in the time of Muhammed
IV, and the corps was thenceforth recruited from
the children of janissaries
and
native
Turks; but during the conamong

IV,

in

1648.

When

the

THE

316

OF

HISTORY

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[132C-1359 A.D.]

period of

quering
designedby
Tiie
writers
the

name

liave

dervish

Orkhan,

soon

the Ottoman

power

the

institution of the

janissaries,
as

in full vigom*.
Tschendereh, was maintained
which
of yeni tscheri,
"new
means
troops,"and which European
turned
into janissaries,
was
given to Orkhan's young
corps by
for sanctity; and
renowned
Hadji Beytasch. This dervLsli was

AladcHn

and

after he had

enrolled his firstband

of

involuntaryboyish proselytes,
to the dwelling-place

led them
of

the

them

saint, and

lu^ked him
and
a
name.
blessing

his

The
the sleeve of his mantle
the head of one
in the first rank,
then said to the sultan, "The

dervish
over

and

drew

troop which
be

give

to

called

thou

shall be white

hast
tscheri.

yeni

and

created

shall

Their

faces

shining,their right

shall be strong, their sabres shall


be keen, and their arrows
sharp. They

arms

shall be
shall

fortunate

in

fight,and

they

leave the battle-field save

never

of that
conqueroi-s."In memory
the janksariesever wore,
benediction,

as

part of

as

their uniform, a cap


of
felt,like that of the dervish,

white
with

stripof

behind,

woollen

holy man's

their comratle's

on

The

chosen

as

at

were

to

were
janissaries
asually
They were
age.

tender

from

their parents, trained to


the faith in which
they were

and

baptised,and

renomice

born

neck.

Christian children who

be trained
torn

hanging down

represent the sleeve of the


mantle
that had been laid

to

creed of Mohammed.

to professthe
They were then

for a .soldier'slife.
educated
carefully
which
to
discipline
they were
severe.
subjected was
They were
taught the most
implicitobedience;
and they were
acciL^tomed
to bear,
without
repining, fatigue,pain, and
and
hunger. But liberal honours

The

promotion

prompt
rewards
A

Dervish

off from

mth

opportunitiesfor

amid
grew

the sordid

devised

passions

of their

of successful warfare, this

atrocities
the customary
the strongest and
to be
up

which

remorseless

The
of the founders

fiercest instrmiient

fanaticism,prompted by the

earth.
upon
Ottoman
historians

the

sure

and
docility

kin,but with high pay and privileges,


and
advancement
for the gratification
military

ample
violent,the sensual,and

of the

were

Cut
courage.
all ties of country, kith,and

of

eulogisewith
They

of this institution.

one

most

accord

reckon

animal

natures

militarybrotherhood
of imperial ambition

subtle
the

statecraft,ever

sagacityand

the number

piety

of conquerors

THE
[1326-1359

A.

PERIOD

OF

AGGRANDISEMENT

317

D]

it gave to heaven, on
cartli,and of heirs of paradisewhom
the
stated
numl^cr
of a thousand
the hypotliesis
that, during three centuries,
Christian children,neither more
less,was levied,converted, and enlisted.
nor
delivered
They boast, accordingly,that three hundred thoasand children were
it gave

whom

from

to

of hell by being made


the torments
from
the increase in the number

janissaries.But
of these

von

troops under

Hammer
later

culates,
cal-

sultans,

Christians
have been thus made
must
first
that at least half a million of young
and then the cruel ministers of Mohammedan
victims
the helpless
power.
Aladdin
After the organisation of the janissaries
regulated that of the
In order that the soldier should
have
interest
other corps of the army.
an
not

only

in

but

making
receive

in

preservingconquests,

allotments

it

was

determined

that the

of lanil in the

subjugated territories. The


but
they
regularinfantry,the piade, had at first received pay in money;
had lands given to them on tenure
of militaryservice,and they were
also
now
under the obligationof keeping in good repair the public roads that led near
their grounds. The irregular
infantry,which had neither pay like the janissaries
called azab, which
lands like the piade,was
means
nor
"light." The
held of little value, antl the azabs
lives of these undisciplinedbands
were
forward
of a
thrown
to perish in multitudes
at the commencement
were
bodies
that
battle or a siege. It was
their
the
marched
over
janissaries
usually
to the decisive charge or the final assault.
The
distributed
cavalry was
by Aladdin, like the infantry,into regular
divided
and irregular
into
troops. The permanent
corps of paid cavalry was
instituted
four squadrons, organised like those which
the caliph Omar
for
The
whole
of
the guard of the sacred standard.
first
consisted
at
only
corps
troops should

four hundred
horsemen
under
Suleiman
thousand
the Great
two
the
; but
raised to four thousand.
number
marched
the
and
left
was
on
They
right
his tent at night,and
of the sultan; they camped round
his bodythey were
guard
in battle.
of these regiments of royal horse guards was
called
One
the Turkish
spahis,a term applied to cavalry soldiers generally,but also

called
speciaUydenoting these select horse guards. Another
regiment was
called the oidouthe silihdars,
meaning the "vassal cavalry." A third was
called ghoiireba,
fedji,
meaning the "paid horsemen"; and the fourth was
meaning the "foreignhorse."
Besides this permanently embodied
formed
corps of i)aidcavalry,Aladdin
received grants of land like the piade. As they paid
a force of horsemen, who
for the lands which
termed
taxes
no
they thus held, they were
moselliman,
which means
"tax-free."
commanded
They were
by sandjak beys (princesof
dreds).
standards),by binbaschi (chiefsof thousands), and soubaschi (chiefs of hunThere
of the grand and
other fiolders
were
petty fiefs which were
called ziamets and
will be adverted
timars.
These terms
to hereafter,
when
reach
feudal
the period at which
the Turkish
we
more
system was
fully
bound
to
developedand defined. But in the earliest times their holders were
render
.service
horseback
when
their
summoned
on
military
by
sovereign;
and they were
arrayed under banners, in thousands and in hundreds, like the
In addition to the regularand
moseUimans.
feudal cavalry,there were
the
neither
akindji,or irregularlighthorse, receiving
nor
lands,but dependent
pay
still called together in multitudes
whenever
on
an
plunder, who were
Ottoman

the march; and


these active
and
the terror which
on
was
army
ferocious marauders
spread far and wide beyond the regular line of operations
made the name
of the akindjiiis much
and dreaded
in Christendom
known
as
that of the janissaries
and spahis.''

Orkhan

was

the firstsultan of the Osmanli

Empire.

Cantacuzenus

joined

OF

HISTORY

THE

318

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[13.59-1389A. D.]

with

him

John

to attack

and
(V) PaIa"ologa"",

him

his

daughter in
sensions
marriage : and the Turks seized upon every opportunity to benefit by the disin tlie Byzantine Empire.
Orkhan's
the first
Suleiman, was
son,
prince who entertained the idea of gaining a firm footing in Europe. An
in the Thracian
toral,
litearthquake about this time severelyinjured tlie towns
their walls.
and threw down
Through the."e openings the Turks forced
and fortified themselves
into the tovsiis,
in them.
The most
their way
tant
importhe town
of Gallipoli,
then called Callipolis,
of the.se conquests was
the
of
and
the
the
Greek
and
trade.
of
the
eastern
Hellespont
emporimn
key

died

Suleiman

(he

the

was

even

gave

his

before

of a fall from his horse


father,in consequence
buried
in
prince
Europe) : and consequently,on

first Osmanli

the throne (1359-1389).


Orkhan's death,his younger
brother,Murad
I,mounted
from
the
whole
the
The latter conquered
Hellespont to the Balkan,
country
and made
Adrianople the chief seat of his empire. For the first time the

Greeks

surrounded

were

in

foe both in Europe


capitalby the same
Greek
menaced.
The
Empire that was
in regionswhich
had been inaccessible even

their

alone

not

was

the

of the Mohammedans

appearance
to

it

But

Asia.

and

under

the Arabians

of Islam

the first fervour

adjoiningcountries,if not to all Europe, and


crusade
a
against the Turks, the rulers
united

Wallachia

in

against the

war

of

common

and

the

became

tributaryor entirelysubject to the Turks.

tribes

of terror

cause

to

the

Pope Urban \' had preached


Himgary, Ser\'ia,Bosnia, and
foe.
They were, however,

defeated, and
either

Slavonic

was

after

Danube

the

between

the

Adriatic

They attempted

several insurrections,but without


result.
permanent
any
In a rebellion of the Servians, in connection
with the Albanians
and the
of his glory and
of his life. The
found
the termination
Bosnians, JIurad
Turks
gained in 1389 a decisive victoryon the Amselfeld in Servia ; but after
the end
The

sultan

order
He

to gaze

on

remarked

he

fell

by the

circumstances

hand

of

which

Servian

bear

noble, by
romantic

most

name

tinge.

the field of battle,accompanied by his vizir,in


the multitude of victims who
had fallen before his prowess.

going

was

after

night to come
added, "dreams
heard
was
by
and

battle JIurad

of the

Kobilovitch, under

Milosh

while,
I

true.
are

over

"

It would

myself

saw

the creation

Servian
concluded
that
a

be

murdered

of the

who

lay among

the

sultan

dream
of last
my
hostile hand.
But," he

strange

were

by
fancy; it

cannot

the dead

but

stood

before

be

possible." This
yet expired,
Collectinghis last

had

him.

not

despairingenergies,he rose suddenly and stabbed the sultan. The Serbian


of course
also expired within
cut
to pieces,but the sultan
hours.
two
was
Before he died,however, he ordered the execution of Lazarus, the captured
king of Servia. "*
The Servian
chroniclers and the Bj'zantinehistorians give another version
"The
of the death of Murad:
night before the battle the king was
drinking
with

his nobles

said Lazarus

out

of

cups

called

stravizas.

Milo.sh,although you

'Drink

accused

this cup

to

health,'

my

Thanks,'
betraying us.'
will prove
The
next
repliedMilosh, to-morrow
morning Milo.sh,
my fidelity.'
and asked, as a fugitive,
to the enemy's camp
to
on
a powerful charger,went
be allowed tokis^s the sultan's feet. The
boon
was
granted him." ' It is then
to

are

of

'

'

that Milosh

is said to have

seized

the favourable
'

Jean

Ducas.

moment

to

stab Murad.

HISTORY

THE

320

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1396-1405 A.D.)

siblyhave been gained had they not rashlydispersedin pursuitere they came
When
they perceived this phalanx
up with the nucleus of Bayazid's army.
sank.
The majorit}'fled in terror; a few onl}^sought and found
their spirits
honourable
death, but even
flightcould not save the rest. The count de
an
illustrious comradestaken prisonerwith twenty-one of his most
Nevers
was
did Sigisnmnd now
lead up his Bavarian
and Styrian
In vain
in-arms.
brave
The
of
fate
of
the
his
and
Hungarians.
a body
day was decided
knights
the
of
who
confederates
the
Turks.
were
Sigismund escaped
by the Servians,
board a boat on the Danube.
with great difficulty
on
When
Bayazid on the next morning surveyed the battle-field and saw sixty
and swore
of his soldiers lyingdead, he wept for grief,
thousand
to revenge
the
Turks
the captives. After the French
death of so many
knights had
upon
the sultan ordered a massacre,
been resers-ed for the sake of the hea^y ransom,
of the prisonershad been killedere his magnates cast themselves
and ten thousand
for the rest, which
he conceded.
The
at his feet and
implored mercy
and
in
until
his
comrades
de
Nevers
liberated
coimt
pined
captivity
they were
of 200,000 ducats.
Bayazid was
only prevented by a severe
by a ransom
in the west, but his troops
attack of gout from pursuing his victorious career
and
burned Pettau.
far into St3Tia
advanced
the

In

while

mean

the Greek

from

assistance

of Sebastia

town

his hands

into

the

time

marched

Timur

the

and

and

hurried
in

had

subverted

the most

the

Euphrates on the appeal for


In 1400 he conquered the Pontic
executed
Bayazid's son, who fell

to

Bayazid, who

siegeand

southwards, and

Baghdad

the Lame

advanced

of Trebizond.

court

this occasion.

on

and

Damascus,

had

(now called Sivas)

Constantinople,raised
mean

terrible

in Asia, and

powerfulthrones

to

then

was

before

.-VsiaMinor.
short

ven*'

of

space
At
army.

fell before

the walls

Timur

his powerful
for the decisive contest
before

had

time

of

in the

Aleppo,

last the

Turkish
(1402). The

Mongolian army met


Angora
of warriors,and
armies probably amounted
to a million
although the
far superiorin number, the Turks
made
for
this by their
Mongolians were
up
experiencein war.
But
Bayazid selected,in contradiction to the adAice of his grand ^^zi^,a
in his army
deserted
to
plain for the battle-field,and as the Asiatics serA-ing
defeated
in
of
their
usual
Timur
the
the
Turks
during
were
spite
engagement,
of his body-guard
taken prisoner,after the whole
bravery,and Bayazid was
of
five
their
lives
his
had fallen. Three
saved
Suleiman, Muhammed,
sons
taken prisonerwith his father,
and Mu.sa, late the viceroyin Europe. Isa was
Timur
treated the captured
and his remaining son, Mustapha, fell in battle.
two

"

with

monarch

respect, and

encampment

in

Thence

the

aro.se

Bayazid
where

died

in

on

his attempt

to escape

gilded litter,like those that


rmiiour

of the iron

imprisonment

in

cage

had

in which

1403, and

him

Turkish

Timur

he

carried

ladies

from

made

was

said

retired

to

use

each
of.

be

kept.
Samarkand,
to

he also died in 1405.

CrVTL

WAR

and death the Turkish


Bayazid's captiv-ity
Empire seemed utterly
especiallyas his sons carried on a war against each other,
from which only an entire dis.'jolution of the state could be expected. Suleiman,
the eldest son, took possessionof his father's treasures, occupied the Turcoand
Muhammed
European provinces,and selected Adrianople as his abode.
in Asia. Minor, where
Musa
remained
the former resided in Amasia, the latter
With

annihilated,more

in Brusa.

THE

PERIOD

AGGRANDISEMENT

OF

321

[1403-1444A.D.]

the brothers led to the death of two (Musa and


the contest between
reunited
his father's
the
third
I
and
empire, as Muhammed
Suleiman),
emirs
in
Asia
Minor.
died
in
He
the
Turkish
and subjected
1421,
(1413-1421),
for fortydays, till
it advisable to conceal his death
but his vizirs considered
Asia and
ascended
the throne.
II (1421-1451),his son, arrived from
Murad
But

Mustapha who asserted that he was the


of the assistinto Hungary on account
ance
pretender. But on this occasion the
an
opponent equal to them, the brave Janos Hunyady, the future
Transylvania. He gained the first victoryover the Turks on the

contests with a false


Murad had many
in 1440 he m.arched
and
of
Bayazid,
son
that country had afforded to the

found
^"oyevodof

Turks

of the enemy
18th of March, 1442, at Herrmannstadt, and twenty thousand
of
thousand
Turkish
battle-field
second
the
men
left on
eighty
; a
were
army
leader
the
Turkish
fifteen
at
thousand,
Vasag, although
he defeated with only
as
had boasted that the Himgarians would flyas soon
they saw his turban.

Julian,who had been sent by Pope Eugene to the Hungarian


made
King Wladyslaw, who bore the double
court,
every exertion to induce
effective war
and
to
of
commence
a more
againstthe
Poland,
Hungary
crown
the
of
crusade
which
He
of
Christians.
universal enemy
a
promised
support
the
whole
of
His
the
west.
the pope had ordered to be preached through
of
garians,
Hunof 1443 a largearmy,
and in the summer
words had effect,
composed
Cardinal

and
German
crusaders, crossed the
Poles, Servians, A^'allachians,
a glorious
campaign, and had it been followed up by others
the power
of the Turks might have been broken.
Hunyady
in
crossed
1443.
the
Balkan
and
in
the
two
December,
battles,
victory
gained
and
sickness
of
far
want
and
But as the year was
provisions
so
advanced,
harassed the troops,they retreated,
though not without brilliant hopes for the
It was
Danube.
of a similar nature

next

year.

'^

the defeats which his


the
forces had sustained
confederacy there
He sought by the sacrifice
formed againsthim filledhim with grave alarm.
for the rest of his European
of the more
remote
conquests of his house to secure
re-established in the
which
he had
dominions
the same
tranquillity
cluded
conAsiatic. After a long negotiationa treaty of peace for ten years was
the 12th of July, 1444, by which the sultan resigned
at Szegedin on
its independent
all claims upon
as
Servia,and recognisedGeorge Brankovich
and
the
sultan
paid sixty
sovereign. Wallachia was given up to Hungary ;
who had
of Mahmud
thousand ducats for the ransom
Tchelebi, his son-in-law,
had

Murad

been

personallysuccessful in Asia; but


the strength of
in Europe and

and had been taken prisoneriri the late campaign.


written both in the Hungarian and in the Turkish
treaty was
the sultan swore
the Gospels,and
languages; King Wladyslaw swore
upon
observed.
and
be
the
it
should
that
religiously
Koran,
truly
upon
Murad
now
thought that his realm was at jx-ace, and that he himself,after
commanded
The

so

We

many

years

have

ample

againstHunyady

of

watched
to

reason

might hcjpeto
anxiety and toil,
him
admire

hitherto
his

as

man

capacity and

of

taste

the

of
blessings

action, and

vigour

in council

we

and

repose.

found
in the field.
have

But Murad
had
also other virtues of a softer order, which are not often to
He
be found in the occupant of an oriental throne.
was
gentle and alTectionate in all the relations of domestic
life. Instead of seeking to assure
his safetyby the death of the two younger
brothers,for whose fate their
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

THE

323

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1444 A.D.)

father had

been

treated them
with kindness and honour
anxious, Murad
whOe
they Hved, and bitterlylamented their loss when they died of the plague
The other brother, who
took up arn^s
in their palace at Brusa.
against him,
so

forgave,for the sake of a sister who was


the treasonable
with which that
hostility
assailed him; and
the tears of another sister
of Osman
vassal of the house
for the captivityof her husband, Mahmud
Tchelebi,and her entreaties that
of the terrible Hunyady, were
the power
he miglitbe rescued from
believed
his orders.

killed without

was

married

to

the

prevailedmuch

to have

that

When

He

prince of Kirman,

causing Murad

in

treaty

Murad

learningthe

death

was

ileepaffliction

of

to seek

concluded

the

of Szegedin.
pacification
to
passed over
Asia, where he

of his eldest

Prince Aladdin,
son
of the Ottoman
forces in Asia during
who had shared with him the command
The
bitterness of this bereavement
the operations of the preceding year.
Murad
had already acquired for the pomp
increased the distaste which
and
the throne in favour of
to abdicate
turmoil of sovereignty. He determined
the

met

his second

son,

Prince Muhanmied, and to pass


in austere
But it was
not

the rest

of his life in retirement

privationnor in the fanatic


raonasticism
that Murad
exercises of Mohammedan
designed his private life
He was
of
the
contemner
to be wasted.
no
pleasuresof sense, and the scene
furnished
with
all
the
of his retreat was
amply
ministryof every delight.
at

Magnesia.

TREACHERY

OF

CHRISTIANS

roused the
The tidingsof warfare renewed
by the Christian powers soon
of bliss. The king of
bold Paynim, like Spenser'sCymocles, from his bower
hostilities in a spiritof
Hungary and his confederates had recommenced
its
from
received
reward.
Within
that
the
a month
just
quickly
treachery
had
signature of the Treaty of Szegedin the pope and the Greek emperor
of
and
oath
his
counsellors
take
the
break
to
to
an
persuaded
king
Hungary
the oath which had been pledged to the sultan.
They representedthat the
of Murad
of the Ottomans, and the retirement
confessed weakness
to Asia,
an
opportunity for eradicatingthe Turks from Europe, which ought to
gave
The cardinal Julian pacifiedthe conscientious
be fullyemployed.
misgivings
which young
authority in giving
King Wladyslaw expressed,by his spiritual
in the pope's name,
and
and absolution
by his eloquence in
dispen-sation
the
celebrated
thesis
that
faith
is to be kept with
no
infamously
maintaining
misbelievers.
science
long resisted the persuasionsto break the treaty, but his conwas
appeased by the promise that he should be made independent
He
king of Bulgaria when that province was
conquered from the Turks.
stipulatedonly that the breach of the treaty should be delaj-edtillSeptember
1st; not out of any lingeringreluctance to violate it,but in order that the
ing
confederates might first reap all possiblebenefit from it by securelyestablishthen
their forces in the strongholdsof Servia, which the Ottomans
were
evacuating in honest compliance with their engagements. On September 1st
the king, the legate,and Hunyady marched
against the surprisedand unprepared

Hunyady

Turks

with

an

temerity which

made

with

force

army

them

of

ten

thousand

Poles

and

destroy the Turkish

Hungarians.
in

The

Europe
power
dishonestyof their enterprise. They
advanced
into Wallachia, where
Drakul, the prince of that country, joined
with his levies. That sagacious chieftain saw
the inadequacy of King
them
for the task which he had undertaken, and remonstrated
Wladyslaw's means
so

slighta

was

expect

equal

to

to

the

THE

PERIOD

OF

AGGRANDISEMENT

323

(1444A.D.]

againstadvancing further. This brought on a personal difference between


of which
Drakul
drew his sabre against the
him and Hunyady, in the course
punished by an imprisonment, from which he
Hungarian general,and was
released only by promising fresh suppliesof troops and a large contribution
was
of money.
in full confidence of success
crossed
the Danube, and
The Christian army
marched
along the line of that river through Bulgaria to the Black Sea.
southward
along the coast, destroyinga Turkish flotilla,
They then moved

Pezech.

and

of many

surrender

receivingthe
Sunium
sword

or

Other

messengers

The

and
fortresses,

Turkish

storming the strongholdsof


placeswere
put to the
attacked and taken,and
next

garrisonsof these

was
precipices.Kavarna
finallythe Christians formed the siegeof the celebrated city of Varna.
The
was
possessionof Varna
then, as now, considered essential for the
of an invading army
further advance
against the Turkish European Empire.
Hunyady was stillsuccessful ; Varna surrendered to his arms ; the triumphant
Christians were
encamped near it,when they suddenly received the startling
it
that
that was
their adversary,
was
no
longer the boy Muliammed
tidings
himself
heard
but that Sultan Murad
that
the best warwas
again. They
riors
of Asiatic Turkey had thronged togetherat the sununons
of their veteran
and
his
sovereign;that the false Genoese had been bribed to carry Murad
the Bosporus, by a ducat for each soldier's
forty thoasand
strong, across
army,
the papal fleet that cruised idlyin the Hellespont.
thus baffling
freight,

thrown

over

battle

showed

had

and

council
there

of
await

war

who

camp,

announced

that

against them by forced marches, and that


was
posted within four miles of Varna.
in which
Hunyady prepared for it
; but the mode
unabated.
He
was
rejectedthe advice which some

army
inevitable

was

into the Christian

come

that his confidence

in

gave

hurried

soon

the unresting sultan


the imperialTurkish

to

on

form

intrenchments

the sultan's

attack.

He

and

barricades
for

round

their

advance

against
the advancing foe. The young
king caught the enthusiastic daring of his
favourite general,and
broke
the Christian army
their lines,and
up from
i of
marched
into the level ground northward
down
the city to attack the
there by a deep
sultan,who had carefullystrengthened his encampment
ditch and palisades.
camp

BATTLE

On

the

armies

were

OF

was

an

VARNA

of the feast of St.

Mathurin, November
10th, 1444, the two
arrayed for battle. The left wing of the Christian army
sisted
conchieflyof Wallachian
troops. The best part of the Hungarian soldiery
in the rightwing, where
crusaders
also stood the Prankish
under
the
was
cardinal Julian.
in the centre
The king was
with the royal guard and the
The rear-guardof Polish troops was
under the
nobilityof his realms.
young
of
Peterwardein.
of
acted
commander-in-chief
the whole
bishop
as
Hunyady
first
On
the
of
Turkish
side
the
lines
two
were
army.
composed
cavalry and
of
the
irregular
infantry,the beyler-bey Rumelia
commanding on
right and
the beyler-beyof vVnatoIia on the left. In the centre, behind their lines,the
sultan took his post with his janissaries
and
the regularcavalry of his bodyguard.
The
of
the
violated
and
lance-head
was
on
a
placed
treaty
copy
raised on high among
the Turkish ranks for a standard
in the battle,and as a
visible appeal to the God
of truth,who
mankind.
punishes perjury among
'

and

Murad
had

then

eve

had

probably

marched

crossed

eastward

the

upon

Balkan
Varna.

by the

that

This

bring him

pass
would

leads

from
to

the

.Vidos to Travadi,
of Hunyady.
rear

HISTORY

TiHE

324

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1444-1445 A.D.]

At the very instant when


troubled the Christians.
their ranks, and

blew

the armies
A

encounter, an evil omen


sudden
blast of wind
swept through
to the ground, save
only that of the

were

strong and

all their banners

about

to

king.
Yet

of the battle seemed

the commencement

and

gloriousvnctory.
wing, and charged the
and

chased

from

them

Hunyady
Asiatic

with

troops

field.

the

such

the other

On

promise them

to

placed himself

at

the

vigour

wing,

equally successful against the cavalry and azabs


slaw advanced
boldly with the Christian centre;

of

head
that

the

of
he

complete
right

the

broke

Wallachians

them
were

Rumelia.

King Wladyand
Murad, seeing the rout
the disorder
that was
lines and
of his first two
spreading itself in the ranks
fate
of
the
and
turned
his horse for flight.
day
round him, despairedof the
Fortunately for the house of Osnian, Karaja, the beyler-beyof Anatolia,who
with
the remnant
of his defeated
the centre
had fallen back
on
wing, was
He
seized his master's
the sultan at this critical moment.
near
bridle,and
of the janissaries,
The commanilant
implored him to fightthe battle out.
of
such
breach
raised
his sword to
at
a
Yazidzi-Toghan, indignant
etiquette,
when
he
himself
down
smite
cut
the unceremonious
beyler-bey,
was
by a
.sabre.
Murad's
of
mind
had
failed
him
ment,
only for a moHungarian
presence
fimi against the Chrisand he now
tian
to stand
encouraged his janissaries
charge. Young King Wladyslaw, on the other side, fought gallantly
killed under
him, and he was
in the thickest of the strife;but his horse was
and overpowered. He
then surrounded
wished to yieldhimself up prisoner,
but the Ottomans,
to give
indignant at the breach of the treaty, had .sworn
no
Ivhoja Khiri, cut off the Christian king'shead
quarter. ,\n old janissan*-,

companion to the lance on which the \noappalled


high. The Hungarian nobles were
their centre
fled in utter ilismayfrom
the field.
at the sight,and
Hunyady, on returningwith his victorious rightwing, vainly charged the
and
from
them
the ghastly trophy of
strove
at least to rescue
janissaries,
their victory. At last he fled in despair,with the wreck of the troops that he
collected round
and
with
the Wallachians
had personallycommanded
who
The
him.
Hungarian rear-guard,abandoned
by their commanders, was
almost
attacked
to a man.
by the Turks the next morning and massacred
Besides the Hungarian king. Cardinal Julian, the author of the breach of the
of this calamitous
treaty and the cause
campaign, perishedat ^'arna beneath
scimitar.
This
ruin upon
overthrow
the Turkisk
did not bring immediate
who
it
but
of
fatal
the
the
Slavonic
to
Ottomans,
was
Hungar}',
neighbours
thorhad joined the Hungarian king against them.
Sers'ia and Bosnia
were
and the ruin of these Christian
ougly reconquered by the Mohammedans:
adhered
which
the
Greek
accelerated by the religious
to
nations,
church, was
with
gary
intolerance
which
treated by their fellow Christians of Hunthey were
church
and Poland,who faithfully
obeyed the pope and hated the Greek
and placed it on
lated treaty was

as

pike,a

fearful

still reared

on

heretical.''
Murad
to

the

descended
mourn

second

his favourite

time
son.

from
His

the

presence

throne
was,

and

returned

however,

to

nesia
Mag-

indispensable

The janissaries,
empire, and civil war again tore him from his retreat.
despisingthe authority of a chilli,had revolted and sacked Adrianople. At
the mere
order was
restored
sight of Murad
(1445). With him returned the
of
the
head
of
he seized Corinth and
at
thousand
glory
conquest ;
men
sixty
the
ami
to pay
forced
Prince Constantine
Patras, ravaged
Peloponnesus,
tribute ; then he turned
to
Albania, where an emulator of Hunyady's glory
was
already rising.
to

OF

PERIOD

THE

AGGRANDISEMENT

325

[1443-1448A. D.]
SCANDERBEG

despot

The

give

obligedto

of

northern

up

his four

Albania,
to

sons

or,

correctly,
Mirditla,had

more

The

the sultan.

been
eldest died at an

three

is said; the fourth son, George, brought


of Murad, who
the favourite
faith,became

earlyage, poisoned,it

at

up

in

court

him, on
gave
of
the
Iskander
ander).
his
of
name
Beg (PrinceAlexaccount
impetuous bravery,
which
into
It is this name
Scanderbeg.
Europeans corrupted
did not forgethis
man
Though enjoying the sultan's favour, the young
in
his heart.
He
The
father.
brooded
vengeance
country or his despoiled
him
in the long campaign appeared to
the desired
firstdefeat of the Ottomans
occasion for putting his project into execution.
Taking advantage of the
pelled
comrout at Nish, Iskander, holding a dagger at the throat of the reis effendi,
of Akhissar
order
him
to sign an
(Kroia)
enjoiningthe commander
of the sultan.
Iskander,in order that his
to give up his place to the favourite
killed
the
minister
be
the positionhad
not
as
soon
as
secret might
betrayed,
secured
the
then
He
hastened
to
secured.
Akhissar,
keys of the place,
been
who
sunk
in
the
massacred
and
were
deep sleep. Scanderbeg called
garrison,
the
Albanian
the
chiefs
of
clans, seized Petrella,Petralba,
to his standard
the Mohammedan

entered

Stelusia,and

his

ancestral

states

as

conqueror.
at the head

lords of Epirus recognisedhim as their chief,and


the
he completely defeated
mountaineers

the

All

feudal

of fifteen thousand

forty thousand

of

men

Ali

(1443).

Pasha

to organisehis forces and to prepare


Pasha
in
beaten
were
Mustapha
struggle.
the
the
time
attacked
evacuate
at
and
to
same
Scanderbeg
turn
Epirus ;
obliged
had
The
obtained
the Venetians, who
approach of
possessionof Daina.
with
Venice
conclude
to
decided
Scanderbeg
; Mustapha, being
Mustapha
peace
field.
the battlemade
on
men
a
prisonerand left ten thousand
conquered,was

of Murad

abdication

The

for

Firuz

the

This

too

was

nmch

gave him
Pasha

for the

time

and

Crescent.

Murad

at the

head

of

hundred

who
had dared
to
against the autlacious Albanian
Debra
fell into his power,
but
The
cities
of
and
him.
two
Sfetigrad
oppose
he bought their fall at the priceof twenty thousand
(1447).
men
of
the sultan, wished
of
the
embarrassments
Hunyady, taking advantage
the
head
of eighty
him
Varna.
At
his
for
at
to take revenge
victory
upon
crossed
the
of whom
ten thousand
thousand men,
Wallachians, Hunyady
were
the
remained
whom
Servian
and
Servia.
to
invaded
Danube
Murad,
prince
in
and met
the Hungarian army
hastened
to the aid of his vassal
faithful,
tiny
time this place was
For
the plainof Kosovo.
the second
to decide the desof the Illyrian
peninsula.
Hunyady, trusting in fortune, began the attack without waiting for the
support of Scanderbeg. The battle lasted three days. It was a furious melde
Christians fought, without
where
retreatinga step,
twenty-five thousand
of
Moslems
The Wallachians
Murad.
thousand
hundred
and
the
fifty
against
the Mohammedans.
the
and
their
to
abandoned
treason
victory
Hunyady,
gave
did
fall
without
The
not
fortythousanil
takingvengeance:
Hungarians
the
bodies were
Ottoman
stretched out on
plain(October 17th, 1448).
beg.
then directed againstScanderAll the forces of the Ottoman
Empire were
invested and
The
Ottoman
was
troops flooded the Epirus. Kroia
thousand

blockaded.

men

marched

The

conunandant

Uracoutel, inaccessible

repulsed the presents


corruption,
di-sdainfully
burned the besiegingmachines
of the enemy.
the Moslems

and

several

times

of

the

to

fear

sultan

as

and

well
in

as

to

sortie

assed
Scanderbeg continuallyhar-

surprisedtheir

camp

with

nocturnal

HISTORY

TRE

326

THE

OF

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1448-1451 i..D.]

tirod of this

attacks.

in whicli he

warfare
inglorious

Muraii,
was
wearing out
ture
losing his best soldiers,offered to give Scantlerheg the investithat they remain
under
condition
of the insurgent countries
the
on
suzerainty of the I'orte and that Seanderbeg pay 100,000 tlucats tribute.
The
prince of Epirus refiiseti; and the sultan, beingobligedto raise the siege,
back
took his way
to Adrianople. But
Seanderbeg was awaiting him in the
defiles of the mountains, and it was
only at the priceof superhuman effort
and of half his remaining troops that the sultan was
able to force a passage
(1448-1450).
The
with the daughter of Suleiman
koman
marriage of Murad's
son
Bey, a Turwhen
celebrated
the
prince,was
sultan,overcome
by a stroke
scarcely
of apoplexy, died in the midst of the feasting(February, 1451)."
He was
his army

and

The
buried at Brusa.
old English
in
wrote
historian,Knolles, who
1610, says of his sepulchre: Here
lieth in a chapel without
he now
his grave
roof,
nothing differing
any
from
that of the common
Turks,
which
to
they say he commanded
"

be

done

in
and

mercy

the

him

and

sun

the
and

dew

OF

Muliammed
his

God

might
shining of
the falling

of heaven

upon

IIUHAMMED

II

II, sumamed

by

the Conqueror,
countrymen
aged twenty-one years when

was

his father
event

grand
II

will,that the

grave."

ACCESSION

Muhammed

by

moon,

of the rain and

his

last

blessingof

unto

come

his

courier

died.

He

heard of that
Magnesia, whither the
vizir
had
despatched a
from
hmi
to
Adrianople.

at

He

Arab
on
an
instantlysprang
horse,and exclaiming,"Let those
who love me, follow me," galloped off towards
the shore of the Hellespont.
His firstact of sovereignauthority
In a few days he was
solemnly enthroned.
showed
that a different spiritto that of the generous
Murad
would
wield
now
(1430-1481)

the Ottoman
by his second
to

wife,a

be drowned

very

time

in

when

offeringher

Murad

power.
a

the

had

left

princessof Servia.

little son,
Muhammed

babe still at the breast,


ordered his infant brother
command
executed
at the
was
a

bath, and the merciless


unhappy mother, in ignorance

of her

child's

doom,

was

Muhammed
his accession.
jects;
his subperceived the horror which the atrocityof this deed caused among
and he sought to avert
it from
himself
by asserting that the officer
who
had drowned
the infant prince had acted without
orders,and by putting
him to death for the preteiuled treason.
But Muhammeil
himself,when in
after years he declared the practiceof royal fratricide to be a necessary
law
of the state, confesseti clearlyhis own
share in this the first murder
of his

congratulations to the

deeply purpled reigu.

nmrderer

on

OF

HISTORY

THE

328

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1453-1453A.D.)

remonstrated
Constantine
in vain against these
the Asiatic shore.
evident preparationsfor the blockade of his city;and the Ottomans
employed
of violence against the Greek
acts
in the work
encouraged to commit
were
led to conflicts between
armed
bands on either side.
peasantry, which soon
Yilderim

on

closed the gates of his city in alarm, and sent another embassy
of remonstrance
repliedby a declaration of war, and it
to the sultan, who
of the Greek
that
the
evident
fast
death-struggle
Empire was now
was
clearly
Constantine

approaching.
Each

party employed the

for the
in

siege,which

the coming

was

autunm
to

be

spring. Muhanmied

and

winter of 1452 in earnest


tions
preparaurged by the one and resisted by the other
collected the best troops of his empire

of soldiery,
than mere
numbers
however
well
Adrianople; but much more
for the skirmish
the battle-field,
and armed
or
was
requisitefor
disciplined
the capture of the great and strong city of Coristantinople.Artilleryhad
for some
time previouslybeen employed both by Turkish and Christian armies;
and
formidable
but Muhammed
numerous
prepared a more
now
park of
in warfare.
A Hungarian engineer,
before been seen
than had ever
cannon
at

the thankless service and scanty pay of the


Urban, had abandoned
with which the sultan rewarded
all
Greeks for the rich rewards and honours
for
Urban
cast a monster
the
who
aided him in his conquest.
cannon
Turks,
and terror.
Other guns of less
which
the objectboth of their admiration
was
named

were
prepared; and
imposing magnitude, but probably of greater efficiency,
and
and militarystores of everj- description
the means
of transammunition
port
collected on
did not
an
equally ample scale. But Muhammed
were
profusionso
merely heap togetherthe'materials of war with the ostentatious
in oriental iiilers. He arranged all,he provided for the rightuse of
conmion
which
admire
in the campaigns
of skUful combination
we
all,in the keen spirit
almost inces.santly
of Cffisar and Napoleon. He was
occupied in tracingand
discussingwith his officers plans of the city,of his intended lines,of the best
positionsfor his batteries and magazines, of the spots where mines might be
driven
with most
effect,and of the posts which each di\Tsion of his troops

should
The

occupy.

"

siege and

length in these

capture of Constantinoplehave

pages

in connection

with

already been narrated at


Byzantine Empire.
in the beginning of
army

the fall of the

Ottomans
began the siege with an inmiense
with his immense
.4lSlittleheadwaj' could be made, even
April,1453.
cannon,
Muhammed
of
the
decided on an attack
fortifications
the
city,
hea%y
against
by sea, and, findingthe lower part of the Golden Horn blocked, built to the
this road, which
part a plank read leading from the Bosporus. Over
upper
his
into
the
he
five
mOes
harbour, where his
dragged
ships
was
long,
upper

The

cannons

On

could

May

be

u.sed with

greater effect.""

24th Muhammed
sent
an
envoy
life and libertyand
the emperor

inhabitants
the city would

to

the

besieged,promising the

the possession of the Morea

if

repliedthat rather than surrender


the ruins of his capital. The 29th of May
he would
bury him.self beneath
and religious
Warlike
enthusiasm
fanaticism
fixed for the generalassault.
was
conducted
the
Constantine
exalted the Ottoman
to
highest
point.
troops
himself like a soldier and
tinued
general. At the head of foreign troops he conunderstood
of
his
soldiers
he
the
rout
to fightat the breach.
Seeing
Not wishing to survive
the ruin of his countrj', the
that all hope was
gone.
handful
of
collected
his
he
of
braves, and throwing himself
a
people,
massacre
of
the
after
into the midst
Ottomans, fell,
performing prodigiesof valour,
At least he had died like a soldier and king.
the heaps of dead.
among
capitulate. Constantine

THE

OF

PERIOD

AGGRANDISEMENT

329

[1423-1463A.D.1
OF

STATUS

"VMien the soldiers,


gluttedwith
at

pillageand
conquest by the establishment

his

and
The

booty

kill,Muhanimed

last to

customs

of his

new

GREEKS

CONQUERED

and

satiated with

turneil

of political
institutions
subjects.

ceased

massacre,

his attention

to

making good

fitted to the temperament

capture of Constantinopleterrified the ancient countries of the Byzantine

Greece was
dismayed by this disaster. From the Morea and
The sea was
the islands the people fled without knowing whither.
ered
covwith vessels and barks carrying the families of the Greeks
and their
riches. The mountains, the monasteries, the islands occupied by the tians
Veneserved as a refuge.
and Genoese
who
A firman ordered all the Greeks
were
dispersedin the Ottoman
Empire

Empire.

from

to

return

to

Constantinople,and

promised

them

the

right of

free exercise

religionand the preservation of their property. The Greeks retained


that called Suli-Monastir
to those at the very
all their churches, from
gates
of their

Adrianople. At the order of the sultan a new


patriarchwas
When
office by the usual
Georgius
or
George
ceremony.
with the tiara,the sultan said to
(Gennadius)had been crowned

of
in

and
patriarch,

heaven

may

and
friendship

enjoy all

protect you

On

occasion

every

installed
Scholarius
him:

coimt

"Be
upon

the

privileges
possessedby your predecessors."
their
Preserving their religion,their goods, and the rightof administering
the Greeks
formed
a vast
community entirelyseparate from the
affairs,
own
They paid double taxes, one for themselves and one for
conqueringnation.
the patriarch,who was
The head of the community was
their lands.
assisted
and
had
the
rank
of
vizir
he
a
possessed
janissary
guard. All
by a synod ;
of the Greek
civil and criminal cases
rayahs in the district of Constantinople
This tribunal,composed of the principaldigtried before his tribunal.
were
nitarie
of the clergy,could pronoimce
that of death, and
any sentence, even
of its decrees.
the military authorities were
responsiblefor the execution
the grand council of the nation and served at the same
The synod formed
of the s3aiodas well as the patriarch
time as a court of appeal. The members
the land
tax
were
(kharadj). Every bishop enjoyed in his
exempt from
that the patriarchenjoyed at Constantinople.
diocese the same
privileges
own
lands
of the large Greek
families
confiscated
The
transformed
into
were
in
those
the
remained
the
to
but
hands
of
their
rayahs
belonging
tiamars,
and were
subject only to the kharadj. Every community was
owners,
erned
govit appointed. They distributed the kharadj and
by primates whom
my

the other taxes.


FURTHER

CONQUESTS

OF

MUHAMMED

Profiting
by the terror which the fall of Constantinoplehad spread as far as
the Danube, Muhanimed
activelypursued his work of conquering the entire
In
the
P
eninsula.
and Thomas
lllyrian
Peloponnesus,Demetrius
Pala?ologus,
brothers of the last emperor
annual tribute of twelve
an
their fall only

few

of

Byzantium,

thousand

j^ears; eight years


the Peloponnesus to his states.

Servia

submitted

ducats.

Their

to

the

ba.se

later,in 1462,

impositionof
servility
delayed

Muhammed

reunited

invaded
and
was
ravaged; fiftythousand prisonersof both .sexes
carried into captivity;but Hunyady hastened
to the aid of the Servians,
and the terrible adversary of Murad
II crushed Firuz Bey (1454). The orthodox
Servians nourished againstthe Catholic Hungarians the same
and
rancour
were

THE

OF

HISTORY

THE

330

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1454-1463A.D.]

George Branko\'ich
hastened to buy, at the priceof a tribute of thirtythousand ducats, a precarious
The following
and shameful
"peace.It was not, however, to be of long duration.
after
Ottoman
Samothrace,
Imbros,
Thasos,
conquering
fleet,
an
year
and Lemnos, experienceda sanguinary defeat before Cos, and failed completely
in an attempt to capture Rhodes
by siege. The sultan,at the head of a hundred
then
entered
hundred
and
three
and fiftythousand
men
piecesof artillery,
with
resistance.
Servia
and
arrived
before Belgrade without
meeting
any
The Turkish .squadhad established himself in the town.
ron,
Hunyaily, assisting,
which was
at the siege,was
destroyed,a general attack failed,and the
their camp,
back
to
were
obliged to forego their
assailants,being driven
buried in the intrenchinents and
attempt, leaving twenty-four thousand men
The great Hungarian captainditl not long enjoy
abandoning all their artillerj-.
he succumbed
of the Moslems
to
his triumph. Twenty days after the flight

hatred

that

the effects of
As

the

and

adversarj'they had
He took possession

redoubtable
re-entered Servia.

of the most
Pasha

vizir Mahnmd

in two

Latins.

in the combat.'

received

riil the Ottomans

grand

Semendria,

nourished

Greeks

wound

his death

yet met,
of

the

against the

finished

years

the definitive

conquest

of that

countrj',

ravaged.
energeticportionof
exile
the population,led bj' the patriarch,preferred
to servitude.
Taking
like militarj'
somewhat
refuge in Hungarj', the Servians fonned settlements
with their best soldiers;and
of Austria
colonies,which provided the emperors
which

been

has

so

often

nowhere

did the Ottomans

conquest

of Bosnia

invaded

and

meet

more

followed

The

detennined

after that

soon

most

(1458-1460). The
Mahmed
Pasha

enemies

of Sers-ia.

While

took the cityof Amasia


conquering Servia and Bosnia, Sultan lluhanmied
the Genoese
and Sinope from
Ismail Bey. The conquest of Greece was
and of the
time ; only the islands of the .Archipelago
accomplished at the same
Sea
the
and
had
of
the
Venetian
escaped
jEgean
principalities
Peloponnesus
was

from

the conqueror.
Desirous
of shieldingServia,his recent
conquest, from the attacks of the
turned
his arms
Hungarians, Sultan Miihammed
againstthe voyevod of WalThe
for him
lachia,Vlad the Executioner.
ferocityof this prince had won
from his subjectsthe name
called him Kazikliof Drakul
(devil); the Moslems
Woda
of the punishment he was
(the impaling voyevod), on account
tomed
accus-

inflict, ^'lad hastened

to

with

to submit

to

Sultan

him

until recent
times was
a treaty which
of
^^'allachia.
rights
This treaty was
hardly signed when Mad

Cor\-inus,impaled the sultan's

with

envoys
honour"

and

Muhammed

regarded as

allied himself

all their suite

"
"

concluded

charter
with

the

of the

Matthias

pasha

on

an

and
invaded
pole as a sign of
Bulgaria. Muhammed
marched
of
and after several months
against him with fiftythousand men,
desperateand merciless warfare the voyevod took refuge in Hungary, where
Matthias Cors-inus threw him into prison. \'lad's brother, Radul, a favourite
of the sultan, succeeded
reduced
of a simple
to the condition
him, but was
Wallachia
with
the
pasha.
was
incorporated
empire (1462).*
elevated

In Asia

['The
He

Muhammed's

annexed

and

was

name

to

infidels.

day was
thought

di

nionk, who
He

"'townsmen,

were

more

empire Sinope and

of Gio\anni

Franciscan

against the

his

arms

"

came

uniformly

Trebizond, and

was

lost.]

he

He

conquered

subdued
finally

the

connected
with the battle of Belgrade.
Capistrano is inseparably
traversed
the wtioleof Europe tryin;;
to arouse
people to fight
to

the aid of

Hunyady

at

consisting of
Belfirade \sith an anny
that
on
victory of the Christians

The
peasants, students, and begging monks."
largelydue to the confidence of Capistrano,who

all

successful.

urged

the

attack

when

Hunyady

PERIOD

THE

[1473-1477A. D.]
princesof Karauiania, those

331

AGGRANDISEMENT

OF

The

of Osman.

of the house

enemies

rancorous

the
of all his conquests, after that of Constantinople,was
subjugationof the Crimea in 1475 by one of the most celebrated of the Turkish
Keduk, or Broken-mouth, who was Muhammed's
Ahmed, surnamed

important

most

captains,

from

grand vizir

immediate

The

to 1477.

1473

of the

causes

expeditionto

the

the sultan's hostilitywith the Genoese, who


possessed the strong
Crimea were
of
which
the deposed kaan
entreaties
and
the
that
Kaffa
in
of
country,
city
for
brothers.
aid
his
revolted
Muhammed
addressed
to
Tatars
against
Crim
the
that a prince of Muhammed's
be doubted
genius discerned
But it cannot
value

the immense

of

the

Crimea

occupiersof Constantinople,and
Keduk
Ahmed
by its annexation.

the

to

the necessity of securing his dominions


attacked Kaffa with a powerful fleet and

city,then

days.

forty thousand
fifteen hundred
of

Constantinople

called Little

in four

an

booty which

The

of the

inhabitants

young

Genoese

forty thousand

of

army

That

men.

its wealth and strength,surrendered


immense
seized there was
;
transplantedto Constantinople,and

from

the conqueror

were

nobles

compelled to

were

into

enter

the

corps

ish
janissaries.The whole of the peninsulawas speedilycovered by the Turkfor
centuries
three
the
khans
Crunean
thenceforth
and
the
were
troops;

sultans.
vassals of the Ottoman
Muhammed
was
frequentlyengaged in hostilities with the Venetians as well
The Archipelagoand the coasts of Greece were
generally
as with the Genoese.
of which
the sultan obtained
in the course
of these wars,
the scenes
possession

of EubcEa, Lesbos, Lemnos, Cephalonia,and other islands. The conquest of


marked
the Eubcea was
by base treacheryand cruelty on the part of the sultan,
The Venetian
of a Christian heroine.
the
mander,
comand signalised
by
pure courage
the citadel
Paul Erizzo,after a long and brave defence,surrendered
condition
Muhammed

of the

on

their amis,

and laid down


the crudest

pledging his
capitulation
; and

sultan

signed the

he

general,the

the Venetian
the sultan's tent ; but
by either
and,unmoved

promise

or

the
in

sawed

was

young

and

maiden

the Christian

to

safety of
garrisonhad

all within

the

for

when

them, except the Greeks,

all of

Erizzo

Paul

tortures.

daughterof

angry

put

word

she
tlireat,

two

by

it.

marched

out

death

with

to

his orders.

The

fair Anne
Erizzo,was dragged
preferreddeath to dishonour,
killed by the slaves of the
was

tyrant.

powered
completely overHerzegovina
by
ish
These conquests brought the Turkunited with the sultan's dominions.
were
of
Venice
the
with
into more
extensive
contact
possessions
along the
arms
marched
In 1477 a powerful Turkish
coasts of the Adriatic.
eastern
army
of Friuli at the northern
into the territory
aced
extremity of that sea, and men-

Towards

Venice
mouth

the end of Muhammed's


the Ottoman
forces,and

itself. The

of the

Isonzo

carried

Venetians

to

Gorz.

reign,Scanderbeg

Albania

the

But

and

was

the district of

line of intrenchments

Turks

in the October

from

of that

the
year

Omar
Pasha, the Ottoman
passedtheir lines and defeated their army.
eral,
genillustrious
destined
the
stream
to become
next
so
Tagliamento, a
passed
resistance
in after warfare.
without
The Turkish
troops spread themselves
over

all the rich level


senators

country

of Venice

saw

far

as

from

with the lightof burning towns


loaded with booty. Venice

as

the banks

of the Piave

the northern
their palace-roofs

villages.The
eagerly concluded a
and

and

the trembling

horizon

glow

retired in November,
treaty of peace with the

Turks

Italian historian)contained
which (according to one
by
a stipulation,
sultan,
dred
hunwhich the republicwas
to aid the sultan, if attacked,with a fleet of one
hmidred
and the sultan was, in case
to send one
of like necessity,
galleys,
thousand Turkish cavalryagainstthe enemies of Venice.

HISTORY

THE

332

THE

OP

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1480-1481 A.D.]

projectwhich

the

In

to

execution

on

that

enemy
of Rhodes

military and

scale of

and
enterprise,

the

at

yet remained
still in the
was

naval

he

time

same

1480

he

of his dominions.

the heart

near,

Muhammetl,

though often
prepared to carry it into
preparationequal to the grandeur of
resolved to quellthe sole formidable

subjugation of Italy was a


abandoned.
delay,had never

Tlie

obhged

possessionof

the

consummate

skill ; but

The

strong island

knights of St. John of Jerusalem,


there in 1311, and gallantly
maintained
who
their
had established themselves
for
of
of
the
island
a century and
independent power
as an
upwards
sovereignty
the
incited
the
order
had
from
sultan
Three
to attack
half.
a
renegades
and
him
of
its
it would
that
fortifications, promising
Rhodes, by giving
plans
the
Turks
could
be easilycapturetl
hy forces which
employ against it. Mesih
in the April of 14.S0,with a fleet of one
Pasha
sent
to capture Rhodes
was
and a largepark of the heaviest
hundred
and sixtygalleys,
a powerful army,
pasha effected a landing on the island,and after
artillery.The Ottoman
his lines of siegeagainstthe cityitself,
inferior posts, he formed
capturing some
of
which is built on the northern
extremity the isle.
The grand ma.^ter of the knights,Peter d'Aubusson, defended
the city with
fortitude and

indomitable
not

for the ill-timed avarice

been

After

long siege and

fallen,had

it

militaryrigour of the Turkish

or

encounters,

severe

many

have

it mast

the Turks

commander.
made
a
general

had opened a wide rent in


July, 1480.
artillery
the walls; their numbers
more
were
ample, their zeal was never
conspicuous.
In spiteof the gallantryof the Christian
had
knights,the attackingcolumns
standard was
actuallyplanted
gained the crest of the breach ; and the Ottoman
Mesih Pasha
ordered
that pillage
the walls,when
on
a proclamationto be made
forbidden, and that all the plunder of the place must be reserved for the
was
affection
This
filled the Turkish
with disgustand dissultan.
announcement
army
in to support
refused to march
The soldieryyet outside the town

assault

the 28th

on

their comrades
in disorder
marked

of

who

borne back and driven


the breach, and these were
of
the chevaliers,who had
cityby a last desperatecharge
w-averingof their assailants. The siegewas raLsed,and

had

the

from

the sudtlen
rescued

Rhodes

Their

won

for half

century.

assault on
the same
to their unsuccessful
day that the Turks advanced
queror
Keduk, the conRhodes, the leader of their other great expedition,Ahmed
of the Crimea, effected his disembarkation
the coast
of Italy,
where
on
On

He landed on the Apulian


foot.
considered
the key of
which
then
shore,
was
against Otranto,
and
His
in
fleet
anchor
the
and
the
cast
fiercely
citywas promptly
Italy.
roads,
The resistance of Otranto, th .ughspirited,
assailed both by sea and by land.
no

Ottoman

before

and

marched

brief.

was

The

him

had

place was

placed his

ever

stormed

the

on

1 1 th

of

August,

populationof twenty-two thousand, the greater number


and
the wretched
survivors
subjected to
mercy,
Turkish

Muhammed

was

massacred

of

out
with-

atrocities of

the worst

warfare.
was

absent, but

of

master

now

for his armies

entrance

he

were

Out

1480.

into

Italy.

he resolved

secured

strong cityand harbour,which

His

arms

to conduct

had

the next

met

reverses

at

in
enterprise

Rhodes

person.

an

when

Early

were
planted on the Asiatic shore of the
for
a new
Bosporus, as signals
campaign ; but no one, save the sultan himself,
which
knew against
to be directeil. His
quarter the power of Turkey was now
ments
maxim
the great elethat secrecy in design and celerity
in execution
was
are

in the

spring of 1481

of
one

success

in

tlu; horsetails

war.

of his chief officers asked

Muhammed

answered

Once,

when

at

him

what

were

"

sharply,

If

the main

hair of my

objectsof

beard

campaign
operations,
them, I would
of

the commencement
knew

his

PERIOD

THE

OF

AGGRANDISEMENT

333

[1481 A.D.]

pluck it

and

out

menaced

by

musters

that

now

the midst

expiredsuddenly in

Ottoman

nation ; it
a

Before

monarchs.
he who

was

him

place apart

Osmanlis

the

on

May 3rd, 1481.

"

EMPIRE

were

systematisedtheir institutions

code, the

His

firm basis.

tell what

throne was
bidding; but while the
arrested by the death of the

of his army

OF

deserves

Muhammed
legislator

could

one

gathered at the sultan's

ORGANISATION

As

No

yet incomplete,the expeditionwas

were

sultan,who

fire."

it into the

cast

the host

from
an

and

that of the other

rather than
established them

army

a
on

Kanun-nameh

(fundamental law),is divided into


the great, of ceremonies, of fines,
mystic number

of

hierarchyof

the
three parts. It treats
The
of the products of labour.
archy
four is taken as the base of the governmental hierand

in

The

the

four

angels which
carry
hammed.
of Mocaliphs,disciples

four

of the four

state is compared to

is the

The

of

honour

the Koran, and

gate (porte)or

tent ; in it the government

most

supports of the Sublime

conspicuous part.
Porte

the

are

first

of the empire : the vizir,the kadidignitaries


asker (judge of the army), the defterdar
(minister of
finance),and the nishandji(secretaryfor the signature
four

of the sultan). The


at

four, but

the

grand

number
vizir

was

confided
important; to him was
of
dignity; he had
badge
supreme
a

separate divan

at

his

discussed.

owm

house

of vizirs

by

far

was

fixed

the

most

the seal of state,


the rightto hokl
in which

matters

of which
kadi-askers,
for Europe and
for Asia,
there were
one
two, one
for all posts,exceptappointedjudges and professors
ing
a few
privilegedplaces,the bestowal of which
reserved for himself by the grand vizir. The
was
ments,
nishandjiaffixed the tiighra(sultan'sseal)on docufunction
and
them.
This
preparing
revising
honorific
ing
became
afterwards,all its attributes havreis
or
graduallypassed to tne
effendi,
secretary

of detail

were

The

of state.

Reis

Effendi

the chiefs of the


dignitariescame
who
at the same
the
of
the
time was
agha
janissaries,
prefect of
army
policein Constantinople,and the aghas of the spahis and other cavalry
exterior
the topji-bashi,
aghas were
; the
general of artillerj^
corps. The
The
interior
officers
etc.
the
chamberlains,equerries,
aghas were
grand
of the palace,the kapu aglm (chief of the white
eunuchs), the kidar agha
(chiefof the black eunuchs), the bostanji-hashi
(head gardener),the tchaxishbashi (chief of state messengers), etc.
Beys pa^shashaving as their standard
the tail of a horse
governed the provinces ; beyler beys pashas having as
their standard the tailsof two horses
levied the taxes, and performed duties
After

these

"

"

"

"

"

of similar nature.
Muhammed
entered an estimate of the wealth of their
Opposite the names
domains in order proportionately
The customs, mines,
to regulatetheir rents.
and
tributes
the
remainder
fiscal
of
the
fines,
revenues.
composed

THE

334

HISTORY

OF

EMPIRE

TURKISH

THE

[1480-14S1 A.D.]

The

most

the organof the conqueror


was
isation
important part of tho legislation
of the
chain
judicialcorps, kaovrn by the name
Hanmicr-Purgstall,/ that is to
priests,"
says Von
"

"

and
of the religious
so-called
"The
of ulemas.

"

the
the officiators in the mosques,
and
the
the
imams,
prayer-criers,
less
influence
have
perhaps
preachers,
say,

in the Ottoman
Empire than in any
other state ; the teaching corps, on the

contrary, has
which

an
are

and

tance
impormiexampled anywhere
authority

The ulemas are


else except in China."
sacerdotal
not
class; they are
a
a
learned and literary
body. From them

3"^*^i(l'.-^"^'W
^.^.v '-Wl:
I-'TH"^'^

exclusivelyare

recruited

^^'^'^ functionaries, the

the

primar}'

magistrates,

_-s

"

chain
professors. The
includes professors
and
of the ulemas

doctors,and

"

students, officialsand

candidates.
All
from
officials
the
are
graduated
superior
schools (medresse^),in which
are
oric,
syntax, logic,rhettaught grammar,
omy,
metaphysics, geometry, astronand theology; the
jurisprudence,

last-named

two
treat

as

sciences

the

Moslems

one.

candidates

The

pass

through the

successive degrees of thaleb (student),


of damishmend
(endowed with science),
tnulazim
of
and
(prepared). The

grade

of

damishmend

suffices

for obtaining

position of an imam, of
inferior judge (naib), or of a proan
fesssor in the primary schools ; that of
B.*5HI
A KaPUDJI
mulazim
capacitatesthe candidate for
the positionof a muderri
a
(professor),
officers
Ten
of
the
of
the
of
of
a mollah,or
one
high
magistracy.
medresse,
These can be gained only successively
degrees are conferred in the class of muderris.
from
and always in the order of age.
one
grade to
Every passage
Arrived
of
another demands
the
at
a new
grade SulejTnanieh,
diploma (ronus).
the

in the order of age from the corps of muderris to that of moUahs.


Ottoman
body of magistratesLs divided into five orders distinct in

the ulemas
The

pass

and attributes.
To the firstorder belong the sadr-ritm or
rank, prerogatives,
kadi-asker
of Rumelia, the sadr-anatoH
of Anatolia, the istambolor kadi-asker
kadissi or judge of Constantinople,the mollahs of Galata, Scutari,Eyub, etc.

Under
the first two sultans there was
only one kadi in the capital; he had no
the kadis of the provinces.
prerogativeother than simple pre-eminence over
II divided this office into two departments (1480). The two new
Muhammed
officials had the collective title Sadrcin, that is to say, two
magistratesipar
in the European provinces,
the second
excellence;the firsthad the jurisdiction
in the Asiatic provinces.
exercised the same
powers

HISTORY

THE

336

TURKISH

THE

OF

EMPIRE
11459-1481 A.D.)

Galata

and

(1459). Particular

Scutari

led him

reasons

to

resign his offices

the former
sultan then gave
EfTendi, .separating
to Abdul-Kerim
The
the duties of mufti and of kadi.
authority of the mufti, supported by
and
often their fetvas counterbalanced
became
the
all-powerful,
soon
religion,

(1472). The

This body of mufti so stronglyconstituted


despoticpower of the sultans.
has contributed
labours
of
the
the
not a
grand vizir Mahmud
chieflythrough
the
of
the
in
the
Ottomans
stand-still
midst
at
littletowards
universal
a
keeping
"

"

which

progress

has

their eyes.
It is to this institution
realised under
their religiousfanaticism,their servile attachment
to

been

be attributed

that must

the letter of the law, and their blind respect for tradition.
establishes fratricide in principle
The second
and
part of the Kanun-nameh
have
of my
declared it permissiblethat whoever
ulemas
in practice:"The
and grandsons attains the supreme
illustrious sons
put his brothers
power
may
Muhammcd
had set the example;
the peace of the world."
to death to assure
have seen, to order the
his first act on mounting the throne had been, as we
death of his brother, an infant at the breast.
The third part of the law regulates
the priceof blood : the priceof a murder
is fixed at 3,000 aspers; of an eye put out, at 1,500; of a wound
these taxes.
30, etc. ; the policeare charged with collecting
of
the
Kanim-nameh
ordinances
Suleiman
the
the
Magnificent,

at

of the Ottomans.
civil legislation
In establishing
them.selves
and

the

in

head,
Together with

all the

all the

forms

Byzantine Empire the Turks

laws,habits,customs, ceremonies, the


the administrative,
financial,and municipal .system
almost

in the

pompous
of the

left

touched
un-

etiquette,
conquered

seeking to assimilate the traditions of Greek and Roman


civilisation by adapting them to their own
character,habits,and religion
; far
the
fuse
attain
the
with
to
from
to
conquered
conquering race,
unity
trying
distinct
and to form a singlenation, the victors thought only of making more
the line which
separated them from their subjects,while acceptingen bloc the
of the Byzantines.
venal,and corruptinglegislation
refined,despotic,
if not the letter,"
time that they adopted the spirit,
"At the same
says
in force among
the Greeks, they recog"of the system of taxation
Despies,''
nised
of the largelandholders
of Bosnia
and Albania.
the privileges
Finally
of beyliks,
they themselves instituted little by little vast fiefsunder the name
founded
This system
which
the principleof peasant servitude.
on
were
and
their right
timars
ziamets
the
to
exchange
encouraged
spahis po-sscssing
to a title for a right of ownership in land and persons."
people.

The
to Islam

Far

from

armies

Ottoman

by

force

the vizirs and


and
collectors,

were

served

or

generalswere
envoys

were

converted
filledwith Christians,who either were
the title of auxUiaries ; a large proportionof
of Christian origin; all the administrators,scribes,

with

Slavs

or

Greeks.

"

It

was

"
the Osmanlis," says Von Hainmer-Purgstall,/
that it
of a Christian to attain the highestdignities
in the
son

maxim

was

of state

necessary

to

among

be the

empire."^
tinople
Empire, giving it Constan-

Muhammed

had
veritablycreated a Turkish
for its code.
He had completed
capitaland the Kanun-nameh
and
IVnof
the conquest of Anatolia
that
the Balkan
to the upper
Euphrates
he
had
frontiers
incursions
the.sc
insula to the Danube
.so
by
beyond
;
many
pointed out the battle-fields for succeedingreigns; ho had disquietedPersia
and Italy. At two
to the confines of Austria
and Egypt and carried terror
broken
his
and
Ana
at Belgrade
at Rhodes.
was
points
impetuous course

for its

"

without

Belgrade the Ottoman

Rhodes

it

was

Mediterranean,

not
c

master

of

Empire
the

was

bridled

on

iEgean Sea and could

without
the Danube;
the
not risk itselfon

PERIOD

THE

OF

AGGRANDISEMENT

337

[H8I-1512A.D.]
II

BAYAZID

Bayazid II
successor,
after ascendingthe throne, to march
immefliately
Muliammed's

and

son

(1481-1512),was

compelled,
brother,
obedience.
Zizim,
then to the knights

against his

younger

[or Jem], viceroy of Karamania, as he refused


to Egypt, and
at Nicjea,fled in the first instance
himself
to pay
effectuallyprotectedhim.
Bayazid bound
of St. John, who
of 45,000 ducats,on condition that they would
not allow
them an annual sum
Zizim

defeated

him

quit their territory.


They kept their promise,although the kings of France, Aragon,
to

demanded

in turn

Zizim's

extradition,in order

embarrass

to

and

gary
Hun-

the sultan

compelled to give him up to


who
The latter,
seated on the papal throne
from
was
by that of a Nero or an
1492-1503,and disgraced it by conduct only paralleled
of which
with Bayazid II,in consequence
entered into negotiatioiLs
Elagabalus,
of poison in 1495.
Zizim
he removed
by means
but was
In 1492 Bayazi"lattempted to take Belgradeby surprise,
repulsed.
He then attacked Albania, and simultaneouslyravaged Transylvania,Croatia,
At Villach his troops were
attacked
by a Christian
Styria,and Carinthia.
taken
of
thousand
them
thousand
when
ten
were
seven
killed,
prisoners,
army,
and fifteen thousand
captured Christians liberated. In 1498 the Turks twice
of the pope,
attacked Poland, and in the following
year, through the instigation
waged war with the Venetians, and on this occasion made a fresh invasion into
disturbed
The last years of Bayazid'sreign were
Carinthia.
by the rebellions
by taking his part.
VI.
Pope Alexander

At

last,however, they were

wished
In 1509
of his sons, who
themselves of the throne.
to assure
wars
forced to flyto Egypt. Bayazid then
the eldest,Korkud, rebelled,but was
but the third son, Selim,
appointed his second son, Ahmed, his successor;
and
in
defeated
at
rose
though
Adrianople he established himself
opposition,

and

then
summoned
in Asia; and
the janissaries
him
declared
to be the heir to the monarchy
to

and
abdicate,

was

FIRST

exiled to

RELATIONS

Demotika,

BETAVEEN

Selim

(1512).

died

on

RUSSIA

Constantinople,and
who was
forced
father,
road to his place of banishment.'*
to

His

the

AND

TURKEY

The first appearance


dates
of the Russians in the affairs of the Ottomans
from the end of the reign of Bayazid II and the first days of the reignof Selim
of this great people, a people
I. The savage
brutalityof an ambassador
which was
and
which
still ignorant of
was
only beginning to enter politics
oriental forms of
Russian ambassador
John
court

of

has too much


politeness,
analogy with the attitude of the
of history.
at Constantinoplein 1853 to pass unobserved
III, princeof Moscow, sent Michel Plestshiev to negotiatewith the
in the states of the sultan.
Constantinoplea treaty of free commerce

Plestshiev had

Bayazid II

or

the knee either before


orders from his sovereign not to bend
before Selim,not to confer with the vizirs as organs of the government,

but to treat only with the sultans themselves,and not to cede place
before any ambassador
of the powers
of Europe or Asia.
Plestshiev exceeded
in insolence the pride of his court.
of
He affected to disdain the customs
the nation from which
he was
he refused to be present
receivinghospitality;
entertainment
an
given by the vizir for his reception; he sent back the
robes and diplomaticpresents which
His outrages
the divan offered him.
of the Ottoman
ambassadors.
aroused the indignationof the western
customs
at

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

THE

338

OF

HISTORY

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[151^519

sovereignof the Russians," wrote the


has sent me
desire to contract
an
frienrlship,
back
him
of my
to Russia
slaves accompany
"The

his insults. I who


am
Ottoman
to submit
an
let him send
or

respectedin Europe
such

to
me

an

affronts.

army

sultan,"with
insolent

whom

I cannot

man
,

for fear lest he


and

send me
Let
to uphold his insolence."*

let

one

might continue

in the Orient

him

I.D.]

strongly

should

bliish

sador,
politeambas-

himself worthy of his


a.d.) on his accession made
the
of his deceased
sons
by immediately murdering
surname
with
broke out
his still livingbrothers,
A war,
in consequence,
brothers.
which
terminated
and Ahmed,
Korkud
was
by their defeat and execution.
fled to Persia, whose
Mohammedan
of Ahmed,
Murad, a son
population
and hence were
termed shiites,
(traditionor oral history),
rejectedthe sunna
for the protectionMurad
Selim took vengeance
heretics,by the Turks.
or
iiinocent shiites
had received from the Persian shah, by having fortythousand
Ismael
exercised
the right of requitalin
in his empire executed; and when
Persia, he attacked him, utterly defeated him on the 14th of August, 1514,
of the janissaries,
An
insurrection
and marched
triumphantly into Tabriz.
however, compelled his return ; but in the year 1516 he entirelysubjugated
Syria and Palestine,defeated in the followingyear the sultan of Egj'pt,and
the incormarched
into Cairo, which he suffered hLs troops to plunder. With
poration
the title of caliph,which
the Egj'ptian
of Egypt Selim assumed
Selim I died on the 21st of September, 1519.''
sultans had tillthen borne.
mourned
Selim I was
only by Piri Pasha, the grand vizir,who concealed
from
the
soldiers
and people until the arrival of hLs son
Suleiman.
his death
under
his
his body
found
tent
The physicians in burj-inghim secretly
on
marks
of the colour of blood, which, according to the astrologers,
responded
corseven
of his two
murders
brothers and of his five nephews,
to the seven
by which he had ensanguined his reign. He had brought into the government
the same
ferocityof will which had gained him his throne. He heaped
Selim

his Divan
of the

I (1512-1519
the Inflexible

with

corpses
empire, rendered

as

His
he did his camps.
conformable
judgments

mufti

Jemali, the casuist

and to
"
he
mufti
Jemali
of
the
because
The Ottomans
called
the
basket,"
cadis
all the questionsaddressed
to him
by the people or by the
brief "yes" or "no"
thrown into a basket which
hung from his window.
him

to

his ambitions

his anger.
answered

with a
The decisions which

he made
at the sultan's request, although severe,
are
and
for their absolute independence.
proverbialfor their conscientiousness
however, to the impetuosity of Selim.
They did not correspond sufficiently,
the sultan wa.s on horseback
beside the nmfti on the way from
One day when
Selim
Adrianople to Constantinople,
reproached Jemali for his indulgence:
said
of those four hundred
"didst
thou
not authorise the death
"Why,"
he,
merchants whom
I condemned
die
for having traded in silk with Persia?
to
Is it not permitted to put to death two-thirds of the inhabitants of the empire
for the good of the other third?"
"Yes," repliedJemali, "if the existence

obedience
of the others.
But the disthe misfortune
has not been juridically
proved." The sultan
his return
and wished to
to Constantinopleset the merchants
at liberty,
on
tion
Jemali
the
oflSce
of
Asia in addiarmies
the
of
and
of
judge over
give
Europe
Jemali
he
to his office of mufti.
to
impair
said,
refused, not wishing,
in himself the independence of the mufti by any political
ambition.
of those

two-thirds

must

involve

of these merchants

THE

[1519

A.

Jpniali

constantly
Selim
to

horrified

at

patriarch

the

to

the

pleilges

by

force;

the

words

the

but

mosques,

the

he

number

small

of

oath
of

of

them

faithful

him

testified

Jemali,

himself

churches

authorised
the

had

with

took

under

contented

beautiful

most

to

which

build

to

who

with

nople,
Constanti-

then

others

inhabited

capital.

the

and
the

Persia

to

the

territory

of

the

Ottomans

he

had

to

had

the

in

Ottomans
blood.

in
His

history

war,

reign
of

by

the

in

vain,

to

throne.

He

his

of

one

people,

by

of
for

had

it

of

above

those

all
it

and

by

sanguinary
all

of

He

had

humiliates

the

the

humanity.^

to

in

had

Tatar

conquering

barbarity

pleasure

This

caused

The

in

which
it.

substituted

scandal

steeped

them
be

of

"

politics

against

despotism
by

Egypt

and

means

fratricide.

steeped
woukl

and

morals

janissaries,

throne

victory

one

Syria

the

the

above

sultan.

which

afflicts

throne

the

character
he

won

and

house,
to

of
his

added

"

of

sovereigns

had

corrupted

influence

increased

Ottoman

conquests

two

had

he

having

after

the

but

and

race,

soldierly

accession
in

is

example

But

further

the
him

sinister
father's

his

of

policy

by

Orient

his

nation.

his

been

paternal

reappeared

of

renown

of

struggled

the

left

usurpation

in

corruption

dying

in

prince

This

fratricide

the

into

with

the

sultan

the

representation
He

vizir.

Koran

treaty,

who

vizir,
Greek

conversion

of

patriarch

the

on

grand

having
forbids

this

conquest,

Selim,
the

to

the

lost,

the

the

word

of

terror

advised

clergy,

the

cutions.
perse-

by
grand

Koran

default

been
of

Christians

them

convert

had

his

pledge

In

conqueror.

the

keeping

in

but

all
The

II

witnesses

given

from

away
to

for

the

with

religious
belief
the

empire,
Jemali

hand.

his

in

force

to

the

in

Jemali.

audience

Christians.

as

order

Islam

Muhammed

writing,

of

the

taking

of
the

in

vizir

grand

to

II

Selim's

from

the

recourse

Selim's

at

janissaries,

retracted

more

339

Christians

to

Muhammed

of

protect

old

the

converts

had

order,

preserved

several

once

promises

and

tolerate

to

AGGRANDISEMENT

ordered

the

appear

and

been

OF

preserved

having

multiply

order

in

PERIOD

D.]

efface

and

in

from

CHAPTER

.\-\D

MERIDLIX

III

BEGIXNIXG

[1520-1656

OF

DECLINE

A.D.]

The
period comprised within the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566) is one
of the most
hbton*, but in the hlston' of
important not only in Ottoman
of western
The great monarchies
Christendom
had now
the world.
emerged
and
the feudal chaos.
matured
from
They had consolidated their resources

grander scale,for the


of more
systematic
energy,
of aggrandisement, than had
schemes
been witnessed
during the centuries
which we
the ages of mediaeval history. At the conmiencement
of this
term
since the Ottomans
had
epoch (1520) nearly forty years had passed away
of central and western
conflict with the chief powers
been engaged in earnest
of the feeble Bayazid II had been coldly waged,
Europe. The European wars
the fierce
of Christendom; and
directed against the minor
and were
states
of
been
devoted
the
his
Selim
the
had
to
Inflexible,
energies
conquest of
son,
their

strength. They stood prepared for

exhibition of

more

Mohammedan

and

contests

on

for the realisation

nations.

these

During
started

sustained

two

childhood

from

her old Moorish

Europe had
reigns the great kingdoms of modem
relics of
into manhood.
had
the
last
Spain
swept
from

her soil,and
of a
in the sway

conquerors

the sceptres of her


singledj-nasty. France, under
hatl united

Christian kingdoms
three warlike
kings,Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I, had learned to
employ in brilliant schemes of foreignconquest those long discordant energies
which
Louis
XI
had brought beneath
the sole
and long divided resources

various

authority of

the

crown.

In

England,

and

in the

dominions

of the house

of

and concentrated
had taken
Austria, similar developments of matured
power
received
and
adoni
nations
while
the
which
enrich
had
arts
place. Moreover,
the close of the fifteenth centun.-, an almost
in Christendom, towards
cedented
unprehad
been
improved there
unequalled impulse, the art of war
armies, comprising largebodies of wellhigher degree. Permanent

and
even

in

340

AND

MERIDIAK

OF

BEGINNING

DECLINE

341

[1520-1566A. D.]

and

armed
the

of

use

now
employed. The manufacture
infantry,were
better understood
and
of artillery,
were
firearms,especially

and

well-trained

generallypractised;and

of

school

skilful

as

well

as

more

daring commanders
the "Great
Captain"
the strugglebetween

of
the model
and
on
had arisen, trained in the wars
of
Besides the commencement
of Cordova.
Gonsalvo
other
for the possessionof Italy,many
and Austria
great events
France
modern
from
mediajval
to
at the end
the
transition
history
period
signalised
the
centuries
sixteenth
of
those
and
the
commencement
fifteenth
the
of
; and
all
of
with
all
c
onnected
nature
were
not
warfare,
a
strictly
events, though

calculated

to waken

the Christian

far-reachingand

more

nations, and

to

make

them

more

more

enduring heroism

formidable

to

among

their Mohammedan

rivals.

guese
discoveries and the conquests effected by the Portuand the Spaniards in the East Indies and in the New
World, the revival
literatures,the impulse
of classical learning, the splendid dawnings of new
and
free inquiry,
of
to
the
art
enlightenment,discussion,
printing
by
given

great maritime

The

the leading spiritsof Christendom, to


and long-suffering
patientof difficulty
to expect that these new
reason
energiesof
of action in conquests over
Islam ; for religious

all tended to multiply and to elevate


and
render them
daring in aspiration,
in

performance.

There

was

also

find their field


the Franks would
still
zeal was
general and fervent

in that

of the

the ultimate

age,
toils of the

and

the advancement
of
the
mariner,
philosopher,

the cross
was
purpose
and the soldier.
The hope that
and the student,as well as of the statesman
would
the Holy
from
to rescue
his voyages
to be derived
the treasures
serve
of Colmnbus
amid
his
the infidels was
Land from
ever
present to the mind
and
amid
the perilsof the miknown
labours ami his sufferings,
deep, even
the Alps and
his marches
and battle-fields between
Charles VIII, amid
as

Naples, still cherished the thought of proceeding from conquered Italy to


the Turks.
of Constantinoplefrom
the rescue
marked
The
of
between
a
probability
change in the balance of power
Christendom
seem

to

and

have

of the sixteenth
the middle
increased
the
fact that one
by
materially

Islam

been

before

century
Christian

may
ereign
sov-

powerful states under his singlerule.


The emperor
Charles V reigned over
an
empire equal to that of Chai-lemagne
in space, and
immeasurably surpassingit in wealth and strength. He had
inherited the Netherlands,the Austrian states, and the united Spanish monarchy,
with the fair kingdoms of Naples and Sicilyand the newly discovered
many
He
obtained
territories in America.
by election the imperialthrone of Gerhim
the
additional
transatlantic
and
Pizarro
and
Cortes
empires
;
gave
countless suppliesof silver and gold.
of Mexico
and Peru, with their almost
of this inmiense
been foreseen that the possessor
It might perhaps have
when
it
the
be
would
Ottomans, by
trammelled,
employing
against
power
and
the ambitious rivalryof France
by the religiousdissensions of Germany ;
but,on the other hand, the Ottoman
Empire was at least in an equal degree
Christendom
from
full
action
by the imperial rivalryof
against
impeded
Persia,by the hatred of Shiite against Suimite, and by the risk of revolt
in Syria and Egypt.
Yet
the house of Osman
not
only survived this period of peril,but was
and
lord of the ascendant
fair
numcroas
throughout the century, and saw
provincestorn from the Christians and heaped togetherto increase its already
due to the yet
was
Much, unquestionably,of this success
ample dominions.
unimpaired vigour of the Turkish militaryinstitutions,to the high national
of the people,and to the advantageous positionof their territory.But
spirit
combined

many

of

the

most

TURKISH

THE

OF

HISTORY

THE

343

EMPIRE
[1520 i.D.]

the
of the Ottoman
greatness throughout this epoch was
principalcause
ruled by a great man
the empire was
great not merely through his
of favouring circumstances, not
being called on to act amid combinations
the spiritof his
in carrying out
merely by tact in iliscerningand energy
of
the present, and
ordainer
in
but
an
himself,
intelligent
man
a
great
age,
of
the
future.
moulder
a self-inspired
the

fact that

"

SULEIMAX

Sultan
Suleiman
the

Suleiman
I, termed by European WTiters Suleiman the Great and
the Magnificent,bears in the histories written by his own
men
countryKanuni
titles Suleiman
(Suleiman the Lawgiver) and Suleiman

Kiran
(Suleiman the Lord
Suleiman, being the only son

Sahibi

blood

the

with

his

of

brothers.

of his

ten

bore

one

venerated
the tenth

to

born

soil his hands

under

favourable

in the

names

sultan

of

Orient, that of
the Turks; he was

Hejira,and the number


century
lived in the full
Orientals.
Suleiman
exceedinglylucky by
the European Renaissance; he has exercised the pens of our
of the

is considered

brilliancyof
famous

most

^Titers

and

Marriaije at Cana
sovereigns of his time.
in his

of the ablest

has

painted him

and so robust
was
fine-looking,
fatiguesof sixteen campaigns ; he
brilliant

poet.

Whereas

amba.ssadors.

Venetian

He

the

have

I, did not
Moreover, he was

of the most
He w;is
the great King Solomon.
born at the beginning of the tenth

au-spices.He

Age)."

of Selim

most

seated

at

in health
of

was

an

of his

Paul

table with

that

he

Veronese

the celebrated
able to endure

was

well educated,
enlightenedspirit,
successors
emerged from the

of a serai to mount
at his accesthe throne, he was
seclusion of the harem
sion
or
He
been
of
KafTa
while
his
in
affairs.
had
father
grandexperienced
governor
Bayazid was alive,and during the reign of his father he had not been
the camp.
He
did not have to wait and
the council or from
from
excluded

languish in the precarioussituation of heir-apparent,for Selim occupied the


Fate
smiled
throne
him, consequently he appears
only eight years.
upon
more

humane
He

sultans.

and
was

of
not

more

generous

prodigalwith

and

clement

punishments,

nature

than

like Selim.

most

The

of the

post of

grand vizir ceased to be feared. On occasion, however, native ferocityand


shown
revealed in him.
This was
when
Ibrahim, the favourite
perfidywere
to the bow-string of the mutes, and
grand vizir,was
suddenly given over
when
several different occasions
of prisonerswere
massacres
ruthlessly
on
ordered,

IBR.VHIM,

C.U.VXD

VIZIR

historyof Ibrahim, the favourite of Suleiman I, is one of those popular


tales of the Orient which
would impress the Occident as the chimera of fable.
Ibrahim
the son
of a poor Greek
fisherman.
was
Being captured one day in
his father's boat by Turkoman
piratesof Cilicia,the beautiful child was sent
the valleyof Magnesia, and
to Smyrna, sold to a rich widow
from
as
a slave
of the child,which
employed to tend her gardens. The grace and intelligence
tion.
flattered the pride of the widow, led her to give a maternal
to his educacare
renowned
teachers of Magnesia to instruct him in the
She had the most
Koran, in languages,rhetoric,poetry, and, above all,in nmsic, which the
she planned
voluptuous inhabitants of Ionia preferto all the arts. Whether
The

THE

344

HISTORY

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1523-1525 A.D.J

The

double lustre on
knightswere to be
and property within
twelve
days
libertyto quit the island with their amis
and they were
to be suppliedwith
in their own
transports by the Turks
galleys,
jects,
citizens, on becoming the sultan's subif they required"them : the Rhodian
to be allowed the free exercise of their religion
; their churches
were
were
from
their parents ; and no
children were
to be taken
not
to be profaned ; no
the island for five years.
The
from
insubordinate
tribute was
to be reciuired
caused some
infraction of these teniis, but the main
violence of the janissaries
request,
pro\Tsionsof the treaty were fairlycarried into effect. By Suleiman's
him
and the grand master
before the knights
inter\'iew took place between
an
words of respectSuleiman
left the island.
addressed, through his interpreter,
ful
and, turning to the attendant vizir,
consolation to the Christian veteran;
the generous

is reflected with

victor.

at

"

observed
in his old

the sultan

It is not

without

regret that I force this brave

man

from

age." Such, indeed, was the esteem with which the valour
that they refrained
from
had inspiredthe Turks
of the Icnights
defacingtheir
the buildings. For more
than three hundred
armorial bearings and inscriptions
on
his home

the

respect ;

same

had
treated
the escutcheons

and

Suleiman

againstSultan

for

Rhodes,

MEETING

THE

of their brave

the memory

the Ottomaris

years

of the

knights of St.

stilldecorate

OF

THE

the

foenien with

John,

who

fought
long-capturedcity.'

J.^NISS.VRIES

had experiencedthe turbulence of the janissaries


at Rhodes, and
Suleiman
serious proofof the necessity
of keephe received three years aften\ards a more
ing
in
and
under
strict
formidable
but
that
warfare,
body constantlyengaged
been
had
The
1524
and
1523
not
signalised
by any
judiciousdiscipline.
years
IChair

revolt of Ahmed
Pasha, who had succeeded
of Egj-pt,had occupied part of the Ottoman

necessityof quellinga

The

foreignwar.

Bey

in the

government

and killed,
Suleiman
sent
to resettle its
important pro\'ince
its future tranquillity.Suleiman's
and assure
tion
personalattenafter the campaign of Rhodes
for the first eighteenmonths
was
earnestly
of his empire: but in the
directed to improving the internal
government
of 1525 he relaxed in his devotion
to the toils of state, and, quitting
autumn
for
there
the first time to Adrianople,and followed
he repaired
his capital,
of the chase.
The janissaries
with ardour the amusement
began to niumuir
of war,
and
into open
at last they broke
out
at their sultan's
forgetfulness
Suleiman
brigandage and pillagedthe houses of the principalministers.
and strove
to quell the stomi
returned
to Constantinople,
by his presence.
of their ringtwo
He
leaders
troops, and cut down
boldly confronted the mutinous
them
hand : but he was
with his own
to
donative,
a
obliged pacify
by
of
though he afterwards partly avenged himself by putting to death many
of
whom
he
of
their officers,
having neglected
suspected having instigatedor
from Egj-pt,and, by
He then recalled his vizir Ibrahim
to check the disorder.
into Hungary, with which country' he
to lead his armies
his advice, determined
still at war, though no important operationshad taken place since the
was
forces ; and

his favourite
administration

after the

grand

traitor had

y\ziT Ibrahim

into

been

defeated

that

and
have
fifteen years
now
elapsed since this illustrious order was
The
hundred
and
twelve
after a possession of two
its conquests,
years.
the
is still ornamented
with
the door
of each
house
of the knishts is uninjured, and
street
been
The
escutcheon
of the last inhabitant.
unoccupifd,
spared, but are
buildings have
The
of departed heroes.
surrounded
could
almost
and
fancy ourselves
by the shades
we
I observed
the noble
those of the
in all directions.
of France,
are
seen
fleur-de-lis.
arms
'

"

Three

obliged to

hundred

abandon

Clermont-Tonnerres,

and

of other

ancient

and

illustrious

families."

"

Mjlbshal

Makmoxt.'

MEEIDIAN

BEGINNING

AND

DECLINE

OF

345

[1525-1555A.D.]
at this time vehemently urged to invade
was
wished
who
of his rival
to distract the arms
France,
Himgary by
had been sent from
Charles V ; and, on the other hand, an ambassador
Persia,
the natural foe of Turkey, to the courts of Charles and the king of Hungary, to
form a defensive and offensive leagueagainstthe Ottomans.^

of

campaign

Belgrade.
Francis

Suleiman

I of

CAMPAIGNS

Nevertheless, since

open.

were

Belgrade and

the capture of

By

Selim

which
Gallipoli,

of the Occident

Sunnite

than

his father; he

hated

the

cessor
tardy felicitations of Shah Tamasp, the sucrepliedby massacring the Persian prisonersheld
the Fierce had spared. New
grievanceshad been
entertained
two
againsteach other ;
princesalready

To

he.

Ismail, Suleiman

of
at

less zealous

no
as

all the routes


attention

throughout his
was,
in Asia, we
shall
European affairs by events
interruptionhis campaigns against Persia.

without

here

Suleiman
was
Shiites as much

of Rhodes

Suleiman's

from

reign,constantly diverted
narrate

ASIA

IN

the

added to those which the


himself
of Bitlis,had surrendered
and his
Sherif Bey, the Ottoman
governor
had
of
the
sent
Baghdad,
keys
cityto the shah ; Oulama, the Persian governor
I ordered
the grand vizir Ibrahim
to
Suleiman
of that cityto the sultan.

take possessionof it. The


gained by
places situated about Lake Van were
Ibrahim by force of arms
or
through defection. He reoccupiedTabriz (July
then joined
13th, 1534) and completed the conquest of Azerbaijan. He was
The
of
sultan
in
the
commanded
Ghilan, of
princes
by
person.
by an army
The
their
submission.
of
the
shah
made
vassals
and
other
Shirvan,
many
marched

Ottomans

by the
that they were
The grand

Baghdad

upon

ilefiles of

the

Elwend
burn

(Orontes).

their

artillery
vizir took the lead to receive the
their
cannon.
bury
wagons
submission of Baghdad and to close the gates so that the city should not be
In January, 1535, the sultan
the azabs.
and
pillagedby the janissaries
made his entry into the ancient capitalof the caliphs.
The

stages

were

difficult

so

and

(1548).

Tabriz and Van.


Against Tamasp he supported
who
called
pushed his incursions as
Elkass,
a
Tamasp,
stantinopl
Ispahan. He seized twenty castles in Georgia and returned to Conthe
the
of
attacks
Persians
later
Five years
in December, 1549.
another campaign
the conquered lands obliged tljesultan to undertake
of

brother

as

upon
into

had

Tamasp

retook

Suleiman

Van.

of Lake
far

until thirteen years afterwards


reoccupiedthe regions

of Persia

the frontier
upon
reappear
while the shah
In the mean

did not

He

obliged to

Persian
he invaded
In 1554
Asia.
Armenia, and conquered Nakhitchevan, Erivan, and Karabagh. These victories led to the Peace of Amasia
orthodox
Turkey and heretic
(May 29th, 1555), the first to be signed between

Persia.

It

If the

had

conquest

of the status

re-establishment

the

was

of

and

Mesopotamia
campaigns

definitive since the

been

1534, the

same

and

was

true

not

could

of Selim

be

quo

ante

helium.

Babylonia, countries
and

since

regions of

of the mountainous

They

of Kurdistan.

of

retained

of the

plain,

the campaigns

of

baijan,
of Azer-

Armenia,

cities
the rival

only by giving the


chiefs.

But

vassals,who were
generallynative
family, faithful to their old habits of
princes of the same
of the peaks and valleys;
anarchy,disputed with one another the pos.session
giance
the feudatories invested by the sultan out of caprice transferred their alle-

and

castles

families

or

from

as

fiefs to

the

the

guerillawarfare

sultan

and

to

the shah

sieges went

or
on

shah

to

incessantlyin

the

from

the

the

sultan.

intervals

Petty
between

THE

346

OF

HISTORY

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1525-1553 A.D.]

the great Turko-Porsian


the other ham!

On

Shat

and

Azerbaijan

renounce

el-Arab, fonncd

Turkisli

The

wars.

half of Armenia

the

Turkish

Empire indeed

and

obliged to

was

Kurdistan.

domination

was
firmlyestablished on the
Euphrates and Tigris. Through
(Bassora) and through the port of Suez in

the

by the junction of

the river and of Basra


on
the Red
the
Sea, the Persian
suzerainty of Turkey extendecl over
Egypt,
In
the
the
and
Ocean.
the
Indian
following
period
Gulf,
year 1526 the captain
Selman
Reis traversed the Red
Sea, chastised the Arab corsairs,and
and
the sacred cities of Arabia
confirmed
the sovereigntyof the sultan over
of
The
the
eunuch
Yemen.
Suleiman,
Egypt, organised at
over
governor
Suez
fleet of eighty sail (1538). Aden
was
a
occupied. Turkey could then
the port

make
at

felt

its influence

Constantinoplean

was

from

Indian

in the

affairs of Hindustan.
of the

prince,son

grand mogul Humaiun.


prince of Guzerat, from

Indian

whom

In

1538

Lskander

sultan

The

the

with

at war

even

came

of
as

appeared
Delhi, who

ambas.sador

the

Portuguese had just


Suleiman
ordered
the pasha of Egypt to equip a
taken the city of Diu.
the armament
fleet to aid in recapturing the city. Before
was
complete it
Bahadur
been
the
had
killed
that
The
learned
treasures
was
by
Portuguese.
three hundred
which this prince had depositedat Mecca
coffers full of gold
and
silver
sent
to
received an
were
Constantinople. In 1547 Suleiman
Ala-ad-din
from
ambassador
(Aladdin), another prince of India, who came
Piri Reis paraded the
to implore his help against the Portuguese. In 1551
the coast
Ottoman
of Oman,
and
on
flag in the Asiatic seas, took Marcate
His successor,
Murad, in sightof this island,delivered and
besiegedOrmus.
lost a battle to the Portuguese. In 1553 Sidi Ali, surnamed
Katibi
al-Rumi,
Bahadur,

"

"

lost

battle

another

Guzerat.

Arabia,

nor

to

them

before

the German

emperor,

and

and

Basra

took

refuge

the

in

ports of

Egj'pt,nor
the fightagainst the king of Hungary,
of Suleiman

However, the principalconcern


Persia, nor Hindustan
; it was

not

was

their allies.

WITH

UNDERST.tNDING

FR.AJCCE

Nothing in the first quarter of the sixteenth century could appear more
France, the eldest daughter of
paradoxical than a rapprochement between
incarnation
of Islam ;
redoubtable
the church, and Turkey, the last and most
union
of
the
such a rapprochement would seem
to be
a sacrilegious
lilyand
had
been
the
head of
the crescent."
The "very Christian"
at
king
always
I
Francis
all projectsfor efTecting
crusade.
But
on
February 24th, 1525,
a
terrified
Protestants
been
defeated
and
taken
before
Pavia.
had
The
prisoner
felt themselves
of Germany
their heads, the Italian
at the
bowed
states
of the strongest, the England of Henry \TII grovelledbefore the victor.
mercy
A Turkish
with
all its ferocitycould alone restore
alliance, a Turkish
war
the European equilibrium. Who
it in France who first had the idea of
was
that heroic and atrocious
remedy?
"

It is not

mother,
to

the

known

whether

regent Louise.

Turkey

the

ring of
companions
and

Francis

with

It appears

Constantinople.
the Hungarian envoys,
to

"

Later

that
the

showed

the papers
grand vizir
a

from

or

first French

his
bassy
em-

Pavia.

The

sultan

letter and

he

and

them

Francis

that the

sent

massacred.

were

sent

is certain

thing
immediately after the battle of
He was
is not known.
carryingto the
in
I, when,
passing through Bosnia,

was

of the amba.ssador

from

the idea emanated


One

and

his

ringwere

name

twelve
ered
recov-

versing
Ibrahim, in conring on his finger and

(1525-1526A. P.]
said : " This

OF

BEGINNING

AND

MEEIDIAN

DECLINE

347

righthand of the king of France when he was


Giovanni
Another
have bought it."
Frangipani,
envoy,
of France.
the
the
sultan
from
letter
and
to
successful
king
a
brought
more
was
is superb in its generosityand
of the sultan
pride: "Thou
The
answer
thy faithful
art Francis, king of the country of France, thou hast sent
who
hast made
Thou
of
the
to
sovereigns.
asylum
Porte,
servant Frangipani
my
and
that
thou
in prison,
art
has
seized
now
the
that
known
thy country
enemy
All
deliverance.
for
and
aid
asked
for
hast
thy petitions
succour
thy
and thou
the
and
of
the
of
laid
foot
the
been
world,
at
throne,
have
refuge
my
them
in
embraced
has
imperialwisdom
my
unheard-of
thing for
detail. It is not
an
become
and to
oners;
prisemperors to be conquered
ruby was
and I
taken prisoner,

take

wherefore
illumine
make
new

their

have

tomb)

our

sabre is

and

day
girt."

BATTLE

OF

our

not

God

(may
ceased

never

to

be

and

courage

repulsethe enemy
also have
territory. We
war

footsteps. Night
and

the

gloriousancestors

Our

cast down.

on

and
walked

horse

to

to conquer

in their
is saddled

MOHACS

blessed
sultan
On April 23rd, 1526, "the
the
decided
most
attack
to
having
fortune,
by
accursed
to

of

the

infidels

and

to

deliver

battle

this adversary full of hatred," left his


thousand
of a hundred
at the head

piecesof

artillery.As

tal
capimen

long
provinces,
through Ottoman
forbidden
spahis were
was
strictly
;
pillaging
decapitatedfor having let their horses graze in
the grainfields."
of Peterwardein
On July 18th the town
taken a
was
conquered, and the citadel was
hundred
and
few days after. A bridge, two
the
thrown
ells
over
was
long,
ninety-four
Essek and the town
Drave near
pillagedand
arrived in the marshy
The Ottomans
burned.
where
the Hungarian army
of
Mohacs,
plain
Attendant
Costume
of
of
an
order
Vizir
(August 28th,
was
THE
Grand
ranged in battle
1526). Its force consisted chieflyof cavalry.
commanded
The first line was
by Peter Pereny and by the bishop Paul
Tomori, the second by the young king Louis of Hungary.
the Ottoman
The first line of Hungarian cavalry routed
vanguard and
eoiuinaiidcd
then put to flight
the troops of Anatolia, which
were
by the grand
the
Bchram.
It was
the
of
back
Anatolians
them
blerbey
vizir,
turning
upon
then charged to the rightand left by the ukindji(irregular
cavalry)and had to
attack.
The second Hungarian line broke through
this double
split
up to meet
The
valiant Marczali, at the head of thirty-four
of Anatolia.
the army
cavaliers,
who
cut a path to Suleiman.
had all sworn
to take the sultan or perish,
his life to his
killed around
him ; he owed
Several of the sultan's guards were
The
blunted.
and lances were
Hungarian
cuirass,
agamst which the arrows

and three hundred


led
the route
as

"

OF

HISTORY

THE

348

EMPIRE

TURKISH

THE

[1526-1528 A.D.)

by the Turkish army, hurled itself upon batteries whose


arquebusiers. It
together and defended by numerous
the
batteries
from
of
rific
ten
checked
distance
at
a series of terby
a
was
paces
and
the
the
the
The
azabs,
completed
akmdji
janissaries,
discharges.
their
forced
the
The
to
turn
backs,
Moslems,
having
intrepid
enemy
victory.
changed their day into darkest night. They precipitatedthem by troops of
victims
of the sword, others of
to their doom, making some
fiftyor a hundred
banded,
the
of (.lestruction." Everj'where
the arrow
Hungarians, broken and dissank
another
detachment
uito quicksands,
tried to escape;
one
was
The
the latter was
the young
in the morass;
drowned
king Louis.
among
of the Turkish army
The defterdars
battle had lasted two hours.
(.secretaries)
declared the number
of the Hungarian dead, and
to be twenty
made
a count
besides four thousand
thousand
infantryand four thousand cavalry soldiers,
executed.
who were
prisoners,

cavalry,surrounded
cannon

chained

were

"

period

this

During

much

showed

Suleiman

of

consistencyin
consequently more

more

France
and
the Ottomans,
ideas than Francis
I, more

his

loyalty. The

king of France
understood
the interests of
scruplesof religion
; he had need of the Turk^,

between
held back

constantlytorn

was

FRANCE

WITH

alliance betwean

the

action, and

in

decisiveness

RELATIONS

OF

CH.\HACTER

two

sentiments

he

by
state, but ho was
he sent them
and he did not dare to acknowledge them as his allies ; sometimes
their action, sometimes
he remembered
that he was
ambassadors
to hasten
the " very Christian '" king,and envied Charles V his role as chief of the crusade.
the contraiy, religious
zeal was
in harmony
of the sultan, on
In the case
interests

with

The

of state.

and at the same


political
scruplenor hesitation. He
he

missed

never

king of Hungary
time
was

the rendezvous

and

the emperor

were

to

him

he betrayed neither
infidel enemies; hence
always ready to invade Hungary and Austria ;
assignedbj'Francis I. With the exceptionof
demanded
his presence,
he took e\'ery spring

in Asia
the war
the years when
^^'hereas Francis I
the road to Adrianople againstthe countries of the north,
often
double-faced
and
contradict
to
uncertain,
so
himself,
prompt
appears
himself
and
certain
the
Osmanli
shows
others,
a
duping
padisha
lofty
duping
frankness,and, as it were, a proud affectation of loyalty; he is magnificentin
actions
of his

in words.

as

and

revenue

and

treasures

he receives

Whereas

the

resources

Francis

I is always a year behind in the amount


of
his
the sultan seems
to disposeof the
strength
army,
of the world, lavishinggold with full hands
as soon
as

it,throwing into the field armies

ten

times

the size of those of the

Occident.
He

put
sail.

in motion
AVere

armies

it not

of

of two

hundred

thousand

men,

fleets of two

dred
hun-

for the

vastatio
superiornumbers of his troops and for the deone
might say that he made
myriads of irregulars,

territory
by his
There was
order and
an
war
superiorto that of the occidentals.
way
and
in
his
contrasted
with
the
in
the
which
French
anarchy
discipline
camp
his
Before
Nice
all
in
order
w
hereas
French
the
fleet,
was
on
imperialcamps.
and
AA'hen the
reduced
to asking projectiles
were
powder of Khair-ad-din.
of the
Nice
the
of
the
works
was
raised,
Spanish general, regarding
siege
their
skill
in
that
he confessed
Turks, was so much astonished at
buildingramparts
that our
people seemed to him nmch inferior in such thingscompared
in

"

with

those

The

barbarians."

Turkish

alliance

marked

the

beginning of prosperityfor the French

MERIDIAN

AND

BEGINNING

OF

DECLINE

349

[1528-1529A.D.]

ports in

The

the Mediterranean.

hatti-sherif

of 1528

confirmed

and

extended

of the French
in
the privileges
states
a
enjoy in the Ottoman

from
that time to
Egj'pt. France conunenced
privilegedand preponderatingposition; other
Genoese, etc., had to navigate
European nations, like the English,Sicilians,
and trade under the French
flag. The king of France was the only sovereign
to treat as an
that the sultan consented
equal, for the old "bey of France"
bore from that tune the title of padisha(emperor)in the acts of the chancery.^
in Asia Minor
had hastened
Disturbances
Suleiman's
gary,
departure from Hunin the third year, still more
but he returned
and
midable.
formore
menacing
The
be
with
to
and
the
next
Austria,
strugglewas now
campaign
of the most
of Suleiman, the campaign of the first siege of Vienna, is one
"
and in Ottoman
history.
important in German

CAMPAIGN

IN

SIEGE

HUNGARY;

OF

VIENNA

Zapolya, supported by the Ottomans, whose vassal he professedto be,


foughtagainstFerdinand of Austria,who had been called to the throne by the
rivals met
in the plain of Tokay.
two
national party. The
Zapolya was
Sigiscompletelydefeated, and implored the aid both of his father-in-law,
An offensive and defensive alliance
mund, king of Poland, and of the sultan.
tried in vain to
Ferdinand
concluded
between
was
Hungary and the Porte.
after
held
for nine
his
obstruct this negotiation
ambassadors,
being
captive
;
months,
towards

returned
us

shall bear.
myselfwill

the

"

the ironical message


Your
master
:
relation of a friend and neighbour,but such

with

Tell him

that

give him

what

coming

am

he

to

demands.

him
Let

with
him

has not
a

yet borne

relation

he

soon

forces and
all my
that I
for our
therefore prepare

visit."
commanded
The Moslem
by Ibrahim Pasha, who had been created
army,
Two
hundred
serasker of all the Ottoman
troops, started on May 10th, 1520.
marched
had been forced to
to the aid of Zapolya,who
thousand
and fifty
men
Pesth and ahnost
the entire country.
to Ferdinand
abandon
Zapolya met the
at Mohacs

sultan

that

placewhich

did

witnessed

blush

not

to

the

permitted to retire with

arms

Buda
were

and
had

surrendered

the

and allegianceto him on


fidelity
of the Hungarians by the Moslems.
after a siegeof six days; the troops
deceived
baggage; but the janissaries,
the capitulation
and
massacred
treaty

to swear
massacre

sultan
and

plunder,violated
garrison.
imposed, as his
Zapolya was installed king of Hungary ; the new monarch
first gift after a joyfulaccession,an extraordinaiylevy on his capitalcity.
the janissaries
who
The money
thus extorted was
distributed among
composed
times of Hunyady
and Matthias
the escort of the Hungarian king. The
Corbaseness
is
It would
that
far distant.
vinus were
contagious. Bogdan,
appear
in the yoke,
the prince of Moldavia, seizingthis moment
to place his neck
"When
the
himself
vassal
the
sultan.
to
fetesgiven in honour
acknowledged
with
of Zapolya and Bogdan were
the
the new
terminated,
sultan,
king in his
month
of
Vienna.
In
the
suite,marched
September, 1529, one hundred
upon
invested the
and twenty thousand
and four hundred
men
piecesof artillery
To these
sail was
stationed
the Danube.
while a fleet of eighthundred
on
city,
and
formidable forces the besiegedcould oppose
only sixteen thousand men
sixty-twopiecesof artillery.Their ramparts were without batteries and were
doubled
of the German
soldiers was
But
the ardour
by
only six feet thick.
their hatred of the Osmanlis,the courage and skillof the leaders supplemented
in the

almost

expectationof
the entire

HISTORY

THE

350

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1529-1547 A.D.]

of the
insufficiency

the

of defence.

means

The

works

of the

Ottomans

were

burned; all the


destroyed in vigorous sorties; their camp was
and the sappers
assaults were
repulsed:in vain the artillery
destroyed the
if by enchantment.
walls arose
The .soldiers,
as
disheartened
ramparts; new
defence of the place,refused,in spiteof the threats and blows
by the stubborn
to the attack ; discouragement was
of their officers,
to march
at its height.
retired in anger (October 14th) and not without sanguinary farewells.
Suleiman
burned
alive or massacred
All the prisonerswere
without
pity. The
had
lost
thousand
before
and
Suleiman
(Ottoman
had
forty
Menna,
men
army
To console himself and to try to alter
for the first time experienceda check.
publicopinion,the sultan on his return to Pesth ordered grand fetes and public
rejoicings.Zapolya was solemnly installed as
king of Hungary, and the crown, famous in
of St. Stephen,was
legendas the crown
placed

several times

upon "his head. 3


A peace was
concluded
in 1533,
and Ferdinand
divitled between

was

Suleiman

had,

Germany

with

which

led

V,

on

head

he

by

Fertlinantl

in the
forces

the sultan

which

Hungarj'
Zapolya.

and

interval,again invaded
stronger than

even

those

against \'iemia ; and as Charles


occasion (1532),put himself at the

this
of

between

the

armies

of

the

gathered zealously around


conflict between
Christendom

the

of

But

expected.
advance
by

two

and

empire, which
him, a decisive

great potentates

Islam

Sulehnan

anxiou.sly

was

checked

was

in his

the obstinate

defence of the little


of Giins; and
after honourable
terms
been
granted to the brave garrisonof

town

had
that

Janissary

in

Dress

the

place (August 29th, 1532), Suleiman,


forward
to
findingthat Chai'les did not come
him but remained
meet
near
Vienna,
posted
turned aside from
the line of march
against
that city,
and, after desolating
Styria,returned
dominions.
to his own
Each, probably,of
these two
unwilling to
great sovereignswas
risk life,
and empire, and
the glorious fruits

of

Ceremony

of

so

event

many
of a

years

of

singleday

toil and

and

care,

neither

the

on

was

sorry

for battle furnisheil a creditable


excuse
adversary's lukewarmness
of
the
Ottomans
for
for his own.
The warlike
were
now
some
energies
the unremitted
of
Persia
time chieflyem{)loyed in the East, where
enmity
these two
between
the consequent wars
to Turkey, and
great Mohammedan
of relief to Christendom, which
her diplomatists
of that
were
a cause
powers,
age freelyacknowledged.
The modern
Turk, who .seeks consolation in remembering the gloriesof
dwell with
the great Suleiman, must
peculiarsatisfaction on the tokens of
fear which
his nation
then received from
the most
respectful
powerful as well

that

:is

his

the weaker

from

peculiarlyproud
concession
to

which
make

states

its

of Christendom.

in the

one

annals

rival,the

to its

And

of the house

Austrian

house

superiorstrength and

of

the
of

year
Osman

Habsburg,

fortune.

The

1547

is made

by

the humble

was

war

then
in

pelled
com-

Hungary

HISTORY

THE

352

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1533-1534A.D.]

the eldest,Ishak, traded as a merchant


Mytilene; the other
practised
three, Elias, Uriidsch,and Khizr (aftenvards called Ivliair-ad-din),
and piracy conjointlyduring the reign of Bayazid II and Selim.
commerce
in

Of four sons,

"Urudsch was
taken
Krkoud, then
and I\hair-ad-din next
Urudsch
of Karaniania.
practisedas bold
governor
of
Tunis.
sultan
the
under
Muhainmed,
and fortunate
They saw,
sea-rovers,
of
the
North
the
Mohammedan
African
the
of
feebleness
princes
however,
the
of
the
Ottoman
knew
and
Empire, especially
strength
they
seaports,
Porte,
under such a ruler as Selim.
They paid court therefore to the Sublime
received in
of their richest prizes to Constantinople,and
bv
sending one
themselves masters
made
two
They now
return
galleysand robes of honour.
the African
coast ; and being joinedby their brother,
small toums
of some
on
of Mytilene, they increased
their squadron, and succeeded
Ishak, the merchant
of Tlemcen, and also
in taking possessionby force or by stratagem
after this fell in battle
of the strong cityof Algiers. Ishak and Urudsch
soon
left sole master
of their conquests.
with the Spaniards,and Ivhair-ad-din was
the
Turkish
and received
t
he
of
He
sultan,
recogni.^ed
sovereignty
formally
Selim the regularinsigniaof office,a sabre, a horse,and a banner, as
from
beylerbey of Algiers.
pendent
carried on active war
Khair-ad-din
against the Spaniards and the indethe
little
of
North
Africa.
He
from
took
the
tribes
Asab
Spaniards
been
in
of
which
for
fourteen
had
island in front of the port
.-Ugiers,
3'ears
which
their occupation; and he .defeated and captured a Spanish squadron
the garrison. Acting steadilyup to his policy of prosent
to succour
fessing
was
sent
regular reports of
allegianceto the Sublime Porte, Barbarossa
his operationsto Constantmople, and desisted,in obedience to orders received
that coimtry
thence, from attacking the ships or coasts of France, when
The
red-bearded
with
connected
sea-king of
became
Turkey.
by treaty
himself
with a
Sultan
Suleiman
to
measure
now
required by
Algierswas
Elias

fell in

prisoner,but

formidable

Barbarossa,

with
the knights,of Rhodes.
sea-figlit
released through the influence of

Prince

was

opponent

in

joining his

the

Genoese

galleyswith

admiral.
in
sailed
corsair,Sinan,
he swept with fire and devastation.
of Spain
of the persecuted Moors
In
the mean
Algerine dominions.

Doria, Charles
those

triumph along the Genoese coast, which


He
next
transported seventy thousand
to strengthen his o^sm
from Andalusia
the Turks
had captured from
while Doria
and Suleiman, who
recognisedin Barbarossa

of

the

\"s

favourite

the

city of Koron, in the Morea;


achniral
only Mohammedan

the

tinople
that could compete with the Genoese
hero, sent for Ivhair-ad-din to Constanthe war
of carr^'ing
him
to the best mode
on
by
to consult with
as
in
dience
obesail
for
the
I\liair-ad-din
set
(15.33)
Algiers
Spaniards.
against
sea
with
to his
eighteen vessels, five of which
padisha's commands,
into
the sultan's service,and he
who
had
volunteered
to
belonged
pirates,
received by the
the
Doria's
of
two
captured on
galleys. He was
voyage
with
under his personal direction
Porte
the highest honours, and
Sublime
the arsenals of Constantinoplewere
busy throughout that winter with the
equipment of a powerful fleet of eighty-fourvessels (includingthe .\lgerine
sailed for Italy in the spring of 1534,
squadron), with which Barbarossa

commencing his campaign againstPersia.


Kliair-ad-din Pasha and
pally
Kapitan) sacked Fondi, princiand carryingoff the celebrated beauty of the age,
in the hope of .surprising
wished to present
Barbarossa
GiuiiaGonzaga, the wife of Vespasian Gonzaga.
the flower of the
he
that
and
her as a courtlyofferingto Suleiman,
designed
while Suleiman
Barbarossa

was

(now

fair of Christendom

should

shine in his sultan's harem.

Barbarossa's

crews

MERIDIAN

AND

BEGINNING

OF

DECLINE

353

[1534-1546A. D.]
in the
landed so stealthily
roused
beautiful Giulia was

night,and assailed Fondi so vigorously,that the


from
sleep only by the alarm that the Turks
in her palace. Evading their hot pursuit with
the greatest difficulty
were
in her night-dress
set on horseback
and danger,she was
by an Italian cavalier,
rescued and rode off with her alone to a place of safety. The sensitive
who
beauty afterwards caused her preserver and companion to be assassinated
that he had dared too much
whether it was, says the German
historian,
on
too much.
that night,or that he had only seen
After plunderingthe Neapolitan coasts, Barbarossa
stood across
to Africa,
of
which
had
been
the
his
ambition.
lie
and captured Tunis,
long
object
five
retain
this
than
months.
The
Moorish
did not, however,
prize more
he expelled,implored the assistance
of Charles V; and
the
prince,whom
led to Tunis an army
and fleet of such strength that Barbarossa,
emperor
the city. The
after a brave and skilful defence,was
obliged to abandon
cold-blooded and unsparing crueltywith which, after Barbarossa's
retreat,
sacked
the unresistingand
unoffending city was
by the Christian forces,
thither as the nominal
which had come
allies of its rightfulking,equalledthe
atrocities that have ever
been imputed to the Turks.
worst
Though driven from Tunis, I^air-ad-din was stillstrong at Algiers,and,
from
that port with seventeen
sailing
galleys,he took revenge on Spain by
and
he
then
where
the sultan
repairedto Constantinople,
plunderingMinorca,
him
conferred on
the highest naval
In
dignity,that of Kapitan Pasha.
Venice
took part in
1537 he again desolated the shores of Italy; and when
the war
againstthe Sublime
Porte, Barbarossa
caj^turedfrom her nearly all
and the cities of Nauplia
the islands that she had possessedin the Arfhip('hi"i;(),
He recovered Koron
from
the Spaniards; and on the 28th
and Castelnuovo.
of September, 1538, he engaged the combined
fleets of the pope, Venice,and
"

in a great battle off Prevesa.


Barbarossa
the emperor
this occasion
on
tised
pracof cuttingthe line,which
the bold manoeuvre
Rochiey,St. Vincent,and
Nelson
made
afterwards
celebrated in the English navy.
The Turkish
so
in number
admiral's force was
inferior to the enemy
and size of vessels and in
of
metal
but
weight
by seamanship and daring Barbarossa gained a complete
;
and gloriousvictory,though the coming on
of night enabled
the defeated
Christians to escape without very heavy loss.
The disastrous reverse
which Charles V sustained when he attacked Algiers
in 1541

Turkish
harbour

chieflythe work of
by Suleiman

was

fleet sent
the

by

the elements.

Barbarossa

commanded

detained
protect Algiers,but he was
that
the
of
shattered
ships
Spain. The
tempest
sultan
Khair-ad-din
the
was
was
employed by

same

to

the
in
last

in
great service in which
when
he
fleet
with
the
Turkish
assist
Francis
and
to
acted
sent
was
1543,
I,
in conjunctionwith the French squadron in the Mediterranean.
He captured
the cityof Nice, though the castle held out againsthim ; and he is said to
have roughly reproved the French
officers for their negligence,
and for the
defective state of their ships as to equipment and necessary
The
stores.

whom
allies,

he

rebukes ; and

it

came
was

to

protect,were

only by the earnest


d'Enghien, that the

obliged to listen submissivelyto his


entreaties and apologiesof the French
choler of the old Turkish veteran was

the duke
atlmiral,
appeased.
he
During the latter years of Barbarossa's life,
at sea, a regularattendant, as Kapitan Pasha, at
Porte,where the coun.sels of the old admiral were

was,

when

not

employed

of the Sublime
always listened to with
respect. He died in 1546; and his tomb on the side of the Bosporus near
Beschik-Tasch still invites attention by the romantic
beauty of its site,and
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

the divan

THE

354

THE

OF

HISTORY

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1546-1560 A.D.]

by the recollection of the bold corsair who sleepsthere by the side of the
had
been
principally
sounding sea, which so long he ruled. His wealth
of a college
tribute to the general
devoted by him to the foundation
: a striking
court, and
respect for literature and science which prevailed in Suleiman's
its influence

exercised

which

the rugged temper of Barbarossa, who,


even
could not possiblyhave been a Turkish
earlylife,

over

of his

the circumstances

from

Raleigh.1
admirals
themselves
eminent
were
Some, however, of the Ottoman
for
their
literature
and
contributions
the
to
their scientific attainments,
of the commanders
Piri Reis and Sidi Ali, two
the country. Such were
the

squadrons

Red

orders

Suleiman's

by

equipped

were

in the

of
of

ports of the

nople
Sea, and which, issuing thence, conquered for the sultan of Constantiand justlyvalues for
the port of Aden, which
England now
possesses

Red
its

which

for

important positionin the line of European commerce


Sea and Egypt. Many other cities and districts
of India

Persia, anil the northwest

gallantcontests

many

were

the native

the Turkish

and

two

rulers,by
Murad, and the

Reis

of

author

the

was

the

on

Sea,

with

have

names

their

India

by the

of

Arabia,

Empire; and

Ottoman

Portuguese, as

well

one

the

on

with

as

octogenarian Suleiman
been already mentioned.

geographicalworks,
in which

the

to

the

admirals, the

whose
two

Mediterranean

added

were

sustained

with

the coasts

on

Pa."ha
Piri

^Egean and

one

currents, their soundings, their

described from personalsurveys.


were
harbours, and their best landing-places
well as a sailor;and besides his productions in verse,
Sidi Ali was
a poet as
from
he WTote
of.histravel overland to Ckjnstantinople
Guzerat,
a description
where his fleet had been damaged by tempests .so as to be no longer able to
with

cope

the

and

navigationof

the

Persian

Ali

Portuguese. Sidi
and
treatises,

nautical

authorities

Indian

the

Sea,

of his time

also

was

the

author

valuable

which

very
he drew

of several

matical
mathe-

work

from

called Motihit,on
and
the best Arabian

the subjectof India.^

on

of this reign must


not be omitted, Dragut
Croatian
born a
a
by birth; Dragut was
(Torghud) and Piali. Piali was
subject of the sultan, but of Christian parentage. He, early in life,joined
the crew
of a Turkish
galley,and was chosen captain of a band of thirtyseaHe
collected a force of thirty vessels,and attacked
the island of
rovers.
him
who
but
defeated
took
and
chained him
Corsica,
was
by Doria,
prisoner
of his galley,where
victor's
for many
toiled
the
to the bench
at
oar
Dragut
month.
At
last
Barbaro.ssa
rescued
him
a
by threatening to lay
weary
if Dragut was
the patronage of IvhairGenoa
waste
not .set free; and, under
ad-din, Dragut soon
reappeared on the waves, chief of a squadron of twenty
galleysthat spread terror along the coasts of Italy and Spain. He made
himself
of Tripoli;and, following the example of Barbarossa, he
master
acknowledged himself to be the sultan's vassal, and received in return high
rank and substantial
aid from Constantinople.
had
than once
the advantage of Doria in their encounters,
more
Dragut
Two

and

was

'

almost

The

Von
found

other

Turkish

of

true

as

admirals

much

biography

dreaded

of

Hammer-Purestall

in the

Ottoman

in the Mediterranean

Barbaros.sa
narrated

little known
the

in western

Barbarossa
Europ"e before

full and
indisputableauthorities
himself
Suleiman's
had, by Sultan

himself.
man
the Gerwhich

are

dicorder, tated
and
of his life and adventures
named
is still extant;
account
Sinan, which
to a writer
an
embodied
Wars
it is also epitomised and
in the History of the Naval
of the Turks, written
by Ilaji Khalfa.
'

and

Hammer-Purgstall

Von

Mediterranean
and

literature.

was

it from

as

at

are

Bologna.

to

The

be

Barbaros,sa

stat""s

found

that

of Piri Reis on
the Archipelago
copies of the work
can,
royal libraries at Berlin and Dresden, in the Vatiof Sidi All's Mouhit
is at Naples.
copy

in the

only known

MEEIDIAN

AND

BEGINNING

OF

DECLINE

355

[1560A. D.]

towards
the sultan.
He had on one
spiritwas shown even
the
of
rich
fleet
of Venetian
occasion been tempted by
and
sight a
argosies,
the republic
had captured them, though there was
peace at that time between
and the Porte.
of St. Mark
Dragut was ordered to Constantinopleto answer
his enemy,
his head was
was
for this outrage, and, as the grand vizir Rustem
in serious peril. But
Dragut, instead of obeying the order of recall,sailed
service under the emperor
of Morocco,
out of the straits of Gibraltar and took
him
Barbarossa's
recalled
after
death,
until Suleiman,
by pledge of pardon
We
of
occasion
shall
have
to notice
soon
and ample promises
promotion.
of
the
Malta.
at
and
death
services
his final
siege
Piali Pasha
was
chieflysignalisedduring the reign of Suleiman
by the
he
in 1560 to the combined
gave
capture of Oran, and by the great defeat which
destined for Tripoliand
the isle of Jerba.
Christian fleets that were
vessels were
hundred
Two
prepared for this expeditionby the pope, Genoa,
Doria
was
Naples, and the prince of Monaco.
high
Florence, Malta, Sicily,
boldness

His

of

the army
conmianded
Alvaro de Sandi
of the fleet,and Don
Jerba
in
The
to
fleet
effected
the
safety;the
conveyed.
passage
fortress
erected.
the
and
But
island
a
landed,
were
nearly subdued,

admiral

which

it

troops

galleysleft the

the Christian
and had left the Dardanelles

of

waters

with

Jerba,

fleet which

Piali had
was

heard

reinforced

of the
at

before

attack,
by

Modon

of Rhodes
and Mytilenc. On
the 14th of
squadrons of the governors
Doria's
fleet and
completely defeated it. Twenty
May, 1560, he attacked
destroyed; seven
galleysand twenty-seven transports of the Christians were
sub.sequently
galleysran for shelter up the channel of Jerba, where they were
of the land forces to
captured;the rest fled to Italy,leaving their comrades
the active
be besiegedand captured in their new
fortress by the troops whom
them.
Piali soon
brought togetheragainst
On the 27th of September Piali re-entered the harbour
of Constantinople
in triumph. He had previouslysent a vessel to announce
his victory,which
appeared in the Golden Horn with the capturedhigh standard of Spain trailing
in the sea behind
her stem.
On the day of the arrival of Piali,Sulemian
went
with his presence
the
to the kiosk of his palace,at the water's edge, to honour
Don
Alvaro
and other Christian
triumphalprocessionof his Kapitan Pasha.
admiral's
prisonersof high rank were
placed on the poop of the Ottoman
the
a
nd
vessels
towed
rudderless
and
dismasted,
we
e
captured
along
falley,
'hose who were
observed
that his aspect on this proud
Sultan Suleiman
near
of
bore
the
and
same
day
triumph
severelycalm expressionwhich was
grave
its usual
ambassador
of King Ferdinand, who
characteristic.
The
was
attributed
this stoical composure
the
to magnanimity, and admired
present,
received
unmoved
great heart of that old sire,"which
anything that fortune
could bring. The modern
German
historian of the house of Osman
pointsout
that this uuexaltingausterityof the great sultan may
have
been caused by
the domestic affliction which
by this time he had sustained,and which may

the

"

have

steeled while it saddened

his heart.

the
had been the reign of Suleuuan
as
and
and
the
of
drunk
sorrow
had, as a man,
deeply
remorse;
of
centuries
has
haunted
the
house
that
for
Erinnys familybloocLshed,
so
many
of Osman, was
active in his generation. To be friendless is the conmion
fatally

Glorious,indeed, and

prosperous

he
Magnificent,

and Suleiman
felt it the more
nuist have
penaltyof despoticpower;
severely,
inasnmch
as he appears
naturallyto have had a capacityfor friendshipand to
have soughtearnestlyfor it in the earlypart of his reign. His celebrated grand
trusted councillor and
vizir,
Ibrahim, was for many
years not only his most
general,but the companion of his pleasuresand his studies. Yet his suspicions

THE

356

HISTOKY

OF

THE

TUEKISH

EMPIRE
[1530-1548A. D.]

last raised against the overpowerful and incautious favourite ; and


vizir whom
sultan
a
a
begins to dread has not long t" live. Ibrahim was
married to Suleiman's sister,
but not even
this close affinity
could save
him.6
at

were

OF

INFLUENCE

It would

kept

were

influence

THE

ROXELANA

HAREM;

that the wives of the sultan,slaves captured or bought, who


depths of the serai by black eunuchs, could have little
In
But quarrels often arose
affairs.
true.
general this was
the sons
of the sultan from
the fact
among

seem

strictlyin the
on

of the same
father,they still
The
sultajia
different mothers.
name
ralida was
given to the mother of the sultan,
who had
to the one
that of sultana khasseki

that, being sons


had

borne him
Under

son.

the

reign of Suleiman

one

woman

played an important role,which


particular
proved disastrous to the future of Turkey.
the Tatars
In an
made
expedition which
into Red
Russia
they carried off the daughter
of the pope of Rogatino.
She was
bought
for the sultan's harem, and finally
eclipsed
the other women
there,less perhaps by her
beautiful
Circassian girls
most
beauty (the
than
her
in
the
ity
harem)
were
by
grace, vivacof
and
mind,
joyous temperament.
called Ivhurrem
She was
(the "laughing
Roxelana
also
one") and
(perhaps "the
in

Russian").

Circassian

woman

"

the

that prince Mustapha who


was
the
the
adored
and
the
sultan,
by
army,
that
time
the
sultana
seki.
khasat
was
people
She became
violentlyjealous of the
unexpected precedencegiven this slave and
tried to fightagainst the favourite,but was
of

mother

"

discomfited.
Roxelana
was

Costume

of
OF

the

Black

THE

Serai

Eunuch

not

only

became

sultana khasseki.

the favourite

She

of the sultan but

she who
his most trusted counsellor ; it was
caused him
to make
against Persia in
war
she carried on a curious correLater
1548.
spondence

of Shah Tamasp, in which both ladies


vied with each other in hyperbolicalpraisesand oriental metaphors. She was
known
in truth an empress.
Her power was
throughout Europe. Her gaiety
with

covered

the

sultana

of intrigue,
and a vindictive
a dangerous spirit
Prince
the Circassians,her displeasurefell upon
She first secured his transfer from the
Mustapha, the heir to the throne.
governorship of Magnesia, a few days' journey from the capital,to that of
.4masia,
twenty-five days distant : she then turned againsta devoted friend
a

boundless

favourite

ambition,

soul.

After

of the

prince,the granil vizir Ibrahim.


Ibraliim expo.'^ed
himself

driving away

Doubtless

himself

sultan

and

added

almost believed
the title to all his others,signing himself boldly
to

such

an

attack ; he

MERIDIAN

BEGINNING

AND

OF

DECLINE

357

[1536-1565 D.]
A,

He
"Sultan Ibrahim."
and secured
asked
even
to attack also
was
open

tender

not

was

the

to

his

particularenemies.

of the defterdar

head

He
Tchelebi.

Iskandar

had

He
his ;I\Ioslemfaith; at first he had
affected the profoundestrespect for the holy book, pressingit to his lipsand
forehead whenever
a copy
; but at the end of the campaign
anyone
gave him
"

"

on

the

ground

of

offered him, saying that


in Persia (1536) he fell into a rage when
a Koran
was
All this was
of course
used againsthim.
On
he had plentyof copies at home.
he had gone to the serai as usual to dine with the sultan
March 5th, 1536, when
and to sleepin his chamber, he was
strangled.
The death of the Albanian
placed all the power in the hands of the Russian.

In order to have a means


for the austere
the

wards
executing her designsshe secured a few years afterwhom
she had given her daughter in marRustem, to
riage,
of

for her

two

grand

Her

vizir.

to make
to
was
objectnow
a way
Bayazid. She pursued more
bitterly
accused
him of having an understandher hostility
ing
againstMustapha. Rustem
He reportedto the sultan certain words of the janissaries,
with the Persians.
accusingthem of saying,"The sultan is too old to march againstthe enemy;
it is about time to proclaim the prince and to send the old padisha to his
ordered his son
before him.
to appear
The
friends of
repose." Suleiman
for
him
his
t
ried
command
to
not
to
the
life,
Mustapha, fearing
persuade
obey
I
all
above
must
of the sultan.
Mustapha replied:
thingsobey my father ; I
life is forfeit,
to reproachmyself ; if my
have no cause
at least let it be taken by

the throne

appointment

of

Selim

sons

and

"

him who gave it."


throne ; in a corner
with
watched

When
were

he

dry eyes
(September21st,1553).
Roxelana
triumphed,but
Selim, became
scorn

apparent

entered

five mutes

degenerateOsmanli.
brother,Bayazid,Roxelana's

Karamania.

found

him

on

the vice and

to all eyes.

for this

Selim's

he

tent

his

man
Suleibow-stringin their hands.
desperatestruggle with his executioners

his son's

soon

the sultan's

with the

incapacityof her favourite


no
janissaries
longer concealed

The
The

of the army
son, took up

became

cry

other

so

in his

anns

loud

son,

their
that

provinceof

died at the beginningof this new


civil war
man,
; and Suleialready broken
by old age, and still more
overcome
by the loss of his
feated
de"laughing one," had to march against his rebellious son.
Bayazid was
(1559) and escaped to Persia. His brother and his father showed equal
in reclaiminghis extradition from
the shah Tamasp.
The
shah gave
ferocity
him up for the enormous
of 400,000 piecesof gold ; he was
sum
strangledwith
his five sons
of
the
Thus
the
ended
in the murder
harem
had
(1561).
intrigues
Roxelana

of the greatestof Suleiman's ministers and


who alone were
worthy to succeed him.^
Besides

the domestic

militaryglory and

sorrows

which

imperialambition

in the execution

clouded

of those of his

the last years

sustained, in the

year

of

sons

Sulehnan, his

1565

(the

year

before his death), the heaviest blow and most


humiliatingdi-sappointmentthat
had befallen them
since the memorable
Vienna.
This second
retreat from
great check was caused by the complete failure of the expeditionagainstMalta,
which was
led by the admirals
Mustapha and Piali,and nobly and victoriously
encountered

by the knights of St. John of Jerusalem,under their heroic grand


Va"lette."
La
master,
The peace with Hungary, precariousas it was, allowed the sultan to push
his naval operations more
energetically.Piali,the kapudan pasha, Salih
Bey, the beyler-beyof Algeria,and Dragut, the beyler-beyof Tripoli,
held the
forces of Spain in check.
In order to dominate
the ^lediterranean
On April
disputeit was resolved to attempt the conquest of Malta.
11th,1565, the kapudan pasha set sail with one hundred and eightyships,and

maritime
without

HISTORY

THE

358

OF

EMPIRE

TURKISH

THE

[1565-156C A.D.]
on

twenty thousand

20th

May

the

of St. Elmo.

fortress

during which

sightof

the

killed

was

exclaiming,

"

the

father !"

the

buy
quartered anil
thrown

cost

order

their limbs

the

at

has

son

In

the Island and

on

first

very
bullet.

After

to

much, what

so

intimidate

the

assault,

an

of nmrdcroas

month

sacrifice will be necessary


to
he
had
the
garrison
prisoners

nailed to boards in the shape of


The grand master, La

of the walls.

foot

fire upon

opened

ordered

day Dragut

fighting
of the assailants.
The serasker,
Mustapha Pasha,
loss which
the conquest had cost, could not help

immense

If the

the

by

fell into the hands

St. Elmo
at

he

landed

men

On

which

cross,

were

Valette,repliedby
with their heads,

prisonersand loading his cannon


which
to surrender, the
he thus returned to the besiegers. A\Tien sununoned
the envoy,
That is all the
bold chevalier,pointing to the moats, answered
and fillit with the bodies of his
land I can
cede to thy master
come
; let him
janis.saries."
the kapudan pasha
On September 11th, after losingtwenty thousand
men,
re-embarked.
War
had already begun again with Hungary : Ferdinand
was
Maximilian
wished nothing better than to renew
the
dead (1564),and his son
Austrian
and
but
invaded
took
territory
truce,
Stephen Zapolya suddenly
repliedby seizmg Tokay. During this
Szathmay by surprise. Maximilian
Ottoman

massacring the

"

iiifraction
of the treaty .\li Pasha died (1565). His successor, Muhammediately
imSokkoli, a Bosnian Slav, breathed only war ; hostilities commenced
of Buda,
Croatia and Transylvaniawere
invaded, but the governor

double
med

with

met
Arslan Bey, hasteningto fight,
Eck de Salm
defeated by the comit

the

disaster before

(1566).

On

June

he

Palota,where

29th

Suleiman

was

ately
affection-

Stephen Zapolya m a solemn audience at Schabatz,


between
the Theiss and the frontier of Transylvania,
territory
him
leave
to
not
Hungary before he had assured him its possession.
promising
The army
of the death of Muhammad
was
marching upon Erlau when the news
Bey, the sandjak bey of Tirhala,who had been defeated and killed by the
Nicholas Zrinyi,the palatineof Sziget,modified the plan of campaign
count
and led the sultan to laysiegeto Sziget. Zrinyi,having resolved to fightto the
finish,put into his defence a degree of pomp
worthy of the magnificenceand
in his expetlitions.The
manifested
splendour which Sulemian
ramparts of
with
covered
a
nd
red
the
tower
were
Sziget
was
draperies,
principal
hung with
silver.
tin plaqueswhich
like
of
fourteen
At
the
end
tlieadvance
gleamed
days
had
fallen ; the besiegedabandoned
works
the city,set fire to it,intrenched
in the citadel,
and opposed a determined
resistance.
themselves
After a siege
the Ottomans
of four months
had made
visible progress, and on September
no
5th, Suleiman, who had been illfor a long time, died, complaining that he did
courageme
of victor}\ In order to avoid the disnot hear the beating of the great dnim
received

and gave

him

young

the

which

would

seize upon

the army

were

it to learn

of the death

of

Muhammed
Sokkoli carefullykept the catastrophea
gloriousemperor,
be
from
and
letters
the sultan were
read to the soldiers to
to
purporting
secret,
their courage.
there
arouse
nothing left to
w;\s
Finally,on September Sth,
which
had been their powder magazine ; all
the besiegedbut the great tower
hope of escape was gone.
Zrinyiput on a silken garment and took the keys of
its

the fortress
four swords
that

with

hundred

of honour

appear
After

he gave

which

the throne

.short

sent

had

He
won,

armed

himself
saying: "It

the oldest of the

with
was

with

this weapon

first glory; with it I should


my
of the Eternal
and there hear my
sentence."

harangue

the order to open

cannon

he

first honours

acquired my
before

ducats.

to

the

and

six hundred

brave

men

who

were

like to

left

him,

An enorthe gates justas the janissaries


advanced.
mous
In the midst of the
them.
charge of grapeshot among

MERIDIAN
[1566

A.

BEGINNING

AND

OF

DECLINE

359

D.]

and
followed
smoke, the palatine,preceded by his standard-bearer
by an
in
the
of
the
hostile
ranks
thickest
into
plimged
spiteof prodigies
;
equerry,
of a cannon.
taken alive and decapitatedon the mouth
The
of valour he was
mad
janissaries,

with rage, rushed

into

pieces women

and

itants,cutting to

the

citadel, massacring all the inliab-

children; suddenly the


three

thousand

mined

tower

Ottomans

in its ruins.
terrible noise,burying
the
sultan
of
the vizir
the
death
and
For three weeks longer
was
kept secret,
the
had
had
affairs
to
the
throne
time
arrive
at
tinople
Constanuntil
heir
to
directed

exploded

with

from

Sultan

Kutaya.3

Suleiman

I left to his

successors

an

empire

to the extent

of which

the

islands of
made, except
ever
important permanent additions were
sultan
and
under
which
maintained
no
or
subsequent
Cyprus and Candia,
recovered the wealth, power, and prosperitywhich it enjoyed under the great
in his time comThe
Turkish
dominions
prised
lawgiver of the house of Osman.
classical
celebrated cities of biblical and
all the most
history,except
Rome, Syracuse, and Persepolis. The sites of Carthage, Memphis, Tyre,
Ottoman
ground; and the cities of
Nineveh, Babylon, and Palmyra were
and
Alexandria,Jerusalem,Damascus, Smyrna, Nice, Brusa, Athens, Philippi,
of later but
scarcely inferior celebrity,such as
Adrianople, besides many
Cairo, Mecca, Medma, Bassorah, Baghdad, and Belgrade,obeyed the
Algiers,
sultan of Constantinople. The Nile,the Jordan, the Orontes, the Euphrates,
and the
the Tigris,the Tanais, the Borysthenes, the Danube, the Hebms,
The eastern
of the Horsetails."
within the shadow
Ilyssusrolled their waters
of the Mediterranean, the Propontis,the Palus Moeotis,the Euxine, and
recess

few

"

Sea were
the Red
and the Caucasus;

Turkish

lakes.

The

Ottoman

crescent

touched

the Atlas

Carmel,
Athos, Sinai,Ararat, Mount
the Carpathian and the Acrothan forty thousand
miles,
ceraunian
heights. An empire of more
square
had
of
the
beautiful
richest
most
world,
and
of
the
regions
embracing
I
many
from
the
of Ertoghrul in three centuries
been acquired by the descendants
their forefather wandered, a homeless
time when
adventurer,at the head of
I less than five hundred fightingmen.
were
Sulein\an divided this empire into twenty-one governments, which
The
Rumelia,
250
subdivided
into
(1)
were:
sandjaks.
governments
again
continental
then comprised all the Ottoman
term
under which
possessions
were
these included ancient Greece, Macedonia,
in Europe south of the Danube:
pelago
Thrace, Epirus, lUyria, Dalmatia, and Mwsia ; (2) the islands of the Archivested in the kapudan pasha ; (3) Algiersand its
was
: this government
the conquered portions
territory
; (4) Tripoliin Africa ; (5) Buda, comprising
of western
Hungary ; (6)Temesvar, combining the Bannat, Transylvania,and
the eastern
part of Hungary ; (7)Anatolia, a title commonly given to the whole
of Asia Minor, but here applied to the northwestern
part of the peninsula,
which includes the ancient Paphlagonia,Bithynia, Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Lycia,
I
! Pisidia,and the greater part of Phrygia and
Galatia ; (8) Karamania, which
ancient countries,and also Lycaonia,
contains the residue of the last-mentioned
and the largerpart of Cappadocia ; (9)Rum, called also the government
Cilicia,
of Sivas, and sometimes
the government of Amasia
: it comprehended
part of
Cappadocia,and nearlythe whole of the ancient Pontus that lay in Asia Minor ;
^ Mount

it

was

supreme

over

Taurus, Ida, Olympus, Pelion, Hoenms,

'

the cities of Malatea, Samosata, Elbostan, and


this embraced
and
the hnportant passes of the eastern
the neighbouring districts,
ridgesof
the
of this city commanded
the governor
Mount
Taurus; (11) Trcbizond:
round
the southeastern
coasts
extremity of the Black Sea; (12) Diarbekir;
and
(13) Van : these two governments included the greater part of Armenia

(10) Sulkadr:

THE

360

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[15."0-15C6A.D.)

those
Kurdistan; (14) Aleppo; (15) Damascus:
Palestine; (16) Egypt; (17) Mecca and Medina,
and

Pctraja;(IS) Yemen
and

considerable

tract

Aden:

this government

and

Suleiman

and the adjacent southern


its
confluence with the other
(after
time

same

the

were

and

the

Syria

and
of Arabia

country

extended

Arabia

over

Felix

along the coast of the Persian Gulf and northwestern


these
last three
contained
(20) Mosul; (21) Basra:

India; (19) Baghdad;


Selim
the conquests which

the

embraced

two

had

made

from

the

Tigris and

regions:
river)formed

boundaries

between

the Persians

their

the

Euphrates
limit,and at

eastern

Turkish

in Mesopotamia

the

and

the

Persian

dominions.
Besides

the

countries

the sultan

Ragusa,

and

that

were
portionedout in these twenty-one governments,
davia,
sovereignover the viissal states of Wallachia,Molwhich in the cases
Tatary. They paid hun tribute,

also

was

Crim

of

[';rgg'Wi^^-r^f-f^Hf^^?'^^

the

fonner

two

pc^

large
the

to
not

easy

the

and

Turkish

Crimea

They

and

khans

of

nished
Tatars, furgents
contin-

annies.

the

the

to

feudatories

valuable

to define

belonging

consider-

were

able ; and the last-named


of the Porte, the Crim

then
territoiy

vassal

beyond

It is

khans

that

of

peninsula.

their kin.smen, the Tatar


chiefs of
Astrakhan, were
and

martial
tribes that
the steppes to the nortii
of the Euxine, and round
the sea of
numerous

roved

amid

Azov;

but

the

fluctuation

almost

Capital

of

Church

the

of

lands

crown

of

The

5,000,000 ducats.
and

the customs,

the

Ragusa

the

sultan

tithe

other

or

at

land

their

the
perpetual wars
the
Cossacks,
Muscovites, and each
other prevents the fi.xing
of any territorial
boundaries
in those
regions
for any specified
epoch.
An
judiciously
ample revenue
and
erally
collected,
prudently though libtlecisive
was
one
employed,
advantage which Suleiman possessed
his

over

The

of

that

with

nionarchs.
contemporary
of
the
large sum
produced

time

tax, the capitationtax

regulartaxes

raisetl this to

the

on

between

rayahs,
ancl

seven

The
the subjectwas
of taxation
burden
on
eight millions.
light,and it was
levied
additional
an
impost. The
only twice in his reign that Suleiman
necessitycaused by the siegesof Belgrade and Rhodes, in the beginning of
his reign,and the cost of armaments
in the year of the battle of Mohacs,
compelledhim to impose a poll-taxon all his subjects,without distinction
of creed
was

sultan

or

fortune.

similar
were

soon

measures

But

the

amount

was

again

necessary.
ma(lt" to reimburse
their

the Porte.

Large contributions
were
and Ragusa, Moldavia, and Wallachia

drawn

Porte.

of

Another

le.ssglorioussource

goods of the numerous


reign. By invariable

high
usage

small
The

on

from

revenue

officers of state

Hungary

tribute
was

who

the property of those

campaigns

never

of

the

still furtlicr to enrich

outlays,ami

poured

occivsion ; and

each

victorious

into

found
were

who

antl
the

Transylvania;
treasury of the

in the

executed
die thus

confiscated

during this
is forfeited

BEGINNING

AND

MERIDIAN

OF

DECLINE

3G1

[1530-1566A. D.]
and the riches of the grand vizir Ibrahim, and other unhappy
to the crown;
of this age, were
no
unimportant accessions to the ways and means
statesmen
of tlie years in which
they perished.
the general principles
of the Ottoman
examined
We
goverimient when
the Conqueror. Every branch
of the
reviewmg the institutes of Muhammed
Kanuni;
administration of the empire received improvement from Suleiman
down
to posterity
and ruler,he has come
and, like another great conqueror

He organised with especialcare


the
works
in his hand.
with his legislative
the
abuses
which
and
of
the
ziaiyiets
feudal
timars, reforming
Turkish
system
that no timar (small fief)
had then already begun to prevail. He ordained
of the smaller
A number
if
certain
value.
exist
below a
should be allowed to
b
ut
it was
never
fiefsmight be united so as to form a ziamel (a grand fief),
lawful to subdivide
who

ziamet

into

killed in battle and

was

left

timars, except
than

more

one

of a feudatory
case
By permissionof the
as
jointtenants; but

in the
son.

government several persons might hold a fief


supreme
and any partitionand subdivision not espestillreckoned
it was
a singlefief,
cially
Porte
itself was
authorised by the Sublime
severelypunished.
who
with the workings of the feudal system in
is familiar
The reader
western
to check

Europe will perceivehow


the growth of evils like
mediaeval

producedin

admirably
those

which

The

Christendom.

adapted
provisionswere
practiceof subinfeudation

these
the

Turkish

fiefs descended

from

father

of devise or alienation ;
There was
fees in tail male.
no
to son, like our
power
issue of the deceased
holder, the timar or ziamet
and in default of male
time
to allow
usual
before Suleiman's
It had been
reverted to the crown.
fiefs
within
of
the
of provincesto make
the vizirs and governors
lapsed
grants
of the minor
fiefs.
restricted this to the case
but Suleiman
their jurisdiction,
in
and
of
no
ziamet,
None but the sultan could make
new
a
lapsed
a
grant
did

instance

subjectpay
who

person

feudatory who received


homage or enter into

the
any

invested

him.

There

was

no

the
any
mesne

investiture

of

timar

from

relation of feudal duty to


lordship. The spahi was

the
the

sultan,and of his sultan alone.


3,192;
or
ziamets, in Suleiman's time was
largerfiefs,
that
that of the smaller fiefs,
or
timars, was
50,160. It will be remembered
to render military
not only bomid
each spahi (or holder of a militaryfief)was
service himself in person, but, if the value of his fiefexceeded a certain specified
for
horseman
armed
an
required to furnish and maintain
amount, he was
of
the
of
that sum;
phraseology
early English
or
(to adopt
every multiple
with
in time of war
to supply the crown
bound
the estate was
institutions)
of
the
The
total feudal array
for each knight'sfee.
empire
a man-at-arms
and fiftythousand
amounted
in the reignof Suleiman
to a hundred
cavalry,
who, when summoned
by the beyler-beysand sandjak beys,joined the army
out
at the appointed place of muster, and served throughout the campaign withthousand
number
the
add
to
this
not
We
forty-eight
must
only
pay.
the militaryforce of
regularlypaid and permanent troops when we estimate
the numeralso bear in mind
the Turkish Empire in its meridian,but we must
ous
sent
to
Crimea
khans
which
of
the
the
vassal
squailronsof Tatar cavalry
of
swell the Turkish
remember
the swarms
must
irregular
armies, and we
the sultan's
l)oth horse and foot, the akindji and the azabs, which
troojis,
dominions
own
poured forth to every campaign.
There is no surer
proof of the true greatness of Suleiman as a ruler than

feudal vassal
The

the
so
on

care

as

to

of his

number

of the

which,
make

at the

it

the condition

more

same

time

efficient as

of those

that he reformed
an

instrument

rayahs who,

of

the Turkish

feudal system
bestowed

militaryforce,he

like the serfs of mediaeval

Europe,

THE

362

HISTORY

TURKISH

THE

OF

EMPIRE
[1520-15G6A.D.]

cultivated

the lands

the

assigned to

The

spahis.

Kununi

Rayah,

"code

or

rayahs," of Suleiman, limited and defined the rents and services which
It is
to pay
to his feudal lord.
the rayah who
occupied the ground was
law
which
impossible to give any descriptionof this part of the Turkish
shall apply with uniform
to all parts of the sultan's dominions.
correctness
be stated to have been
But the general effect of Suleiman's
legislationmay
he tilled,
that of recognising in the ra3"ahrightsof property in the land which
and
and
the
of
certain
the
rents
dues,
performance of
subject to
payment
who
unilerstands
for
his
feudal
The
services
certain
Englishman
superior.
and
that of a
of
the position
modern
the difference between
a
copyholder
of the

villein towards

mediaeval

the lord of his

will well

manor

understand

the important

enlightenedwisdom of the Turkish lawgiversecured,


giver
when
the ilifference of creed i)etween the lawif he did not originate. And
also bear in mind
the fact that
and the rayahs is remembered, and we
sincere and
a
Suleiman, though not a persecutor like his father, was
very
the
Turkish
sultan
that
cannot
devout
Mohammedan,
we
help feeling
great
which

boon

the

which
of the sixteenth centurj' deser\'es a degree of admiration
can
we
of melancholy
of his crouTied contemporaries
in that age
to none

persecutionbetween

and

Roman

Catholic and

Protestant

accord

injustice
tian
throughout the Chris-

world.
the lot of the rayahs imder their Turkish masters
The difference between
under their fellow Christians and fellow
and that of the serfs of Christendom
their lords, was
by the anxiety
practicallyshown
countrymen, who were
the Turkish
the inhabitants; of the countries near
that Turkish
from
their homes, and live mider

which
escape

quentlj'representedas
says

writer

who

was

having always
Suleiman's

been

"

so

showed
to
which
is freI have seen,"

frontier

yoke
tyrannical.

contemporary, "multitudes

of

Hungarian

rustics set fire to their cottages, and fly,with their wives and children,their
where they knew
cattle and instruments
of labour,to the Turkish territories,
that,besides the payment of the tenths,they would be subjectto no imposts
or

vexations."
Besides
the

mentioned,

important

the ceremonial

branches
law

(a

of law
far

more

and

government

serious

that

have

been

subject in

the East than


the criminal law received
modified and remodelled

of police,
and
Europe), the regulations
attention
the
of
and
sultan,
were
personal
great
of
is comprised in the great
his
edicts.
by
Every subject-matter legislation
Suleiman's
code of Ottoman
mollah, Ibrahim of Aleppo,which
law, compiled by
been
in
down
has
man
to the present age in the Turkish
authority
Empire. Suleimitigated the severityof the punishments which had previouslybeen
of the penaltieswith
offences.
The extreme
appointed for many
slightness
which crimes of sensualitywere
visited by him is jastlyblamed
sion
as
a concesnation ; but, in general,his diminution
to the favourite vices of the Turkish
of the frequency with which the punishments of death and mutilation
inflicted entitles him to the praiseof the modern
were
jurist.
The minuteness
of the laws by which he strove
to regulate rates of prices
and
and
in which
articles of food should be
to prescribethe mode
wages,
and
raise
in
smile
sold, maj'
our
a
more
prepared
enlightenedage; but we
in western

the

should
and

how

remember
far

how

full

our

ou7i

book

is of similar enactments,
the spiritof vexatious and

still maintain
of the more
Some
man
noticeable laws of Sultan Suleislanderers and
tale-bearers are
are
required to make
compensation for the mischief caused by their evil-speaking
; false witnesses,
struck off,
the right hand
to have
forgers,and passers of bail money
are
mischievous

our

own

excise laws

statute

interference.
those by which

MERIDIAN

AND

BEGINNING

OF

DECLINE

363

[1530-1566A.D.]

interest is not to be taken at a higher rate than eleven


percent.; a fine is
omissions
of a Mussulman's
imposed for three consecutive
daily prayer, or a
breach of the solemn fasts ; kindness to beasts of burden
is enjoined.
the political
economists
of the present time may
Whatever
think of the
Kanuni
of Suleiman
to wages,
as
manufactures, and retail trade,
legislation
their highestpraisesare due to the enlightenedliberahtywith which
the foreign
in his empire. The
welcomed
merchant
earliest of the contracts,
was
which
in Turkey full
called capitulations,
guarantee to the foreignmerchant
and
for
free
of
the
exercise
his
and
the
protection
religion,
property,
person
laws
of
his
administered
of
functionaries
his
own
safeguard
by
own
nation, was
An extremely moderate
custom
grantedby Suleiman to France in 1535.
duty
the only impost on foreignmerchandise; and the costlyand vexatious
was
and protectiveduties has been utterlyunknown
system of prohibitive
among
for reciprocity
No stipulation
the Ottomans.
ever
clogged the wise liberality
of the foreignmerchant
who
became
her resident,
of Turkey in her treatment
of his ships and
his goods. The
in her admission
boasted civilisation of
or
western
long followed a different course, is now
Europe, which
beginning
its
t
o
retrace
painfully
steps,and gain the vantage-ground which was acquired
three centuries ago by the nation which we so often hear derided as barbarous,
and againstwhose rulers are frequentlybrought such sweeping accusations of
rapacity.
savage and short-sighted
We
have alreadyobserved,in referring
to the institutes of Muhammed
II,
the authoritywhich
the ulenia,or educators and men
learned in the law,possess
in Turkey, and the liberal provisions
made
there for national education.
man
Suleiand he introduced many
founder of schools and colleges,
was
a munificent
and rank of the ulema.
But the
improvements into the educational discipline
conferretl
him
and
the
boon
this
on
order,
by
peculiarhomage paid by
great
him to the dignityof learning,
rules of the Ottoman
consisted in establishing,
as
from
of
all
the
the
ulenia
and
the
taxation,
secure
exemption
government,

descent of their estates

body
the only class

being in all

cases

from

father to

privilegedfrom

son

of this
the property of a member
it
arisen
Hence
has
that

confiscation.

is accumulated
the Turks in which hereditarywealth
families is furnished by the educational
and legalprofessions;
and the
that can be said to exist there is an aristocracy
of the brain.''
aristocracy
among

LITERATURE

The Ottoman

literature had

UNDER

followed

in

only

SULEIMAN

the progress

of civilisation and

politics
during
reignof Suleiman.
particularly
Arts,
and letters,
which
sciences,
are
eclipsedunder conquering princes,shone forth
himself
cultivated philosophy and
again under legislative
princes. Suleiman
with a conventional
Muhibbi, a word
poetry; he signed his poems
name,
which signifiesthe man
with a sympathetic heart."
His verses,
which are
imbued with a piousmoralityand a tender passionfor the felicity
of his people,
the pastime of a man
he
of war
who
does not take up the pen except when
are
But
he admired
in
others
the
laysdown the sword.
enthusiastically
genius
which he did not have the leisure to cultivate sufficiently
in himself.
He even
pardoned the poets of his time offences prompted by their genius.
The greatest of Ottoman
lyricpoets, Abdul Baki the; Immortal, a name
In an
givento him while he was still alive,
sang during the reignof Suleiman.
elegysimilar to that of Fontaine
on
Foucjuet'sdisgracehe had the daring to
celebrate the death of the unfortunate
Mustapha. These funerary verses,
during the last

reigns,and

"

the

THE

364

OF

HISTORY

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1520-1566 A.D.1

redounded

in inarticulate reproaches
which soon
became
popiihirin Turkey,
againstthe father of Mustapha. The tears of the poet were like acid upon the
in the heart of the sultan and father.
wound
People believed that Abdul Baki
instead of puni-shing
his courage, honoured
it.
in
which
he
himself
the
congratulated
poet,
upon
poem
reigningby rightof descent during a century made illustrious by one of those
mind
the human
He
by the very right of nature.
geniuses who dominate

would

punished. Suleiman,

be

addressed

He

l)estowed

to

the

upon

would

the death

the
the Ottomans
as
the memorj'
entombed
to

Abdul

Baki

his

great

man.

mferior

had

to

that of the Immortal, is superior


in their language,^^ed with

yet admired

popularityof this Pindar of the Turks


von
literature,
Quintilianof Ottoman

Tlie

their

enmnerates

empire:

for the

sultan.

the

of

the Ottomans

anything which

Abu

and

names

Suud,

friend,in

ages

gloriousthat can be given to mor*:al men.


of Suleiman, wrote
is considered by
a funeraryode, which
in
which
most
"splendid sepulchre"
poetry has ever
work, though

poets, whose

Nine

Inmiortal, predictingthat future

surname

the most

"

Baki, upon

the

poet

ratifythis title

who

their works

also

ghazel of

after

celebrated

the

the annals
death

of

so
mourning; Ivliiali,

and

for the favour

Hammer

and

of

Purgstall,**
libraries of the

Suleiman, his

dazzling in

master

his

images
assignedhim an income
his own
of
treasury ; Ghazali, the cynic; Fuzuli, the
told of the intoxications
of opium and of wine,
of the Turks, who
Anacreon
who
and of the loves of Leila and Mejnun ; Jelili,
was
inspiredwith the Persian
inexhaustible
of Shirin, an
adventures
subject for orientals; Fikri, who
march
of the planets; Rewani, author of the
the luminous
described in verse
Buok
of Pleasures ; Lamii, who introduced into Turkey the fables of Pilpay
the
(Bidpai),that puerile but parabolicalpoetry which eternallycharms
of men
childhood
and people.
hundred
and fiftyother eminent
One
reignat
poets adorned this literarj'
illumined the distant provincesof the
Constantinople. Three hundred more
Suleiman
had called
by the Persian Lari, whom
empire. A universal historjin Turkey
from Taurus, ser\-ed to spread generalnotions of historj'
to his court
ideas concerning
and to discredit the fables which were
promulgating erroneous
of the people. Birgeli,
whose
works
still printedto-day,wrote
the customs
are
commentaries
and
the most
on
complete
jurisprudence
legislation.
The annals of the empire, recounted
successively
by five historiographers,
historians
registeredthe national events from day to day. These Ottoman
sincere minuteness
and
carry their scnipulousnessto the point of the most
of Venetian
historians
and with
nicety, ^^^len compared with the accounts
who
tinople,
the correspondence of ambassadors
resided at that period in Constanand

compared
10,000 piastersfrom

that the

sultan

these

historic

memoirs

do

to

not

diamonds

leave

and

in shadow

any

character

or

any

numerous
history. No people possesses in its archives more
written
The
of
documents
them
are
bearing on its own
history.
greater part
who
vizirs
officials
those
of
the
or
or
high
serai,witnesses,confidants,
by
by
is
themselves
in
actors
which
AMien
event
the
dramas
relate.
were
an
they
of a nature
the reigningsultan they do not give a false account
to dishonour
of it,but pass it over
Silence is their only flattery.A gap
without mention.
in the recital is always easilyfilled in by the reports which
the foreignagente
The
address to their courts.
minister of foreignaffairs,
Feridun, and the two
Ramazan
Zade, are the most
nishandjis,
Mustapha Jelal Zade and Muhammed
illustrious of these historian statesmen
during the reignof Suleiman.
became, during
Philosophy,and that philosophy of the people,religion,
this culminatingreign of Ottoman
refined
than politics,
less
no
civilisation,

event

in Ottoman

his words

HISTORY

THE

366

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1520-1566 A.D.]

for the poor, asylums for travellers,


bathing-places in short,there is a whole
little city,hospitableand benevolent, its buildingsgathered around
the high
of the temple as at the foot of a mountain, and shaded by gigantictrees. "
mass
"

FOR

CAUSES

THE

DECLINE

OF

THE

EMPIRE

of this reign,in spiteof the rights


In spiteof the incomparable brilliancy
mitted
and
it mast
be adof Suleiman
to the titles of great legislator
great man,
into the empire germs
of decadence, germs
that he introduced
which
Ivhatshi Bey, a conto grow
rapidly under his incapable successors.
were
temporary
of Murad

has

won

for him

IV, whose

the

name

work

on

the decadence

of the Turkish

of the Ottoman

Montesquieu, enumerates

Empire
various

of dissolution,which he attributes to Suleiman.


of his days the sultan,borrowing the
Towards
the end

causes

of the
customs
at the divan.
effeminate despots of Asia, had ceased to appear
Desiringto
of the sovereignwith a sacred prestige,
he had made
invest the person
himself
contributed
little towards
not
invisible. This custom
a
developing love of
his
The
elevation
of
and
idleness
favourites to the
successors.
ease
among
of
the
which
tended to give
state
a dangerous example,
was
highestpositions
of talent and experience. The
intriguersplaceshitherto resers'ed for men
in public affairs,
influence of the harem
the posithough appearing to assure
tion
his authority,and no longer the women
of Rustem, in realityweakened
only, but the eunuchs also, had a share in the government.
Pasha venalityand corruptionwere
Under
the influence of Rustem
duced
introsold the posts of governor,"
offices. "He
into the administrative
wTites von
able
Hammer-Purgstall,''"at fixed prices,and, in return for considerof
the
confirmed
in
the
the
of
Jews
and
state
possession
property
sums,
who
of
in
fortunes
order
mend
their
committed
to
consideration,
no
people
all sorts of outrages." The grand vizirs imitated the sumptuous
prodigality
of the sultan,anil lu?airysuddenly invaded
Ottoman
of
society. The salarjhad been only 10,000 aspers a month, was
the grand vizir,which
raised to
The ase of wine, so severelyprohibited
25,000 in favour of Ibrahim Pasha.
public, to the great scandal of zealous
by the prophet, began to become
Mohammedans.
Suleiman, being a tolerant and enlightened prince,closed
his eyes to these e^^ls. The poets had the courage
dictions
to jestat the intereven
to

of

the

law.

Mafiz

celebrated

wine

ghazelshe

dared

to

exclaim, without

in

In

of his ma's*the word


of the
all
of
the
that
mother
is
than
the kiss
sweeter
to us
vices,
prophet, "Wine,
of a young
girl!" The mufti Emir Saud refused to have him pro-secuted,
ance
saving that he ought not to be judged too severely. Rut the ideas of toler-

beautiful

song.

one

respect for

disappearedwith Suleiman, and the few steps that had been taken towards
served only to change the national institutions.
To this conquering prince also belongs the responsibility
for the decadence
The
in the army.
armies consisted in the
principalforce of the Ottoman
janissaries.This chosen corps had the rightnot to enter a campaign unless
the troops, hence the sultans are alwaj'sseen
the sultan commanded
to conduct
In
in
the
of this
important operations
depriving
janissaries
person.
from
the obligationof commanding
prerogativeSuleiman freed his successors
reform

the

armies, and

from

their inclination
; the

in the tent

to

inertia

was

increased.

The

first

of Suleiman
always
successors
no
longerleft
janissaries,
were
no
longer recruited exclusively
moreover,
the levy of Christian children,but from adventurers
of all sorts who

padishas were
the

thus

serai.

The

MERIDIAN

BEGINNING

AND

OF

DECLINE

367

[1566-1568A. D.]

by

attracted

the corps.
into the ranks;

of
privileges

the

It

was
permitted them to
they engaged in trades and
but ordino
nary
became
longersoldiers,
sedentary in their garrisons; they were
became
citizens,and this troop, formerly the first in the empire, now
lived,as long as the grand vizir
only a national guard. As long as Suleiman
of weakness
remained
Sokolli upheld his traditions,all the causes
latent; but
retarded the more
the longertheir activitywas
rapid was their final disorganising
were

their

marry;

sons

admitted

were

action.?

the Great, the Magnificent,the Lawgiver, the Lord of his Age,


Suleiman
his own
succeeded
national historians give the
by a prince to whom
was
whose
epithetSelim the Sot. The ignoble vices of this prince (to secure
and
such dear blood
had been shed) had
attracted the
accession so much
and drawn
down
the indignantreprimand of the old sultan
brother
to compete for the throne
in his later years ; but there was
now
no
with Selim, and on the 25th of September, 1566, the sabre of Osman
was
girt
from leadingin person
the armies
for the first time on a sovereignwho shrank
of Islam, and wasted in low clebaucherythe hours which his predecessors
had

sorrowful notice

consecrated

the duties

of the state.

The

effects

of this fatal

degeneracy
civil and military,
perfectorganisation,
had
left the empire cohered
for a time after the strong
in which Suleiman
hand which had fashioned and knit it togetherfor nearly half a century was
not

were

to

immediately

visible.

The

withdrawn.
There

of

body

generalswho had been


was
spirit
preserved
in the realm, until they had passed away,
and another generationarisen which
of these was
the grand vizir Muhammed
knew
Suleiman.
Foremost
not
who
had victoriously
concluded
the campaign of Sziget after Suleiman's
Sokolli,
death ; and who, fortunatelyfor Selim and his kingdom, acquired and
of the young
maintained an ascendency over
the weak mind
sultan,which was
not indeed always strong enough to prevent the adoption of evil measures
or to
of Selim's privatelife,
curb the personalexcesses
but which checked
the progress
of anarchy and maintained
the air of grandeur in enterprise
and of vigour
in execution by which the Sublime
Porte had hitherto been distinguished.
was

trained under

An
terms

there
of

numerous

the great sultan,and

armistice

was

that each
was

now

Habsburg

concluded

party should

for many

and

Osman.

with
retain

years an
The

Astrakhan
conquer
of Cyprus, and
the naval

attempts

to

and

statesmen

thus somewhat

the

Maximilian

emperor

possessionof what

unusual

in the

pause

and

unite

war

of

the Don

war

were

1568,

on

the

occupied; and
between
the houses

reign are the


quest
Volga, the conLepanto. The first of

and

the battle of

because the Turks


peculiarlyinteresting,
broughtinto armed collision with the Russians.''

in

it then

of Selim's

great foreignevents

these is

Muhammed

of his

the

then

for the

first time

ceived
highestorder,had coninsure
the
tion
dominato
Volga
the Muscovite
countries.
The
over
sary
neceswas
possessionof Astrakhan
for the success
of this plan. The siegeof the placewas
decided
upon, but
the enterprise
was
badly conducted, and failed. The Ru.ssians defeated the
besieging
body and destroyed all the works that had been already rai.sed.
The khan of the Crimea, judging the enterjirise
to his interests,
to be harmful
workefl
which
made
them
skilfully
a
on
regard the
prejudiceof the Moslems
north as forbidden to true believers.
The night,he said,was
only four hours

the

Sokolli,who

giganticprojectof

exercised

talents

joiningthe Don

of the

to the

long in

be necessarj'

it would

summer:

TURKISH

THE

OF

HISTORY

THE

368

either to

EMPIRE

[156S-1572 A.D.J
for
two
interruptsleep
prayer
else to violate the prescripor
tions

again at break of dawn,


These
of the Koran.
operating with the cold, the hunger, and
causes,
which
refused to obey the orders
the army,
the storms, completely demoralised
renewed
with
of the generals; the projecthad to be abandoned, and peace was
the

and

after sunset

hours

czar.

Sokolli

Suez.?
His schemes

quarter, however,

in this

war.

self-willed

cupidityand

with

\'enice and

war

delayed by

were

Porte

revolt which

Selim

obtained

Cyprus, in

attack

under

Mohammedan

acted

the

on

he

open

was

his mufti

the

he

Turkish

the

broke

at

may

reconqueringfrom

and

the

authorisinghim
time been

at one

proclaimed and

now

the misbelievers
the
of
territory Islam.''
formerlybelonged to
The
Venetians
alliance with
formed
the king of
an
duke of Savoy, and the knightsof Malta, and their united

treaty,for the sake of

had

Cyprus

Porte in

the
aecjuiring
of Kutalya in

\'enice

fetva

authorities

sovereignof Islam

of

between

Suud

Abu

the

involved

governor

was

of the treaty.

violation

rulers; and

himself

treaty of peace

from

principlethat

while

coveted

had

There

Selim

states, for the sake

Christian

other

lifetime.'

but

of Sultan

violence

Cj'pnis,which

island of

his father's

to

penetrating the isthmusof

not
in Arabia, anil which
was
quelledwithout a difficult and sanguinary
when
that
And
important provincewas brought back to submission,the

out

idea of

the audacious

conceived

now

time break a
coimtry which has
any

John

of Don

of Austria,

gainetla

Spain, the

the

pope,

under the comfleet,


mand
the Turks
at
victory over

decisive

and
twenty-four
fiftycannon
were
Christian
taken by the conquerors,
and fifteen thousand
liberated.
captives
to Constantinople,
But instead of takingadvantage of this victory and .sailing
the Christian leaders separated,and sailed back, as they could not agree about
their further proceedings.*
Meanwhile
the sea-captain,
Iludj Ali,with a squadron which he had saved
from
Lepanto, gleaned together the Turkish galleysthat lay in the different
sailed proudly into the
ports of the Archipelago,and at the end of December
the
head
of
fleet
of
of
sail. In recomat
pense
Constantinople
a
eighty-seven
port
of his zeal he received the rank of kapdan pasha, and the sultan changed
his name
of Uludj into Kilidj,
The veteran
admiral
which means
the sword.
hero
of
t
he
and
under
his
and
All's
alive,
Jerba, was
Piali,
Kilidj
vigoro\i"
yet

Lepanto, October 7th, 1571.


men
ships and thirtythousand

and

skilful directions

winter

built docks.

hundred

lost two

hundred

nearly three hundred

fleet

new

Turks

constructed

was

and

and

launched

before

the

past. ^Vhile the rejoicingChristians built churches, the resolute

was

Turks

The

and

The

effect

was

that

before June

Turkish

fiftysail,comprisingeightgaleassesor mahons

sailed forth

to

assert

the dominion

of

the

The

seas.

fleet of two

of the

largestsize,

confederate

Christian

man
long dela\-s,collected a force nimierically
superiorto the Ottopowers,
unable to
indecisive encounters
took place,they were
; but, though two
of Greece, nor could the duke of Parma
chase KilidjAli from the western
coasts
the siegeof Modon, which
undertake
had been designed as the chief operation
for that year.
It was
evident that, though the Christian confederates could
after

'

It

seem-s

named
be

of the

master
'

that Selim, like Cassio, found

Joseph N'assi, had


The

len^h
doctrine

case

by

von

isle in which

laid

Selini's boon
tho

by Solini before

Hammer.

laid down

boon

The

attraction

companion,

juice of the grapo


the

reader

in the Turkish

the

was

mufti, and

the

will observe

how

militarycode.

of
and
so

Cyprus

wine

nersu.idod

delicious.
of that

irresistible. A Jew,
him

that

he

ought

to

at
are
functionary-,
pven
utterlyopposed this principleis to the

answer

MERIDIAN

BEGINNING

AND

OF

DECLINE

369

[1573-1574A.D.]
win

battle,the Turk

superiorin

stilltheir

was

war.^

The

Venetians

sought

it consented
antl in order to obtain
not only that the sultan
peace in 1573,
of the conshould retain Cyprus, but that Venice should pay him his expenses
quest.
not uiuiaturallyremarked
It was
by those who heard the terms of the

gained the battle of Lepanto.


the
After
Porte, Don John undertook
an
peace
fleet
with the Spanish
againstTunis, which Uludj Ali had conquered
expedition
Don
John succeeded in capduring the year in which Cyprus was attacked.
turing
the more
the citadel had conthe city,which
was
as
easy inasmuch
treaty that it sounded
had

Venice

tinueil in the power


John built a new

Don

as

if the Turks

the

of

had

with

made

Spaniards.
and

fortress

left

garrisonin Tunis ; but, eighteen


powerful
months after his departure,his old enemy
KilidjAli reappeared there,and after a
sharp siegemade the sultan again master
Don

city and citadel,and stormed

of the

castle. Tunis now, like Algiers


Jolm's new
became
Ottoman
and Tripoli,
an
ment.
governThe effectual authoritywhich the
Porte

exercised
Africa

of North

time,but the

tie of

never
was
allegiance
though the French
the
seized Algiers,
time
sovereign of Tripoli and

; and

broken
entirely
have in our own
sultan is still
Tunis, the scenes
of

states
these piratical
of
in
weaker
course
grew

over

of the successful valour

Dragut and KilidjAli.

Selim the Sot died not long after the


of his
recovery of Tunis ; and the manner
of his life. He
death befitted the manner

Cyprus wine at a
draught,and on enteringthe bath-room
of his favourite beverage
with the fumes
the
in his head, he slipped and fell on
marble floor,
receivingan injury of the
skull which
brought on a fatal fever
He
showed
once
a
spark of the
(1574).
with
which he
the
zeal
true Osman,
by
Dress
Court
TuRKisH
ofl^cers
in
aided his
restoringthe Turkish
navy after Lepanto. He then contributed
of the
and gave up part of the pleasure-gardens
his privatetreasures
liberally,
docks.
serai for the site of the new
Except for this brief flash of patriotismor
pride,his whole career, both as prince and sultan,is unrelieved by a single
and cruelty,
merit; and it is blackened by mean
treachery,by gross injustice
of our nature.
and by grovelling
servitude to the coarsest appetites
There is an eastern
legendthat,when the great king and prophet Solomon
he
died, was sittingon his lion-throne,clad in the royal robes,and with all
in the monthe insignia
round him.
of dominion
The lifelessform remained
had drunk

'

The

off

Venetian

bottle of

envoy,

to open
ncRotiations at Constantinoplein the
Barbaro, endeavoured
The
vizir,in reference to the loss of the Turkish fleet and

winter after the battle of Lepanto.


the conquest of (\vprus, said to him
You have shaved
our
chin, but our
and you can
never
replaceit."
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

b]

"

There

beard

is

is

great difference

growing again. We

between
have

our

loss and

lopped off

your

yours.
arm,

HISTORY

THE

370

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1574-1578 A-n.]

and

of men
arch's usual attitude ; and the races
knew
at respectfuldistance,
who watched
accustomed

paid homage,

awe

and

not

made

beasts,of
of

the

change, but

before

obeisance

geniiand

demons,
long with

the form

that

sat

had leanetl,
Solomon
the throne ; until the staff on which
holding it in
upon
the body had continued
both hands towards the mouth,,and on which
propped,
and gave way,
lettingthe corpse fall to the ground.
was
gnawed by worms
and the world was
filled with
Then, and not till then, the truth was known

and alarm.
in which
the empire of Sultan Suleiman
This fable well images the manner
of
the
staff
the
remained
vizirate,and retained its majesty after
propped on
the
of
his death and
Selim, so long as the power of Suleiman's
during
reign

sorrow

grand

vizir Sokolli remained

and

by

broken

When

unimpaired.

the corrupt

influence

Sokolli's

of favourites

authoritywas
and

weakened
the

at

women

Murad
felt
of Selim's successor,
III, the shock of fallingempire was
from
world, spreading from the court to the capital,
throughout the Ottoman
to foreignpowers.
capitalto the provinces,and at last becoming sensible even
his government
III was
summoned
at the age of twenty-eightfrom
Murad
his father at Constantinople. He arrived at the capat Magnesia to succeed
ital
to order
the night of the 21st of December, 1574, and his first act was
on
In the morning the high officers of state
the execution of his five brothers.
court

greet their master, and

were

assembled

were

anxiously watched

Murad

turned

to

to the aga

for, as

ominous

of the eunuchs

the first words

of the

new

sultan

of his reign.
of the coming events
and said, I am
hungry ; bring me
"

considered
to be propheticof scarcity
something to eat." These words were
the
of
famine
and
actual
his
at Constantinople
a
occurrence
reign;
during
the popular superstition.
in the followingyear did nmch
to confirm
inate
Sokolli retained the grand vizirate until his death, in 1578, but the effemhis
amused
heart of Murad
choly,
melanruled
courtiers
who
listless
was
by
and by four women,
of whom
his mother, the dowager sultana,
one
was
Nur
Banu
Murad's
(as the Turks term her) the sultana validi,
or
was
; the next
first favourite sultana, a \'enetian
lady of the noble house of Baffo, who
The
had
corsair in her early years.
tian
been captured by a Turkish
fair Veneenchanted
Murad
that he was
constant
to her, slighting
so
long strictly
the other
varied attractions of his harem, and
neglectingthe polygamous
his
sultana
o
f
creed.
The
a
larmed
at the ascendency which
validi,
privileges
the
the sultana
Venetian
termed) was
Safiye (as
lady was
acquiring over
Murad, succeeded in placingsuch temptation in her son's way as induced him
love his only love ; and he thenceforth
rushed
no
longerto make his Venetian
into the opposite extreme
of licentious indulgence even
for a Mohammedan
created for the supply of the imperialharem
prince. Such was the demand
that it is said to have raised the priceof beautiful girls
in the slave-market
of
Constantinople.
One
of this nmltitude
of favoured
fair,a Hungarian by birth, obtained
her lord ; but his first love, Safiye,though no
considerable
influence over
lost her hold on them;
longer able to monopolise Murad's
affections,never
her will that chiefly
and it was
directed the Ottoman
fleets and armies during
his reign fortunatelyfor her native
she prevented
country Venice, which
caused
from
of great provocation,
Turkey
attacking,even under circumstances
of the crui.sers of the republicof St.
by the outrages and insolence of .some
it
Mark.
councils
did not owe
The fourth lady who
in Murad's
had sway
charms
but to the adroitness with which she placed before him
to her own
of others.
the charms
This was
Djanfeda, who was kiaya (or grand mistress)
These were
of the harem.
the chief ladies who
interposedand ilebated on
"

MERIDIAN

AND

BEGINNING

OF

DECLINE

371

[1576-1584A.D.]

questionshow
wielded,and with

the

all

and

Generals

; and

survived

and

of Osman

the

great Suleiman

should

trained in the camps


and
the Turkish
hostilities in which

productive of

Turkey

the house

admirals
the

during the reign of


were

bequeathed by

power

whom

Murad

III

several

valuable

broke

Persia

should

be

have

peace or war.
fleets of Suleiman

Empire

still
involved

was

marked

than one
by more
victory,and
of territory.War
between
acquisitions
after Murad's
and
again soon
was
accession,
were

out

continued for several years.''


PERSIAN

The

old shah

Tamasp

his

fifth son,

Haider.

WAR

died in 1576, poisoned by his wife,leavinghis crown


The
latter reigned only a few hours, then died,
assassinated by the Tcherkes
half
party. His brother,Shah Ismail, who was
madman, succeeded him, and was strangledafter a tyranny of eighteenmonths.
The vizirs Sinan Pasha and Mustapha Pasha persuaded the sultan of Turkey
to

profitby these internal dissensions to attempt the conquest of Persia.


ration
Mustapha Pasha, being appointed serasker,invaded Georgia without a declaof war
and gained a brilliant victory over
Tokmak
khan.
Tiflis fell
to

of the victors,and
second defeat of the Persians
into the hands
a
followed by the submission
of Georgia.
borders of the Kansak
was
The
divided into four provinces confided to as many
country was

beys: Uzdemir
Haider
Tiflis,
Four

Persian

their
Eres

Osman
Pasha

at

armies

new

Ivhan, and

Pasha

commanded

Sukhum,

advanced

conquest.
defeated

and

with

in

the

son

forced

Osman

Pasha

Prince

Hamza;

on

the

beylerPasha
at
Shirvan, Muhammed
of Lewend
in Georgia proper.

marches

to

wrest

crushed

the governor
but, being attacked

from

the Ottomans

of

Shemakha,
by the main

Shirvan
and fall back
contingent of the Persian army, he had to evacuate
Derbent.
Simon
laid siege
Luarseb, the dispossessedprince of Tiflis,
upon
to his old

the valiant defence

of

arrive.

capital;
SokoUi, time to

of the

siegewas

garrisongave

raised

Hassan

Pasha, son

(1579).

of Persia and
the changes in the command
of the
Osman
delayed operationsa long time.
However, Uzdemir
Pasha valiantlyupheld in the Daghestan the honour
of the imperialarms.
On May 9th, 15S3, a great battle was
of the Samur;
the
banks
fought on
such was
the fury of the conflict that it lasted all night,by torchlight. The
four days followingwere
at the end of which
spent in strategical
manoeuvres,
the Ottomans
were
completely surrounded.
They attacked
boldly,opened
Three thousand
a path for themselves,and
dispersedthe enemy.
prisoners
and a pyramid of heads were
the trophiesof the victory. After having completed
the conquest of the Daghestan, Osman
Pasha
crossed the Caucasus
and reached Kaffa by a painfulmarch
which
often harassed by the Russians.
was
He
had
of Crimea, Muhammed
who
had
to depose the khan
Girai,
refused to furnish
the Osmanlis
with the aid demanded
hammed
Muthe
Porte;
by
Girai, however, took up arms, and at the head of forty thousantl
weak
the field,in
too
to hold
cavalryblocked up Osman
Pasha, who
was
Kaffa.
Islam
the Porte
Fortunately his brother,
Girai,to whom
promised
the investiture,
revolted against the khan, and Muhammed,
being betrayed
Pasha into
by his own
people,was assassinated (1584). The entry of Osman
Constantinople
was
triumphal,and the victor was heaped with honours such
as had
been accorded
to any
never
general. A few days afterwards he was
appointed grand vizir and serasker of the army destined to invade Azerbaijan.
At the head of a hundred
Tabriz ;
and sixtythousand
men, he marched
upon

The

Turkish

interior troubles

The

armies

UISTORY

THE

372

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1384-1596 A.D.]

prince,Hamza

in vain did the Persian

to

and

give way
of the

evacuate

operations.

thousand

forced

and

Hamza

Mirza

moment

when

Cicala*

his troops were


in good

routed.

Pasha

laid

Mirza, and

lost

twenty

Pursued

retreat.

to

by

took

son

the

the

connnand

and

gaining a victoryover the enemy.


was
defeatingthe pashas of Erivan

Hamza, pursuing his success,


Khan
and Ali Kuli
Selmas, Tokmak

of

did he

comiucred, and expired at

was

Cicala's

order, even

While
and

Hamza

by

Osman

give battle,he

to

the retreat

managed

defeated

was

disaster- forced

This

men.

vanguard, in vain

by numbers, had
corps ; the Persians,overwhehncd
The poor health of the vizir marred
Tabriz.
the success

Pasha's

crash Muhainnied

Mirza, defeat his

Tiflis.

Khan

invested

Tabriz, and Simon

The

of Georgia again
garrison of Tabriz defended itself
siegeto
in the space of ten months
it sustained fifteen assaults and delivered
heroically;
battles.
It was
finallyliberated by Fuhad
Pasha, the serasforty-eight
The
death by an assassin of the brave
ker.
Mirza, a victory
prince Hamza
Pasha
in 1596, the success
of Cicala Zade in Khuzistan, and
won
by Fuhad
all these events
determined
the capture of the capitalof Karabagh (1588)
time by the
menaced
the king of Persia, Shah
at the same
Abbas, who was
to
Usbegs, to conclude peace (March 21st, 1590). The treaty abandoned
and
Tabriz
of
the Ottomans
a part
Georgia,Shirvan, Loristan,
Azerbaijan.
"

DEATH

A few months
"

alloy,
The

lightas

as

it had

been

almond

an

the serai and

and

beyler-beyof

of the

From

demands.

their

witness

the

to

againstthe
of

coinage
Buda

the

In Asia

an

1589

Constantinople

garrison,to whom
adventurer

of

Hassan

upon.

to be

started at

Buda

was

of the
until
an

with

from

son

militia

refused

and

once

of the

of all kinds

the

the

eighteen hundred

of

bore
arose

changed
them

; at

was
due, assassinated the
of Shah Tamasp, but he was

pasha.

plague which

raged

terrible

militia it

resolved

was

to

taken

day

they

angle formed
drowned

to make

by

with

war.

thel\ulpaand

most

had

tb*"

authority. To give

Pasha, the grand vjzir,an invasion of Hungary


of Bosnia, opened hostilities with
Pa.sha,governor

defeated

country (1594).

the

Egypt

a
Finall}'
public disaster.
the janissaries
increased from day
a voyevod in Moldavia
on- their own

Through
the
the

the

decided

was

siegeof

Odra,

of his followers.

he

Sinan

of
of the army.
Meanwhile
the p"asha
hands
the
at Stuhlweis-senburg,
and nine fortresses fell into
to take

command

imperialforces (1593).
Transylvania,Moldavia,

alliance

troops mutinied

heads

obligedto yieldto

was

disorders
In

at

a base
of dew."

the

Sissek ; but being cornered in the


suffered a complete defeat and was
Pasha

and

out

of

drop

cries the

sultan

empire.

broken

in coin

than

loud

of Erzerum.

audacity to establish
occupationto this ferocious
efforts of Sinan

the

value

The

troubles

the

them

to pay

more

with

massacred
; Jafar
six months'
pay

claimed

prisonerby
governor
in the capitalcompleted
insolence

no

Rumelia.

1592

; at Tabriz

governor

of

demanded

disorganisationof

the

The

to

had
janissaries

of the

attempted

leaf and

rebels attacked

defterdar

MURAD

insurrection

before^ an

Constantinople,because

OF

The

successes

and

on

Wallachia

each side balanced


revolted

each other,

simultaneously,made

the emperor,
and massacred
all the Moslems
established in the
Murad
tried to reanimate
of the troops by bringthe courage
ing
the sacred standard, which
that of the
tradition says was

Syria
Prophet ; nothing could remedy
of the army.
disorganisation

the lack of

Soon
'

An

the

Italian

the troops
discipline
among
stricken
with
sovereign,

feeble

renegade.

and the
fear of

HISTORY

THE

374

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1603-1622 A.D.]

III

reipn^of Muhammed

The

in 1608.

death

to his

was

of the most

One

continued

nevertheless,tlistinguished
by

it was,

succession of hostilitiesdown

calamitous
the

epochs

in Ottoman

history,

of literature

flourishingstate

and

enforcement
Ahmed
of the laws of Islam.
I, his
legalscience and the rigiil
In 1606 he tenninated
the war
which was
eldest son, followed him.
desolating
Europe, by a treaty of peace, the necessityof which was another conclusive
the

sign that
The

of Sitavorok

Peace

(Zsitvatorok),which

the memory
of Karlowitz, which

broken.

was

power

and

of writers

the attention

Ottoman

formidable

once

of which

""

has not sufficiently


attracted
has been lost,being effaced

theless
signed a century later,has neverwas
Treaty
in the history'
of political
law and of diplomatic
deep significance
relations between
Turkey and the rest of Europe. It fixed for the first time a

by

that of the
a

limit

The

to

the

signsof

conquest, which

Ottoman

the annual

vassalage
"

diplomaticrelations

suppressed and

half removed

Transylvaniawas

from

till then

tributes

had

threatened

brought by

the Occident.

the ambassadors

"

were

footingof

established

on
a
equality.
yoke, and Hungary, although
at least
was
part of its territory,

were

the Turkish

for a
domination
for
For the first time the formalities
the rest.
relieved from
observed
the nations of Europe were
current
by the sultan and the
among
the
to European powers
grand vizir. The Peace of Sitavorok announced
for the Treaty of Karlowitz.''
of the Porte and prepared the way
decadence
into Turkey. The
this reignthe use of tobacco
firstintroduced
Under
was
time had ch\'ided the trade of the Levant
with the
Hollanders, who for some
to Ottoman

stillsubmitted

Turkish

Venetians, made
in 1605.

They

tribute

of enjoyment
the Ottomans
acquainted with this new source
surrendered
themselves with such passionatedelightto its use

in its effects some


resemblance
to the
that the mufti, beheving they saw
issued
edict
the
innovation.
intoxication produced by wine,
a severe
against
insisted that,as tobacco
This proceedingaroused the whole population. It was

the mufti had no rightto be more


not
severe
prohibitedby Mohammed,
These murmurs
followed by an insurrection of
than the Prophet himself.
were
the officers of the seragho; and
the mufti was
the people, the troops, and
the public peace.
to preserve
obfiged to revoke his ordinance
time a singularevent
About
the same
happened at Constantinople,which
the charity of Mussulmans
to animals.
illustrates in a remarkable
manner

was

plague having broken out in the capital,the physiciansdeclared that it


The mufti
to destroy the dogs, which
was
propagated "thescourge.
necessary
of
and
their
with
such zeal
the
defence
the
took up
cause
proscribed,
pleailed
commuted
banishment.
The
that the fatal decree was
to simple
proteges of
in boats and transportedto a
then embarked
the high priestof Islam were
neighbouring island.
The

THE

Mustapha, who
no

sooner

SULT.INS

in

MUSTAPHA

I,

OSMAN

11,

MUSTAPHA

II

father,inherited the throne,was


the report of his imbecility
Osman
II, j'eta child,took his
imprisonment.
manhootl
the conquest of Poland, but
he undertook

1617, by the death

invested with the


his depositionand

of his

imperialinsigniathan

produced
place. Upon arrivingat
ish
These
without obtainingany important results.
repeatedfailures of the TurkThe
increased the already widespread discontent of the nation.
arms

MEEIDIAN
[1622

1032

OF

DECLINE

375

A..D.]

the sultan

soldiers detested

This

in 1622.

him

BEGINNING

AND

the

was

account

on

of his

avarice, and

in which

first instance

the

and

rose

Ottoman

murdered
throne

Mustapha II succeeded, but his weak and


his death Murad
Uoon
militarydisorders.

been stained with blood.


character gave rise to new

had

irresolute

became

sultan."

Murad

IV

at the time

twelve years

of

But

of age.

first Selim

was

Evliya,relates

showed

more

once

When

earlyhe gave

that

the

on
"

of him

thus

even

revengefulcharacter, and

(September 10th, 1623)

his accession

prince animated

Ottoman

Sultan

indications of

throne.

Murad

by

The

the

was

only

resolute and

spiritof the
historian,

Turkish

entered the treasury after his


with him.
There were
no
gold

was
father,Dervish Muhammed,
and some
coral and
remaining
only 30,000 piastresin money,
Inshallah
(pleaseGod), said the sultan,after prostrating
porcelainin chests.
I will replenishthis treasury fifty-fold
with the property of
himself in prayer,

accession,my
or

silver vessels

"

'

'

'

those who have plundered it.'"


sultan during the first year of his reignacted principally
under
The young
for the
the directions of his mother, the sultana Mahpeiker, who, providentially
of remarkable
talent and energy,
which were
Ottoman
Empire, was a woman
that
clouded
the
and
disasters
round
the
to
meet
uttermost
taxed to
dangers
of her child's sovereignty. From
gers
the dawn
part of the empire messenevery
victorious
the frontiers.
arrived with evil tidings. The Persians were
on
lord and
Asia
Minor.
The tribes of the
The rebel Abaza
was
tyrant over
insurrection.
of Egypt and other provThe governors
in open
Lebanon
were
inces

wavering in their allegiance.The Barbaresque Regencies assumed


were
treaties with European nations
the station of independent powers, and made
The
fleets
of
the
Cossack
marauders
not only continued
account.
their
own
on
their depredationsalong the Black
Sea, but even
appeared in the Bosporus,
and

plundered the

itself there

was

an

immediate

empty

vicinityof

treasury,a

the

dismantled

capital.

In

Constantinople
coinage,
soldiery.Yet the

arsenal,a debased

magazines,a starvingpopulation,and a licentious


of its substance
of authoritywas
semblance
preserved,and by degreessome
ruled in the young
recovered by those who
prince'sname
was
; and, though
and
and
amid tumult
bloodshed, and daily perilto both crown
life,
young
Murad, observing all things,forgettingnothing and forgivingnothing,grew

exhausted

up

man's

towards
There

is

estate.

wearisome

monotony

in the

rections
oft-repeatedtale of militaryinsur-

nople
Constantimutiny of the spahis,which convulsed
; but the formidable
notice
of the
deserves
in the ninth year of Murad's
account
on
reign,
victim
character
its chief hero and
which
traits of the Turkish
remarkably
the hard-heartedexplainsand partlypalliates
wolfish
and
the
almost
which
Murad,
ness
appetitefor bloodshed
grew
upon
shown
which was
by him in the remainder of his reign. In the beginning of
themselves
of mutinous
that year a large number
spahis,who had disgracetl
in the late unsuccessful
by gross misconduct
campaign against Baghdad, had
to Constantinople, and joined the ICuropcanspahis,already collected
straggled
in that capital. They were
secretlyinstigatedl)yPiecljibPasha, who wished
to effect the ruin of the grand vizir Hafiz, a gallant though not
by their means
the young
sultan was
fortunate general,to whom
much
attached, and who had
his
communications
with
employed
interchanged poetical
sovereign when
in
The
the
Persians.
the
hippodrome on
spahis gathered together
against

displayed,and

also because

it

OF

HISTORY

THE

376

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE

[1633A.D.1

days (February, 1632), and called for the hcatls of the grand
vizir Hafiz,the mufti
Jahia, the defteniar Mustapiui,ami other favourites of
in all. The shops were
the sultan,seventeen
closed,and the cityand the serai
three successive

in terror.

were

drew
to the gate of the palace,but withcame
day the mutineers
redress
the
have
On
that
should
morrow.
on
on
they
being promised
of the seraglio
court
the morning broke, the outer
the third day, when
was
his way
thither to
As the grand vizir Hafiz was
tilled with raging rebels.
on
On

the second

him to conwho
warned
from a frientl,
the divan, he received a message
ceal
Hafiz
with
answered
had
until
the
crowd
a
himself
smile, I
dispersed.

attend

"

have

already this day

seen

fate in

my

dream

; I am

rode
made
cast

stones

from

his

him

for
he

as

As he

he

him;

at

One

palace.

of

struck

was

borne

the

uito

if out

as

passed along they

horse, and

attendants

die."

to

the multitude
seraglio,

lane

respect,but

the

afraid

not

into the

by his

inner

part of
his followers

of

murdered
and
one
grievously
wounded
the
spahis. The sultan
by
was

orilered Hafiz
the

ami

his

escape,

boat at the
of the serai,and crossed

grand

Watergate

to Scutari.

over

Meanwhile

the rebels forced their

the

into

way

second

which
seraglio,

was

tlivan,and

the

the sultan
a

make

to

vizir took

divan

to

the

hall of

they clamoured
come

for

forth and

hold

sultan
them.
The
held a divan standing.

among

appeared
He
spoke

of

court

the usual

and

"

the

nmtineers, What
is your will,
?
Loudly
my servants
and insolently
they answered, Give
to

"

"

us

the seventeen

men

up

to us,

heads.
that we may

Give these
tear them

with
pieces,or it shall fare worse
A Sp.vhi
close
the
thee."
pressed
They
upon
and
were
near
sultan,
laying
upon
You
hands on him.
can
give no hearing to my words ; why have you called
He
drew
hither?"
said Murad.
back, surrounded
me
by his pages, into the
The
rebels came
after hun like a raging flood.
inner court.
Fortunately the
in

"

pages

barred

the

gate

They shouted aloud,


Redjib Pasha, the
"

the young

The

the

but

seventeen

secret

alarm

and

heads, or

the outcry

became

the greater

abdicate."

of the whole
tunuilt,now
approached
the
still
tumult by
that it was
to
necessary

promoter

sultan,and urged on

him

for the
He said that it had
become
a custom
grantingwhat was demanded.
chiefs to be given up to the soldiery. "The
.'^lavemust
take what
unchained
Murad sorrowhe pleases; better the head of the vizir than that of the sultan."
fully
gave

way,

and

sent

summons

to

Hafiz

to

return

and

die.

The

vizir

him
back the sultan met
at the water-gate.
not, and as he came
the throne
inner
sultan
ascended
of
the
then opened. The
court
The gate
was
two
of state, and four deputiesfrom the insurgents,
spahisand two janissaries,

hesitated

MEKIDIAN

AND

BEGINNING

OF

DECLINE

377

[1632 A.D.]

before him.

came

implored them
pleaded in vain; the

he

but

He

Meanwhile Ilafiz Pasha had made


law requires,and
Mohaninicdan

"My padisha,"said he, "let a


I only entreat
that thou

not

cry

still "The

was

the ablution
he

forth

slaves

iphate;
cal-

heads!"
which

the
Murad.

addressed

Hafiz
perishfor thy
death,but give me up

as

to

me

of the

to death

and

such

thyselfput

not

honour
seventeen

preparatory

stood

now

thousand
do

sake.

profane the

to

that I may
die a martyr, and that my
these men,
innocent blood may
come
buried
heads.
Let
be
their
Scutari."
He then kissed the
at
body
my
upon
"
of God, the all-merciful,
the all-good.
earth,and exclaimed, In the name
to

might

is no power
or
him
are, and unto

There
we

then

Hafiz

aloud,the

wept

pages

him

rushed to meet
foremost to the
him with their
knelt
janissary
forward

came

will be done

we

strode

as

with

save

God,

forth

hero

vizus

he advanced.

To

his breast and

spread a robe over the


But in his appointed time

The

witli tearful

gazed

sell his life as


with

seventeen

His

sobbed

The

rebels

struck

the rest sprang


mortal
womids.

The

Then
corpse.
shall
meet
ye

sultan

eyes.

martyr, he

which

buffet,on

struck off his head.

antl
!

high,the Almighty.

into the fatal court.

the
bitterly,

ground with a well-aimed


daggers,and piercedhim

on

the most

return."

of the

pages
said the sultan

with vengeance,

the
on

seraglio
"

God's

ye

men

of blood,who have neither the fear of God before your eyes nor respect for the
threat was
law of the prophet." The
littleheeded
at the time, but it was
menaced
in vain.
uttered by one
who never
Within

two

months

rabble
bloodthu-sty
depositionof Murad

after this

that

scene

fresh victims

had

fallen before

the

of Turkish
disgraced the name
troops. The
in their barracks,and
the young
was
openly discussed
sultan saw
that the terrible alternative,"Kill, or be killed,"
was
no
longerto
Some
be evaded.
better spirits
in the army,
shamed
and heart-sick at the
of brigandage that was
and camp,
court
so
over
spirit
insolentlydominant
swords
their
small
their
and
but brave force,
at
placed
a
sovereign'sdisposal;
that could be relied on in the hour of need, was
graduallyand quietlyorganised.
The dissensions also among
the mutinous
troops themselves,and especially
the ancient jealousybetween
the spahisand the janissaries,
offered means
for
them
availed himself with boldness and skill.
all,of which Murad
repressing
His firstact was
to put the archtraitor,
Redjib Pasha, suddenly and secretlyto
now

death.
Murad'
He

then

submission.
the sultan
also his own

proceeded
This

was

to

done

the
on

Reign of

more

difficult

of

to
reducing the army
day of May, 1632, the day on which
his military tyrants and
conmienced
held a public divan
the shore of the
on
one

the 29th

emancipated himself from


Murad
reignof terror.

the kiosk

Terror

The mufti, the vizirs,the chief members


of the
the two
militarychiefs,who had devoted themselves
to the cause
of the sultan against the mutinous
troops, Koese Muhammed
and Rum
Muhammed.
Six squadrons of horse guards, whose
loyaltycould
be trusted,were
also in attendance
and ready for innnediate action.
Murad
seated himself on
the throne, and
the
sent
to
a
spahis,who were
message

sea

near

ulema

were

of Sinan.

there,and

assembled
in the
of their officers.

addressed them

hippodrome, requiring the


Murad

then

summoned

the

attendance

of a deputation
before him, and
janissaries

faithful troops who were


eneniies to the rebels in the other
as
shouted
that the padisha'senemies
out
their
corps. The
janissaries
were
enemies also,and took with zealous readiness an oath of implicitobedience,

THE

378

OF

HISTORY

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1633 A.D.]

tho nionieiit.
were
was
Copies of the Koran
ready, and
The
the
sacred
handed
the
ranks.
swore
on
janissaries
book, " By
were
througli
Their
God."
oath
and
and
was
formallyregistered;
through
God, with God,
of the spaliis,
who had by tliistime arrived
Murad
then turned to the de{juties
The sultan reproached
and luul witnessed the loyalf("rvour of the jani.ssaries.
whicli

suggested at

of their body. They answered


for the rapacityand lawlessness
humbly
that the sultan's chargeswere
personallyloyal,though
true, but that they were
"If ye are loyal,"said Murad, "take
miable
their men
to make
obey them.
have taken, and dehver up to
the oath which
brethren
the
janissaries
your
of
ranks."
Surrounded
rebellion
from
the
me
by the royal
ringleatlers
your
horse guards and janissaries,
the spalu officers obeyed in fear and trembUng.
He said to them: "Ye
Murad
then ordered the judges to stand forward.

them

judgments for gokl,and of destroyingmy people.


give?" "God is our witness,"said they, "that
you
the poor; but we have
to oppress
traffic of justice,
seek not to make
or
we
a
and
if
freedom
we
thy
subjectsagainst the
no
or
mdependence;
protect
accused of corruption,
violence of the spahis and the tax-gatherers,
we
are
and our houses are piDaged." "I
tribunals are assailed by armed
our
men,
in the ilivan a
said
have
of
the.se
sultan.
Then
the
heard
arose
things,"
Ills
Arab
and
he
drew
vahant
sabre, and cried,
by birth,
judge of Asia, an
is the edge of the sword."
"My padisha, the only cure for all these tilings
At these wortls the sultan aiul the whole assembly fixed their eyes on the
but
Arabian
judge, who stood before them with fiaslungeyes and weapon,
The
declaration of the judge was
and
then
all
said no
more.
registered
;
cliief
and
the
the
the
the
vizirs,
mufti,
sultan,
officers,
signed a
present,
which
themselves
abuses
written
bomid
and
to
manifesto, by
they
suppress
maintain
under
the
of
their
heads
the
publicorder,
penalty
bringing on
of
of
the prophet,of aU angels,and of all true behevers.
curses
God,
Murad
had need of acts as well as of words, and the work
of death speedily
sent
began. Energetic and trusty emissaries were
through Constantinople,
are

accused

What

of

sellingyour

have

answer

to

who

slew the leaders of the late insurrection and all whom


Murad
marked
The troops, deprived of their cliiefs and suspiciousof each
for destruction.
taken in the provinces,
other, trembled and obeyed. The same
measures
were
and

for many

But

it

months
in the

was

the sword

capital,and

and
under

the bow-struigwere
Murad's
own
eye,

incessantlyactive.

of
that the revenge
reaped the blootUest harvest.
Every morning
its shores the corpses of those who had been executed

royaltyfor its long humihation


the

Bosporus threw up on
during the precedingnight,and in them the anxious spectators recognised
whom
and spaliis
janissaries
they had latelyseen parading the streets
in all the haughtiness of militarylicense. The
and
personal appearance
of

his bold and martial demeanour, confirmed


the respect
this
in
twentieth
He
the
strenuous
awe
was
ferocityinspired.
his
of
and
above
middle
liis
the
though but little
bodily
stature,
year
age,
frame
united
strength and activityin a remarkable
degree. His features
His
and
the jet-blackbeard
were
regular and handsome.
aquihne nose
courage

which

Murad,

which

and

had

perious
begmi to grace liis chin gave dignity to his aspect; but the imlustre of his full dark eyes was
marred
by an habitual frown, which,

suited well the sternness


of his character.
Every day he displayed
and he won
the involuntary admiration
horsemansliipin the hij)podr(ime,
of the soldieryby his strength and skill as a cavalier anfl .swordsman, and
He
patrolled
by his unrivalled force and dexterityin the use of the bow.
the streets in disguiseat night; and often, with his own
hand, struck dead
the offenders againstliisnumerous
edicts in matters
of police.

however,
his

MERIDIAN

BEGINNING

AND

OF

DECLINE

379

[16S4-1(538a.d.]

had
Asia Minor
Murad
Abaza, whom

been

quelled in 1630 by the defeat


had spared,principally
of symand submission
out
pathy
and had made
with his hatred towards the janissaries,
pasha of Bosnia.
He
employed that able and ruthless chief in Constantinople,and
now
appointedliim aga of his old enemies the janissaries.Abaza served his stern
well in that perilousstation ; but he at last incurred the displeasure
master
in 1634.
executed
The habit of bloodshedding had now
of Murad, and was
All faults,
with
the
sultan.
second
into
small or great, were
nature
a
grown
and
final
visited by liim with the same
sentence
the least
short, sharp,
; and
his
crossed
of
mind
that
restless
shade
sufficient to insure
was
suspicion
He struck before he censured : and, at last,the terror
its victim's doom.
he was
with which
who were
regarded was so generaland profound that men
summoned
to the sultan's presence
commonly made the death-ablution before
they entered the palace.
of those who
The nmnber
died by his command
is reckoned
at a hundred
three of his brothers,and, as was
thousand.
Among them were
generally
One
of his sayings is preserved by
beheved, his deposed uncle Mustapha.
of

an

in

insurrection

The

writer,who

Itahan

wliich
Macchiavelli,

that Murad's

asserts

had

been

translated

favourite book
into Turkish.

was

The

The

Prince

sultan's

of
own

"

certainlyworthy of such inspiration.It is this : Vengeance never


decrepit,though she may
grey." In the last years of Murad's
grow
grows
of temper was
lifehis ferocity
tion
fearfully
aggravated by the habits of intoxicawhich he had acquired.
Never, however, did Murad
wholly lose in habits of indulgencethe vigour
of either mind
W^hen
civil or mihtary duty requiredhis vigilance,
or
body.
him
in
in the capacity for
could
austere
abstemiousness
none
or
surpass
his
labour.
he
his
with
all
saved
And,
misdeeds,
country. He tolerated no
maxim

is

The
crimes but his own.
ceased under his dominion.

of

worst

evils,the

sway

of petty local tyrants,

ful
miremittinglyand mirelentinglywatchin visitingthe offences of all who
in authorityunder
him, as well
were
those of the mass
of his subjects;and
the worst
as
tyranny of the single
tary
been the mihto the empire than had
despot was a far less grievous curse
and
which
he
Order
subordination
restored
were
quelled.
anarchy
in the camps;
There
there was
under his iron sway.
was
discipline
pure
in
The
tribunals.
raised
and
the
revenues
were
fairly
justice
honestly
administered.

abuses

The

were

extirpated;and

more

feared

He

of

if Murad

he

the feudal
was

of the

system

dreaded

at

Against

Persia

home,

ziamets

he made

and

timars
himself still

the foe abroad.

by

Exf
In 1638

was

made

edition

his final and

greatest expeditionagainst the Persians,

reannox
Empire the great city of Baghdad, which had
been in the power
of those enemies
of the house of Osman
and the Simnite
creed for fifteen years, and had been repeatedlybesiegedin vain by Turkish
There
is a tradition in the East that Baghdad, the ancient city of
armies.
the caliphate,
The great Suleiman
can
only be taken by a sovereignin person.

to

to

had

the Ottoman

it for Turkey ; and now,


at the end of a century after that
The
preparedhis armies for its recovery.
imperial
standard of the seven
horsetails was
planted on the heights of Scutari on
the 9th of March, 1638, and a week afterwards
A
Murad
joined the army.
first won

conquest, Murad

IV

proclamationwas

made

by

which

the march

from

Scutari

to

Baghdad

was

THE

380

THE

OF

HISTORY

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1638 A.D.]

ilays'journey, with fixed periodsfor halts,and on the 8th


moved
obedience
of .May the va.^t host
steadilyforward in iinniuriiiuriii5";
to its leader's will.
Throughout this second progress of Murad (the last ever
made
sovereign in person through any of the .\siatic provby an Ottoman
inces
the same
not
immediately adjacent to Constantinople)he showed
strictness and merciless severity in examining the conduct of all
inquisitorial
to Erivan.
authorities that had been felt on his former march
the provincial
and
tax-collectors
kiss
the
sultan's
to
rup;
stirthronged
Pashas, judges,imams,
taint of suspicionon
the character of any
the slightest
if there was
and
ager
or
loyalty,the head of the unhappy homfunctionary for probity,activity,
beneath
hoofs.
the imijcrial
rolled in the dust
charger's
110 days of march
On the loth of November,
1G38, after the pre-appointeil
standards appeared before Baghdad, and the
and 86 days of halt,the Ottoman
The
fortifications were
last siege of this great city commenced.
strong; the
twelve
huuilretl
whom
of
amounted
thousanil
to
were
thirty
men,
garrison
Bektish
Persian
and
the
trained
musketeers;
Khan,
was
regularly
governor,
resistance
and
of
A
officer
was
desperate
jjrovedability
bravery.
an
expected
encountered
and was
and
by the Turks; but their numbers, their discipline,
their
sultan
all.
Murad
of
resolute
skill
his
the
men
an
prevailedover
gave
in the trenches,
He laboured
example of patienttoil as well as active courage.
And
with his own
hands.
and pointed the cannons
when, in one of the numerous
sorties made
by the garrison,a Persian soldier,of giganticsize and strength,
challengedthe best ami boldest Turk to singlecombat, Murad stood forth in
conflict clove his foe from skull to chin
person, and after a long and doubtful
divided

with

into

sabre

hundred

of

loose

with

an

bridle

had made
of eight
a breach
artillery
levelled
were
so
that, in
completely
blind
have
man
writer, a
might
gallopedover them
his horse stumbling." The ditch had been heaped
the Turkish

of December

yartls,
along

the words

up

stroke.

the 22nd

On

with

110

which

defences
"

Ottoman
without

fascines,and

the

the

Turks

rusheil forward

to

an

assault, which

was

for

and valour
of the besieged. On
the evening
by the number
day Murad bitterly
reproached his grand vizir,Tayar Muhammed
of courage.
Pasha, for the repulse of the troops, and accused him of want
The
vizir replied,
"Would
half as easy to
to God, my
padisha,that it were
life
insure for thee the winning of Baghdad as it will be for me
to lay down
my
in thy service."
in the breach to-morrow
On the third day (Christmas eve,
led the forlorn hope in person,
and was
shot dead
1638) Tayar Muhammed
the
throat
from
Persian
the
musketeers.
through
by a volley
But
the Turks
poured on with unremitted impetuosity,and at length the
Part
of the garrison,which
inner
carried.
had retired to some
city was
at first granted : but a conflict having
defences, asked for quarter, which was
in the streets
between
mu.sketeers
Persian
.some
accidentallyrecommenced
ordered
and a Turkish
detachment, Murad
a generalslaughterof the Persians,
of the garri-son,
and after a whole day of butchery scarcelythree hundred
out
A
left alive.
which
had originallyconsisted
of thirty thousand
were
men,
few days afterwards
Murad
the
accidental
was
or
designed
exasperated by
were
explosion of a powder magazine, by which eight hundred
jani.ssaries
two

days

baffled

of the second

of
and
he connnanded
of the inhabitants
woundivl:
a
massacre
to
the
Ottoman
thou.sand
historian
the city,in which
thirty
are
computed by
his homeward
have perished. In P'ebruary^lurad commenced
march, after
the
and
of
his
left one
best generalswith twelve
having repaired
citywalls,
killed and

thousand
troops to
from
the Turks.

occupy

Baghdad, which

has

never

since

been

wrested

THE

382

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1"40-1656

who

imam,

had
the

approach

to

and

The

the

In

1648

Venice.

the

in

the

and
of

for

celebrated

which
hence

ofT

makes
may

the
as

time

arrested

break

conveniently

the
be

A.D.]

feared

by the pages,
of
effera vis animi

in

of

the

court

month

life,after
Such

the

was

With

monotonous
as

was

few

and
the

new

days

the

of

islands

condition

ruled
such

they

as

of

state

vizir, who

was

administration
of
of

Lesbos
affairs

and

when

force
of
sagacity and
rare
ruin
of the empire.
This
the
was
him
began a short
period of revival,
and
disaster, and
history of decline
the beginning of a new
section."

profound

menaced

regarded

trigues
In-

occurrence.

who
in

or

dered
mur-

years.

constant

its

with

and

seven

eunuchs,

there

yoke.
whose

of

corrupt,

so

of

in

war

dethroned

age

were

in

gained

ulemas

and

Cossacks,

vizir

he

the

army

women

insignificant

was

which

at

the

K6prili."
in

hitherto

forward

Ibrahim

him,

every
of his

often

Turkish

Muhammed

had

the

prayer,

and

janissaries

hands

Almost

grand

of

profligate
advantages

of

pillaged by

were

words

Ottoman

office, and

threw

character

the

room,

brought

now

succeeded

the

in

depravity.

appeared

man

and
some

rebellions

and

was

his

sea-coasts

Tenedos

IV

was

Never

anarchy
deprived

dissolute

palace

was

but

world.''

exception of
conspiracy
a

government

pleased.

the

an

his

the

Muhammed

him.

The

of

with

adjoining

man,

commenced

reign

results,

waiting
dying

priest
departed from

IV

in

terrible

the

whilst

Murad

been

CHAPTER

REVIVAL

IV

FOLLOWED

DECLINE

RAPID

BY

[1656-1807 A.D.]

KOPRILI

MTJHAMMED

The

court

astronomer

that the most


with

the

when
at

to

the exact

he may
wear
himself
rears
words
to

when

sun

to take

it

of

as

the

crown

minarets.
is

repeated

the meridian, but a few seconds


on
nomical
prophets teaches that, at the astro-

is

of the

the devil is wont

the

sun

world's

the

between

his two

dominion;

lord of the earth, but he lets the sun


great" repeated on high in the summons
historian,
"Thus," says the Turkish

horns,

and

the

directlyhe

go

of

that
then

hears

the true

demons

"the

so

fiend

of

the

believers

cruelty,

in the reigns of
had
reached
the meridian
sedition, who
and
of
the
Ibrahim,
Mulianmied, were
obliged to
during
minority
and

crown

Kopriligrand

vizir of the

Muhammed
Minor

the voice

empire."
the grandson
Koprili was
settled

Empire
rose

when

of domination

and

of the Ottoman
situation he

the

the tradition

yieldup their

to Asia

the

of

Ls

prayer.
and

hour

as

"God

debauchery,
Murad

the

was

mined
September 15th, 1656, deterof Muhammed
Koprili
midday prayer, at the instant

investiture

is

moment

afterwards;because
noon,

for the

time

great" resounds from the heightsof the


prescribed rule of Islam, the noontide
prayer

of "God

According
not

vizirate

grand

the cry

Constantinople,on

at

favourable

to

became the steward


he was made
master

in the

had

been,

tliat of
of the

town

in

cook.

grand

of the horse.

was

heard

that

proclaimed

an
Albanian, who had migrated
Kcipri. The ruler of the councils
early youth, a kitchen-boy,from which
of service
he
After twenty-five years

of

of

vizir Khosru

That

successor

; and

under

favoured

Khosru's

successor

Koprili,as being

OF

HISTORY

THE

384

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1650-1661 A.D.]

of the

native

made

Damascus, Tripoli,and
lie

Afterwards

state.

in

he

Albania, where
of

from

led

His

and

inferior post of
force against some
and

one

sandjak
of the

taken

Kopriliwas

of the vizirs of
bey of Kostendil

gents
insurhe was

numerous

prisoner. Aftt'r

retired to his native


persuaded
town, but was
with the Wry Neck, to follow him
stantinopl
to Con-

patron

new

by

his influence

Jerasalem,

armed
defeated
was

an

called Muhammed

pasha,

accepted the

region,but
captivityhe

that

redeemed

by

province as himself;

same

of

governor

and

rival

became

for

grand vizir,but

began

soon

to

regard

favour.

It does not, however, appear


a dangerous
as
Koj)rili
to obtain the grand vizirate.
that Kopriliused any unfair intrigues
the firmness of his character,his activity,
and his keen
Friends who knew
him
sultana
who
recommended
the
valitli
to
as
a man
common
sense
might
to the suffering
degree of tranquillity
empire ; and the
Koprili,then m the seventieth year of his age.
certain conditions.
He
required that aU
accept it save
upon

possiblyrestore
grand vizirate
He

refused

his

measures

in

some

offered to

was

to

be

should

from

quarter and

any

should

son,

Muhammed
His

the

prefermentsand

any

men

and

favourites ; that exclusive


and
insinuations

or

all accasations

campaign

confidence

waged

was

This

when

of the

and

Lesbos

rebuilt,and

condition.

be

with power

investiture

standards.

and

discussion; that he

tions
attending to recommendashould have
he
that
responsibility;

of great

in

be

should

drooping

were

or

of all offices and

him,
placed
instantlyrejected. The sultana validi,in behalf of
should
be fulfilled,
and
swore
solemnly that all these conditions
Empire.''
Koprilibecame grand vizir of the Ottoman

confidence

against him
her

without

all influence

authoritysuperior to

examination

punishments, without

and

rewards

dealingout

ratified without

in the distribution

free hands

have

should

court

in

restored vigour to the government,


people. \'ictoryagain returned
Tenedos

great

important

The

exercised

his

of

career

fortresses

two

fortifications

minister

he terminated

reconquered, and

were

Transylvania.

all the

and
to

absolute

vizir,after

on

control
a

service

successful

the Dardanelles

placed in

were

revived

the Ottoman

over

an

efficient

the sultan;
the

of five years,

treasury, exhausted

by the prodigalityof precedingreigns,was again replenished.


than thirtythoasand
crueltycaused the death of more
persons.
As a dying counsel to the sultan,he warned
him to dLstrust the influence of
to choose
too rich a minister; to augment, by every
never
women;
means,
of the state ; not to suffer the troops to grow
the reveruies
effeminate by too
himself,an active life. The sultan,upon his advice,
long repose, and to leatl,
intrusted the seals of state to his son, Ahmed
Koprili.
His

"

AHMED

Sultan

Muhammed

of far too

weak

IV

was

character

KOPRILI

advancing

now

to govern

towards

for himself.

His

manhood,

but he

great delight

was

was

the

chase, and to this he devoted all his energiesand all his time.
Fortunately
for his empire, he placed the most
Koprili,the
implicitconfidence in Ahmed
and
favourite
minister
in
maintained
his
new
vizir,
against all the
power
directed against him.
Ahmed
numerous
intriguesthat were
Kopriliwas the
real ruler of

both

by

best

the

He

from

and

1661

to his death

Christian

historians

in 1676; and he is jastlyeulogised


of his
the greatest statesman
as

called on
he was
only twenty-six years of age when
his
but
had
been
abilities
naturallyhigh
improved
by
empire ;
education
that the muderris
of Constantinoplecould supply, and

country.
govern

Turkey

Ottoman
was

to

the
he

REVIVAL

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

385

A.D.]
[1661-10("4

had

practicalstatesmanship as

learned

(luringthe
sire,when

and

provincialgovernor

of his father.
Ahmed
niLiiLstry
Koprili could
the
to
state
duty
requiredseverity,and he was

be

as

general

stern

as

his

equally tenacious

his authority. But


lie was
on
permittmg the least encroachment
and
his
endeavours
and
directed
most
earnest
were
;
usuallyhumane
generous
of imperialtaxation, and to protect the people from
to mitigatethe burdens
the arbitraryviolence of the
the feudal exactions of the spahis,and from
in not

pashasand

other local functionaries.


father,Ahmed
Koprilicommenced

his administration
ing
by securtime a
him.self againstany cabals of the ulema ; and he gave at the same
noble rebuke to the chief of that order,who spoke in the divan against the
Alamed
of the late grand vizir.
Koprilisaid to him, " Muft"i,if my
memory
of thy fetva."
to death, he did so by the sanction
The
father sentenced men
Like

his

"
mufti answered, If I gave him ray fetva,it was
under
his cruelty." "Effendi,"
myselfsuffer
art a teacher of the law of the
for thee, who

because

I feared

rejoinedthe

lest I should

grand vizir,"is

it

prophet, to fear God less than


mufti
he was
The
silent. In a few days afterwards
his creature?"
was
deposedand banished to Rhodes, and his important station given to Sanizadi,
whom
Almied
Koprilicould rely.
a friend on
of the Turkish
in the civil administration
It was
Empire that the genius
its
best
field
of
he was
called on
foimd
exercise
but
of Ahmed
soon
Koprili
;
of
the
and
head
duties
the
Ottoman
to
fulfilthe
military
grand vizirate,
to
armies in the
the other wars

with

war

Austria, which

between

the two

were

his conmiand

had

under

and

twenty-threefield

camels, and

THE

ten

empires,originatedin

OF

century and

half

the troubles

of

most

and

sensions
dis-

in

and twenty-one thousand


hundred
a hundred
men,
twelve
heavy batteringcannons, sixty thousand
pieces,
a

mules.

thousand

B.\TTLE

for

This, like

in 1663.

out

sylvania.
Hungarj^ and TranAfter several conflicts of minor
importance during 1661 and 1662
between the respective
partisansof Austria and the Porte in these provinces,
aided against each other by the neighbouring pashas and comwho were
mandants,
the
vizir
of
coUectetl
scale
Ottoman
a
was
on
by
an
grand
army
of
Kanuni
and
Suleiman
of
the
victorious
days
Koprili
;
grandeurworthy
in Hungary and
resolved not only to complete the ascendency of the Turks
MuTransylvania,but to crush entirelyand finallythe power of Austria.
marched
with his troops from Constantinopleto Adrianople;
IV
hammed
his favourite hunting while his grand
behind to resume
but there he remained
The sultan placed the sacred standard
vizir led the army
against the enemy.
the 8th of June, 1663,
of the prophet in Koprili'shands at parting;and on
that formidable ensign of Turkish
war
was
displayed at Belgrade. Koprili
which

chronic

broke

ST.

"

GOTTHARD

Repellingthe peaceful overtures


cro.ssed the Danube
KopriliAhmed

THE

TREATY

OF

of the Venetians
at

Gran,

and

(1664

VASVAR

and

laid

of

A.D.)

the emperor,
Neuhausel

siege to

after,this place,the boulevard of Hungary,


impregnable,capitulated. Hungary, Moravia, and Silesia
carried
were
ravaged, and saw eighty thousand of their inhabitants
pitilessly
reduced
off prisoners.Emperor Leopold was
to his own
forces; the pope
the
Alexander VII, being wholly devoted
to the house of Austria, conceived
projectof a league of the Christian princes against the Turks; Louis XIV
(August 17th, 1663)

six weeks

considered tillthen

offered

thirtythousand
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

of his German

men

allies.

But

the emperor

took

OF

HISTORY

THE

386

EMPIRE

TURKISH

THE

[166t-1668A.D.]

offence at
In the

of

this show

force,and

while
again demanded

mean

emperor

thorny, Louis
twenty-four thousand men

the

conmiand

as

the

the

Finally,after

promised

from

decUned

advance;

to

France.

XI\'

somewhat

to

send

formed

thousand

the

French

Rhine, under
joined by all the
honour of serving

the orders of the duke

under

picked corps

and

pope

of the

of Coligny. This
was
count
army
the
with
other
each
who
disputed
France,

volunteers,and

the offer.

negotiationsthat

six

confederation

the

of

nobilityof

young

continued

of

help

and

were

on

KopriliAlinied

the pope

his advice

de la

Feuillade.
The

of Strozzi had

count

obtained
of

but he

killed

was

the celebrated Montecuculi


took
and
Littlehaving taken Serinwar

skirmish on the bank


command-in-chief.
Koprili, after
by
Konnorn, tried to pass the Raab
in

slightsuccesses,

some

the ;\Iur and

the

force, but he was


mam
repulsed by
Coligny after a desperatecombat ; a fresh attempt likewise
to naught. Finallyon
July 31st, 1664, the grand vizir decided to cross
came
The
Ottoman
the river in sightof the Austrians and to risk a battle.
army,
of
made
St.
the
an
Gotthard,
unpetuous attack; the
abbey
encamped near
broke throughthe centre
crossed by a ford, and the Ottomans
of
Raab
was
the
and
the
restored
valour
the Christian army
balance,
; Coligny,however,
Montecuculi

and

of his troops decided the


It is said that when

victory.
the French

ered
knights marching out, covwigs, he exclaimed, "^\^lo are
those girls?" He was
undeceived; in an instant the janissaries
soon
were
who
for
the
melee
routed by the furia ]rancese. Those
a
repeated
escaped
the
cries
of
AUons
in
their
exercises
aUons!
time
afterwards
military
long
the Ottoman
historians call men
of
tue! tue!" uttered by those girlswhom
after
battle
of
St.
Ahmed
Ten
the
iron.
Gotthard, Koprili
days
signed
with Austria the Treaty of Vasvar
(1664). Transylvania was to be evacuated
recognisedprince of this country imder the
by the two parties;Apaffiwas
Of the seven
between
sylvania
TranHungarian comitates
suzeraintyof the Porte.
to belong to the emperor,
and the Theiss three were
and the other
from
Ottoman, as well as Novigrad
Rakoczy, remained
four, taken away

ribbons

with

and

Koprilisaw
silk,and with

blond

"

and

Neuhausel.*^
CAXDIA

At

the

siegeof
French
the

end

and

The

Italian

siege;but

nobles, and
strict

of the

Candia.

the

the

year

whole

the

naval

skill of the

Italian

the command

\'enice,and

of

to

force

the

engineers,the

perseverance
valsur
of the

steady
pushed forward

vizir took

grand

force

volunteers, attempted

determined

and
discipline

1666

CRETE

JlSD

of

Ottoman

were

of

vain

troops.

of

vizir to

grand

valour

ilorosini

of the
bands

numeroas

the

raise
French

againstthe

The

works

of

a
numerous
besiegerswere
by
body of
and
the
fire
of
last
the
rendered
the powerful batteries at
pioneers,
At this crisis Morosini
place untenable.
proved himself a daring statesman
and a sincere patriot, ^^'hen he found that he must
surrender the city,he
of purchasing peace
for the
resolved to make
his capitulationthe means
republic.
of thj
The step was
bold one, for, though the senate
con\Tnced
a
was
of
t
he
extreme
a
soon
as
concluding
as
necessity
jealousyof
possible,
treaty
for
the Venetian
made
it
Morosini
to
venture
cluding
conon
dangerous
government
without
a
authority. Morosini, however, seeingthe
treaty
express
which
which
his
be
would
country
perilto
exposed, if the favourable moment

the

Greek

the

labours

of

REVIVAL

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

387

A.D,]
[1669-1673
now

presenteditself for concludinga


of the act and

signed the

peace

treaty.

was

lost,assumed

Its conditions

all the sibility


responratified by the
his return
on

were

the

accused of high treason


patrioticgeneral was
He
for many
was
honourably acquitted,but remained
to Venice.
years
On
the
27th
of
September, 1669, Alimed Koprilireceived the
unemployed.
keys of Candia, and the republicof Venice resignedall right to the island of
Crete, but retained possessionof the three insular fortresses of Karabusa,
ports. No fortress is said to
Suda, and Spinalonga, with their valuable
blood and treasure, both to the besiegers
and the defenders,
have cost so much
in
the
whose
it
Candia
Greeks,
was
territory
situated,and who could
; yet
as
from
of
the
inhabitants
Crete
furnished
an
have
sufficiently
numerous
army
the people on the shores of the
to have decided the issue of the contest, were
who
took least part in this memorable
Mediterranean
tute
war:
so
utterlydestithe Hellenic race
at this period.^
of all national feelingwas

senate, but

THE

THE

COSSACKS;

POLISH

CAiMP.\IGN

OF

1672

A.D.

of warlike

operationson which Ahmed


Koprili entered
because
it brings us to the rival claims of Poland,
attention,
deserves especial
the Cossacks, and is intimatelyconover
Russia, and Turkey to dominion
nected
with the long and stillenduring chain of hostilitiesbetween
the Russian
had become
and Turkish empires. The Cossacks of the Don
subjectsof Ivan
of Muscovy, in 1549; but the Cossacks
of the Dnieper and
the Terrible,czar
with
the Ukraine
were
long independent, and their first connection was
The Poles affected to consider
them
but
Poland.
the
wisest
Polish
as vassals,
The

next

scene

of authoritywhich
cautious in the amount
rulers were
they attempted to
these bold and hardy tribes. The unperious tyranny of other
exercise over
met
was
by fierce oppositionon the part
sovereignsof Poland
Cossacks,who called m their former constant enemies, the Tatars,to
Polish oppressors.
aid them againsttheir new
Deserted, after some
years of
the
of
the
the
Cossacks
Ukraine
the
to
Russian
Tatars,
appealed
warfare,by
of
checkered
and
hostilities
Alexis.
followed,
sanguinary
Many years
czar
and at last the Cossack
territorywas nominally divided between Russia and

less prudent
of the

Poland in 1667.
the mouths
of the rivers Bug and Dnieper,
But the Cossacks who dwelt near
and who were
called the Zaporogian Cossacks, refused to be included in the
Polish dominions
by virtue of that arrangement, and placed themselves under
the

protectionof

which

had

been

the

czar.

left under

In

1670

Poland

the Cossacks

of that

petitionedthe

part

Polish

of

the Ukraine

diet for

certain

under Sobieski was


sent
refused; and a Polish army
were
The
Cossack
the
malcontents.
to
the
Ukraine
under
into
Cossacks,
coerce
their hetman
to
Dorescensko, resisted bravely; but at last they determined
which
privileges,

Porte; and Dorescensko, in 1672, preprotectionof the Sublime


sented
himself
and received a banner with two horsetails,
at Constantinople,
the
as sandjak bey of the Ukraine, which
was
immediately enrolled among
Ottoman
time the khan of the Crimea
ordered
was
provinces. At the same
six thousand
marched
Turkish
to support the Cossacks, and
to
troops were
the Ukraine.
The czar
The Poles protestedloudly againstthese measures.
added his remonstrances,
and
in a war
threatened
to join Poland
against
vizir
that
such
threats
The
were
Turkey.
haughtilyreplied
grand
empty
words and out of place,and that the Porte would preserve
its determination
with regard to Poland.

seek the

HISTORY

THE

388

OF

THE

ESfl'IRE

TURKISH

[1673-1676 A.D.]

the

When
written

subjectsof

revolted

aidingthe

his

with

ambassador

Polish

in which

hand,

own

reproached the Turks


Poland, Koprilirepliedin
he

that

states

"

with

injustice in

remarkable

the

letter,
Cossacks, a free

under
the Poles, but being unable to endure Polish
people,placed themselves
have
sought protectionelsewhere, and they are
longer,
they
oppressionany
banner

Turkish

the

under

now

and

the

horsetails.

If the inhabitants

of

an

oppressedcountry, in order to obtain deliverance,implore the aid of a mighty


in such an
them
is it prudent to pursue
the most
asylum? When
emperor,
is
deliver
from
of
all
their
and
to
most
enemies
seen
glorious
mighty
emperors
ancl to

those

succour

will know

who

arc

which

oppressed,and
side the

blame

who

ask

him

for

protection,a

of

breaking peace ought to rest.


If,in order to quench the fire of discord,negotiationis wished for,so let it be.
is referred
of differences
decisive judge
to that keen and
But
if the solution
be pronounced by the God who
called the Sword, the issue of the strife must
hath
poised upon nothing heaven and earth, and by whose aid Islam has for
its foes."
thousand
a
years triumphed over
in behalf of an
of the principleof intervention
This
avowal
oppressed
for
the
minister
of
like the Turkish,
bold
a nation
measure
prime
people was a
other nations
in severe
which
bold
bondage ; it was especially
kept so many
who
that
time
of fortresses
at
in Koprili,
was
directingthe construction
very
the revivingspirit
of independence of the Greeks.
in the Morea
to curb
Muhanmied
IV was
In the Polish campaign of 1672, Sultan
persuaded to
which
the
the
of
the
led
to
siege
powerful
Koprili
important
army
accompany
in
fell
Podolia.
Kamenets-Podolski
of
after
nine
Kamenets-Podolski,
city
and
its
fate
the
shared
of
9th
26th,
on
Lemberg
siege
1672),
(August
days'
of
The
imbecile
then
made
Peace
of
the
Polantl,Michael,
king
September.
with the Turks, by which
Poland was
and the Ukraine,
Buczacz
to cede Podoha
wise

man

and

pay

annual

an

triumph

in

on

tribute to the Porte of 220,000 ducats.


The sultan returned
but
the
which
la\ished on
were
Adrianople;
congratulations

to

Sobieski and the other chiefs


of the Poles were
premature.
the treaty which
their king had
to break
of the Pohsh
nobilitydetermined
made.
They refused to pay the stipulatedtribute; and in 1673 the grand
for renewing the war
the Poles, and also for
vizir made
preparations
upon
him

as

conqueror

attackingthe
The

Turks

Sobieski,who
and

routed

Moldavia

czar

; but

on

received assistance.
the 11th of November,

Poles,surprisedthe Turkish camp


immense
slaughter. The princesof

led the

now

KopriU
had

they had

of Russia, from whom


again into Podolia

marched

with

deserted

from

the Turkish

to

the

1673,
Khoczim,

near

and
Wallachia
all their
side with

Polish

contingents a transfer of strength which aided materiallyin obtainingSoskill had


bieski's victory. But
reinvigorated
so
Koprili'sadministrative
of Turkey that she readilysent
fresh forces into the Ukraine
the resources
took
in the following
Sobieski with his Poles and the Russians
(who now
year.
active part in the war) had the advantage in the campaign of 1674; and
an
in 1675 Sobieski
gained one of the most brilliant victories of the age over the
Turks
But the superiorstrength and steadiness of the Porte
at Lemberg.
and Koprili in maintaining the war
against the discordant government of
"

Poland

were

felt year

Podolia, Ibrahim
attacked
Gahcia.
with

after

the

far inferior forces

in

and

year;

Devil, made
Sobieski (who

himself
was

againstIbrahim

now

at

1676

of

completely master
king of Poland) fought gallantly
Zurawno, but was glad to conclude

the Turks were


(October 27th, 1676) by which
and
Podolski
the Ukraine, with
Podolia, antl by which
a

peace

few

places,was
specified

to

be uader

the

in
and
Podolia,

commander

the Turkish

sovereigntyof

to

retain

the

Kamenets-

exception of

the sultan.

HISTORY

THE

390

OF

THE

EMPIRE

TURKISH

[lB8o-lGS4 A.D.]

had

only

thousand

ten

in the

men

garrison.

corps

formed, who

four sorties.
Most of the outworks

had

the defence

To

complete
mihtary

sharetl in the

five

service of the

of bourgeois were
place. At the signalof alarm given by the great bell of St. Stephen's,the
the Hofburg (emperor'spalace); the students
to assemble
near
bourgeoiswere
and employees on
the Freyung place and the merchants
to gather on
were
the new
market-place. During sixtydays fortymines and ten counter-mines
exploded; the Turks ueHvered eighteenassaults and the besiegedmade twenty-

giving way

were

is not

"There
Kara

Mustapha

had

have

succeeded,

but

his

troops.

not

make

refused
Sobieski

his mind

give

the

of the

besiegers
; the

parts
ram-

raine:
Stahremberg WTote to the duke of Lormoment."
moment
If
to lose, nion.seigneur,
not
a
a
ordered a general attack it is probable that he would
avarice
prevented him from jjrofiting
by the ardour of
on

Con\-inced

up
to

fallen into the hands

all sides.

that
to

Vienna

contained

abandon

signalfor

them

attack.

to

The

treasures, he could
hence he obstinately

inunense

and
pillage,

of the

inaction

vizir gave

grand

to arrive.

time

Leopold, in his extremity, had soUcited help from Europe; the pope
in vain that Louis
It was
an
appeal to the pietyof the king of France.
XIV
intriguedthroughout Europe to compel the isolation of the emperor.
He tried to prevent Sobieski from
heljjingthe Austrians, showing him that
his real enemies
were
Austria, Brantlenburg,and his Rassian majesty. AH
carried away
useless ; he was
was
by hatred of the infiilels.
After ha\'ingeffected a junction with
the duke of Lorraine,the electors
On Sepof Saxony and
Bavaria, Sobieski marched
tember
against the Ottomans.
of
the
Polish
moimted
the
12th, 1683,
squadrons
Calenberg,
slopes
of the Polish
intrenched.
where
the OsmanUs
The impetuous valour
were
\'ienna
decided
the
at seven
o'clock in the evening
was
pletely
com\'ictory;
king
delivered.
The booty was
immense
piecesof artillery,
; three hmidred
five thousand
tents,,the militarychests,and all the flagsexcept the sandjak
made

of the victors.
sherif fell into the hands
Ten thousand
the battle-field. Kara
had
Mustapha, whose ambition
of

Germanj'

dream
upon

and

of power,
He
Buda.

in which

to the

titleSultan

ralhed

the

crossed

the Poles killed

prisoners. Gran

Kara

fragments

the Danube

Mustapha,

of his army
at

eight thousand

the Raab

after

Parkany
of his

aroased

on

and

men

remained

on

the

from

and

empire
his proud
fell back

sanguinary combat

took

twelve

hundred

its gates to Sobieski at the first summons.


perated
Exasthe grand vizir took revenge
lus officers for
upon
voices
incapacity,thinkingthat he could drown in blood the accu.'sing
at

his

"

Turks

aspiredto

own

opened

these reverses,

wluch
he had led to butchery and defeat.
He
could not escape
his fate; his enemies
the fatal arrest, and Muhamat Constantinopleobtained
IV sent the grand chamberlain
med
to Belgrade with the command
to bring
back the head of the incapablegeneral.''
of that army

THE

The

DEPOSITION

great destruction

throughout

Christendom

OF

MUHAM.MED

of the Turks
as

IV

before

the announcement

of the Mohammedan
Empire in Europe. The
declared war
against the Porte, and Turkey
every

hard

point of

her

HIS

CH,VRACTER

Vienna
of

rapturouslyhailed
approaching downfall

was

the

Russians
was

now

and

the Venetians
almost
on

assailed

P^uropean frontiers. The new


grand vizir Ibrahim strove
and supply the deficiency
in the magazines wliich

to recruit the armies

REVIVAL

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

391

[1684-1687A.D.]
But
campaign of his predecessorhad occasioned.
city after city
the
and
Islam
from
rent rapidlyaway
tians.
now
by
exulting
advancing Chriswas
The
imperialistarmies, led by the duke of Lorraine,captured Gran,
Neuhiiusel,Buda, Szegedin,and nearly all the strong places,except Belgrade,
The
had
held in Hungary.
Venetians
almost equally
which the Turks
were
landed
successfulon the Dalmatian
frontier;and the republicof St. Mark now
himself master
of
its troops in Greece, under
Morosini, who rapidly made
and
other
chief
cities
of
that
Athens,
Navarino,
Corinth,
Nauplia,
Coron,
the war
was
waged less
important part of the Turkish Empire. In Poland
hold
did
the
Turks
their
Kamenets-Podolski.
on
nor
yet relinquish
vigorously;

the fatal

great defeat which


August, 1687, at Mohacs
But

the

excited

the

discontents

main

(on
of

the

the

Ottoman
very

sustained
army
of Suleiman's

scene

soldiery into

the 12th

on

of

ancient

glory),
against the sultan,

insurrection

in that year
Muhammed
IV was
the Sth day of November
deposed,
and
o
f
his
of
his
thirty-eighth
reign.
forty-sixth
year
age
It had been the good fortune of tliisprinceto have able grand vizirs during
his ministers from
ence
female influa considerable part of his reign; but he chose
from
discernment
of
not
merit, as was
or
personalfavouritism,
proved
to Kara
to ruin the Ottoman
when he intrusted power
Mustapha, who did more
mentioned
in
individual
that
is
than
its
other
Empire
history.
any
IV
Muhammed
reigned without ruling. His mind was entirelyabsorbed by
his infatuation for the chase; and the common
people believed that he was
under a curse, laid on him
by his father,Sultan Ibraliim,who had been put
Muhammed
said to
was
to death when
placed on the throne, and who was
that Ms son
have prayed in his last moments
might lead the wandering hfe
IV as soon
of a beast of prey.
Though not personallycruel,Muhammed
as
himself
born
the throne by
to
to him
heirs were
secure
on
sought anxiously
murder
of his brothers.
saved from him
the customary
They were
by the

and

on

in the

exertions of the sultana


unnatural design. His

vahdi

and

mother,

his ministers; but he often


the sultana vahdi Tarkhan, was

resumed
the
determined

from
life to shelter her two younger
the risk of her own
at even
sons
being
slaughteredfor the further securityof the elder ; and she took at last the precaution
of the palace,
of placing the two
princes in an inner room
young
which could only be reached by passingthrough her own
apartments.
Even
there one
night the sultan himself entered with a dagger in his
where his brothers lay. Two
hand, and was glidingthrough to the chamber
validi
dared
the
sultana
not speak in the presence
near
; they
pages watched
touched
of them
her and awakened
of the imperialman-slayer,but one
her.
from
The mother
sleep,and clingingroimd the sultan implored him
sprang
to

strike her

dead

before

Muhammed,

accustomed

for the time


the morrow

he

his scheme

put

to

the murderous
effecting
which he wanted
nerve

he

raised

his

hand

room

his

his brothers'

blood.

slaves
who
had hindered
the two
liim from
have
wliich
he
wished
to
project
accompUshed, but
to

Timidly vindictive,and
continued
to long

renew.

for his brother

And

when

he

rather
selfishly
for the death of
at last

was

the throne, he may


Suleiman
on
had spared the fatal rival whom

that his infirmityof purpose


to the oltl fratricidal canon
of the house
from

shed

death

than constitutionally
cruel,Muhammed
his brothers,
though he hesitated to strike.
to make

to

yieldto the superiorspiritof the vahdi, renounced


and
retired to his apartment;
of fratricide,
but on

to

of Osman

would

have

have
an

deposed,
regretted

adherence

removed

ever
for-

path.

In

the reign of Muhammed


institutionsof the empire

IV
was

another

completed,

innovation
wliich also

on
was

the ancient

probably

stern

caused

HISTORY

THE

393

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1075-1677 A.D.]

in 1675, in the last year of


much
was
bj' weakness as by humanity.
as
final
of three thousand
Alimed
that
the
the vizirate of
boys for
Koprih,
le\-}'
made
the Christian populationof
of the Turkish
the recruiting
on
was
army
the ranks of the
the Ottoman
Empire in Europe. The old system of filling
from
exclusivelywith compulsory conscriptsand converts
janissaries
among
It

the cliildren of the rayalishad


I\'. Admission
of Murad
civil

many
men

who

of

were

first

The

well

as

less and

been

into the

time

less

corps

rigidlyenforced since the


conferred
now
janissaries
that it was
eagerlysought by

so
mihtary ailvantages,
Turkish originand born to the
as

of relaxation

measure

of the old rule

of

Mohanunedan
treat

to

was

faith.
those who

were

for enrolment.
cancUdates
Other Mussulman
eligible
of
and
the
levies
dren
chilthe
tribute
of
received,
le.-^
less
and
the Christians grew
from
frequent
though they
severe,
of pages
still occasionallyresorted to in order to supply the thousands
of the serai,and who
were
were
requireilto people the vast chambers

the cliildren of janissaries


as
volunteers were
soon

were

who

But ever
since the
drafted into the army
of the state.
of emergency
of
free
from
the
have
been
the
terrible
the
rayahs
empire
entirely
year
blood by wliich the Ottoman
sustained
of flesh and
tax
militaryforce was
during its early centuries of conquest. With this change in the constitution
in

case

1675

the
janissaries,

of the corps

of

largebodies

of them

were

nuinbei-s

of that force

settled with

now

their

trades and
of the "new

in tUfferent

empire, where

they engaged
and
martial character
exclusivelymonastic
Bektash
had long ago disappeared.
of the

TWO

The

contests

in Jerusalem

between

RELIGIOUS

greatlyincreased;

were

famihes

in the chief

cities
occupations. The

soldiery"of Hadji

IMPOSTORS

the Greeks

the Christians

and

raged furiouslyduring

Muhamnied

I\''s

of the Latin

church

mans
reign. But the Ottothe agitationcaused

\nth far stronger interest


that age watched
nation
Jewish
the
by the celebrated Sabbatai-ze\-i,who in 1666 came
among
that
and
the Messiah.
Under
Jerusalem
assertetl that he was
forward
at
of
the
Ottoman
title he sent circular letters to all the Jewish
sjmagogues
Empire; and such was his dexterous audacity in imposition,so eagerlywere
of
the legends respectingliis miraculous
received, that thousands
powei"s
of

togetherat his bidding not only from Constantinople,


cities,but from Germany, Leghorn, ^'enice,and
violent tumults
Some
of the rabbis opposed him ; and the most
Amsterdam.
raised at Jerusalem, Cairo, Smyrna, and other cities of the East, where
were
Sabbatai
proclaimed his pretended mission.
The Ottomans
observed his progress with reUgiousanxiety ; not from any
belief in liis allegedcharacter,but, on the contrary, from the fear that he was
the dedjal,or antichrist,who, according to the Mohanmiedan
creed, is to
also
beheve
mankind
in
world.
last
of
the
the
They
days
among
appear
announced
is
be
atlvent
of
the
of
that the speedy
to
by the
judgment
tlay
at
And
time
earth of the prophet Mahdi.
at the same
on
as
reappearance
forward
in Palestme
another religious
which
Sabbatai
impostor arose
came
called himself the prophet Mahdi, and excited thousands
in Kurdistan, who
his countrymen

Smyrna,

and

of Kurds

to

flocked

other Turkish

follow him, the alarm

signsof the end


in

order

liim; but

of the

check the troubles


liisfanatic followers

to

of many

world

was

caused

only

saw

Moslems

orthodox

extreme.

The

by Sabbatai, seized
in this the

at

vdzir Ahmed

certain

these

bined
com-

KcipriU,

imprisoned
preludeto their

and

FOLLOWED

REVIVAL

RAPID

BY

DECLIXE

393

[1677-1687A.. D.)

They

Messiah's triumph.

disappear for

to

was

he

lioness,which
then he

and
who
as

was

Sabbatai
then made
miracle his

brought

was

one

him

of Sabbatai's countrymen,
before the sultan's mmisters

the people.
revolt among
before the sultan for examination, and

characteristic

the

him

But

influence,denounced

raise

to

was

lord of the world.

jealousof his

endeavouring

prophecy Messiah

ancient

an

mounted
then to return
on
a
briille made
of seven-headed
serpents,

and

guide with

to

was

according to

months,

nine

to be

was

said that

offer

of

opportunity

an

of

Muliammed

proving by

One
of the sultan's best
right to be aclaiowledged the Messiah.
stand steady as a
and
Sabbatai
invited
to
called
was
forward,
archers was
harm
could
do
which
of
to a personage
no
gifted
course
mark for the arrows,
back
only the sultan wished to see them bound
with miraculous
powers;

rabbi, and

poor

words,

He

failed him.

courage

but

these

At

body.

off his

from

whit

no

the

and

sight of the bended


owned

fell prostrate,and
different from

other

men.

that he
The

bow,
was

batai's
Sab-

nothing

sultan

then

the Mohammedan
some
allow him to embrace
faith,and so make
offered
of
and
for
crime
treason
had
the
which
he
scandal
the
foihigh
caused,
amends
which he hat! committed
by assmning the title of Messiah of Palestine,which
Porte.
Sabbatai
of the sandjaks of the Sublime
eagerly accepted
one
was
to

the proposal. He
Messiah or dreaded
prosaicstation of
made

himself

Moslem, and instead of being worshipped as


antichrist,he filled for ten years the respectablebut

became
as

door-keeper in the sultan's palace. He, however, still


directed
zeal ; but that zeal was
now
conspicuousby his religious
a

winning converts
successful.
singiiJarly
to

Judaism

from

He

was

to

in

Mohanunedanism,

ultimately banished

the

to

which

he

was

Morea, where

he

died.

Mahdi, was
Kurdish
captured and
pretender,the self-styled
spiritual
his
had
owned
after
few
Sabbatai
sultan
months
imposture
a
sent before the
Kurd
abandoned
the character of "preThe young
cursor
in the royal presence.
led before his sovereign. He
he was
of the last judgment" as soon
as
and his lifealso was
and spirit,
spared.
answered his interrogatorswith sense
The

ish
Jewish antichrist was
serving the sultan as a door-keeper,and the Kurdof the pages of
his fellow-servant,
in the capacity of one
made
Madhi was
of the palace.
the treasure-chamber
IV habitMuhammed
ually
fondness
for hunting made
Ms
immoderate
Although

The

neglectthe duties
and he showed
pursuits,
His

men.

government,

he

for

as

the

to

society of

of letters

were

literary
learned

sometimes

hberal in his encouragement of historical wTiters,


reign.
professedto record the current historyof his own
with liis own
at his court; he corrected their works
pen;

He

them

to see

indifferent

never

was

hereditary fondness

patronage of the chase and his patronage

strangelyblended.
of such
especially
He loved
but he

of

was

expected that each royal hunting should be chronicled by them


sportsmanlikeminuteness, anrl that the death of each wild beast which
A
slain
was
by the sultan's hand should be portrayed with poetic fervour.
well
the
to
the
life
of
is
as
vitality
author, as
an
dangerous to
despoticpatron
with

Sultan Muhammed
his person, and
The
sultan
rV delightedto honour.
kept him always near
charged him with the specialduty of writing the annals of his reign. One
Abdi
hast thou written to-day?"
asked of him, "What
evening Muhammed
of his works.

The

Turkish

historian

Abtli

was

whom

one

answered
that nothing remarkable
to write about had happened
incautiously
that day. The sultan darted a hunting-spearat the unobservant
companion
hast
Now
thou
and
of royalty,
him
wounded
something
exclaimed,
sharply,
"

to

writ" about."

THE

394

OP

HISTORY

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1C8T-16SS i..D.]

OF

REIGN

THE

II

SULEIMAN

Suleiman
Empire in 1687, had
II,when raised to the throne of the Ottoman
and
in
almost
in
lived for forty-five
seclusion,
dailyperilof
compulsory
years
than
the
death.
more
capacity and courage
Yet, as sovereign,he showed
sultan at an
brother whom
he succeeded ; and perhaps if he had been made
earlier period Turkey might have escaped that shipwreck of her state which
her after the death of her great minister Ahmed
Koprili,through the
came
on
of his favourite
vizir
Muhanimed
IV and the misconduct
of Sultan
weakness
Vienna.
Kara Mustapha, the originatoroi the fatal march
upon
Suleiman
sors,
despisedthe idle sports antl debasing sensuality of his predeceshimself to the task of reorganisingthe military
and earnestlydevoted
power

if

empire, and of stemming,

of his
But

disaster.

he

unable

was

who, throughout the

to

possible,the

control the

winter

excesses

followed

which

of defeat and
progress
of the mutinous
saries,
janis-

Suleiman's

accession,filled

Constantinoplewith riot and slaughter,and compelled the appointment and


displacement of ministers according to their lawless will. At lengtli this
soldieryresolved to pillagethe palacesof the grand vizir and the other
savage
his house
chief dignitaries.The
bravely
vizir, Siavush
Pasha, defended
Jewish
of
who
rabble
the capital,
the
the
worst
brigands,
were
joinedby
against
rection
and Christian,as well as Mohammedan.
On the second day of the insurthey forced the gate of the house, and rushed in, slayingand spoiling
with. -Siavush Pasha, with a few of his survivingservants
all that they met
the entrance
to defend
round
to the harem, that
a last attempt
him, made
alike of every
assailed,
I'cgardlcss
sanctuary of Moslems, which the rebels now
dred
More
than a hunrestraint of law, of creed,of national and of privatehonour.
of the wretches

slain before the resistance of the brave man


of the
were
of
and
threshold
Siavush
felldead
the
his
on
harem, fightr
overcome,
the
last
to
ing bravely
gasp.
The worst
were
now
practisedby the rebels;
outrages and abominations
house

and

was

the

sister of the

slain

vizir,and

cruellymutilated

his wife

and

(the ilaughtcrof Muhammed


stantinopl
through the streets of Con-

nakeil

dragged
and
indignationwhich these atrocities inspired,
of the inhabitants
roused the mass
the instinct of self-preservation,
to resist
the brigands,who
were
proceeding to the sack of other mansions, and to the
of the
The chief preacher of the mosque
plunder of the shops and bazaars.

were
Koprili),

The

horror

Suleiman, and

Great

energy
of shame

and

among

other

to

success

and

members

of the

ulema,

exerted

themselves

the ranks

by temporary excitement
them from out of the very

dregs of

populace. The

the

sacred

standard

prophet was displayedover the centre gate of the sultan's palace,and


believers hastened to rallyround
the holy symbol of loyaltyto their
vicar

on

earth.

executed.

The
The

with

and to raise a feeling


the well-affected citizens,
whom
of the janissaries,
of
had been led away
many
and the evil example of the ruffians who
had joined

animate

chief

assassins in the

late riot

prophet's

were

seized

principalulemas, who had shown a


of more
to obey the mutinous
were
disposition
janissaries,
deposed, and men
were
integrityand spirit
appointed in their places. Some degree of order was
and violence was
thus restored to the capital
of insubordination
; but the spirit
break
convulsed
with revolt and
the
and
to
were
ever
ready
out,
provinces

and

tumult.

complete

nmfti

and
pillagers

of the
the true

and

three

other

able to
not until the end of June, 1688, that the sultan
It was
was
garian
towards the Hunthe equipment of an army, which
then marched

frontier.

REVIVAL
[1687-16S9A.D.]
The Austrians

FOLLOWED

and

BY

had

their alUes

the Turkish state, and


Three generalsof the

had

RAPID

DECLINE

395

profitedvigorouslyby the disorders of

continued

to deal

blow

after blow

Charles

highest military renown,

with

fatal effect.

of

Lorraine, Louis of
directed
the imperialist
armies
against the
Baden, and Prince Eugene, now
The
gary
important city of Erlau in Hundiscouragedand discordant Ottomans.
the 14th of December, 1687, and
surrendered
came
on
again into the
medan
of its ancient
dominion
rulers,after having been for a century under MohamBosnian
Prince
Louis
the
frontier,
w
as
Gradiska,
by
on
captured
sway.
of Baden.
Stuhlweissenburgwas invested ; and, as the Turks had abandoned
to Belgrade lay open
to the Austrian
Illock and Peterwardein, the route
Osman
grade
to protect BelA
ordered
Turkish
named
armies.
was
Yegen
general
;

he

but

and,

as

retreated from
to

ous,
cowardly or treacheradvanced, he
imperialists
Belgrade,after settingfire

was

the

ing
followthe city. The Austrian
troojjs,
guished
the retiring
close upon
Turks, extinthe flames, and laid siege to the

citadel,which

surrendered

after

bardment
bom-

days, on the
twenty-one
20th of August, 1688.
Stuhlweissenburg
stormed
the 6th of September;
on
was
of

fired Semendria, and


and Yegen Osman
the
abandoned
it to
advancing Christians.
Louis

Prince

destroyed a

Turkish

army

in Bosnia, and city after city yielded to


the various Austrian
manded
generalswho comin that

and

province arid

in

sylvania,
Tran-

leaders in

the Venetian

to

DaUnatia.

campaign of the

The

these regions

was

Turkey.

to

his intention

next

in

year

almost
trous
equally disasThe
sultan announced

leading the

of

Ottoman

armies in person, and proceeded as far as


Part
of the Turkish
the city of Sofia.
forces
of

posted in

were

Nish,

and

utterlydefeated by
Prince

by

the

Louis

at

the

at

the

city

there and
the imperialists
under

of Baden.

Turks, was
On

advance
attacked

were

Nish,

Costume

evacuated

best

the

Wife

of

occupied by the conquerors.


tidingsof this defeat reaching the Turkish

Sofia, the sultan, in alarm, retreated

Balkan

of

Suleiman

II

headquarters

of the
range
the close of the year 1689 Peterwardein
to the cityof Philippopolis.Before
and Temesvar
all that the Ottomans
retained of their late extensive
were

provincesnorth of
portionsof Bosnia

the Danube
and

Servia

within

while

even

the mountain

to

the

south

of that river the

occupied by the victorious Austrians.


In the southern
was
parts of European Turkey the fortune of the war
of
to Sultan
Sulehnan.
the
equallyunfavourable
Morosini,one
greatest generals
that the republicof St. Mark
ever
produced, completed the conquest of
the Morea, which he divided into four Venetian provinces. It was
only against
the Poles

and

advantages.

the Russians
A

part of Poland

lurgeTatar
in

were

that the Turks


force from

the

1688, reinforced the

and

their Tatar

allies obtainetl
Ahmed

any

Girai, overran
by
garrisonin Kamenets-Podolski,

Crimea,

Tatar

led

HISTORY

THE

396

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1688-1089 i.D.]

and

defeated

the Poles

the Sereth.

The

Russian

general Galitzin attempted


He
obtained
to invade the Crimea.
some
advantages over part of the Tatar
towards
the isthmus
of Perekop, in tlie autumn
forces,but when he advanced
that the retreatingTatars had set hre to the tlrygrass of the
of 1688, he found
the country to a desert, from
which
he was
steppes, and reduced
obliged to
in 1689, when
retire.
the Russians
And
to the isthmus, they
again advanced
were
completelydefeated by the Ottoman
troops that had taken post there to
Crimea.
the
guard
could not dissipate
But these gleams of success
the terror which the disasters
and Greece
in Hungary
had spread among
the Turkish
nation.
Only seven
had
since
their
untlcr
the fatal guidance
])assedaway
magnificenthost,
years
forth across
the then
of Kara
far-extended
western
northiMustapha, had marched
and blot out
frontier,with the proud boast that it would sack Vienna
the kingdoms of the earth.
Now
Austria from among
the Austrians, and their
torious
confederates,the latelydespisedVenetians, the conquered of Candia, held vic"ot
possessionof half the European empire of the house of Osman.
the firsttime since the days of Hunyady, the Balkan
menaced
was
by Christian
the flagof Khair-ad-din, Piali,and Kilidj
invaders ; and at sea the Turkish
flag,
Ali,was
which

swept from

now

effect that

the

on

the Mediterranean.
be

can

produced

Seldom
on

the

had

there

destinies

Morosini

of mark

had

had

commanded
either headed

in

war

the

by
signallyproved.
princeof Lorraine,

the absence
of individual great men
or
was
more
appearance
the
Christian
On
side,Sobieski,Eugene, Louis of Baden, the

and

been

of nations

the Turks
fortune ; while among
directed councils.
Yet
or

armies

no

singleman

the Ottoman

and
exhaustetl of brave
able spirits,
and at length adversity
not
was
cleared the path of dignityfor merit.
In November
of 1689 the sultan convened
an
extraordhiarydivan at Adriand
his
advise
him
hands
he should
councillors
to
to what
besought
as
anople,

nation

intrust with

the

intrigueand

II advised

Suleiman

great Ahmed

of the state.

management

jealous spiritof

him

Koprili,and

send

to

the

hour

of extreme

perilthe

silent ; and
all around
was
brother
of the
for Koprili Zade
Mustapha,

give the

to

In

self-advancement

seals of office to him

as

grand

vizir of the

empire.

z.\de

Koprili

KopriliZade Mustapha at
He
fifty-twoyears of age.
vizirates of his father
was

expected and
IV

would

Ottoman

and

when

he assumed

trained

been

brother, Muhammed

hoped, on
placethe seals

nation, that

the time
had

mustapha

the death

in

this high

dignitywas
statesmanship iluringthe

and

Ahnietl

Koprili: and

it

med
Muhamin 1676, that Sultan
of KopriliZade.
Unhappily for the

of Alimed

in the hands

sultan's

for his own


son-in-law
prevailed;nor
partiality
misgovernment and calamity had nearly
his father and brother
Koprilisucceeded
director of the councils and
leader of the armies
of Turkey.
as
His authoritywas
greatlyincreased by the deserved
reputationwhich he
law, and an uncomproenjoyed of being a strict observer of the Mohammedan
mising
and corruption. After having paid homage to the
to profligacy
enemy
sultan on his appointment, he summoned
to the divan all the great dignitaries
them
of the empire, and addressed
the
He reminded
state of the country.
on
it until

after thirteen years of


destroyed the empire that the third

was

them
that

in

severe

they

were

terms
now

of their iluties

undergoing

as

Moslems,

the deserved

of their

sins,and he told them

chastisement

of God.

THE

398

HISTORY

OF

THE

twenty-fivefowls

from

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1689-1690

hundred

which

and

floclced

togetherwith

vizir.

him, "look

at

and

brought blessingson

to

I have

The
than

churches

KopriH Zade
Turkey, the
than

it

can

Mustapha
Ottoman

the most
removed.

been

Besides

the

his

of the

in their

Empire

D.]

to

welcome
olhcers

the

round

increased

government

from

the sultan's power,


those who were
wont

empire used to say that Koprili founded


subseciuentTurkish ministers imitated
policy towards the Christian population of

would

the unaided

serious

I have

A.

happy population,

Had

Justinian.

derive from

tants, and
have

Greeks

the

priestat their head


Koprilito the staff of Turkish

the fruits of toleration.

it."

curse

more

of

their Greek
said

benevolent

"Look,"

the heads

sources

now

valour

commantl
and

far

ampler

its Moslem
of its internal weakness
would

loyaltyof

resources

inliabi-

long ago

glory of ha-ving,wliile sincerelyreligious,


practisedreUgious

mention
for his recognition
toleration,the third KopriU deserves honourable
that (\\'ith
few
and
of the great principleof poUticaleconomy,
very
very

peculiarexceptions)trade

between
and man
man
ought to be free from all
of
When
liisad^^sers
interference.
to frame regidations
one
pressedby
"
for purchases and sales,KopriliZade replied,
The Koran
prescribesnothing
and sale ought to be left to the free will of the
the subject. Purchase
on
state

contracting parties."

KopriU
which
he

never

means

historians KopriliFazyl,
Mustapha is termed by Ottoman
that
Koprilithe Virtuous.
Tlreysay of him, as his highestpraise,

Zade

committed

crime, and

that

he

never

used

an

imnecessary

word.

in taciturnit}'
that once,
wliile
They record as an instance of liis eminence
grand ^izir,he received a ceremonial \isit from three uleraas who had formerly
held the offices of army
judges. Koprili let them depart without haAing
of requests, NigaliiEffendi,
addressed
them.
His old master
to
a
syllable
said to him, "My gracioaslord,you should have spoken sometliingto them."
"I am
not a hypocrite,"answered
Koprili. He was austerelysimple in all liis
In
his
habits.
on
campaigns he generallymarched
foot, like the rank and
cUsliked
He
moved
file of the infantry. He
seldom
his
military music.
Amid
the pomp
and splendour of the Turkish
court
quarters before sunset.
the grand vizir was
and camp
distinguishable
by the plainnessof his dress.
He
was
an
on
indefatigablestudent, and read dihgently in his tent when
active service,as well as in his palace when
at Constantinople.
of the praisesby which
Such are some
his country'shistorians signalise
for
Zade
The
renown
Mustapha.
Koprili
statesmanship acquired by him,
with
in bestowing,is
which Christian writers have concurred
Mohammedan
of the shortness of the period permitted to
the more
remarkable,by reason
for the display of his administrative
killed in battle
him
genius. He was
within two years from
the time when
the seals of office were
placed in his
His contemporariesjudged of him, as of his brother Ahmed, that he
hands.
in the council than in the field. But the militarycareer
of Koprili
shone more
his
Zade was
well
to his abihties
to
and,
as
highly honourable
as
courage;
of
he
infinite
importance for
gained a respite
though ultimately defeated,
the
firstobtained.
the Ottoman
which
he
at
successes
Empire by
he was
made
When
grand vizir,one of the invading armies of the enemy
far as Uskup, in northern
had advanced
as
Macedonia, where it was actively
aided by the Christian Albanians
and their patriarch, k chieftain of those
Karpos, had accepted a fUploma of investiture from the
regions,named
Austrian emperor,
and, assuming the old title Krai, had fortified himself in
It was
indispensableto relieve Turkey at once from the foes
Egri Palanka.
thus struck at the very heart of her power
in Europe. Kopriliheld a
who

REVIVAL

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

399

[1690-1691A-D.]

Adrianople,at which SeUm Girai,the khan of the Crimea,


and
Hungarian refugee,were
present. Ivhoja IQiaUd Pasha, the
serasker of the Morea, a native of Uskup, was sent with all the regular Turkish
Crimean
troops that could be collected against that place. The
khan, at
the head of a large Tatar
force, co-operated with him.
They gained two
bodies
of Germans, Hungarians, and
the combined
victories over
Albanians,
the old mediaeval badge of the cross.
The cliieftain Karpos
who had assumed
and executed
the bridge of Uskup.
seized by the Tatars
on
was
Nearly all
which
the
and
invaders
their
confederates
the important posts
had
insm-gent
recovered
by the sultan's troops, and the
occupied in those districts were
of the empire was
almost entirelyremoved.
couraged
Enpressure on this vital part
forward
with the greatest vigour
by these successes, KopriU pushed
for the next
his armaments
campaign.
with the German
at war
Louis XIV, who
was
Empire, sent in the winter
of 1680 a new
ambassador, the marquis de Chateauneuf, to Constantinople,
in hostilities againstAustria.
the TurLs
to persevere
neuf
Chateauto encourage
if possible,
also ordered
to negotiate,
between
a
was
Turkey and
peace
the
the
Subhme
of
Wilham
Porte
to
of Orange
Poland, prevent
recognitionby
and
of
in
for
the
Catholics
to
Palestine
the
England,
regain
as king
custody
the Greek patriarchhad latelywon
from them.
of the Holy Sepulchre,which
in the new
obtained the last object,and he found
vizir a zealous
Chateauneuf
But
the Turks
refused to suspend hostilities with
allyagainst Austria.
Poland; and with regard to the prince of Orange and the English crown,
the English people
Koprih answered that he should recognisethe king whom
ill become
that it would
the Turks, who
had proclaimed. He added
had so
their own
the
of
to
often dethroned
other
nations
sovereigns, cUspute
rights
to change their masters.
In August, 1690, KopriliZade Mustapha took, in person, the command
of
armies
from
the Ottoman
that advanced
Bulgariaand upper Albania through
Servia againstthe imperialists.After a murderous
fightof two days, Koprili
drove the Austrian
general,Schenkendorf, from his lines at Dragoman, between
council of

at

war

Tekeli, the

the cities of Sofia and


in
capitulated

three

their

Nish.

weeks.

forces for

The
The

vizir then
Austrian

its relief

by

by the Hungarian refugee Tekeli


Tekeli defeated

the

in that
imperialists

formed

the

siege of Nish, which

prevented from
generalswere
well-plannedirruptioninto
at

the

head

of

Tm-kish

centrating
con-

sylvania
Tranarmy.

province,and

proclaimed the sultan


and
of
hhnself
as sovereignlord,
as
prince
Transylvania.
After
the
capture of Nish the grand vizir marched
Semendria,
upon
stormed
after resisting
which was
desperatelyfor four days. Widdin
was
also regained,and
Koprilithen undertook the recovery of Belgrade. On the
the Turkish
twelfth day of the siegea shell from
batteries pierced the roof
of the principalpowder magazine of the city,and
destructive
a
explosion
Turks
the
ensued, which
an
Having
conquest.
placed a strong
gave
easy
garrisonin this important city,and completed the expulsionof the Austrians
from Servia,Koprilireturned
to Constantinople. He
received there with
was
deserved honours
he had
after his short but brilliant campaign, in which
the
from
banks
of
the
the Morava
and
compelled
invading giaours to recede
the Nish to those of the Danube
and the Save.
On the 10th of May, 1691, Koprili the Virtuous
received a second time
the sacred standard
from
of his sovereign.Sultan Suleiman, who
the hands
died before the campaign was
II was
succeeded
opened. Suleiman
by his

brother Ahmed
The

new

sultan

II, who

was

confirmed

girtwith
Koprili

the sabre

in his

of Osman

dignity,and

on

July 13th, 1691.


proceeded to

the vizir

THE

400

OF

HISTORY

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1691 A.D.)

Belgrade and

throw

concentrate

his forces at

then marched

of the Danube
up the rightbank
the coniniand
of Louis
of Baden,

who, under
The
At

the

approached

hosts

two

the

tune

same

each

other
and

Christiun

to

the

on

bridge over

respectivearmies

Contrary

to

behind

to await

the

to encounter

from

descended

He

iinperiaUsts,

Peterwardein.

August, near SUmkamen.


which accompanied
fiotiUas,

19th

of

Mussuhnan

the Danube, encountered


victorious ; but on the land the day
flotilla was
Turkish
for the hou.?e of Kopriliand for the house of Osman.
one
their

the Save.

along

the

on

river.

proved

The

disastrous

of the oldest pashas in the army,


the vizir refused
the lines the attack of the imperialists.The veteran
warrior
Ivhoja Khalitl censured this impetuosity.

the advice

Koprili said
follow
like

thee

to

mightest show thyself


like a
not
phantom."

thou

and

man,

invited

"I

him,

to

that

me

Khalid, touching the thin hairs of his grey


beard, replied, I have but a few days to
"

been

at

present

the

empire
calamityand

meet

can

"

shame."

in

scene

with

day
to-

fain

I would

but

to-morrow;

or

have

I die

little whether

It matters

live.

not

which

nought

but

the

non!"
can-

Advance

Koprili,and himself formed


Pasha
for the fight. Kemankesh
the .spahis
began the battle by rushing, with sL\
Kurdish
thousand
and Turkoman
irregular
the
Christian
lines.
age,
"Courcavalry,upon
cried

heroes!"

my

houris
but
a

were

for

waiting

are

forward

with

received

you!"

shouts

by

stead}'fire,which

discomfited

Kemankesh,

cried

of

They galloped
"Allah!"

the Christians

drove

and diminished

"the

them

with

back

in

Again
they charged impetuously; again they

broke, fell, or

fled.

forward
pres.sed

to

The

where

masses.

Austrians

now

ard
the sacred stand-

ranks.
reared in the Mohammedan
the
of
dashed
Karamania,
Lsmail,
pasha
againstthem with the troops of Asia. His
entangled in an abattis of
squadrons were
was

TuRKi.SH
(Seventeenth

his best

men

"What

answered,
black

"Let

by which the princeof Baden


protectedhis rightwing. The Asiatics
wavered
and were
repulsed. Koprilisaw
down
him by the superiormusketry of the imperound
rialists.
he cried to the officers of his guards. They
to be done?"
close,and fightsword in hand."
Koprili,arrayed in a

Officer

felled trees,

Century)

had

shot
is
us

vest, invoked

the

name

of

God,

and

threw

himself, with drawn

sabre,

guards rushed onward with him.


An
sanguinary strugglefollowed, which was decided against
Turkey by the bullet that struck Koprili,while cleaving his way desperately
when
ranks.
His guards lost courage
they saw him
through the Austrian
spread disorder
fall,and the fatal tidingsthat their great v\ziT was slain soon
The prince of Baden's
and panic throughout the Ottoman
triumph
army.
fell
and
the
with
Turkish
hundred
and
cannon
was
a
fifty
complete,
camp
againstthe

enemy.
obstinate
and

His

REVIVAL
11691-1695
into the

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

401

D.]

A.

But

conqueror'spower.

defeated by

and
imperialists

of the

the four years

victorywas

almost
officers was
drove
the Ottomans

Austrian
men
battle of Slankamen
the

the

and

loss in

disastrous

dearlypurchased,and

equal

to that

of the Turks.

the
The

again from Hungary; Tekeli was


Transylvania; and throughout

expelledfrom

Almied

reignof

II the

of defeat was
current
sword of the foreigners,
and
the fearful visitations of pestilence
the usual miseries of domestic insurrection,
the devoted
and famine
came
empire. A great earthquake threw
upon
destructive conflagration
down
ravaged
part of Smyrna, and a still more
Besides

unabated.

the

of the

curse

victorious

in September, 1693.
Heartbroken
and shame
at the sufferings
Constantinople
Ahmed
II expiredFebruary 6th, 1695.
of the state, and worn
by disease,

ACCESSION

OF

MUSTAPHA

II

of the deposed Muhammed


the son
to the
IV, now
came
himself worthy of having reigned in happier times.
On
in which
the third day after his accession he issued a hatti-sherif,
he threw
of the recent
misfortunes
the sultans, and announced
the blame
his
upon
intention of restoringthe ancient usages, and of heading his armies in person.
/ observes, this document
Hammer
is too remarkable
As von
not
to deserve
citation. Sultan Mustapha II thus announced
his royal will :
"
distributer of all good, has grantetl
God, the supreme
mi to us, miserable
monarchs
who
Under
the slaves
sinner,the caliphateof the entire world.
are

Mustapha II,

showed

throne,and

who
do the serresignthemselves to indolent slumber, never
vants
of God enjoy peace or repose.
Henceforth, voluptuousness,idle pasWhile the padishas,who have
^ time,and sloth are banished from this court.
ruled since the death of our
sublime father Muhannned,
have heeded
naught
for pleasure and
but their fondness
for ease,
the unbelievers,
the unclean
beings,have invaded with their armies the four frontiers of Islam. They
have .subdued our
provinces. They have pillagedthe goods of the people of
Mohammed.
with their
They have dragged away into slavery the faithful,
wives and little ones.
This is known
to all,as it is known
to us.

of

or
pleasure,

"I

therefore

revenge

have resolved, with the


the unbelievers,that brood

upon

of the

Lord,

hell,and

I will

help
of

take

to

signal

myself begin the


Suleiman
(may his

holy war

the sultan
Our noble ancestor
against them.
exhale unceasinglythe odour of incense !),during the forty-eight
years
of his reign,
not only sent his vizirs againstthe unclean
but placed
Christians,
himself at the head of the champions of the holy war, and so took upon
the
tomb

infidels the vengeance


which
in person.
combat them
Do
my

ulemas, my

lieutenants

I round my person, and


; counsel,and inform me

God

and

meditate
if I

commands.

thou,

of my

agas

well

ought

on

to

armies, do

of God.
Let your answer
be the truth, and
the imperialstirrup. I wish you health."
The deliberation
of the divan
this
on
Others feared

that

the

of the

presence
he had only addressed

thoughts. Plnally,they
assume

all resolved

the command-in-chief
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

have

resolved

others,my

ye
ye all of you

to

vizirs,

assemble

this my
imperialhatti-sherif. Take
hostilities
in person
against the
open

to remain
at Adrianople. Of
these
or
emperor,
which will be most
to the faith, to the
profitable

Many thought that

also, I,

and
grand vizir,

my

of the army

choose

measures

to

let it be submitted
lasted

summons

sultan

that

two

empire, and

in the

them
the

would

with

camp
a view

departure of
not

to

for

that

the servants
me

three

before

days.

was

undesirable.

of

learning their

the

only expose

padisha

to

the sacred

THE

402

HISTORY

THE

OF

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1695-1699 A.D.]

to

person

much

too

risk and

fatigue,but

would

involve

excessive

expense.

represented to the sultan that his majesty ought


his
not to commit
imperialperson to the chances of a campaign, but ought to
of
To this address the sultan returned
to the grand vizir.
leave the care
war
in
"
I
laconic hatti-sherif,
active measures
persist marching." The most
a
hasten
the preparationsfor the campaign; and the galtaken
to
then were
lantry
sultan was
of the young
at first rewarded
by important success.''
the old pirateof Tunis, twice defeate(l the Venetian
fleet in
Mczzomorto,
The
khan of
the straits of Chios and reconquered the island of that name.
and
invaded
Poland
the Tatars
was
stopped only by the firm resistance of
Lemljerg; the l{ussians had to raise the siege of Azov after having lost thirty
thousand
men
(October, 1G95) ; finallythe sultan penetrated into Hungary
General
Veterani with six thousand
and took Lippa by assault.
tried
men
Surrounded
at Lugos.
Osmanlis
to stop the
by superior forces,he was
divan

Consequently, the

defeated,but

not

fifteen thousand

until

he

dead

on

had

inflicted

the

losses

severe

the enemy,

on

who

left

field.

and
made
Veterani, being wounded
At
these
22nd,
1695).
decapitated
was
(September
prisoner,
successes, to
which
unaccustomed, the ardour of the Osmanlis
reawoke;
they had become
for
the
of
the
Wealthy
giftsprovided
private
voluntary
army.
pay
persons

equipped
the

over

The victoryof Olasch,which


the sultan gained
corps of volunteers.
elector of Saxony, increased the enthusiasm
(1696) and caused the
Azov

taking of

Peter

czar

to abandon

was

soon

Eugene

of

Savoy

planned

the

by

fortune

just taken

had
and

marches

the

I to pass unnoticed
But
by the masses.
of the Osmanlis
the
celebrated
Prince
;
command
of the imperialarmy.
After wellarms

counter-marches

of the Theiss

passage
the grand vizir

Zenta;
near
killed,the sultan

was

he

fled,and

empire was again in peril. For


it. KopriliHussein, a nephew

The
restore

were

Bosnia

the fourth time


of the old

Ottomans

drowned
was
a

at

in the

invaded

the

river;

(1697).
called to
the seal and

Kopriliwas

Koprili,received

this penury
Koprili remedied
by
skilful expedients;
improvised an army which, being confided to Daltaban
Pasha, arrested the triumphant progress of the imperial troops, and forced
the Save.
Louis XIV
had justsigned the Treaty of Ry.swick;
them to recross
divan refused,
he had offered to include the Porte in the negotiations. The
of the English ambassador.
The French ambasbut accepted the mediation
sador.
Marquis de Feriol,tried in vain to fightagainst the gold of William of
committing in signingthe
Orange and to show the Turks the error they were
in
of
who
He
his
the
name
was
promised
sovereign,
preparing to
peace.
the war,
would
her arms
until Turkey
that France
not lay down
recommence
had recovered
useless. "The
Hungary and all the lost provinces. All was
divan ended," says Cantemir,? "by asking France not to give herself aseless
the

The

surprised the

thousand

ten

standard.

treasury

was

empty

he

desired and peace


trouble; peace was
at Karlowitz
(January 26th, 1699).

THE

Austria
ceded

Hungary
in

Syrmia

Danube

along

the
and

the Theiss

between
and

and

the

to
course

was

the

PEACE

OF

would

be made."

It

was

soon

signed

(1699 A.D.)

KARLOWITZ

Porte

agreed to a truce of twenty-fiveyears.


Turkey
Transylvania to Leopold ; it preservedonly the territory
and the Maros.
The boundary line between
the two empires

conventional

emptying
of

the

line,drawn

of the Bosna

Save

and

that

from

the confluence

into the Save


of the Unna.

and

of the Theiss

from

Poland

that

point

recovered

REVIVAL

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

403

[1699-1701A.D.]

Kamenets-Poclolskj,Podolia,and

Ukraine; Russia

kept Azov, etc. All the


abonshed."i
were
paid by
powers
Regarded from a higherstandpointthan that of territorial gain,the Peace
Christian

tributes hitherto

of Karlowitz is the most


between
noteworthy of all treaties hitherto concluded
the
and
European powers, because it ends the humiliation involved in
Turkey
in the tribute of Transylvania,in the pension of Zante, and
le\ies of money,
in the tribute to the Tatar
for the common
powers

khan

; for the first time

in the
interest,

form

of

the intervention

mediation,was

international right. When


the tide
an
as
reached
Empire was at its height the topmost wave
back, it kept Hmigary and Transylvania a
then,rolling

by

the Porte

of European

recognised

of power

of the Ottoman
the gates of Vienna,
hundred
and seventy

of tyranny.
the waters
The waters
receded
time
now
a second
years under
from the walls of Vienna, and not from there alone but also from Hungary and
Transylvania,from Podolia and the Ukraine, from Dalmatia and the Morea;
of Karlowitz
of Poland
made
and Hungary a great dam behind
The Peace of Karlowitz
boundary of the Dniester, the Save, and the Unna.
proclaimedloudlythe decadence of the Ottoman
Empire, which,although
IV in the precedingperiod and that of the old
the vigorous policyof Murad
Kopriliin the next had kept it stationaryfor a while,could neither be held
concealed
in check by the statesmanship of the later Koprilisnor
from the
world by the clouds of plunderingarmies.
The cruel oppressionof the Hungarian as a rayah under
the yoke of Turkish
for
until
continued
the
and
wise
virtuous
a
century
Koprili,in a
tyranny
called the "New
Order"
document
{nizamijedid),advocated the alleviation of
the oppressionof the rayah ; and yet another century passed before this new
which
had been suggested in order to secure
better treatment
a
legislation,
of the Christians,attamed
under
Selim
a sphere of influence,
and,
III,ushered
in a new
order of things. Had
humane
of
treatment
Christian
jects
subKopriH's
and
been observed
the
h
is
had
the
order
by
grand vizirs, successors,
new
aimed
at greater organisationand
he planned,which
at an improvement of
the state administration, been carried out, the Greek
rebellion might easily
have been prevented. The
of
Ottoman
followingperiod
history ^forwhich
and
the way
ideas
was
prepared by revolutionary
by European mediation in

and the Peace


the

"

of

the Peace
Ottoman

Karlowitz, which

Empire
has been

"

initiates

growing

an

more

.sounded

the trimipet of the decadence


of the
This intervention
epoch
European intervention.
continual and more
audacious up to the present
of

day./
THE

REFORMS

affected
Disorganisation
out

on

OF

all branches

KOPRILI

HUSSEIN

of the administration

; rebellion broke

all the frontiers of Persia, in the Crimea, in Africa,in Egypt, and

Arabia.

The

rebels,being vigorouslypursued,were
KopriliHussein could devote himself to the reforms

Walking in

the footstepsof
and of the Banat

of Bosnia
he exempted the

forced

which

to

he

in

submission,and
was
meditating.

Koprilithe Virtuous, he granted to the inhabitants


exemption from capitationfor the current year;

from
in
million and a half of taxes
a
rayahs of Rumelia
Syriahe granted free pasturage. Through the mufti he addressed to
the magistrates of the empire detailed instructions prescribinga thorough
acquaintancewith the Koran, with dogma and the formulae of prayer, and
At the same
time that
the directors of schools.
a strict discipline
enjoining
on
he was relieving
the situation of the Christians
and tryingto recall the Moslems
to study and
of their religion,
the grand vizir re-established
to the observance

arrear; in

HISTORY

THE

404

TURKISH

THE

OF

EMPIRE
[lTOl-1703 A.D.)

in the army,
in the finances;
order in the administration, discipline
economy
and
he codified the maritime
legislation, gave a great impulse to works of
all sides; Belgrade,
on
public utihty. Mosques, schools,markets, barracks arose
their
fortifications
and
Nish
Temcs\ar,
saw
repaired
enlargedand provided

with ammunition.
The death of the
of his most

one

of the mufti.

by

means

faithful auxiliaries
The

Mezzomorto

kapudan pasha

latter

grouped

of crimes

and

of
deprived KopriliHussem
to the hostile designs

and

left the field open


about
him
those who

who

could

not

had
the

pardon

their livelihood

won

grand

Under
the intriguesof tliis coterie
\'irtues and talents.
adherents
of Koprili,the kaimakam,and
the tchaush bashi

the

vizir for his

most

devoted

Mustapha aga
Bey, a nephew of

fell

of ZibbeU Zadc Ali


the
succes.?ively.
Finallythe execution
the \'izir of the lot wliich awaited
minister accused of lo\Tnga sultana,warned
him.
incurable
Loaded
down
with grief and
affected by an
malady, he
returned to the sultan the seal of the empire (September 5th, 1702) and died
seventeen
days afterwards.
The death of Koprilire\'ived disorder.
Daltaban
His successor,
Pasha, a
soldier whose
only passionwas war, sought to break the Treaty of Karlowitz;
he fell a victim to the intriguesof the mufti and was
strangled. Turning to
his assassins,
he exclaimed,
Infidel Moslems, kill him whom
the giaourscould
kill !"
The reis effendi Nami
Muhammed
succeeded
not
him; a partisanof
peace, he tried to complete the work of Koprili. But by his efforts to do away
with abuses he roused against himself the ulemas
and the janissaries;
the
tha
rebels
made
with
and
sent
them,
Mustapha, being
against
troops
peace
Ahmed
resistance to his brother
II
deposed, ceded the throne without
1703).'^
(August 22nd,
"

THE

INFLUENCES

OF

INTERCOURSE

EUROPE.YN

by the Treaty of
Karlowitz, constitutes an epoch
commences
historyof crueltywliich had liitherto grow
humane, and no longerbreathes that spirit
it. It is true
the throne
to animated
two
occasions,subverted by
on
was,
neither deposed nor
eral
Sevinsurrections ; but its occupants were
put to death.
the annals of this epoch ; but the sombre
crimsoned
nightof
bloody wars
barbarism
graduallybroke, and such acts of unnatural crueltyas those of the
l\, and the political
lY, the mihtary anarch}'under Muhammed
tyrant Murad
The rude severity
assassinations of Koprilithe elder were
not again renewed.
of the Turkish character was
mitigatedby contact with Europeans, and more
of action were
civilised principles
adopted ; the art of printingopened also
The

close of the seventeenth

century, rendered

in the Ottoman

to the Ottomans

new

era.

The

memorable

annals.

fimdamental

Its

columns

of the edifice of Ottoman

of Muhammed
law, the militaryorganisationof Orkhan, and the kanun-name
II yet existed : but from
this epoch important innovations
and changes
in the domestic
and
introduced,which the
foreignpoUcy of the empire were
of its condition and the spirit
of the age required,novel and radical
e.xigencies
as
they were.

The

ambassadors

Constantinoplewith

of

Austria, Poland, \^enice,and


when

great pomp
the negotiation of the treaty, for
Before sunrise,on the day of their entrance

after

other

high functionaries,with the sultan on


seraglio. The mufti, the two supreme
relatives of the prophet,and the ulemas

of the

the

Russia

were

received at

capital,.six months
ratification.
its formal signatureand
and
into the city,the emirs, ^"izirs,

they

visited that

horseback, assembled

at the gate
cliiefof
the
of
the
nation,
judges
to the
also united to do honour

OF

HISTORY

THE

406

THE

EMPIRE

TURKISH

[1711-1730 A.D.)

Azov,

restore

to

the fortresses of the

demolish

sea

of that name,
A

and

to

specialarticle

deliver
secured

all the artillery


to the Ottomans
they contained.
The
to his kingdom.
sultan, at the
permission for Charles XII to return
of Charles, declared the treaty null and void, exiled the vizir,and
instigation
of the peace, who
convictctl of having received
executed
the instigators
were
with
In 1712 peace, however, was
again renewed
the bribe of the czarina.
violated by the sultan,
Russia for twenty-fiveyears.
Tliis,in its turn, was
towers.
of the czar were
and the ambassadors
imprisoned in the seven
The sultan,annoyed at the intriguesof his troublesome
guest, sent King
ordered
him
of
leave
the
and
to
Charles a largeamoimt
country. This
money,
the
of
the
this
command,
strangest proceecUng
ailopted
receipt
monarch, upon
three hundretl
in history. With
known
ofhcers,and liis tlomesyweeles,some

tics,he sustained
Ottomans; when
with
was

he

himself

barricaded

Tatars and six thousand


twenty thousand
he
Ids brave
enveloped by the enemy,
countrymen

the attack
saw

in his

of

himself
in all,defended
of his assailants;he
hundred
Some
from his burning house.

house, with sixt}'persons

insane, desperatefury, and killed two


finalh' taken, on making a sortie to escape
an

of a letter from his sister pressingliis return


subsequently,on account
he
left
of honour, after a residence of two
under
escort
to Sweden,
an
Turkey
Peace
sia,
then definitely
within
its
limits.
signed with Ruswas
hospitable
years
the
The sultan,determined
at Adrianople, for twenty-fiveyears.
upon
his
of
the
the
inva,sion
of
that
to
sonMorea, intrusted
peninsula
reconcjuest
in-law, the grand vizir [AH Kunmrji], who in a few months wrested it,as well
in the Archipelago,from
the Venetians.
as all their possessions

months

THE

This

PEACE

strikingsign of
declaration

of

VI

into

the

imperialforces,met

OF

(171S A.D.)

PASSAROWITZ

Charles
revivingmartial spiritalarmed the emperor
head
of
Prince
the
at
war
againstTurkey.
Eugene,
the vizir at Peterwardein, and cut his army
to pieces.

the
He then advanced
the whole Banat fellinto his hands.
on
hastened
to the
Belgrade; but the grand \azir,with 150,000 men,
of the towTi.
After a battle of extraordinaryferocity
the Turks were
succour
and Belgrade surrendered.
An immen.se
obligedto retire,
booty fell into the
and

Temesvar

of

fortress

hands

of the

six hundred

other articles,131 bronze


imperials,including,among
cannon,
powder, tliirty-five
mortars, and fiftythousand
jectiles.
pro-

barrels of

which
The Porte,recognising
its weakness,accepted the offers of mediation
made
weeks subsequently,and concluded
to it some
at Passaa peace
rowitz,by which it ceded to the emperor
Belgrade,Temesvar, Wallachia to the

were

This
restored to (he sultan.
a portion of Servia; the Morea
was
the
Porte
and
estabhshed
relations
between
intimate
the
Subhnie
more
treaty
and
Christian states of Europe. A Turkish
ambassador
a
sent to Paris,
was

Aluta, and

Prussian

to Constantinople.
charge d'affaires

THE

The
war

in

In 1730

REBELLION

OF

THE

JANISSARIES

extinguished; for, taking advantage of civil


membered,
into that country, a portionof which he disinvasion.
and divided with the czar, his colleaguein this spoliating
the Persian conquests were
in a great part recoveretl by the valour of

passion for war


Persia,the sultan

was

not

marched

FOLLOWED

EEVIVAL

BY

DECLINE

RAPID

407

A.D.]
[1718-1731

replaced the legitimatesovereign on

who
[KoiiliI'Qian],

Efchar

Nadir

the

throne.
who obhged Sultan
These disasters provoked a rebellion of the janissaries,
The reign of this monarch
of
was
one
Ahmed III to descend from the throne.
the Morea, a part of Persia,
annals.
He added
the happiestin the Ottoman
to the empire, and
by the aid of his illustrious vizir,
and the fortress of Azov
\vith
useful institutions.
He
endowed
the
country
Ibrahim Pasha,
many
in
female
dress
and
the
immoderate
luxury
laws,
by sumptuary
repressed,
the art of

ornaments, introduced

ORIGIN

THE

The

1718

OF

Aluued's

abiUties of Sultan
from

printing,and established four Ubraries.c

CIRCASSIANS

THE

grand

vizir

Ibrahim, who

directed the ernment


govpeace in

degree of internal

unusual

1730, preserved an

to

of disorder and
often the scenes
the empire,though the frontier provinceswere
and still more
in
and
the
This
Arabia,
revolt.
case
was
Egypt
repeatedly
of
the
eastward
northward
and
in
the
districts
Euxine,
especially
frequently
The state of the countries
the fierce Nogai tribes of the Kuban.
among
unsettled by the
rendered stillmore
between the Black Sea and the Caspian was

difficult to define a bomidary


rival claims of Russia and the Porte ; for it was
of the partitiontreaty of 1723 ; and a
between the two empires in pursuance
in 1731, as to the
serious disputearose
successor,
earlyin the reignof Ahmed's
about half-way
Circassians
of
the
the
dominion
of
Kabarda,
a
region
over
right
of the river Terek.
the course
and the Caspian,near
between the Euxine
Russian
of
lauds
Kabarda
claimed
the
Russians
subjects. They
The
as
of
the
Cossacks
asserted that the Circassians were
Ukraine, who
originally
of
called
Russia
Terki, from
migrated thence to the neighbourhood of a city
Thence
of Tcherkesses,or Circassians.
ing
(accordwhich they took their name
removed
Circassians
drawn
the
czar's
the
ministers)
to the memorial
by
up

however, retainingtheir Christian creed


neighbourhood of Kuban, still,
of the story told that the
The
continuation
allegianceto the czar.
become
Tatars
to
of
forced
the
Circassians
the
Crim
Mohammedans, and
tyrarmy
that the
insisted
but
it
eastward
the
Kabarda
to
further
on
was
to migrate
;
of
their
still
be
to
Circassians were
originalearthly
regarded as genuine subjects
the czar's territory.
and that the land which
they occupied became
sovereign,
the Turks,
This strange political
ethnology had but httle influence upon
acknowledged
nine years previously,
had in a letter,written
the czar
as
especially
"
the Circassians.
the sovereigntyof the sultan over
of the
Patrona
master
The chief of the janissaryrebellion,
KJialil,was
he
the
the
had
whom
when
he
before
on
placed
appeared
prince
capital
;
of
for
since
which
is
reserved
him
I
know
lot
the
he
said
to
none
:
throne,
me,
I
death
but
to depose padishas has ever
those who
have dared
am
escaped
;
to

the

and their

"

none

the less content

delivered the
swear

much

by

empire

the

more,

manes

ask

what

to

thee

see

from
of my
thou

its

seated

on

oppressors."

ancestors

wilt,thou

never

of Osnian

the throne
The

sultan

to make

shalt have

it."

in
an

and

to have

surprisereplied:"I

attempt

Patrona

on

thy life;

contented

self
him-

vexatious
to the people.
with asking for the abolition of a tax which was
to
in the simple janissary;he wanted
But popularityhad awakened
ambition
dominate.
the populace to have a share in the presents distributed
He wished
at the sultan's

his wishes

accession,and

; he obtained

from

he stabbed the segban baslii for daring to oppose


the sultan the order to demolish the houses built

THE

408

HISTORY

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1723-1':^ A.D.]

by the pashas and beys on the banks of the Sweet Waters ; and finall)he gave
in debt.
he was
to whom
to a butcher
the prmcipalityof Moldavia
from
humihation
the
vizir
tried to save
by screening
The grand
empire
of the
"Go to find his highness,"one
the orders of the sultan:
hiniself behmd
of
above
all
Patrona
"but
thmk
obeying
chiefs of the rebels said to him,
The

Khalil."

tyranny

of this man,

who

supported by

was

the

populace,grew

Hodja, and the


Beshir, the kapudan pasha, Jamun
unbearable;
from
resolved
relieve
their
ruler
such a
to
khan of the Crimea, Kaplan Girai,
the
officers
of
The
tated
irriodious
janissaries,
superior
bondage.
despicableand
dared
the
who
of
the parvenu
to aspireto
mand
comat the audacity
supreme
of their select corps, entered into the conspiracy. Patrona having gone
the klslar aga,

Russia, the conspirators


to declare war
the serai to force Mahmud
upon
rid
of
hun.
for getting
seized that moment
Scarcelywas the padisha seated
hands
when
the grand vizir clapped his
together;at this signal,Klialil Pehleentered at the head of thirtycolonel of the seventh regiment of janissaries,
van,
"
wTetch
Who
is
the
devoted soldiers.
bold," he said,addre^
two
sufficiently
of
of
the
janissaries?" Patrona
ing Patrona, "to aspire to the office
aga
attack than to throw himself
other answer
to this imforeseen
Khalil made
no
But
he was
at once
with naked
poignard on the person who opposed him.
to

nmrdered

and

surrounded

his escort

shared

his

His

fate.

and
the revolt,deprived of its leader,was
easilyrepressed,
order.
re-establishment
of
securityfor the
corpses were
but

DISASTROUS

THE

^Tien
Shah

the

Tamasp

was

defeated

L\iristan; she ceded

Erivan, and
side of
The

to

thousanil

PERSIA

up

and sued
By
recovered Tabriz, Ardahan,
for peace.

seven

the
a

war

againstPersia. ^

treaty concluded

on

and all of
Hamadan,
Turkey Daghestan, Georgia, Kakhti, Nakhitchevan,

Persia

Tiflis;the

'mTH

the Porte took


pacified,

capitalwas

January 10th, 1723,

WAR

partisansarose,

Aras

became

the frontier of the two

empires

on

the

Azerbaijan.

not
of long duration.
Nadir, after haxing re-established
was
peace
the title of sultan
the throne, had received in recompense
Shah Tamasp upon
and of Khorasan.
and the government of Seistan,Azerbaijan, Mazanderan,
Kouii
himself
with the title Tahmas
In order to rouse
no
en\'y, he contented
He
elevation.
Khan
(khan slave of Tahmas) and worked in secret for his own
Ispahan, dethroned
protestedloudlyagainstthe treaty of peace, marched
upon

Shah Tamasp, and declared himself


regent of the realm during the minority
III. The first act of the regent
Abbas
of the deposed monarch's
son. Shah
defeated the
the treaty; he invaded
the Ottoman
to denounce
territory-,
was
the bridge of Adana.
and laid siege to Baghdad.
.Osmanlis near
Topal Osman
the city; a terrible battle
to reUeve
Pasha hastened with eighty thousand
men
Khan
Kouli
took place on the banks of the Tigrisat Djouldjeilik
; Tahmas
was
seriouslywounded, and was carried away by the rout of his troops (July

19th, 1733).
The
Persians,defeated

time at Leithan, did not wait long before


a second
criished and the serasker
the Turkish
was
taking a brilliant revenge:
army
a
was
publicmisfortune
perishedin the struggle. The death of Topal Osman
lost in him
not
for the empire. The Turks
only a virtuous and honourable
and
minister
an
enlightened and capable administrator, but also an able
generaland an energeticchief. Reverses then succeeded one another without
of Koprili
after the serasker KopriliAbdallah, the son
interruption;finally,

FOLLOWED

REVIVAL

RAPID

BY

DECLINE

409

[1782-1736A.D.]
which
plenipotentiaries

Shah

he sent

the

frontiers

Murad

Porte

broken

out
a

was

alone

took

had

to

Russia.

prey

marked

may

regarded

be

to

as

sue

for peace.
The
of Nadir

the Ottomans

their last

with

the treaty

accordance

quests;
concluded
con-

make

AUSTRIA

peace

with

Persia because

in its fate.

In

order

Prussia, m

1732, had concluded

prologueto

the dismemberment

to
a

had

just
a century,
anarchy
neighbours; France
paralyze its action,
war

Poland, which had been rent with


of its
for the ambition
in advance

friendlyinterest

Russia, Austria, and

from

AND

RUSSIA

WITH

hasten

with

present

were

to

the coronation

at

IV.

WAK

The

decided

divan

took away
re-established

were

with

in 1639

to Tiflis

which

signed a treaty

and

killed,the

and

defeated

Mustapha, was

for

compact, which

secret

of Poland.

At

the death

Leczinski (1733) ; immediately


of August the national party elected Stanislaus
Polish
invaded
armies
Austrian
and
Russian
territory.France declared war
her
ambassador
and
at
Constantinoplebegged the Porte to take up
Austria,
on
committed
the
to avenge
by Russia in interveningin the country
injury
arms
after the treaties of Falksen and Constantinoplehad placed its independence
remained
deaf to
ministers
The
Ottoman
under the guarantee of the sultan.
The klian of the Tatars, at the
the exhortations of the marquis of Villeneuve.
bade
mvade
the Ukraine ; the Porte forde
to
of
Baron
Toth,
prepared
instigation
him

to move

In the

mean

the

;
tune

gold of August II ran like water


had succmiibed,crushed

Stanislaus

Russians

the

superiornumbers;
againstAustria,again tried
in order

to

succeed

turned

were

masters

in the

serai.

weight of
Poland; France, engaged
and
Turkey to its real interests,

the eyes of
to open
famous
count
to the

under

the

of

Bonneval

of Bonneval.
affair of honour

born in 1675 ; he firstserved in the marine


; but an
to leave,and he entered the French
guards. In 1701
himself
distinguished

at

the battle

of Luzzara.

In

he

bought

1706

the

was

obligedhim
regiment and

count

left the

Eugene's best lieutenants.


enemy,
army,
ing
ReturnIn 1716 he covered him.self with gloryin the war
againstthe Turks.
the very day of the wedding.
to France, he married, and left his wife on
grade.
He then returned to Germany, and took a very largepart in the victoryof Belof
in
and
with
Prince
Before
Eugene,
consequence
long he quarrelled
he
of
his disagreementwith the marquis of Prie, governor
provoked
Belgium,
but escaped,and
into prison,
thrown
PruiCe Eugene to a duel (1724). He was
extradition.
in order to escape
he adopted the turban
fled to Turkey, where
become
He was
general of bombardiers, a pasha with two
a Mo,slem, a
now
An
counsellor
of the grand vizir.
the friend and
and he was
horses' tails,
had come
the
moment
to
he
house
of
of
the
thought
Austria,
implacableenemy
it had had under
character
alliance
the
Franco-Ottoman
the
to
same
give
of Versailles a propositionfor an
he presented to the court
Francis I, and
should engage
not to
which
the
alliance
two
defensive
offensive and
by
powers
in
but
act
concert.
to
make
peace separately
ing
time demandat the same
The timid Cardinal Fleury rejectedthe alliance^,
whom
('harles
in Hungary.
of the Turks
an
II, to
l"]mperor
a diversion
have
been
and Turkey would
France
alliance between
detrimental, hastened
Russia
it signed when
to sign the Treaty of Vienna
(1735). Scarcelywas
went

over

to

the

and

became

one

of

A violation of
with Nadir Shah.
still at war
the Porte, which was
.served as a pretext (March,
of Crimea
the Russian
frontiers by the Tatars
the Crimea.
Austria, England,
1736); the Russians immediately invaded

attacked

THE

410

HISTOEY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1730-1739 A.D,]

and

Holland

offered their mediation

still in control.
has no
emperor
time

to

In

vain

did

to

Bonneval
than to

other design
reorganisethe armies which

are

the

cUvan, where

warn

the

the peace

party

was

ininister,saying: "The

the people mitil


returningfrom Italyin

amuse

he
a

has

had

disordered

condition."
The

intriguesof the Fanariots in Russian pay disturbed his judgment,


of Austria was
the mediation
accepted. While interminable conferences
the
Turks'
attention
massed
the
was
on
kept
occupied, an Austrian army
frontiers and prepared to give aid to the Russians.
The marquis of Villeneuve
advised the Porte to buy peace at the price of ceding Azov, for it was
too
and

late
years

now

to make

war

the campaign should have


successfully;
opened three
when
Austria was
fightingthe armies of France,

before, at the time

Spain, and

Sardinia,and

when

Russia's

attention

was

still directed

to

Poland.

During this time the imperials,raisingthe mask, invaded Servia,Bosnia,


Wallachia.
the Austrian
Disagreements between
generals caused the
Beaten
defeat of their army.
at Banyaluka and
at Valievo, the Austiians
had to evacuate
Bosnia precipitately.The princeof Hildburghausen was
no
in
Servia
and
fortunate
the Danube
more
was
obliged to recross
(1737).
sued for peace ; England and
The emperor
Holland
ation.
again offered their mediof peace
The Porte refused, declaringthat it would
accept jDroposals
the grand vizir's
to
only through France.
Immediately Villeneuve went
and opened negotiations. The
talents of the negotiantswere
camp
fully
powerseconded
In spiteof a defeat near
successes.
Konieh,
by the Ottoman
retook
the Ottomans
Semendria, Mehadia, and Orsova; Willis was
put to
flightat Krotzka, after a desperate struggle lasting fifteen hours (July
had
known
how to
23rd, 1739), and if the grand vizir Al-Haji Muliammed
liis
it
would
have
been
of
the
end
the
whole
Austrian
profitby
victory
army.
Belgrade was invested three days later.
and

THE

TRE.\TY

OF

BELGR.\DE

(1739 A.D.)

had not been so favourable


in their struggle
to the Osmanlis
is
been
defeated
the
Russians.
had
the banks of
it
on
Miinnich,
against
true,
and the Muscovite
the Dniester
fleet burned by the kapudan jlasha,Suleiman ;
had soon
Miinnich
had
seized Chotin and
but the Russians
taken revenge.
Fortune

Jassy and had conqueied all of Moldavia.


Through the efforts of Villeneuve
a separate peace
was
finallysigned with Austria and Russia mider the guarantee
of France
(September, 1739). Austria gave back Belgrade and Shabatz
and munitions,also Servia,Austrian Wallachia, and the Lsland
minus
artillery
The
and fortress of Orsova.
The
to last twenty-seven years.
treaty was
convention
with
the czarina
stipulated the demolition of Azov, and the
Russian
vessels in the Black Sea or the sea of Azov.
Finally
Russia restored all her conquests.
The Treaty of Belgrade,concluded under the mediation
and guarantee of
"The
annihilated
the
of
shame.
Karlowitz
and
effaced
its
France,
Treaty
of
France
before
influence
Ottoman
affairs was
decisive either
on
never
so
in
memorable
or
after,and the mission of Villeneuve is assuredly the most
clotlKHl
the diplomatic relations between
France
and Turkey, ^'illeneuve,

prohibitionof

the title of ambassador


extraordinary,was
the guide of all the negotiations
carried on
the different European cabinets."

with
and

at

once

the soul, the council,


at the Porte with

at this time

REVIVAL

FOLLOWED

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

411

[1739-1740 D.]
A.

THE

of Villeneuve
at
the Porte
to conclude
with Sweden
were
; the two
powers

marquis

The

once

to induce

Russia

made

A.D.

use

of the influence he had

treaty of offensive

and

defensive

won,

alliance

to lend each other mutual


support against
of 1673
received
all the modification
manded
de(1740). The capitulations
and
the
of
1740
has
controlled
the
relations
of
treaty
by France,

the Ottoman

France with
Muhammed

Said,

to this day.
title of ambassador

Empire

with

the

Versailles to present the


honours.
with the liighest
war

1740

OF

TREATY

and

the count

extraordinary,went to
received
XV, where he was
Constantinoplewith two ships of

Louis

He
returned to
who
were
corps of French
gimners,
of Bonne val in remodellingthe Ottoman
small

THE

The

capitulationsto

RISE

OF

THE

to

serve

as

nucleus

WAHHABEES

I is made
latter part of the reignof Sultan Mahmud
not only
in
of
but
the
liistory
generalhistory Mohammedanism,

in Turkish
rise antl

increase
raj^id

of Islam

(of which

of the sect

to

artillery.''

of the Wahhabees

in Arabia.

rable
memo-

by

These

the

tans
Puri-

claimed
and
to be the predestined reformers
after their founder, Abdul-Wahhab, which
named
sole true disciples)
were
so
"
the servant
of the All-Disposer." Abdul-Wahhab
born in Arabia,
means
was
near

the end

they

of the seventeenth

century of the Christian

era, and

about

the

beginningof the twelfth century after the Hejira. His father was sheikh of
in the divinityschools
and yomig
Abdul-Wahhab
educated
bis village,
was
he made
in
Mohammedan
at Basra, where
rapid progress
learning,and at
convinced
the same
time grew
that the creed of the Prophet had been overlaid
and that he himself was
called on to become
by a foul heap of superstition,
its reformer.
He returned to Arabia,where, fearless of danger, and unbafHed
he proclaimed his stern denunciations
of the prevalent
by temporary failure,
He
and state.
tenets and
inveighed pai'ticularly
practicesof the mosque
the Mohannnedans,
againstthe woiship of saints which had grown up among
againsttheir pilgrimagesto supposed holy places,and againsttheir indulgence
in several pleasureswhich
the Koran
prohibited,especiallythat foul form of
wliich
had
nationaUsed
the Turks and other
become
almost
]jrof1igacy
among
chief peoplesof the East.
those to whom
He
with ridicule and persecutionfrom
he
at first met
and
his
doctrines were
at length
preached; but he gradualllymade converts,
Ben Su'ud, the sheikh of the powerful tribe of the
adopted by Muhammed
Abdul-Wahhab's
who
at the same
time married
daughter. The
Messalikhs,
became
and militarybody, Abdul-Wahhab
sect now
new
a formidable
political
mand
continuingto be its spiritualchief, but the active duties of militarycomBen
committed
who
enforced
the
faith
the
to
new
Su'ud,
by
being
and
had
done
the
the
been
sword, as
prophet
early caliphs.
previouslyby
Ben Su'ud, continued
Aziz,the son, and Su'ud, the grandson of Muhammed
of armed
the same
career
proselytismwith increased fervour, and the WahTlu; attempts of suchabite sect spread through every
cessive
region of Arabia.
sultans and pashas to quellthis heresy and rebellion were
vain, until
Ho
the task.
overthrew
the late pasha of Egypt, Mehemet
Ali,undertook
the temporal empire of the Wahhabees, and .sent their last emir in chains to
trines
docBut
he was
the Wahhabite
where
beheadeil in LSIS.
Constantinople,
Bedouin
tribes.
said stillto prevailamong
of
the
are
many

OF

HISTORY

THE

412

THE

EMPIRE

TURKISH

[1740-1757 A.D.]

RELATIONS

by Turkey towards

pacificpolicymaintained

The
of the

VI

Charles

emperor

in

A.D.)

(I740-I757

EUROPE

WITH

is the

1740

Austria

the death
upon
the Ottoman

honourable

more

to

the lawless rajjaeity


between
it and
wliich
of
dominions
Cluistian
the
of
the
neighbours
was
by nearly
The
of
Maria
Theresa.
the
elector
Austrian
Prussia,
king
sovereign,
young
dinia,
of Bavaria, the elector of Saxony, and the kings of France, Spain, and Sarand
Austrian
the
of
the
began
war
Empire,
ation
spoliagreed to dismember
of the Austrian
terminated
Succession) which was
(called the War
by
nation

by

of the contrast

reason

all the

shown

in
Aix-la-Chapelle,

the Peace

of

abstained

from

but

he

the

and

not

care

followed

which,

from

the Seven

contest;

system

Years'

but

three

brother

moderation

of

only scrupulously

old

of his

enemy
the h(jstihties wliich

he

to

terminate

house,

War.
I had

his

and

not

the

raged between
With
equal justiceand prudence the Turks
to become
entangled in the other great European contests
after no
Succession
that of the Austrian
long interval;
very
in history
the period of its duration (1756-1763) is known

Mahmud

Sultan

Mahmutl

Sultan

1748.

part againstAustria,

any

offered his mediation


of Christendom.
powers

took
which

as

taking

died (1754) before the outbreak of this last-mentioned


Osman
and succes.sor,
to the
III, adhered
same

and

thus

years'reign,from

which

non-interference

preserved

peace
to 1757.

1754

for
He

lished,
predecessorhad estabEmpire during his
succeeded
by Sultan Mustapha
of Mustapha has always been

the

his

Ottoman

was

III.
The name
III,the son of Sultan Ahmed
accompanied in Turkish history by calamity and defeat: and we now
proach
apthe time when, under
the third sultan of that inauspicious
designation,
the Porte
and
Russia
the strugglebetween
heavier
resmned, with even
was
she endured
when
she strove
disasters to Turkey than those which
against
Austria
and Prince Eugene in the reign of Sultan Mustapha II.
THE

The

first years,
The

prosperous.
the grand vizir

by

Ottoman

REIGN

OP

MUSTAPHA

however, of
administration
Sokolli and

sterlingintegrityand

(1757-1773

Mustapha III
of the

Raghib Pasha,

statesmen

III

the

minister

second

not

and

unpromising or undirected
empire was
the
to
perhaps equal
great
third Koprilis,
but a man
of
not

were

affairs

A.D.)

of

the

high diplomatic abilities. He turned the attention


restlessness of spirit)
to the construction
(who
a perilous
of public works
of utility and
The
most
splendour.
important of these
the
and
often abandoned, of
so
undertakings was
project,so often formed
the Black Sea
between
making a canal which should give a communication
and
the gulf of Nicomedia
(Ismid) in the sea of Marmora, without passing
through the Bosporus.
For
this purpose
it was
the eastern
proposed to dig a channel from
the
to
lake of Sabandja, and
to
extremity of the gulf of Nicomedia
from
flows
another
form
the lake of Sabandja to the river Sakaria, which
The
into thp Black
Sea.
commercial
advantages of such a canal would be
of the sultan

great; and
naval

of

showed

the

depot

of

Turks

would

complete

be

enabled

security,and

to

of

u.se

the

lake

of

Saljandja

for

as

fleets of the

ample capacity
rapidlyissue thence as emergencies required
the Propontis. This mode
either into the Euxine
of uniting the two seas
or
of the Ottoman
had been attempted before the coimnenceinent
Empire, twice

greatest magnitude,

which

could

HISTORY

THE

414

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[17(M-1768a.d.]

The

Porte

with

watched

anxiety and

the

alann

aggressivebut insidious

within
the
was
pursued towards every weak state that was
poHcy which
the
influence.
Frederick II no longer sought
alliance of
sphere of Russian
Turkey againsthis old enemies at Meinia and St. Petersburg,but concluded,
in 1764, a treaty with Catherilie,
by which the two partiespledged themselves
each other in possession
of their respective
and agreed
to maintain
territories,
attacked, the other should supply an auxiliaryforce
that, if either power were
foot and
But
it was
thousand
horse.
of ten
thousand
one
expressly provided
that if Russia
a.ssailed by the Turks, or Prussia by the French,
were
There
also a secret
article to this
should be sent in money.
was
which
Polish
has earned
directed
and
which
was
independence,
against
treaty,
Russia
and
Prussia
of
the Unholy
the name
for this confederacy between
aid

the

"

of 1764,

Alliance

afflicted and

that have
The

whence,

Ottoman

as

from

Pandora's

desolated

court

from

box,
that

Europe
protestedcontinuallybut

have

all the evils


sprung
until tlie present day."
vainly against the occupation

time

and Prussian
circumstance
troops, against the disgraceful
oppressionunder which the election of Catherine's
the Poles, and
forced upon
Poniatowski, as king, was
favourite, Stanislaus
which
the
Russian
the
saw.
exercise"l
at Wardictatorship
generalRepnin
against
of Poland

by

Russian

of fraud

The
show

the

Turkish

contempt

their Ottoman

and

remonstrances

with

which

neighbours,both

WAR

BETWEEN

eluded with
Russians must
now

were

the
in

diplomaticand

TURKEY

.\MD

excuses

have

warlike

so

shallow

learned

as

to

regard
capacities.
to

RUSSI.\

treated as dupes
Mustapha and his vizirs at last felt that they were
the indignationraised at Constantinopleagainst Russia
was
This was
violent.
augmented by the attacks made
by the Russian
troops
had taken refugewithin
the fugitivePoles of the independent party, who
on
and who, sallyingthence, carried on
the Turkish
a desultorywarfare
frontier,
their
Russians
which
the
retaliated
at
enemies,
against
opportunity,
every
the Polish bands
without
heeding whether the}^overtook
beyond or within
dominions.
At last the Russian
the Ottoman
followed
general Weissmann
of
the
Poles
confederated
of
the
into the town
confines of
Balta, on
a body
Bessarabia, which
belonged to the sultan's vassal, the Tatar khan of the
The
Russians
Crimea.
besieged the town, took it by storm, plundered,and
laid it in ashes.
Turkey had received proofs of Russian
hostilityin other
regions. There had been revolts in Montenegro and in Georgia, and there
had been troubles in the Crimea, all of which were
aggravated,if not created,
Ru.'isian
the
4th
of October, 1768, that
The
divan
resolved,
on
by
agency.
the two empires,and that a war
Russia had broken the peace between
against
be just and holy.
her would
of p]uropewas
favourable to the empress.
The generalfeeling
England in
she
her
Turkish
offered
mediation
the
to
though
particular,
was,
prevent
war,
of
at this period and for many
years afterwards, desirous of seeing the power
land,
Holand
of
Russia augmented,
unitingher with Prussia, Denmark, vSweden,
and
England herself,in a great northern alliance in oppositionto the
of France
anil Spain under
the house of Bourbon.
combination
This design
had been formed
(then Mr. Pitt) during the Seven Years'
by Lord Chatham
The
to be a favourite projectof English statesmen.
War, and it continued
French minister Choiseul naturallyregarded Russia with very difTerent feelings.
also discerned how necessary
But that great statesman
it was
to watch jealously
Sultan

and

fools,and

FOLLOWED

KEVIVAL

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

415

[1768-1769A. p.]

growth of the Muscovite power, not only for the sake of French interests
of Europe. Choiseul now,
at the
but for the sake of the generalcommonweal
Russia
and Turkey in 1763, laboured
between
outbreak of the war
anxiously
the true character of Russian power
the English ministryunderstand
to make
the

and ambition.
When
Sultan
justtheir cause, the Turks began the war too soon.
of
liis
declaration
hostilities
in
issued
Russia
the
of
autumn
against
Mustapha
had
the
his
He
should
his
have
over
judgment.
mastery
got
1768,
anger
before
endured the affronts offered to him a littlelonger,and not taken up arms
he
had
of
then
full
the
have
the
force
of
following year ;
might
the summer
good his threats. But it was impossibleto
his empire in readiness to make
However

bring his Asiatic troops togetherduring the winter, and the opening of the
thus delayed tillthe springof 1769
was
campaign on the Dniester and Danube
enabled the Russians
to make
ample preparationsfor assailing
a delay which
both in Europe and Asia.
Turkey on almost every part of her northern frontier,
fortresses in a proper
the Turkish
of repair,or sufficiently
state
Neither were
the
The
at
when
Ottoman
war
was
proclaimed
Constantinople.
stored,
ernment
govendeavoured
these
defects
the
to make
winter
good
during
; but the
springfound the Turkish equipments stillfar from a due state of efficiency.
who
One bold leader,on the sitle of the Moslems, and almost the only one
warlike
abilities
in
of
the
Crescent during the firstyears
support
displayed
any
the southern
of this disastrous war, made
a vigorousonslaught on
provinces
of the czarina's empire long before the other generalson either side thought it
the Tatar khan of the Crimea,
to bring troops into the field. This was
possible
Before
the end of January, 1769, the Tatar chief collected at the
Krim Girai.
the Russians
had destroyed in the preceding summer,
ruins of Balta, which
a
Krim
hundred thousand
cavalry. With this vast force of hardy marauders
towards the Doneck
Girai crossed the river Bug, and then sent one detachment
command
and another towards Orel, while the main body under his owti
swept
of
Russian
New
Servia.
the
province
over
Khan
Girai was
accompanied in this expedition by Baron de Tott, one of
officers and agents
the ablest (though not the least vaunting) of the numerous
and
the French
whom
minister,Choiseul, had sent into Turkey to encourage
De Tott has minutely described the predatory activity
a.ssistthe Ottomans.
he marched
and adroitness of the wild host which
with,and the stern discipline
under which they were
kept, amid all the seeming ficense of the campaign, by
Girai rode at his
the militarygenius of their chief. For fourteen days Krim
with
colours
drums
and
will through southern
while his
Russia,
beating
flying,
land
with
of
wild horsemen
the
devastation.
torrent
an
ever-widening
swept
"

his guest, the baron, fared like the rest of the Tatars.
Their
and
bruised
and
the
food was
between
saddle
the horses' backs,
meat, sodden
of fermented
mares'
a mess
milk, smoked
horse-hams, caviare,boutargue, and
The

khan

other Tatar

and

aliments

but wine

gold. The khan camped and


arranged in twenty columns.

of

Tokay

was

served

to

the guest in vessels of

which
of his army,
was
him
waved, togetherwith the Turkish
and Tatar standards, the colours of the Ynad
Cossacks,who had abandoned
the Russian Empire m the time of Peter the Great, under the guidance of the
Cossack Ignatius,and who had since been called Ygnad, or Ynad, which
means

"the mutineers."
Cossacks to revolt

marched
Before

By their influence

against the

in the middle

Krim

Girai

prevailedon

authorityof the commandant

the

Zaporogian

of the fortress of

khan, and
Elizabethgrad. A prince of the Lezghis also joined the Crimean
offered a reinforcement
of thirtythousand
to the sultan's armies, on
dition
conmen
that certain honours
should be paid him by the sultan and the grand

OF

HISTORY

THE

416

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1769 A.D.]

and that he should retain


\-izir,
could drive

Had

the Russians.

all the territories out

the peace
Ivrini Girai hved

at

few

of which

he

months,

years, or even
wild warriors

the
of these
longer,it is probable that liis ascendency over
skillin handlingirregular
troops would have changed
regionsand his marvellous
the severe
of the war.
De Tott admired
which
discipline
materiallythe course
he maintained, while he permitted and encouraged his followers to develop
their astonishingtalent both for acquiring
to the utmost
against the enemy
taken.
But
when
and
for
to the Tatar who
it
woe
preserving
booty
pillaged
offered any outrage againstthe khan's
without the khan's permission,or who
command
! Some
having insulted a crucifix,
Nogai Tatars in the army,
in
front
of the church
the
stick
each
himdred
blows
of
where they
received
a
who
had
committed
this offence ; and de Tott saw
others,
plundered a Polish
horses axid dragged along
villagewdthout orders,tied to the tails of their own
tillthey expired.
after his return
from
this expedition
Ivrim
Girai died within a month
beUeved
that he was
It was
poisoned by a Greek physician
against Russia.
he had been
named
Siropulo,an agent of the prince of Wallachia, againstwhom
de
The
Porte
the
cautioned
Tott.
khan's
appointed,
as
by
vainly
successor,
deficiencies in
Dewlet
Girai,a prince without spiritor capacity. These were
resembled
the grand \azir and the other leaders of the
which
he too closelj'
Meanwhile
the empress
Catherine and her generalshad been
sultan's forces.
with
their
characteristic
for
the
One Russian
war
preparing
energy.
army,
in
thoasand
collected
of
Podoha, under the command
sixty-five
strong, was
Prince Alexander
Mikhailo\'itch GaHtzin, who was
directed to besiegeand capture
Molda%aa.
then to occupy
The second, under
the city of Chotin, and
Peter Alexandrevitch
General Count
to protect the frontiers
Romanzov,
was
of Russia between
the Dnieper and the sea of Azov, and to reconstruct
the fortresses
and Taganrog, which had been razed in pursuance
of Azov
of the Treaty
of Belgrade. A third army
of from ten thousand
to eleven thousand
men
was
to occupy

fourth

Poland, and prevent the Poles


army,

and

the Kabarda
directed upon
the

gi\ingany assistance

from
Major-General Medem, advanced
the Kuban;
and
under
General
a
fifth,

in order
Tiflis,

to

and

attack Erzerum

themselves

to

the

sovereigntyof Russia.

ammunition, and officers were

to

Turkey.

Tsaritsin

Todleben,

into
was

Trebizond

Georgian princesof KarthU, Mingrelia,Guriel,and

arms,

Hke

from

under

At

in concert with
mitted
Imeritia,who had subthe same
time
money,

and
seijtto the ^lontenegrins,

those

war-

mountaineers
set in action
were
Wliile the grand %-izir was
slowly

againstthe Turkish forces in Bosnia.


moving -nith the sultan's main army from
Constantinopleto the Danube, GaUtzin passed the Dniester,and made
an
unsuccessful attempt upon Chotin, after which he retreated across
the Dniester.
of Frederick
II of Prussia,
Indeed, so far as Galitzin was concerned,the sarcasm
the
conduct
of
this
well deserved.
He called it a triumph of
on
war, was
the one-eyed over
the blind.
But among
the other Russian
commanders
and
generals of di\asion were
Romanzov, Weissmann, Bauer, Kamenski, and,
above all,Suvarov, in whom
Frederick himself woiild have fovmd formidable
antagonists.^
Emin
Pasha
took the offensive and was
The Russians
completely defeated.
tion
again invested Chotin,where Potocki, one of the leaders in the confederaof the Bar, had intrenched
himself with a few thousand
His enermen.
getic
the

resistance gave Emin


Pasha time to come
to his assistances^
The sultan,
who
took
real
interest
in
of
the
his
had
a
only one
success
armies,
justsent

to his vizir

an

order for

new

manoeuvre.

of disobedience;his
responsibility

poHcy

Emin

Pasha
failed,his army

dared
was

to

incur

defeated

the
and

FOLLOWED

EEVIVAL

BY

RAPID

DECLINE

417

A.D.]
[1769-1770

dispersed.Consequently,an

order,more

punctiliously
obeyed, soon

placed

the gate of the serai"


vizir showed
succeeded by Moldowandji. The new
liimself more
He was
fortunate.
active but not more
Crossing the Dniester by two bridges,he
of the RiLssians. A sudden risingof the river
attacked the intrenched camp
the
afraid of having their retreat cut off,rushed
the
shook
soldiers,
bridges;
other
the
bank
under the weight
immechatelyto regain
; the bridgesgave way
all
swallowed
and
were
Six
of tins disordered multitude
up in the stream.
thousand men, placed at the end of the bridge to guard the retreat,remained
his head

at

and were
destroyedby the fireof the Russians.
back
the
fell
Danube,
upon
army
GaUtzin
invaded
while
Chotin,
evacuating
Moldavia and Wallachia (1769). At the same
the Mediterranean
fleet entered
time a Russian
the Morea
to
and attempted to arouse

isolatedon

the

rightbank

The

Ottoman

revolt.
had warned
the
ambassador
The French
divan of the Russian
designs upon
Greece,
but his warnings had been received with the
most marked
incredulity.Depending on the
between
the Baltic
absence of communication
the
ministers
nately
obstiand
the
Sea
Archipelago,
the reports of the
refused to beheve

capture of Coron, of the risingin the Morea,


and

the

of

of

appearance

twelve

of

the

enemy'sships. The insurrection in the Morea


fleet joined
to nothing,and the Russian
came
nel
chanin the narrow
battle with the Ottomans
which separates the isleof Chios from the
lasted four hours ;
The combat
Asiatic coast.
admirals
blown
of
the two
then the ships
were
The Turks, frightenedat the explosion,
retired in the greatest disorder to the port
of Tchesme, although the loss of the Russians
up.

greater than theirs.


Admiral Elphinstone,takingadvantage of
this retreat, appeared before the port and
The sightof these two
sent in two fire-ships.
dled
littleshipsadvancing towards the port rekining
in the Turks the idea of conquest. Takwas

Costume

of

Turkish

Sailor

renegades,far from trying to


to put
for their safe arrival. They determined
sink them, they made
vows
in triumph
in irons,as they enjoyed the prospect of leading them
the crews
out
to Constantinople. However, the pretendeddeserters,having entered withwinds
whirland
vomited
forth
their
threw
out
soon
grappling-hooks
difliculty,
of flame which burned up the whole fleet. The port of Tchesme, filled
of a volcano,
with vessels,powder, and cannon,
presented the appearance
which engulfedall the Turkish marine (July7th, 1770).
for

them

The

Dardanelles

were

not

defended.

The

Russians

nople
could reach Constanti-

Elphinstonewished to force the straits at once, but


the commander-in-chief,refused and laid siegeto Lemnos.
Orlov,who was
danelles
During this time Baron de Tott was charged with the fortification of the Darand with preservingthe capital. In a few days he had improvised
hindrance.

without

H.

w.

"

VOL.

xxrv.

HISTOKY

THE

418

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1770-1774

complete system of defence ; batteries were


and tradingvessels were
transformed
cannon,
a

maimed

D.]

constructed
mounted
with
into fire-ships
; thirtythousand

the passage
was
impracticable.
only with disaster. However, the cabinet
of a Russian
fleet in the Mediterranean,had
the appearance
of Versailles,
on
Porte
the
maritime
to
a
co-operation
proposed
; it offered her fifteen vessels
and would
of the hne on condition that she would ask for tliis support directly
men

the works, and


also the Ottomans

A.

and

land

On

provide for the support


of Spain in return

soon

jnet

of the

ships.

In

adchtion

a treaty of commerce
in
his
wish
alone
to have
sultan was
recourse
the
ministers
desired peace
sold to England;

it

for

promised her

with
to

that

France.

the

ance
assistBut the

power.
All the divan

was

price;they asked the


of Austria.
The
French
of Saint-Priest,
mediation
ambassador, the count
had
the sultan's confidence,neglectednothing
de Tott, who
aided by Baron
in the attempt to open the eyes of the ministers and to remedy the \dces of the
Ottoman
organisation.
The

Death

at

any

of Mustapha

campaign of

1771 opened more


Hassan
favourably for the Osmanlis.
of
conceived
of
crocodile
of
the
had
the
battles,"
sea
project lifting
Bey,
with four thousand
volunteers in boats,and without any
the siegeof Lemnos
of its daring; the besieged
artillery.The enterprisesucceeded by the very excess
had
selves;
elementary precautionsfor protectingthemneglected the most
being attacked unexpectedly,they thought only of fleeingupon their
The

"the

the hero of this exploit. The


Kapudah Pasha rewarded
and in
equally unsuccessful in their attempts on Trebizond
domination
Georgia,but in the Crimea the Ottoman
was
destroyed. In three
weeks
the prince Dolgoruki conquered the whole
peninsula,proclaimed its
imder
and
Musco\'ite
installed Sherim
independence
sovereignty,
Bey as

ships. The
Russians

title

were

khan.
had concluded
Austria,while decei^^ngthe Porte with feignednegotiations,
and
of Poland.
a secret
Russia,assuringthe dismemberment
treaty with Prussia
with Prussia,she caused an armistice to be concluded
at
Acting in concert
Russia's extreme
Giurgevo, and a congress openedat Focsani in Moldavia.
broke
off negotiations
demands
and the war
recommenced.
The sultan Mustapha, who desired peace only on honourable
conditions,pushed hostiUties
concentrated
the
vigorously,and the chief effort of the strugglewas
upon
The
Danube.
before
defeated
Russians, beaten at Rustchuk, were
again
Sihstria; they took a base revenge for their defeat at Bazardjik,an open city,
old men,
and children,whom
by massacring women,
they dashed againstthe
walls.
The kapudan pasha, no longerhaving a fleet to command,
at the head
of a corps of spahischased the Russians beyond the Danube
and took their artillery
and
In

ammimition

S"Tia and

in

(1773).

the Ottomans
had the advantage. Ali Bey,
the walls of Cairo by Abu Shel,had taken refugewith the pasha
of Acre, Tahir, to whom
the Russian
fleet furnished armies
and ammunition.
Pasha
Osman
defeated by the rebels,who
took possessionof Jaffa,and
was
Ali Bey returned to Cairo ; but,betrayed by his adopted son, Muhammed
Bey,
of Abu Shel,who sent his head to Constantinoplein token
he fellinto the power
defeated

of

Egypt hkewse

under

fidehty.

Death
justas he

surprisedthe

sultan

in the midst of these unexpected triumphs


was
startingto joinhis army on the Danube
(September 21st,1774).
his constancy, his enhghtened spiritof reform, his desire to
By his activity,
instruct,and his zeal to supplement the incapacityor the laziness of his min-

FOLLOWED

KEVIVAL

RAPID

BY

DECLINE

419

[1774A. D.]

the regrets of his people. That he could not


be attributed
his predecessorsmust
to circumstances,
One
fact alone
testifies
corruptionof his entourage.

isters,Mustapha III deserved


faults

repairthe
to

of

the venality and

of
enterprisingspirit he had resolved to cut through the isthmus
de Tott
that important
to prepare
had charged Baron
a treatise on
subject. Lastly,the honour and glory of Mustapha is to have imderstood the
necessityof reforms, to have inaugurated them, and to have pointed out the
to

his

"

Suez, and

road of salvation

OF

TREATY

THE

He

to

followed

was

II and

Selim

THE

HASTENS

KUTCHUK-KAINARDJI

by

II. ^^

Mahmud

to

Abdul-Hamid

his brother

FALL

OF

TURKEY

(1774-1789), who
of his life he had

at this

was

passed in
forty-eightyears of age; forty-threeyears
had
in war,
that
he
be
It
no
experience
supposed
naturally
great
may
prison.
and although he did not rejectthe proposalsof peace offered by the Russians,
the ulema violently
opposed them, as the deUvery of Turkish fortresses to the
ever,
Howin
contradiction
to the fundamental
principlesof Islam.
was
enemy
time

suffered several defeats,and the army


was
of
the
ulema
the
were
Shumla,
objections
by
even
and the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji was
signedwith the Russians
neglected,
the 17th of July, 1774.
By tliis treaty the Porte gave up to Russia the
on
of the Dnieper),Kertch and Yenikale
(on
fortresses of Ivinburn (on the mouths

troops had

after the Turkish

the Russians

surrounded

at

peninsulaof the Crimea), yieldedits sway over the Tatars in the Crimeaj
(now the country of the Tchernomori
IJudjak(or Bessarabia), and Kuban
Russians
to
the
ceded
navigate all the Turkish seas, and conCossacks),permitted
aU the Turkish subjectswho belonged
the protectorate over
to the czar
the

confession.

to the Greek

Although
germ

these concessions

of future

appear

may

advantages;

immense

the Russians

guaranteed to
especially
cultivated country, which
The whole treaty was

the

influence

an

allowed

the

be party

to

treaty
to

it

Such

in substance

of the Mohammedan
troubles

was

diplomatistsof

without

well-

its subjection.*
concluded
without
the insertion of a
of Poland
the treatment
by Russia had

up

was

as

concluded

the

Empire

saw

of

end for all the other

was

considered

without
the

that this

and
affairs,

in Polish

any

Russian

triumphs

which

third

power

being
and

her

achieved

for

empress
were

implied

cumstance
also the cir-

Kutchuk-Kainardji ; in which one of


tion
only the preparationof the destrucof evil and
the East,but also the source
historian
The German
states of Europe.

Treaty

the age

It

between

mediator

not
were
enemy,
Catherine in the close of this contest.

the ablest

this beautiful and

and

the least of the

defeated

over

length entailed

at

drawn

relatingto Poland, although


syllable
of the war.
been one of the primary causes
in
of
all
right Turkey to interfere
negation
that

unimportant, they contained the


more
independence of the Crimea

of

not

considers that treaty to have delivered up the Ottoman


of Osman
of the
the commencement
of
the
Russia, and to have marked
Empire
mercy
dissolution of that empire, at least in Europe.
of western
The literary
men
Europe and the ulemas of Turkey alike regarded
the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji as consummating the glory of Russia and
of the house
to

of Paris wrote
of Osman.
the degradationof the house
The Encyclopaedists
felicitations to the empress
Catherine, and to her generahssimo Count Romanechoed by all pretendersto enlightenedopinionsin other parts
zov, which were
of Europe which
recognisedthe centralisation of hterary authorityamid the

circles of the French

metropolis.

HISTORY

THE

4..'0

OF

TURKISH

THE

EMPIRE
[1774-1777 A.D.J

followers of Islam

Constantinopledevout

In

looked

wistfullyto

,\sia

as

the great infidels,


as
they
Rassians, and sorrowfully
recalled the old trailition that the City abountUng in faith Ls destined to
But still many
the Ottomans
be taken by the Sons of Yellowness.
among
were
superiorto the torpor of despairingfatalism. They miderstood better
both their duty to their empire and the precepts of their prophet,who
bade
termed

their refuge from

the

in warfare,but to view them as \tshis followers not to lose heart at reverses


true
itations of Allah,designed to prove
believers,and who gave them the
in
"Fortitude
maxims:
adversity and self-control in prosperity";
great

not, neither

"Despond

exult;

persevere

shall

so

turned

patiently"; "He

ye
to

you

lovetli those who


prevail"; "God
before
them
that he might
flight

trial of you"; "God


make
giveth fife and causeth to die; and God seeth that
be patientand strive to excel in patience,
which ye do"; "0, true believers,
and fear God, that ye may
be happy."
and be constant-minded

P.\SHA

these

IL\SS.\N

better

the kapudan pasha Hassan


of
was
spirits
for
his gloriousconflicts against
commonly
Hassan,
Algiers,now
Sultan Abdul
Harnid
the Giaours.
placed almost unlimited authorityin his
strove
naval forces of
to reorganisethe militaryand
hands; and Hassan
of the struggleagainstRussia,
Turkey, and to prepare her for the recurrence
which all knew
endeavoured
the troops;
to be ine\-itable. He
to (Uscipline
but findingthat all attempts to introduce improved weapons
and drill or to
and spahiswere
subordination
the janissaries
he gave
restore
fruitless,
among
which
these
but
order
of
effect
schemes,
proposed a new
more
battle,by
up
be
the
Turkish
"He
would
have
to
to
onset.
was
tU\aded," says Eton,
given
Foremost

among

styledGazi

"

an

of

army

and
separately,

attack

and

overwhelm

not

that

hundred

one

though

thousand

so

into ten different corps, which


arranged that the retreat of the repulsedcorps
men

put in disorder those which

of
the artillery
could witlistand

European

army

not

attacked.

would

make

He

to

should

affirmed

great slaughter,

furious but short


are
do
of
and
the
attack
thousand
is
not
ten
succeed,
as
they
dangerous as of
hundred
in
thousand
the
the
first
whom
rest on
one
one
body, for,
repulsed,
fall
back
take
to
they
immediately
flight."

yet

army

no

ten

Turkish

had

were

attacks,wliich

if

This

of

found practicable;
and probably
attackingin detail was never
in
his
from
kapudan pasha, proposing it,was judgingmore
experience
of squadrons of shipsthan from
of the capacities
any sound knowledge of the
The navy
a force which
was
possibleevolutions of troops in face of an enemy.

system

the

understood

Hassan

far

better,and

his

efforts to miprove

the Turkish

marine

showed
the
of his practical
measures
spiritedand judicious,
though some
Hassan
true ruthless severityof the old Algerine sea-rover.
possessedlittle
science himself,but he respectedit in others; and his great natural abilities
and
and strong common
sense
taught him how to make use of European skill,
of the most
which
the various seafaringpopulationsof
ser\'iceable qualities
were

the sultan's
The
nav'y

dominions

repairsand

extended

to

supply of

were

known

improvements

the construction

to

possess.

which

he

sought

to

effect in the Turkish

of the vessels,the education

of the oflScers,

Hassan
entirely
Englishshipbuilder,
altered the cumbrous
riggingof the Turkish ships,and equipped them after
the English system.
He lowered their high and unwieldy sterns, and he gave
He
them
collected all the good sailors that he could
regulartiers of guns.
from
and
the
other
Algiers
Barbaresque states, and also from seaports
engage
and

the

seamen.

Aided

by

an

HISTOEY

THE

422

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1787-1791 A.D.]

In

the sultan deemed

1787

declared

an

army

in the

Black

Hamid

died in 1789.

Sea

Bosporus.
This triumph

was

Under
due not

was

Ruins

the Ottomans

remained

to him

enforced

and

only to

the address

of the Muscovite

Khadifa

efforts

of

their

by

prowess
Selim

in

of Mohammed
the

numerous

to

the customs
and grave

their

of

the

Abdul-Hamid

II,

while

general
and

the

movement.

assistance

and

maxims

of their ancestors

disasters under the last sultans,


the Christian
had obtained over

superioritywhich they
fanaticism,brilliant courage,
religious

and

surpassingskilland

arms.

III succeeded

immediately raised a new army for


pying
were
alreadyon the point of occuthe Turks
arrived before that place; the two imperial
Russian, effecting
a junction, after a protractedconflict
forces.
In 1791
a
agreed upon
general peace was

the throne, and


the resumption of hostilities. The Austrians

Belgrade,when
armies, Austrian
defeated

Catherine

in the art of war,

to

way

Turkey

the midst

of Sultan

opening her

of
intrigues

nation

Castle,

loss of that

the

and

in

the French
officers called to Constantinople,
the Mussulman
and tactics. The
to European discipline
adapt themselves
the janissaries
to these innovations
was
so
strong that they
abandonment
To this blind adherence
by an anned rebellion.

be attributed

nations

campaign
reignRussia succeeded

his

of

The Ottoman
expedition
closed in 1788.
Abdul-

not

of the followers
must

He
the

by

soldiers could
repugnance

forces.

The

in
stationary'

notwithstanding the

afTorded

sufficiently
strong to take the field.
of eighty thousand
to
an
men
army

of the Turkish

unsuccessful.

but also to the great progress

For,

III

the Black Sea.


Austria
allied herself with Russia,
Moldavia, which, after having victoriouslytraversed

to

Transylvania,repulseda part

the

sent

SELIM

WAR]

fleet entered

The

sent

himself

againstRussia, and

war

Danube.
and

DECL.VRES

PORTE

THE

the

and

Ottoman

to

REVIVAL

BY

FOLLOWED

A.D.]
[1786-1791
rather from the force of circumstances

of the Turks

than

from

DECLINE

any

433

disposition
on

the part

"
yield.

to

Although
in other

RAPID

had

Selim

been

confined

respectswell treated.
him

in the

seraglioby his uncle,he had been

love of information

His

and

his natural

talents

active

correspondencewith several servants


Their infonnation
of his father and
fied
had, however, in no way satisa correspondencewith
Choiseul,the French
him, and he had commenced
at Constantinoplein 1786, and had also sent his intimate friend Isaac
envoy
and administrative
to
France, to inquireinto the state measures
tion
organisaBey
of that country. Selim had also entered into correspondencewith Louis
had

induced

carry
his uncle.

on

an

this lasted till 1789, when

XVI, and

with

All

to

Selim's

this throws

ascension
clear

the French

revolution

broke

light upon

Selim's

eventual

exertions

reforms,which at last cost him both his throne and his life. His
that he was
deficient in natural
not
knowledge leads us to presume
old Turkish

talent. The
could not

statesmen,

to

whom

taneously
simul-

to

cause

thirst for
and

sound

his

positiondirected him to apply,


simple fact that they knew nothing
his pursuitof knowledge and desire

his curiosity,
from
the
.satisfy
but
it
mistake
was
a
that,in
;
of
the
institutions
itants,
Turkey and the habits and character of its inhabunprove
and to Frenchmen.
Selim should have appliedto France
That country

themselves
to

out

of the throne.

of her great revolution.


Theories of all kinds were
afloat.
The
passing away, and neither Louis
system of her govermnent was
his friends and ministers
XVI
to
nor
possessed the talent or energy requisite
of the advocates
control the enthusiasm
of the new
^who,instead of
system
thought only of destroying.
repairing,
Louis was
incapable of guiding the storm which was
rapidlyenveloping
he was
to improve his own
him.
Unable
institutions,
utterlyunfit to assist
was

then

on

the

eve

ancient

"

Selim in improving those of Turkey.


Selim would certainly
have acted more

wiselyhad he sought help from his


sensible
he
would
have
mind;
own
easilyperceived the palpable fact that
which
for
suited
nations were
Christian
were
utterly inapplicableto the
things
until
uncivilised
Turks, at any rate
rude,
they laid aside their hatred for everything
new

or

to ameliorate

that
the

pertainedto Christianity.Had
condition

of

he in the firstinstance tried

the schools, to introduce

impartialityin the
the troops, and to
discipline
among
of civilisation,
the latter would
keep continuallybefore the nation the blessings
have graduallyfelt the necessityof comprehensive reform,and all the peculiarities
attachingto the Turks would have been eventuallymodified.
Unfortunately,he set about the task with very different ideas,and listened
The
first thing to
surrounded
him.
to the suggestionsof the sciolists who
the
formation
of
council
of
which they drew his attention
was
a
state, which
of
the
vizir
but
that
of
the
sultan very
restricted
the power
not only
grand
the soul of the council and the
Rashid, was
materially. The rets effendi,
of
boldest of these sciolists,
and he had perfectlibertyto carry on the work
duced
reform.
He set again in activitythe printing-presses
which had been introin a precedingreign,sent for French
who founded
officers,
an
engineer
academy, built arsenals and foundries,and openly stated that he took science
under his protection.
But
his chief care
to form an
after the European fashion, in
was
army
order by their assistance
in whom
to gain the mastery over
the janissaries,
took
old customs
and
their most
traditions found
zealous guardians. He
called
several steps, therefore,
call
life
to
into
the new
military organisation,
the nizami
djedid;and as money
was
requiredfor the purpose, he laid a tax
system of administration

and

to restore

HISTORY

THE

424

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1T91-1S0SA.D.]

on

articles of

discontent

consumption.
burst

to

This

uito

flaine.

was

quite

The

ulema

sufficient
declared

to

the

cause

themselves

popular

hostile

to

Oglu, pasha of Widdin, who placed himself


djedid,and Pashwan
of the janissaries,
could
at the head
openly rebelled against the Porte, which
effect anything to check
demanded.
not
him, but acquiesced in all that was
from
The extraordinary conquests of Napoleon diverted
attention
Turkey,
the dominions
of seeking to divide
of a weak
and
instead
neighbour, the
of the continent
were
trembling for their own
safety. Egypt
great powers
the battle-field between
became
England and France, and its inviision by
with
the allied powers
to unite
against France.
Napoleon obliged the Turks
from
that
AVhen
the French
restored
to
expelled
Eg"'pt,
were
province was
between
the
concluded
two
and
mider
the
Selim,
Turkey,
peace
powers.
the

nizami

influence

of

General
seized

Sebastian!,
what

who

then

was

considered

French

ambassador

at

stantinople
Con-

him

favourable
a
by
opportimity
with Russia, in which, however, the Turks
defeated
for renewing the war
were
These
misfortunes
the janissariesattributed
to the
both
by land and sea.
and their hostilityto them
increa.sed.
new
troops or sejjmens,
of May, 1807, the chiefs of the janissariesand
At
the end
the ulema
had
their plans for the overthrow
Selim
of the sultan, when
erated
accelalready formed
the outbreak
by going to the mosque
on
Fritlay,accompanied by a
and
French
of
the
The
body
ambassador, Sebastiani.
janissaries,
seymen^s
in
aroused
broke
which
out
of
such
revolt,
soon
a menacing
by this,
open
grew
nature
by the co-operation of the mufti that Selim was
compelled to promise
the

of

abolition

the

was

nizam,

and

the

heads

of those

of

his advisers

who

had

But
the insurgents were
satisfied with
not
promoted the measure.
this;
of the sultan, and
marched
the abdication
to the seraglioto
they demanded
their designs into effect.
and
the ulema
But when
the mufti
entered
carry
had
it they found
sultan.
Selun
retired to the harem, where
his
a
new
he
and
led
hun
the
had
then
to
throne;
confined,
was
Mastapha,
nephew,
life by a cup
of poisoned sherbet, but had
attempted to destroy his own
been prevented by Mustapha.
the same
afternoon
On
Sultan
Mustapha IV (who reigned from May 31st,
1807, to July 28th, 1808) rode in solemn
procession for the first time to the

great mosque,
Mohammed,

invested

immediately

in
did

the

traditional

away

with

manner

the nizami

with

the

djedid,and

sabre

of

restored

there were
several
But
the pashas in the provmces
among
The
mfluential
of these was
most
partisans of reform.
Mustapha
in July, 1808, at the head
of
set
out
Bairaktar, pasha of Rustchuk, who
in
thousand
succeeded
Selim
He
the
throne.
to
restore
to
eighteen
men,
of
and
the
in
the
sultan
taking possession
so
capital,
keeping
long
ignorance
of his designs,until he sent
him
orders to resign the throne in favour of Selim.
As the sultan
had only one
him
for consideration, he was
hour allowed
so
helplessthat he followed the advice of the mufti and had Selim cruelly murdered.
As
the gates of the seragliowere
not
opened at the appointed time,
and Bairaktar
hurried
to
enforce
his
Selim's lifeless body waa
authority,
up
the wall.
thrown
over
Upon this the pasha ordered the seraglioto be stormed,
seized the sultan, destroyed all those who
the abolition
of the
had
advised
in
brother
plans of reform, and placed Mustapha's yomiger
[to be known
future as Mahmud
the
throne.'
II] on
the

old

was

then

devoted

customs.

TURKEY

IN

written

THE

NINETEENTH

fob

specially

By

Professor

in

a.
the

the

CENTURY

present

work

VAMBMY
University

of

Budapest

of a residence of several years in the house of Aifaat Pasha,


In the course
I happened in 1858
for foreignaffairs,
to make
formerly Turkish minister
had
the acquaintance of a Turk of high rank who
long been m the household
of the Ottoman
reformer
of the sultan Mahniud
Empire.
II, the famous
of this effendi,who
had been intimatelyactiuainted
From
the conversation
of that troubled
with the court
occurrences
period,
intriguesand the political
the
I gathered many
mind, character, and aims
interestingdetails concerning
the individuality
of the Turkish
of Mahmud
II.
It is from such side-lights
on
reformer
that the early history of the innovations
uiaugurated at the beginof the nineteenth
century can best be judged.
nmg
The sultan Mahmud
II, who succeeded to the throne of his ancestors in the
with
of the brilliant
endowed
of
his
twenty-thirdyear
by nature
many
age, was
life
into
the
of
fresh
for
task
the
difficult
infusing
qualitiesrequisite
in
Ottoman
convulsed
time
which
at
that
body politic,
quarter
was
every
had
and diseased in every
His spiritand pei'sonal
joint and limb.
courage
assumed
the
proved equal to every occasion, and long before he
supreme
he had arrived at the conviction that the annihilation of the janissaries,
power
the unruly Praetorians
of Turkey, was
restoring
a
step towards
necessary
order and
field of
the
"Not
unless
basis.
sound
a
placing the empire on
the future is watered
with
to say,
of these rebels,"he was
the blood
wont
and not until then, can
be planted with
the shoot of reform
good hope of
In the
increase."
is known
How
he kept his word
to all men.
prosperous
of
the
of
of
15th
the
rebellious
fire
the
massacre
janissaries
June, 1826,
the nizdmi
was
lar
quenched in blood ; and from that time forward
djedid (reguarmy), which took their place,gave practicalsupport to the innovations
"

425

TURKEY

426

IN

THE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY
[1836-1829 A.D.]

introduced

by
extraordinaryrevolution
Turkey.

about

Mahmud

II, however

and

unpopular they might be,


less than in
no
political

in the

an

life of

But

brave

place,the

and

resolute

culture

necessary

as

brought
the social

he was, the sultan reformer lacked,in the first


His knowledge
for the work
of reconstruction.

of the

civilisation of the West, which


the extreme; it extended
to externals

served

as

only, and

his model, was


deficient in
far less thorough than
was

that of Peter the Great, who was


hampered by similar difficultiesat the outset,
who
had previouslyacquired a profound insightinto the essential character
could
advance
with
of modern
and
therefore
ance
civilisation,
greater assur-

but

towards

the

Secondly, the
service to

the

abroad,i.e. in
his
to relyon
that

at

were

goal he
sultan

had

set

was

aitled

before

by

himself.
of the

none

forces which

proved

of

capable assistants
great Romanov
; for whilst the latter found
II was
obliged
Germans, P'renchmen, and Englishmen, Mahmud
subjects,and

Mohammedan

own

time

West.

institutions

of the

with

ill-will and

They applied

Moslems

they, as

for the

enthusiasm

incapable of

themselves

moved

pur

civilisation and

sang,

political

of reform
to the work
blind obedience
to the

secret
only by
repugnance,
caliphand padisha.
elements
which go to make
man
Thirdly,the motley ethnological
up the OttoI had
almost
said insuperable obstacles to
Empire offered enormous
The
Mohammedans
of that day, brought up
of reforms.
the introduction
in the rigidlyexclusive
spiritof Islam, regarding every innovation with
abhorrence, and believingthat in the Koran
they had the quintessenceof
infallible rule for
of all earthly wisdom, and
all knowledge, the source
an
human
could
and
not
action,
thought
bring themselves, by any stretch of
of abomination
self-control or self-denial,
to take the Giaours, the offscouring
in the
in their eyes, for their teachers,and seek for intellectual nourishment
of
Porte
Nor
did the Christian subjects the
books of the unbelievers.
display
in the cause
of reform.
enthusiasm
Independence of the yoke
any particular
and
is their ideal; any
of Turkish
gift from the hands of
sovereigntywas
in their eyes; and
tabooed
the oppressor,
how
matter
was
no
good in itself,
"

"

there

were

instances

in

which

to the antithemselves
withstood
the instrument
interests,

attached

Christians

party and, grosslymistaking their

reform

own

of their deliverance.

Fourthly, the

unbroken

succession

serious

the most
hindrances
and paralysed his vigour and

of

disorders and wars


placed
political
after reform
II's aspirations
spiteof the persistencewith which

of ilalimud

in the way
energy',

in

struggleafresh. Not Russia alone, which took up


attitude of open
and
an
hostility
regarded the destruction of the Ottoman
amicably
Empire as the great objectof her existence,but the other and more
olent
and malevdisposednations of Europe too often acted the part of a suspicious
and
istered
adminbe
towards
the
sick
who
to
healed,
physician
man
sought
hfe

perpetuallytook

medicines
I shall

proceed

the

up

which
to

tended

to

aggravate

rather

than

remove

the evil,as

show.

II,
of Christendom,
receivingno tokens of peculiargood-willfrom the powers
and weakened
in every
quarter of his empire by the ascendency of the West,
in the task of Europeanisinghis dominions,
nevertheless perseveringly
persisted
Under

and

even

these circumstances

went

so

far

as

to

we

may

attack

well ask

certain

why

oriental

the sultan

institutions

Mahmud

in

manner

empire. The
the
to this question was
answer
authoritypreviouslyreferred to.
suppliedby
of
the
sultan
to
him,
was
profoundly convinced of the superiority
Accordmg

to
prejudicial

the essential

character

of the hierarchical

Asiatic

TURKEY

IN

THE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY

427

A.D.]
[182S"-1S39

European

civilisation.

modern

for the

be the best guarantee


in a regulararmy
he saw

fonii

future

the

best

of government

appeared to him to
Empire, and, above all,
consolidatinghis power and

of the Ottoman

expedient for

projectedreforms

for the modernisation


of the state.
Like
which
almost
all Asiatic
Peter tfieGreat, he began with the army
a course
potentateshave likewise adopted. Had the reform of other departments of

carryingout

his

"

social and
as

life proceeded,or been


political
has
of the army,
as
done in Siam, his first

been

the reform

able

done

in

proceed, at the same


Japan, for example, and
to

pace
is
as

experiments would have been attended with


was
actuallythe case.
East
in
the
But
everythmg is calculated with a view to appearances.
the
the possessionof a militaryestabsultan aimed
lishment
at was
The first thing
for
in the hope that Turkey might
defensive purposes,
adequate
the lists on
then be able to enter
equal terms with any opponent; and he
also hoped, by the open displayof his good intentions,to satisfythe insistence
which
of the western
were
perpetuallyurging him along the path of
powers
and
modern
civilisation,
thus, it might be, deprive them of an ever-ready
ormation
Only, as it happened, his attempts at the refpretext for hostile action.
and
Turkish
of the Turkish
ill-conceived
government
societywere
being
far greater success
now

than

and ill-directed from

the
with

outset, and

very

them

the

so

into

came

the world

as

an

tion
abor-

of that

brought
disintegration,
anarchy, and
germs
decay which run, like a black thread of misfortune,
political
through the whole historyof this mihappy country in the nineteenth century.
After the loss of her old defensive force,Turkey
sorelytried by the miseries
found
the strength of her newly created
incident to a period of transition
of 1829 or prevent the
attack
regulararmy insufficient to repel the Russian
of Greek
sufficed
establishment
independence. The sultan Mahmud's
power
the refractoryderebeys of the provinces,but the proud Osmanid
to subdue
AU
forced to acquiescein the independent position taken by Muhammed
was
he
animated
in Egypt ; and when he died, in July, 1830, this sovereign,
as
was
by genuine zeal for his comitry'swelfare,left the empire enfeebled and in no
less disorder and perilthan he had found it on his accession.
of his son, Abdul-Mejid, his throne passed to a successor
In the person
"

nay,

economic

and

"

"

whose

feeble constitution

and
spirit

energy,

and

one

and

mild

who

was

temper formed
of all

difficulties
against the ever-increasing

men

the

strong contrast

to his own

least fitted to make

of the situation and

continue

head

the work

begun. The diffident and timorous


dispositionof Abdulhad
in
he
desire
both to reign and
one
no
advantage
Mejid was
only
way
his
father
had
but
left
the
of
rule,as
done,
public affairs to his
management
himself
the
throne.
He
content
ministers,
merely to occupy
preferredthe
the
of his personal gratifications;
and in
jnirsuit
magnificentpalace of Dolma
the worthy man
Baghtclie,which he had built at enormous
spent his
expense,
days as m a dream, watching the delightful
play of the waters of the Bosporus,
while his empire was
strugglingdesperatelyfor bare existence,waking to new
life;is it seemed, but in reality
tending step by step towards dissolution.
The present ruler of Turkey, the sultan Abdul-Hamid,
in
said to me
once
The
less
And
than
father."
stars
to
to
conversation,
are
propitious me
my
he was
The
notable
most
right,for the lot of Abdul-Mejid was a happy one.
feature of his reign was
the rise of some
who
had
capable Turkish statesmen,
under
shelter
of
the
then
the
western
civilisation
grown
ing
graduallypermeatup
the effcndi class,and so were
East and
to serve
as a link between
qualified
in the matter
of external
West, and worthy in many
respects, particularly
to rank with the first statesmen
in Europe.
The dreamy temperament
polish,
his father

had

of

"

"

THE

428

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1S39-1S61 A.D.J

of the

sovereign,who

cared

for

nothing so much

the doke

far niente of Hfe,


the fui'ther advantage of a wide field
gave these nioderniseil Turkish ministers
for activity,
in which
they could act as they pleasedwithout let or hindrance,
in the affairs of the palace. Amongst
as
long as they did not intermeddle
them
the followingnames
are
specially
worthy of note :
Reshid
Pasha, unquestionably the ablest anil most
upright statesman
in
of
whom
has
modern
attainments
and force
Turkey
produced
days, a man
of character fullysufficient to cope with the task he had undertaken
; one
who, under happier circumstances, might have jjlayedthe part of regenerator
of the Ottoman
Empire, and who can fitlybe compared only with such men
the
emir-i-nizam
of Persia [Mirza Taki],Sir Salar Jmig of Hyderabad, and
as
the late emir Abdurrahman
of Afghanistan.
Ali and Fuhad
Next in order of merit come
Pasha.
Both were
pupilsand
disciplesof Reshid, both
though Ali more
particularly were
thoroughly
with European culture ; but the effective action of both was
conversant
greatly
hampered by intrigueand party quarrels,with the result that their reputation
as

"

"

fell far short of their master's.

Muterjun

Rushid

with

situation

the

and

]\Iuhammed
had

the

Kibristi Pasha were


less able to grapno
ple
and
ability
patriotismrequisitefor the

; they
w'hile their mtegrity was
publicaffairs,
beyond reproach. I'nfortmiately,amid the machinations of intrigueat home and abroad, they too often
in dealing with the supreme
lost heart, and failed to display that resolution
which the absolutist and autocratic temper of oriental sovereignsrenders
power
imperativelynecessary.
extent
Safvet,Serwar, and Arifi,who to some
belonged to the school of
but none
likewise imbued
with the modern
of them had
Reshid, were
spirit,
credit
work
and
few
of their
to
traces
or
enough
lastmg good,
energy
any

conduct

of

influence survived
As

grand

them.

vizirs and

for foreignaffairs,
these pashas controlled
as ministers
than
Turkey for more
forty years; the contemplative life in
at court
prevented their sphere of action from being frequentlyinvaded;
vogue
and yet, if we
the result of their labours to-day,we
examine
forced on the
are
melancholy conclusion that they one and all failed to grasp the fundamental
idea of the reform
and
had
movement
no
adequate conception of what was
be owned
that these high personages
alone to
not
required. It must
were
blame.
confronted
w'ith a twofold problem. In the first place,
They were
they had to apply the necessary remedies to a botlypoliticdiseased in every
joint; in the second,to satisfythe friendlypowers of Europe which were pressing
for reform.
the West
Had
sho^\'n a fuller comprehension of the means
whereby Turkey could be regenerated,had the cloak of friendlyadvice not
been so often used to cover
the unfriendlypurpose
of adding to the weakness
of Turkey, many
have
fallen out
things would
quite otherwise than they
and
territorial greed were
ambition
the mainsprings
actually did. But political
of European policy,and the first duty of Turkish
statesmen
to
was
take these latent purposes
into account.
It was
imperativelynecessary to
the
insistent
West
of
manifest
their
honest
desire and intention to
give
proof
introduce reforms,and to treat the advice of each one
of the friendlypowers
the fortunes

with

of

respect.

The

reform

of externals
movement
to proceed by way
was
thereby condemned
The
of historic development and the
speciousappearances.
course
need of a gradual advance
beyond ancient Asiatic and not merely Asiatic,but
and
Moslem
theories of life and
left quite out
of account,
society were
and
which
customs
foreign
were
Turkey adopted institutions,
wholly
manners,

and

"

"

HISTORY

THE

430

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1S39-1861 A.D.]

the

confusion,counselled
friendly
becoming aware
powers,
proposed to remetly the evil by the appointment of a board of
finance,consistingof delegatesfrom the various nations, the minister above
of the said delegates,
to one
referred to remarked
"Sir, you have brought us
much
good advice, but it could only be of service if you had brought us some
In fact, the steady growth of financial embarrasstime."
ment
at the same
money
which
hastened
dissolution
of
that
"sick
man"
the
the
of
was
poison
the
Turkish
lent
the
exorbitant
at
body politic.Europe
long standing,
money
took it readily,
but the reckless Porte
interest,
forgetfulof the Turkish proverb

pire; and

when

economy

and

"

which

says,

of the

who

He

drinks wine

credit is twice

on

drunken

he drinks,and the second


to pay his debts."
Had

the very

Turkey spent

borrowed

sums

of

from

of

he has

considerable

Europe

in the development

and

industry,the
railways,and

commerce

construction

when

: once

time when

roads

and

the establishment
of schools
in a word,
had the govermnent not mistakenlydevoted
its attention
merely to specious appearances,
the gallantOsmanli
nation, the best,
"

docile,and finest of Asiatic races,


As it
might very well have been saved.
however, the evils of mismanagement
was,
most

and

confusion

increased

The

apace.

old
all its

home

administration,which, with
faults,corresponded in a measure
genius of the
new

people,was
which

government

place existed
of
than

abandoned
to

was

only on paper.
justice became

before;

the

the

; the
take its

The

istration
admin-

much

of

pressure

to

worse

taxation
the classes

grievous,especiallyupon
engaged in agricultureand cattle-rearing,
which
reduced
to
were
beggary. Under
more

such

circumstances

that

the

should

kindly

have

Merchant

of

KALnnx,

of

the second

ferment

of

discontent,but

Osmanli

(hsplaysa

whose

half

lamb-like

chvine character

his

ruin

to

the

of

godless innovations, or at
the generally received
opinion that this
tion
misery was a retribution for sinful imitaof the ways
of unbelievers.
By the

Turkey

opening

inexperienced Turk

attributed

introduction

be astonished

cannot

we

but

of the nineteenth
there

was

as

patiencein

he holds

yet

century the country


talk

no

all matters

in the utmost

of

that

reverence

an

was

outbreak.

concern

; and

in

The

his
in

padisha,
Turkey all
the people,

of the government have proceeded not from


projectssubversive
but from the highestranks of society.
When
the sultan Abdul-Mejid died, in 1861, after a reign of twenty-two
in a far worse
the
plightthan at his accession. Apart
country was
years,
the giganticincrease of the national
from
debt, the prestigeof Turkey was
weakened
and abroad, the authorityof the Porte was
at home
visiblyon the
Christian
of
the
whose
and
the
decline,
perpetualyearning
subjects
empire,
of the
dominion
had been held in check by awe
after deliverance from Moslem

TURKEY

IN

THE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY

431

[1839-1861A..D.]

drew

began gradually to lift up their heads.


was
Turkey was livmg on the pittancegranted
open
and
that
Christian
the
West,
a
large proportion of the rayahs had now
by
and
ruled
become
were
independent
by their native Christian princes? It
view
to
these
with
a
checking
longings after autonomy, and removing
was
the grounds of perpetual complaints and
grievances,that shortly after his
accession Abdul-Mejid had issued the imperialirade of Gulhane, which, besides
of the equality
great administrative reforms,proclaimedthe principle
promising
of
the
of
without
distinction
creed
and
all
of
or
empire,
nationality,
subjects
in
which
Christians
to
according
to fare as
thenceforth
Turkey were
imperialpower,
it not

For

freer breath

and

that

secret

an

well as imder Christian rule.


to
Needless
say, this edict of
which
was
designed to
toleration,

ened
Europe the liberal and enlightspiritof the Ottoman
ment,
govern-

show

remained
the

consequently
those who
whose

letter,as all

dead

had

edicts

other

deceived

chose

be

to

them
the case rendered
of the cheat.
Among

and

none

but

deceived

national

ments
ele-

separatedby the furious


k

or

real state of
easy victims

the

ignorance of

done,

ani-

mosity bred of religiousfanaticism


for cenand race hatred,and where
turies
its
the ruling class has made
all
the
taste
adversaries
vanquished
painsand tribulations of oppression,
there can
hardly be any question of
conciliation or cordial unity. The
false to
the

religionif he

his

right hand

Giaour

as

would

he

feels that

Mussulman

to

of
an

fellowshipto
equal; while

race

from

the
the

less fanatical,

for his part no


Christian,
the ancient
curses
faith and

be

offered

of

foe

the

his

depths of

Guide
A Dragoman
his heart, and strains every
nerve
The sultan and
to cast off his yoke.
his enlightenedcompatriotswere
probably sincere in their good intentions,
and
the letter of the law to its practical
but it is a far cry from
application,

that
experiencehas shown
the
between
over
deep gulf
establish the wished-for

prophet,or

to weld

whole.

amount

of edicts and

the Christians

concord

between

and
the

charters

Mohammedans
followers

bridge
Turkey, to

suffice to
of

of Christ

and

of the

geneous
elements of the empire into a homoethnological
pacity
failure of the attempt was
due solelyto the incanot
bear
interference
must
a large
bureaucracy ; European
the smallest reform was
On the other hand, whenever

the mixed

The

of the

no

Turkish
share of the blame.

the representatives
of the situation
to the amelioration
ery
the whole machinHorn
in
motion
the
Golden
set
cabinets
on
European
had different advice
of personalrivalryand particular
interests ; each one
to offer,
and the pressure
perpetuallybrought to bear from this quarter and

mooted
of the

with

view

THE

433

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1861-1876 A.D.]

the
by completelydisconcerting

that ended
the other

hand,

many

of her

neighbours

and
vague
and soi-disant

Porte.
vacillating
frientls had

no

On

desire

to see
a
strong Turkey, and the lower the empire sank the more
hopeful was the prospect of a speedy division of the spoil.
Unhappily for Turkey, Abdul-Mejitlwas succeeded by his brother,AbdulAziz, a harsh, uncultivated,and fanatical prince,infatuated with the notion
of his own
greatness; one who cared for nothing l3ut his personalimportance,
and took a keen interest in public affairs only .so far as they could be made
of the throne and the gratification
of his own
to subserve the security
passions.
than
his
and
He was
more
even
moreover
prodigal
piqued himself
successor,
so
greatlyupon his sagacitythat he wished to have the government entirely
in his own
hands.
The highest ofhcers of the state were
obnoxious
to him,
him
which
induced
the only motive
to tolerate for a while
and fear was
still living the interference of these
that is,as long as Fiihad and Ali were
old public servants.
whims
of this half-insane being,and the insatiable mania
The
for building
for
and
barracks
to erect
which drove him
no
reason
or
palaces
object,cost
No
dared
offer
to
the country millions of preciousmoney.
one
strance,
any remonhimself
and the sultan,who
the airs of a demigod, would have
gave

whatever

"

"

to
proceeded

the most
monstrous
schemes, had not the nation, awakened
to
under the stress of the impending catastrophe,manifested

self-consciousness

its oppositionto the crazy tyrant, timidlyindeed,but by unmistakable


tokens.
been observed, revolutionarj'
In Turkey, as has alread-y
take their
movements
not in the lower
rise in the upper
strata of society,
a fact which
we
can
explain
the more
readilyin this particularinstance if we consider that the risingsun
"

of

civilisation first illumined

western

alone

was

able

to

penetrate

to lower

the

levels.

peaks, and
spiritof modern

topmost
The

from

thence

civilisation

of
loudly at the gates of Asiatic life that it had roused some
in the reign of Abdulthe yoimger
generationof Turks from sleep,and even
had
to the surface.
come
Mejid faint signs of the revolutionarymovement
and
The study of European languages,and of French
English in particular,
of the effendi class,the
and more
became
more
men
popular among
young
productionsof European literature found eager readers,and, whilst the court
absolutist
is commonly
adhered
old aristocratic and
to the
regime, what
called good societybegan to talk of libertyand constitutional
government.
hot-headed
to seek
Nay, the more
patriotshad already found it necessary
in
there
and
to
refuge
foreignlands,
publish revolutionarynewspapers
phlets
pamunder
the aegis
of a free press.
The first publications
of this character,the journalsMuchbir
{The Reporter)
But
and Hurriet
exercised little influence.
in Turkey itself
even
(Liberty),
literature presentlyadopted a freer tone, and
certain
when
poets, such as
the
Kemal
Effendi, aroused the spiritof patriotism and began to censure
of the agitationwere
the consequences
slow in
not
despotic government
making themselves felt. The tyrannicalsultan took fright,and, instead of
had recourse
to expedientswhich
yielding,
only fanned the flame of rebellion.
On the grand vizir Mahnmd
Medim
Pasha, an old-fashioned Turk of the purest
the
devolved
unenviable
task
of hastening the niin of his country.
water,
in
with
the
of
concert
who
into the current
had been drawn
sultan,
Acting
and on
Russian
the advice of Ignatiev,the Russian
amba-ssador, he
politics,
declared the government
bankrupt, and thus drove the whole of Europe into
The
world
the hostile camp.
tloes not understand
matters.
jestingin money
Many thousands of people lost their small savingsthrough the insolvency of
Turkey, and the Turkish nation forfeited the little sympathy stillfelt for it
had

knocked

so

[1376-1904

in

A.

NINETEENTH

TURKEY

IN

THE

The

and

watchful

CENTURY

433

D.]

Europe.

astute

pohcy

of Russia

promptly

took

tage
advan-

of the indignationof Christendom


against the Crescent ; for the year
Russo-Turkish
which
of
the
last
the
outbreak
inflicted
witnessed
1876
war,
wounds
it
for
had
the
that
Ottoman
severest
suffered;
the
ever
Empire
on
and
dominion
in
it a
made
rendered
Turkish
Europe an impossibility,
war
Asiatic
before
soil.
than
of
far
on
even
matter
greater difficulty
had
broke out the sultan Abdul-Aziz
Before the war
paid for his many
life.
He
throne
and
folliesby the forfeit of his
perishedby his own
hand,
and
liberal-minded
and his successor,
prince,proving
Murad, an enlightened
of holdingthe
incapable
was

in favour

deposed

who

Abdul-Hamid,

to

century

has
the

reins of government
of the eldest member

of

reason

of

the

pilotedTurkey through the

physicalinfirmities,
family, Prince

Osman

transition from

the nineteenth

twentieth.

In the sultan Abdul-Hamid


have ever
ablest rulers who
his
His intellectual capacity,

might have done good


had they not been

by

Turkey unquestionably possesses one of the


Empire.
occupied the throne of the Ottoman
of work, and his restless energy
enormous
power

service

to his

neutralised

to

country under
a great extent

any

circumstances

ever,
what-

by his personalqualities.
personalcourage, and, as

lacks is
the present sultan of Turkey chiefly
What
surround
he reposes no confidence in the persons who
a result of this defect,
of the vacillation patent in
This is the cause
him nor in his officers of state.
his life and throne.
terror of secret attacks upon
his actions and of his constant
the character of
In the hope of obviatingthese dangers his rule has assumed
be
the
sole
to
he
desires
most rigidautocracy and absolutism
authorityin
;
trivial
and social life,
to settle single-handedthe most
all affairs of political

questionsof the hour; and by attempting


weightiestpolitical
of his still extensive
the
details
of
the administration
despatch
he
has
the chief
dominions and of Turkish
naturallydeprived
foreignpolicy,
initiative
and
the
Sublime
and
executive
of
all
of
authority
government
organs
Porte of any prestigeit possessed.
of such centralisation
It is obvious
that the melancholy consequences
felt
in
themselves
branch of the
and rigidautocracy must
make
soon
every
and of publiclife. Such a herculean task is too heavy a burden
admmistration
for the shoulders of any man.
Confusion and disorder have assumed
gigantic
of evil in Turkey,
and
financial embarrassment, that old source
proportions,
has greatlyincreased.
Thus we
can
trates
easilyunderstand how the civil magisand the army
have been left unpaid for months
together,how the fleet
have stagnated,
has gone utterlyto wrack
trade and commerce
and ruin,how
all
classes of the
whilst poverty, misery,and
despairgained ground among
and
deplorable
population. Never has the outlook in Turkey been so gloomy
is kept in
few thousand
as
men
to-day. In the capitala garrisonof some
the
is
as
a
good condition to serve
show-piece,but in the provinces
army
and betraysits disaffection by insubordination,\"hilst the
mispral)ly
iifglected,
civilofficialscan only eke out a scanty livelihood by corruptionand peculation.
Of all these evils the sultan, who
leaves his palace,is either wholly
never
of
ignorantor imperfectlyinformed, and the rivalryof the great powers
these frightful
for the fact that,amidst
symptoms
Europeis solelyresponsible
of anarchy, the catastrophepredictedcenturies ago has not yet overtaken
the Ottoman
Empire.
This melancholy state of thingshas come
to pass, as all the world knows,
order
of the nineteenth century, and as the disby successive degreesin the course
which
of the home
increased
the
various
provinces,
outlying
government
had been held within the empire only by the prestige
of its past, have gradmatters

the

and

to control

and

H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

434

THE

HISTORY

away

from

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[1S76-1904 A.D.]

ually broken
under

the

it.

ostensible

protectionof
suzeraintyor

took

lead,

the

under

the

Austrian
of

and

name

followed

was

the

course

of

become

autonomous

states

Moldavia

and

Wallachia,

now

united

Then
the
came
kingdom of Servia.
Bosnia
and Herzegovina, the creation of the principality
occupation of Eg}'pt by the English,and finallythe

to

the

the

Sult.vn

at

Smyrna

of

to Russia, Greece,
territory'
nineteenth
ccnturj*Turkey lost more

large tracts
of the

by

and

Monument

cession

have

others
the western
have passed under
the
powers,
of
into the occupation
Greece
neighbouring states.

of Rumania,

occupation of
Bulgaria,the

of them

Some

and

the process of attrition has not


of their
nians, encouraged by the success

securing the independence

yet

come

and

to

than
an

Montenegro.

In

half of her sessions,


posThe Anne-

end.

are
co-religionists,

now

bent

on

of

their country, and whilst internecine quarrels


the Albanians
bid fair to put an end to Ottoman
the Arabs
are
disposed to make an attempt to rid

and
in Macedonia
among
rule in European Turkey,
of the obnoxious
themselves

Turk.

Thus

danger

looms

largefrom

all quar-

IN

TURKEY

THE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY

435

[1876-1904A.D.]

Ottoman
rule, and if,
hangs over
everywhere the sword of Damocles
inferences
endeavour
to draw
century, we
at the opening of the twentieth
of the Ottoman
continuance
Empire from a consideration of
as to the future
shall find ourselves forced,
of this deplorabledecline,
as impartial
we
the causes
conclusions.
the
to
following
observers,
Religiousand racial animosity from which the Christian West is no more
Asia
have ascribed the decay of Turkey
Buddhist
or
exempt than Moslem
and
Mohammedan
the
religion
partly to the characteristics of the
partlyto
is
ously
seriwho
This
assumption
radicallyfalse,and anyone
Ural-Altaic race.
will
in
at
arrive
the
reform
movement
studies the
Turkey
presently
conclusion that the fault lies elsewhere altogether. The historyof the Middle
that Islam does not take up a hostile attitude towards
Ages sufficiently
proves
intellectualaspirations,
learning,or enlightemnent,and Gibbon, Draper, and
Islam
to the fact.
borne witness
others have
knowledge from
says, "Seek
far hence
in
the cradle to the grave," and "Seek
learning,though it were
show
that
the
which
other
there
and
teaching
are
pithy sayings
China,"
many
than
favourable
is far more
of Mohammed
Christianityto scientific inquiry.
ters,

"

"

that Islam
is the statement
No less erroneous
promotes absolutism, autocracy,
the
there is no other religion
and the arbitraryexercise of
sovereignpower;
scribed
in character,nor
been circumhas the sovereign power
democratic
ever
so
of the teaching of Mohammed.
extent
to the same
as
by the maxims
criticism is
Again, with regard to the capacity of the Turkish race, western
for half
from
observation
I
have
known
mistaken.
Turkey
personal
grossly
d'avant
La
et
and
the
pamphlet.
Turquie
d'aujourdhui
quarante
a century,
leave the reader in no doubt as
which I publishedat Paris in 1898, can
am,
In the matter
nation for reform.
to the aptitude and desire of the Turkish
have
the
made
Turks
of general education
extraordinary progress of late.
has vastly decreased,the Turkish
of illiterate persons
The number
language

has laid aside the clumsiness

which

used

constitute

to

barrier to the appreciation

literaryproductionsby the general public,and both belles-lettres


and scientific literature have
adapted themselves, in form and substance,
countries.
to the occidental spiritin a fashion without
parallelin Moslem
At the present day the press is influential in Turkey, though unhappily too
often gagged by the censorship,and not novels
alone, but scientific works
The
from
translated
are
ticular,
system of education, in parEuropean languages.
of primary and secondary
nmnber
the
has been greatlyimproved,
schools grows
largerevery year, and the public service draws its supply of
from
native
The government
sources.
officials,
engineers,and medical men
lines
of European
of the country on
the
would fain check the rapid advance
of

is
with the West
intercourse
customs, but brisk and constant
that looks back
of a court
force stronger than all the irades and firmans

and

manners
a

to the good old


regretfully

times.

of the people, but wholly and


the character
It is not the religionnor
is to
form
of government, which
autocratic
absolutist
the
and
solely
rigidly
for
its
this
time
and
blame for the backward
to
state of the nation
present
up
decline. What
profitis there in the culture of the few, when the vast majority,
fast bound in the fetters of Asiatic conservatism, are incapableof challenging
If the Turks
the prerogatives
divine ?
of a sovereign they reverence
were
as
allowed time and leisure to emancipate themselves, under the protectionof
the growing enlightenment, from
the bonds
of despotic government, the

wholesome
about

by

no

the
means

rays

of the

change

from

suits

the

sun

of

libertycould

the old world

greed and

to the

lust

of

readilyand

more

But

new.

gain

of

the

such

western

rapidly bring
metamorphosis
powers,

and

THE

436

HISTORY

OF

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE
[18T6-1904

therefore

the

cabinets

of

have

A.D.]

to
Europe
never
sorely tried
of
the
We
people of Turkey
help demanded
by the dictates
humanity.
of
the
the
the
Moslems
have
Christians, forgetting that
to
cause
espouse
suJEfer even
from
the yoke of tjTanny.
more
force
would
be simpler than
the sultan
introduce
to
to
reforms
Nothing
the powers.
by a joint fiat from
Unfortunately
nothing of the sort has yet
The
confusion
been
done.
confounded
the
keener
m
worse
Turkey,
grows
the hopes of her
The
is not
greedy neighbom-s.
are
regeneration of Turkey
if
the
to
hope,
Europe
seriously ilisposed
were
yet utterly beyond
prevent
of the great war
be
outbreak
which
would
follow
the
heels
of
likely to
on
a
All that
would
have
would
to do
collapse of the Ottoman
Empire.
Turkey
her
in Europe
be to concentrate
forces, by casting off the foreign elements
in Asia
she
conmiands
and
than
centre
establishing a new
Minor, where
more

twelve
rise

millions

of

of
in

power

ci\'iiisation
for
of

the

govermnent
the

Islamite

"Eastern
laid.

in

Turks.
the

The

twentieth

East

near

which

the

world.

Question,"

prestige
In

this
which

centurj'

could

countries,

Mohaumiedan

and

extended

of

way,
has

its

and

act

in

as

in

would
the

virtue

spnitual
this

kept Europe

the

then

of

its inherent

headship
way

alone,

busy

witness

fittci-t agent

for

of
can

the

of

the
pean
Euro-

aptitude

greater
the

part

spectre

centuries,

be

of

cessfully
suc-

SUMMARY

CHRONOLOGICAL

in the

thirteenth

in central

Asia,

centur"-

a.d.

Seljuk against Mongols,

and

httle

under

Armenia

enters

THE

HISTORY

TURKEY

OF

AGGR.VNDISEMEXT

OF

PERIOD

Early

OF

in return

tritie,being driven

Turkisli

Suleiman
is

Shah.

given land

on

the

His

from

Er

son

Byzantine

its home

helps

Togrul

frontier.

A.D.

1258

the

Osman,
is bom.

of Er

son

Whilst

the title of

him

bey

Togrul dies, and

12S8

Er

1300

Seljuk Empire

he

the prince who


to the Ottoman
d\-nasty,
gave his name
from the Greeks, of which
territory'
Seljuk Sultan gives

and

Togrul

young

wins

prince.

or

is succeeded

falls before

by

eventually become
principalities
1301

Osman

coins money
of Ottoman

birth
to

e.xtend

1328

Osman

dies, and

1330

Nicaea

surrenders.

1336

Pergamum,

of

Orkhan,

same

Orkhan
Murad

dies, and

1389

Battle

of Kosovo.

Murad

and

Wallachia.

.\fter

defeats

name.

ruins, which

be

to

establishes

his

read

in

capital

Yenisher

at

Tliis

marks

proceeds

and

of

Osman,

by Orkhan,

after
who

siege of eight years.

conquers

many

towns

from

Greeks.

the

occupies first Ottoman

stronghold

in

Europe (Tzympe).

He

I.
He extends
his dominions
in Europe.
by Murad
and princesof Bosnia, Servia, and Wallachia
king of Hungarj' and Poland

of Maritza.

I, succeeds

1392

Mircea

of Wallachia

1396

Battle

of

Bavazid

his

its

year.
is succeeded

1364

German

son

is succeeded

1359

Bayazid

on

this time.

at
son

banks

arise

in which

dies in the

1400

Osman

dynasties
of Osman.

dominions.
For twenty
to Ottoman
capitalof Mysia, is added
years there
military and civil organisation is completed. Janissary corps is

is peace,
instituted

on

Turkish
in that

his dominions.

Brusa

Suleiman,

The

merged

public prayer

causes

Empire.

capitulatesto Orkhan,

1326

1358

and

Osman.

Mongols.

defeats

united
forces of Ser\-ia, Bosnia, Hungary,
is assassinated
battle, Murad
by a Servian.
kills his brother.
immediatelv

son,

under
Sigismund of Hungar)-, with French
again completely defeated by Sultan Bayazid.
from
attack
of Timur
an
Constantinople bv advance
upon

and

and
submits

to

Xikopoli.Christian
knights,
is called

are

away

Albania,
His

the

Turks."
forces

the

Tatar.
Battle

of

1421

and taken
Angora.
Bayazid is defeated
captive by Tatars.
captivity. His four sons
fight for what is left of his kingdom
I is finallysucce.ssful.
He makes
with his northern
years Muhammed
peace
and
internal organisation of country-.
restores
Muhammed
I dies, and is succeeded
n.
by his son Murad

1442

Hunyady

1402
1403

Bayazid

dies in

defeats

Turkish

army

at

Hermannstadt.
438

; after ten

neighbors

CHRONOLOGICAL

1443

Battle of Nish.
of his

1444

but
1451
1453

break

returns

II,

treaty. Murad

Knights of Rhodes

1460

Siege of Belgrade.
Muhammed
conquers

1461

After

breaks

1463

War

1475
1479

Crimea

Venice
islands

1480

Ottomans
Muhammed

1492

Bayazid

1514
1616
1517

defeats

them

janissariesand

at Varna.

Murad

to

and

the

is unsuccessful.
di Capistrano.

is

Morea

Athens.

annexes

is

obliged

recognise Scanderbeg

to

prince

as

of

Venice.

with

out

of

ruler, Vlad

tribute, and e.xpedition


against them
repulsed by Hunj'ady and Giovanni

pay

Muhammed

again resigns,

spahis.

Albania.

by Ottomans.

is taken
concludes

1481

1512

refuse

Muhammed
repeated battles,

Epirus and

1502

of

II ascends
throne
for third time.
Murad
dies, and Muhammed
Wallachian
Muhammed
captures Constantinople. He also overthrows
Impaler, and reduces Servia and Bosnia.

1456

1500

and

returns

of revolt

account

on

1454

1499

completely routed by Christian allies under


are
Hunyady, who
pursuit. Murad
signs treaty for ten years, and abdicates in favour

in

Muhammed

son

Christians

439

Turks

Balkans

crosses

SUMMARY

treaty of offensive

"Egean

mainly in

are

and

Otranto

storm

defensive

defeated

are

alliance

with

Greece

Turkey.

and

of Turks.
Rhodes.

at

brother
Jem
by his son Bayazid II. His younger
He furnishes material
for various
to knights of Rhodes.
revolts, is defeated, and escapes
dies in captivityafter thirteen years, probably poisoned by Alexander
intrigues,and finally
Borgia.
II

is

dies, and

and

power

is succeeded

repulsed at Belgrade.

Jews

expelled from

are

Spain.

seek

Many

refuge in

Turkey.
Ottoman
fleet first begins to be formidable.
Turks
fight with Venetians.
from
Venetians.
Turks
take Lepanto, Modon,
Coron, and Durazzo
Venice
makes
peace with Turkey.
Ba"azid is forced by janissariesto abdicate in favour of his third son Selim I, who kills
and nephews.
Moldavia
his brother
becomes
tributary to him.
Selim marches
against Persians and defeats them.
Selim subjugates Syria and Palestine.
Wallachia
pays tribute of children.
mameluke
Selim conquers
sultans,occupies Cairo, and assumes
Egyptian campaign.
title of Caliph.

TURKEY

AT

ZENITH

POWER

OF

1535

I, called the Magnificent,iinder whom


by his son Suleiman
of its grandeur.
Empire readies summit
Belgrade conquered by Turks.
Rhodes
is besieged and taken
by Suleiman.
Ottoman
Battle of Mohacs, in which
king of Hungary is defeated.
Hungary becomes
province.
before Vienna, but is repulsed after protracted siege.
Suleiman appears
V.
Suleiman
returns
to Vienna, but does not
to risk a battle with Charles
care
Peace
is made
at Constantinople.
Frajiks and Turkey.
in Mediterbetween
Turkish
is supreme
ranean.
Treaty is made
navy

1540

Suleiman

concludes

1541

Suleiman

leads

1520 Selim dies, and

is succeeded

the Ottoman

1521
1522
1526
1529
1532
1533

1546

Truce

1565

Suleiman

1566

Suleiman

is declared

Turks

1570

Arabia

1571

Turks

1572

Don

Vieima.

Hungary.

is

Cyprus;

III.

of

Lepanto,

by Kilidj Ali.
His

1594

War

1603

Muhammed

1606

Peace of Sitavorok

Persia.
Turks

dies, and

and

Murad
defeat

is succeeded

between

is

prayed

is succeeded

by

his

son

Selim

XL

Russians.
for in Mecca.

Turks

in which

In the

same

reign is marked

1593

resumed
with
Battle of Keresztes.

Turks

are

beaten

by

Christians.

Tunis.

Azerbaijan and Georgia, and revolt


War
breaks
out between
Turkey and
and
England.

1596

He

Hungary.

Sultan

Pasha.

battle

takes

for Turks
Murad

in

Astrakhan.

by Sinan

of Austria
won

vassal

first conflict between

repulsed before

John

son

aiding his

occurs

is reduced

capture

his

with

into

for five years.


at Malta.

dies while

reign

are

1.574 Tunis

campaign

repulsed

In his
1569

treaty of peace

ninth

by

year Selim dies, and is succeeded


internal
corruption, the conquest

by
of

in the Balkans.

dies, and

treaty between

First commercial

Austria.

is succeeded
of Austria

allied forces

by his son Ahmed


Turkey and Austria.

I.

by
and

his

son

Muhammed

Transylvania.

Turkey
III.

1617

HISTORY

THE

440

dies, and

Alimed
is

1619

Peace

1622

Osman

after

deposed

THE

TURKISH

EMPIRE

is succeeded
by his brother Mustapha
I, who is an
He is succeeded
tliree months.
\)y Osman
n, son
with shall of Persia.
and
Mustapha is

is concluded

murdered,

is

OF

Janissaries

who

re\olt.

raised

again

imbecile, and
of Alimed.

the

to

throne, but

for fifteen

only

months.
1623

IV,

Murad

II, succeeds

of Osman

son

throne.

to

He

introduces

and

reforms

marches

against Persians.
Erivan.

1635

Murad

conquers

1638

Murad

recaptures

1640

Murad
is

Peace

Baghdad.

with

is made

and

Erivan

is restored

by

Ibrahim

In

I.

liis

reign Azov

Crete

occupied.
is forcibly deposed, and succeeded

captured

his

by

1648

Ibrahim

1656

is made
grand vizir.
Koprili Muhammed
vizir by his
Muhammed
as
dies, and is succeeded

1661

Persia, in which

latter; Turkey retains Baghdad.


dies, aged only twenty-eight, and is succeeded

the

to

Muhammed

son

IV.

Kuprili .AJimed, who

son

is

^"irtually

sultan.
1664
1669

defeated
by Austrians; truce
to Turkish
(Crete')surrenders

Turks
Candia

Foundation

Vienna.
Michael

1673

Poles

1676

with
Treaty of Zurawno
by Kara
Siege of Vienna

Sobieski

breaks

1686
1687

Athens

Ahmed

Poland.

Sultan

Ukraine
retains

After

Mustapha.

and

to

Turkey.

his

possessions.
city is relieved by Sobieski.

months

two

Parthenon

Muhammed

Belgrade.

Venetians

1695

and

IV

is

is destroj-edby e.xplosion.Turks
feated
deare
deposed. He is succeeded
by his brother

II.

take

drives

He

and

Turks.

Venetians.

Mohacs

Suleiman
Austrians

Suleiman

Turkey

Venice.

by

is taken

1691

between

peace

of Fanariots.

by Austrians.

is retaken

lost.

Podolia

defeat

with

out

at

1689

surrenders

of Poland
under

War
Buda

of

subjugated.

is

Jlaina

1672

1684

follows.

years

Treaty

arms.

of official power

1670

1683

of twenty

are

Austrians

at

possessions north

Xegropont.

of Danube

KopriliMustapha

have

is made

been

grand vizir.

of Ser\-ia and

out

retakes Belgrade.
n.
by his brother, Ahmed
of Muhammed
by Mustapha
II, son

dies,and is succeeded
dies, and is succeeded

defeats

all Turkish

Nearly

defeated

are

IV.

He

at

first

Austrians.
defeats Ottomans.
Eugene at head of Austrians
Turkey makes
peace with Russia, .\ustria, Venice, and

of Zenta.

Prince

1697

Battle

1699

Peace

1703

Mustapha

1711

War

1715

Vizir -\li Pasha

1716

1730

Fanariot
is begun.
Treaty of Passarowitz, after Prince Eugene has captured Belgrade.Austria acquires
the rest of Hungari.' and large portions of Ser\"ia and Wallachia.
Treaty of perpetual peace with Russia.
Ahmed
abdicates
in consequence
of an
insurrection, and is succeeded
by his nephew.

1736

War

1718
1720

of Karlowitz.
abdicates

breaks

in favour

Russia, in which

with

out

wins back
rule in Wallachia

Mahmud

of his brother

Morea

Turks

from

Russia
Mahmud

1757

Mahmud

1761
1768
1770

successful.

Treaty

of the Pruth.

with

Persia

to

comes

end, in

an

begins. Austria joins Russia.


to
Treaty of Belgrade restores
Turkey

1754

are

Poland.

HL

Venice.

Russia

1739

Ahmed

also makes

dies, and

peace

and

territory in Ser\ia

moderate

on

disadvantageous to Turkey.
peace
Marshal
Munich's
campaigns.
Wallachia

War

with

lost in 1718.

terms.

is loUow-ed

by his brother, Osman


III comes
to the throne.
Mustapha
First treaty between
Turkey and Prussia.

TTT.

's son

War
is declared
Russians
conquer
Turkish

upon

Russia.

Moldavia

fleet is burned

and

Wallachia

at Tchesme

and

land

troops in the Morea.

Greeks

revolt.

by Russians.

1771

Russians

1773
1774

Mustapha IV is succeeded
by his brother Abdul-Hamid.
under
conditions
unfavourable
to
Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji is signedwith Russia
From
this time
dates
Russia's
claim
to
Turkey.
subjects of the
protect Christian

1783

Russia

1788

Porte

Crimea.

conquer

Porte.
annexes

the

again declares

Crimea.
war

on

Russia.

Austria

joinsRussia.

The

latter is successful at

Otchakov.
1789
1792
1798
1799

Turkish
armies
."\bdul-Hamid

are

defeated

by Russians

in Moldavia

and

dies, and is succeeded


by his nephew.
concluded
War
by Treaty of Jassy.
Napoleon's invasion of Eg"pt leads Porte to join coalition
Turkish
is destroyed by Napoleon at Abukir.
army

by

Austrians

south

against France.

of Danube.

SUMMARY

CHRONOLOGICAL

1800

Turks

defeated

are

Turkey

drive

Servians

1805

Napoleon's

the

Heliopolis. Egj'pt is eventuallj- taken

at

Turkey.

to

Islands.
the

of Ionian

and

country

plan, and by
on
European
IV.
by his nephew, Mustapha

submit

demands

to

again breaks

1809

War

1812

Treaty of Bukharest

with

out

attacks

Mahmud

demand

French

his j'ounger

by

armies

war

Turks

Pasha

to

stop

battle
declares

Greeks

first

of

In

in the

revolted

has

ceeded
suc-

foUows

He

is forced

of

England.

This

gives signal

successful.

everywhere

is

his

Ibrahim

son

France

their

to

fleet

in response

sign a treaty

at

of powers,
and
in consequence
Turco-Egyptian fleet is destroyed.

in October.

fought

damage

for

Turkey.

1829

Treaty of Adrianople between

and

Russia

Turkey.

Mahmud

is induced

by

false information

surrender.

to

Ibrahim

under

Egj'ptian army

pass of BeUan.
becomes
independent

begins conquest

of

Otto

of

Sj'ria. Turks

routed

on

Orontes,

at

Greece
Turkish

Mehemet

with

under

King

Ali

mediation

through

of

Turkey and
Treaty of alliance is signed between
and
England try
recognise it,and both France
becomes

of Mehemet

patron

Mahmud

marches
Meliemt-t

called

the

last

conquers

and

.\lexandria.

hatti-shcrif

is defeated

Mahmud

November

On

Western

break

to

Egj-pt

France.

Russia.

receives

powers
influence.

Russian

Syria.

refuse to
France

Ali.

against Ibrahim

.\li at

Abdul-Mejid.

son

Ibrahim

Bavaria.

Konieh.

at

army

made

Peace

to

II.

in Albania.

July, England, Russia, and


Turkey rejects mediation

East.

Navarino
on

war

at

are

in June.

war

Russia

1839

and

Danube

Russia, chieflythrough intervention

Janina, who

of

1828

and

the

Morea.

out.

Athens

capture

London

is dethroned

on

Russia.

Independence of Greece is proclaimed. Turks take vengeance


of Chios.
by massacring the inhabitants
Mehemet
Ali of Egypt sends army
to the Peloponnesus under
He is generallysuccessful.
to call of sultan.

1833

sons.
troops for garri-

brother, Mahmud

Greek

1832

Servian

sympathies,

between

Truce

1822

1831

France, joins

to Russia.

in the

breaks

his

1821

1827

of

republics.

janissaries.

signed with

is

Ali

for insurrection

succeeded
of

is ceded

Bessarabia

1824

in fear

Russia,

Establishment

of

out
janissaries

Treaty of Tilsit.
Mustapha is deposed, and
to

1820

restored

and
prevailson sultan to dismiss rulers in WaUachia
Moldavia, and
envoy
Russia
in consequence
occupies these principalities.
to janissariesby his reforms, by his new
Selim, who has given dissatisfaction
troops
modelled

1808

general,Kleber,
and

Ionian

to reconquer

1804

1807

by French

by English

French

from

441

dies

3rd

he

at

in

Nizib.

same

issues

an

Turkish

year,

organic

and

fleet surrenders

is succeeded
of

statute

by

his

government,

of Gulhane.

1843

of France
without
sanction
Ali
sign treaty confining Mehemet
suzerainty of sultan.
Anglo-Austrian fleet is sent
Egyptian possession under
He is now
in reducing Mehemet
to submission.
to aid Turkey
recognised as hereditary
ruler of Egj'pt.
Remodelling of militaryforce of empire is completed.

1848

Revolution

1841

Four

to

European

his

until
1849

Sultan

1853

War

breaks

refuses
with

1856

in WaUachia

to

give up

defeated

Russia

breaks

Disturbances

Abdul-Mejid dies, and


and

1876

Russian

troops occupy

country

out.

Hungarian

chiefs who

armies

Russian

occupy

have

sought refuge

WaUachia

and

with

Moldavia.

him.

Porte

are
repeatedly repulsed. In September occurs
expedition
supported by England and France.
AUies
capture Sebastopol after nearly a year'ssiege.
March
30th, Treaty of Paris is signed by ministers of France, England, Russia, Turkey,
This treaty recognises the independence and integrity
Sardinia, .\ustria, and Prussia.
of the Ottoman
Empire ; regulates mUitarj-status of Bosporus, Dardanelles, and Black
Sea ; provides for Christian
Porte publisheshatti-humajoin.
subjects of sultan.

1861

1875

Moldavia, and

Russians

Turkey

1860

1870

and

war.

Siege of SUistria.
to Crimea.

1855

out

18.50.

declares
1854

powers

Paris

break

out

in company

is

in

Syria.

French

is succeeded
with

his two

by

army
his son,

restores

Abdul-Aziz.

order.
This

sultan

visits London

nephews.

repudiates neutrality of Black Sea as declared in Treaty of Paris, and England


acquiesces.
Turkish
Bosnia and Herzegovina revolt.
treasury is declared insolvent.
Abdul-Aziz
is deposed, and
hand.
Murad
dies, probably by his own
V, son of Abdulis
Mejid, is raised to the throne; but he is incapable of ruling, and after three months
n.
succeeded
perpetrated
by his brotlier,Abdul-Hamid
Bulgaria revolts; massacres
take up arma.
soldiers arouse
Christian
nations.
and
Servia
Montenegro
by Turkish
Russia

1877

HISTORY

THE

443

of

Conference

her

refuses

1885

By

popular

vizir
1890

for

1893

is
1894

changed

Armenian

1896

Many
1897

England
large part
:

loses

Turkey

with

Pasha
Sultan

place.

Said

Bulgaria.
his

takes

this

uses

Pasha,

grand

place.
for

pretext

abrogating

vizir.

grand

becomes

policy towards
and
France,
England,

breaks

30th,

out

in

towards

Policy

England

is continued.

Germany
Russia

insist

on

international

revolutionists
killed.

different

Said
of

parts

is

makes

and
make

stration
demon-

dismissed

empire.

and

Kiamil

is

vizir.

becomes
Second

are

reforms

refuses

Armenian

in

massacre

Constantinople

occurs.

country.

Turkey

between

Sultan
Huntchak"

in

occur

Pasha

'

Armenians

Many

Crete.

the

'

Armenian

massacres

Rifaat

leave

reforms.

demanding

note

Other

Khalil

out

Pasha

and

Greece

in

consequence

of

troubles.

Cretan

Turkey

victorious.

France,
Prince

1899

Kiamil

friendly

Sasun.

September

Armenians

breaks

War
is

1898

and

Insurrection

at

Constantinople.

in

dismissed

ment
parlia-

prorogues
Stefano

San

at

Berlin.

at

is united

Rumelia

Kiamil's

identical

reinstated.

Kiamil

mulgates
pro-

Plevna

inquiry.

vizir.

grand

Sultan

March,

in

is revised

treaty

Djevad

and

occur

of

present

Said

falls

coolness;

massacres

Powers

December,

Armenians.

to

commission
1895

June

resigns, and
j-ears,
takes
manifestation

ministry

Kiamil's

and

proposals

In

war.

Sofia.

occupies

is concluded

Peace

six

of

and

Balkans

Eastern

mo^"enlent,

over

privileges

in

its

rejects

declares

possessions.

Armenian

First

and

assent,

European

her

Porte

Russia

April,
Pasha.

Osman

by

crosses
general, Gourko,
constitution.
and
suspends

Russian

of

defence

In

EMPIRE

TURKISH

Constantinople.

at

constitution.

bra\-e

falls, after
1878

held

is

powers

liberal

THE

OF

Germany

England,
George

gets

Italy,
of

and

Greece

concession

for

acting together, force


commissioner.
high
appointed

Russia,
is

railroad

to

Baghdad.

sultan

to

William

Crete.

evacuate

II

visits

stantinople.
Con-

BOOK

IV

MINOR

SOME

STATES

CHAPTER

HISTORY

THE

The

dynasty

overturned

{mameluk

in

means

order bore the title of


the mamelukes

the

power

MODERN

AND

Ayubites, founded

the

1250, and

in Arabic

MEDIAEVAL

OF

of

the

by

fell into

recruited

great Saladin,

the

hands

that time
slave). From
of
sultan
{soudan)
Egypt.

were

of

the

had

the time

of

military

that

Kiptchak

or

lution
revo-

from

from
rose
by the Turks in southern Russia.
their ranks
the succession of sultans called
to the degree of royalty formed
It was
This
Baharites.
replaced by
dynasty reigned from 1309 to 1381.
of mameluke
the succession
sultans
called Tcherkess
(Circassians)
; for at
that time the militaryorder was
chieflyrecruited from slaves purchased in
slaves carried

The

of

been

mamelukes

chiefs of this

the
At

Turks

chieflyfrom

EGYPT

off

chiefs who

Circassia.
The mameluke
army
been its own
property.
of the court

and

twenty-four

in number;

owned, governed, and


The

native

exploitedEgypt as if it had
provide for the expenses
for the luxury of the army.

fellahtoiled to

of the

royal harem, as well as


of Algiers was
the regency
to a stratocracy,as
Egypt and Syria were
prey
This
with
this difference,that the mamelukes
later,
were
a
cavalry corps.
the bravest in the Ottoman
also the
was
world, as it was
cavalry,moreover,
ments,
most
magnificentlyequipped m horses, in valuable arms, in sumptuous vestand
the
in jewels. The
emirs
who
commanded
or
beys
troops were
the

beys

of the

twelve

army
of whom

the
there
were

generalissimo was
were

for

called emir

twenty-four more
Egypt and the same
443

who

al-kebir.

Besides
the

governed
for Syria.

number

inces,
prov-

SOME

444

MINOR

STATES
[1400-1517 A.D.]

Many of the mameluke

sultans

treaties of commerce,

poetrj',and

the arts.

and

They

were
were

embellished

tageous
good governors;
they signed advandistinguished
by their taste for science,
such as
Cairo with superb mosques,

the Jami al-Mouieb, founded by Sheikh


al-Mahmudi
(died in 1421); the Jami
al-Ashrafieh,founded
by Ashraf Barsebai (1423) ; and the mosque
al-Ghurieh,
founded

by Kansu

W.VR

It

place.

BETWEEN

under

was

This

al-Ghuri.

SELIM

Kansu

conflict had

al-Ghuri

ASD

THE

that

long seemed

the

conflict with

ine%itable.

A.D.)

(1516

XLUIELUKES

The

the
first

Ottomans

took

between

the
broke out under
at the beginning of
Bayazid II. Kansu
Selim's reign committed
the same
impmdence as the shah, giving asylum
\Mien
and furnishinghim support.
to Prince Korkud
Selim made
war
upon
of Mesopotamia
Persia, Eg}-pt assumed
a hostile attitude ; after the conquest
Kansu
of observation
the northern
frontier of Syria.
placed an amiy
upon
of his beys had already plotted to betray him
Two
Khair
Bey, governor of
two

Moslem

war

states

"

and

Aleppo,
Marj-Dabik,

Berdi

of the

the Ottomans
at
met
Ghazali,bey
army.
The
1516.
feated,
denear
Aleppo, on August 24th,
Egj^ptianswere
thanks
to the action of the artiller}%
which terrified them, and owing
also to the defection of the djelbans,
mamelukes, bought in the Sudan.
or
The resistance was
feeble that the Egj'ptiansdid not
lose more
than
so
a
thousand
The rest dispersedlike a flock of birds.
men.
rendered
Aleppo was surby the traitor I"Qiair Bey, and the sultan, on the "Blue Place" of
the city,received
the oath of allegiance.Aften\-ards Malatia, Behesni, Ainfell into the
tab, Kalat ar-Rum, and all the frontier placesof the mamelukes
of the Ottomans.
hands
Selim
his entry successivelyinto Hamath
made
(ancient Epiphania), Homs
(Emesa), and Damascus, the holy city,the "perfume
of Paradise,"which preserves the tombs of the first disciples
and of the
wives of the prophet, of Saladin, and of many
Moslem
saints and heroes.
Gaza
and
Ramleh
their
Finally
opened
gates to the enemy.
In the mean
had
time the mamelukes
elected a successor
to Kansu; this
the brave and energeticTuman
was
Bey. Selim I, who hesitated to cross
the desert, sent
that

he

ambassadors

to

the

Kan.*u

Sudan

new

with

offers of peace

on

dition
con-

would

received
them with
recognisehis suzerainty. Tuman
honour, but as they were
leavingthe audience Alan Bey fell upon them and
beheaded
Thus
the anarchy which
them.
the mamelukes
prevailedamong
did not pemiit them either to make
for peace.
A
to
treat
war
or
effectively
second
battle was
Gaza
between
the
1516)
(October 28th,
fought near
tians
Egypand
the Turkish
The mamelukes
vanguard commanded
by Sinan Pasha.
were
again crushed by the artillery.The sultan then received the
chiefs of Safed, Tiberias,Xaplouse, Hebron, and Jerusalem, anil the submission
of the sheikhs of the Arab
tribes. Only Acre remained
standing m Syria;
Eg"-pt w^as open to invasion.

THE

CONQUEST

OF

On January 22nd, 1517, Selim camped


This
time
the Eg)-ptianshad some
Cairo.
and
showed
the sultan
Berdi
Ghazali
Bey

however, by

force of pure

(1517 .\.D.)

EGYPT

on

plainof Ridania in sightof


but the traitors IChair
artillery,
the

way

bravery almost

to

turn

won

the batteries.
the

he
victorj^;

man,
Tuhad

STATES

MINOR

SOME

446

(1517-1522 A.D.]

but the caliphwas


now
no
longer an old needy
this title to his other titles;
powerful amiy Islam has ever posat the head of the most
sheikh : he was
sessed.''
has had
that day Islam
From
only one head, uniting under his
stantinopl
and religious
rights. This head is the sultan of Conauthority all political

OF

ORGAXISATIOX

THE

THE

COUNTRY

of his new
ince.
provimportant act Selim organised the govemmeni
official
of
which
Khair
the
chief
was
a
pashalik,
Eg\'pt became
the fall of
defection at the battle of Marj-Dabik had involved
Bey, whose
who
the mameluke
dj-nasty. The sultan,however, only half trustinga man
had alreadyperjuredhimself, and with a \'iew to present as well as to future
After this

interests,established
It

his.

was

beside

him

which

powers

goveiTmient with

see-saw

would

control

and

balance

counter-weights. The
appointment of all superior

system

of

intrusted with the main executive, the


him was
all officials. Beside
the hierarchic pre-eminence over
who
resided
in
the
Ottoman
I-Qiair
officer
ad-din, an
army
a militarychief,
of
it.
Under
commanded
to
in the citadel and was
never
expressly
go out

pasha

was

orders, and

and
placed the sLx thousand horsemen
pasha, were
force
of
who
six thousand
composed the entire permanent military
gunners
Egypt. This troop was di\'ided into six corps, or odjaks. The chiefs of the
Without
them
the
odjaks played an important part in the administration.
tween
beand
when
decide
could
arose
a
disagreement
;
nothing
important
pasha
decision
authorities and the political
these militarj'
was
functionary',
suspended until Constantinoplehad spoken. As a mixed power there existed,
thus keeping their
the mameluke
emirs, who vacillated continually,
moreover,
this

chief,not under

forces balanced.
Selim, in order

the

of
had in the reorganisation
avoid internal struggles,
into
twelve
divided
EgjTJt given a role to these emirs. The country was
and had for sandjaklis,
or
bej's,the chiefs of the mamesandjaks,or districts,
had made
their submission.
lukes who
Thus, because of the complicationof
to strugglesbetween
the machinery, Egj'pt was
high
ine^"itably
given over
their
had
Selim
with
co-extensive
whose
was
dignitaries,
arrogance
to

power.

encouraged these dissensions,becau.se


consolidate his authority
to strengthen and
in these distant possessions. \\'hen he had promulgated a constitution he
this journey is
left Cairo and returned
The sultan's escort on
to Rimielia.
out
and
with
camels
laden
said to have consisted of a thousand
silver,withgold
counting other spoilsnot less precious.
for Egypt. It
of Ivhair Bey was
The administration
not a happy one

the situation; he had


he felt that their tendency was
foreseen

was

one

of exaction

and

indeed

odious meanness,

and

such

was

the hatred

he

inspired

said that
dead.
when
Popular superstition
pardoned even
and
the
had
foimded
which
in al-Medresse. al-Khair
the
pasha
Beyi,
college
in which
been
he had
heard groaning every
buried, a voice was
night and
that
it was
the voice of I\hair Bey.
He died in the year 1520, and was
man's
his
succeeded
Suleiman.
son
by
Egj^pt occupied the first place in SuleiThe
ruler completed to speak metaphorically the
thoughts.
new
wheel to the
of
counter-weightscreated by Selim I, and added a new
system
the
established machinery- that of two divans, one
called
"great," the other
the whole
little Divan.
the
These deliberative assemblies regulatedalmost
administration
of the countr\' ; their sphere of influence was
independent of
the pasha, who was
not
permitted to be present at the debates except in a
that

he

not

was

"

"

"

"

"

HISTORY

THE
79S
[1523-1

A.

governor
delivered

pasha was
In

MEDIEVAL

AND

MODERN

EGYPT

447

D.]

galleryand

barred

OF

behind

The

kiahya and the dejterdarof


with
the pasha before
consulted
opening of the session
afterwards
to him
a
report of the proceedings. The role of
the legislative
thus purelyexecutive
was
; the Divan
power.
a

curtain.

the

Suleiman

all that

authorityof

his first

decreed

one

to

manifest

wjis

purpose

functionaryin Egypt

purely nominal

ordered henceforth
to reside in the citadel,where
who
there.
of
commanded
The
term
the hand of the aga
the
end
of
his
limited to twelve
which
at
functions
months,
installed for a second
unless through an imperialfirman he was

pasha was

the
and
the

reduce the
value.
The
he was
under

to

his

office

was

legallyended
tenn."^

If the

such a dualistic and


sultans in establishing
object of the Ottoman
complicatedsystem of government had been to cause
party strife and thus
prevent any one power from becoming too strong, they certainlysucceeded.
The historyof this period is one
long succession of murder and intrigue
; and
in
followed
another
one
rapid
governors

succession; under
The

sixteen.

authorityat

Suleiman

who

mamelukes

this time

there

were

were

in

called

were
ghuzz ;
they continued to recruit their ranks from
ever,
slaves.
During the two centuries,howfollowingthe Ottoman
conquest the
of the
mameluke
beys gradually
power
Ali Bey it became
increased until under
sheikh
independent. Ali Bey had become
of the proval-beled or militarygovernor
ince
in 1763 ; in 1768, discovering that
ordered
him
the sultan had
deposed and
he
mamelukes
the
to
beheaded,
persuaded
in
out
the pasha
join with him
driving
appointed by the sultan and in making
rebellion was
Egypt independent. The
and
successful,
Egypt enjoyed a period
Ali Bey, who
of prosperityunder
even
his power
extended
by conquests in Syria
and Arabia.
tinue,
Prosperitydid not long conin
Muhammed
1771
however;
Bey,
who had been his favourite mameluke, rebelled againsthim

of All's enemies
al-beled.

drove

him

out

of the

country

and

and

himself

with

became

the aid
sheikh

effect

Ali,upon

a return, wac
trying to
captured and poisoned by
death ; the position
period followed Muhammed's
of sheikh
al-beled was
disputed by the three beys, Ismail,Ibrahim, and
the last two.
In 1785 a
was
Murad, and the power
finallydivided between
Turkish force under
Hasan
Pasha
sent
was
against the rebellious beys and
occupi(;dCairo, but the war with Russia recalled this force,and the country
ruled first by Ismail
and
then
and Murad, until,in 1798,
was
by Ibrahmi
the French under Bonaparte landed in Egj^pt."

Muhanmied.

THE

The
the
the

turbulent

FRENCH

EXPEDITION

TO

EGYPT

(1798

defeats of the Turks, the increasing


disorders of
of Greece
and
independentaspirations
Servia, the
pashas everythingled Europe to believe in the near
"

A.D.)

their administration,
incessant

end

revolts

of the Ottoman

of

MINOR

SOME

448

STATES
[1798-1801 A.D.]

to have

it advisable

not only
its share
Directoryjudged
in advance, on
of the empire,but to seize that share
the participation
of Europe; hence
and
without
its own
an
responsibility
resolved upon.
into lOgypt was
Though the expeditionhad preexpeilition
sented
it proved a great mistake.
of success,
The Porte
chances
numerous
was
easilypersuaded that France had no other object than to chastise the

domination.

The

in the dismembennent

and
re-establish its coimnerce,
to find a passage
to India.
the concession
it might have
obtained
offered money
of all its
would
demands.
The internal divisions of the mamelukes
naturallyparalyse
have furnished
their resistance.
The Christian populationswould
numerous

mamelukes,
Had

to

France

auxiliaries; the

Beshir,

emir

bring togetherseven
than
Egj'pt coimted more
to

necessary

succeed

use

in the

as

mauied

half

the

Maronites

forty thousand

million Christians.

and

men

it woukl

But

Uruse.",

Syria,and

ui

have

been

the Cross, without which


no
expeditioncould
the French
parte's
republichad proscribedGod ! Bona-

respected mosques

Christians

and

standard

Orient, and

soldiers

massacred

commanded

who

hundred

could

as

well

as

more

Moslems:

than

monasteries;

hence

Jaffa

at

the Christians

of

they
Syria re-

inactive.

England
the Porte

did

and

opportunity to break the old alliance between


rather confused
explanationof Ruffin, the charge
the Divan
declared
was
against France
; war

not

lose this

France.

The

could not convince


d'affaires,
conducted
to
(September 1st,1798). Ruffin was
thrown
the French
livingat; Constantinople were

the Seven

Towers, and

all

prison. Ali Pasha


seized Butrinto and Prevesa, which had been ceded to France by the Treaty
of Campo-Fomiio, whilst a Russian
fleet startingfrom
to
Sebastopol came
the Ionian
A triple
alliance united Turkey, England, and
blockade
Islands.
destined to expel the
Russia.
The
annies
two
grand vizir concentrated
from
under
the
orders
of
the
of
French
Egypt
pashas
Syria antl Anatolia.
The mamelukes
had been defeated in the battles of the Pyramids and of
Cairo and
the whole
of upper
Embabeh;
Eg"-pt fell into the hands of the
But
fleet at Abukir
victors.
the destruction by the English of the French
he was
of reinforcements:
a
deprived Bonaparte of all possibility
prisoner
in his conquered territorj'.
thousand
Pasha
landed
men
eighteen
Mustapha
of
the
from
the
but
the
at Abukir
to attack
rapidity
Bonaparte
young
rear,
the plans of the serasker.
Without
defeated
general'smovements
leaving
and
them
time to retrench themselves
Bonaparte fell upon the Ottomans
them
Invaded
cut
he
to pieces(1799). Following up his success
Syria,and
in spiteof the plague which was
decimating his army laid siegeto Acre.
In spiteof its victories,
in a most
the French army
critical condition:
was
of the sea, mtercepted all communications;
the English,masters
the grand
vizir was
the
French
approaching at tiie head of a considerable
troops,
army;
in addition
reduced to less than half by battles and disease,were
discouraged
mand
by the departure of their commander.
Bonaparte had intrusted the comand
the
to Kl^ber
had left secretlyfor France, whither
presentiment
with
of his high destiny summoned
him.
Kleber
entered
into negotiations
that
the English for the evacuation
of Egypt, but Sydney Smith
demanded
the
up

French

the treaty.

only by

should

army

victories."

and

.surrender at discretion.
he exclaimed, "such

"Soldiers!"

lie then

marched

to meet

the

mto

Kleber

in

grand

indignation tore
be

answered

vizir with

six thousand

insolence

can

destroyed the Turkish army near the ruins of Heliopolis(1800).


But
assassin's dagger delivered
the Porte
of this redoubtable
an
adversary ;
and
succeeded
the
beaten
at
Menou, who
him, was
English
Canopus
by
thereupon evacuated Egypt (September, 1801).''
men

HISTORY

THE

OF

MEDLEVAL

AND

MODERN

EGYPT

449

A.D.]
[1801-1805

Bonaparte'sexpeditioninto Egypt was


accompanied by a large number
collected much
valuable information
of savants, who
concerningthe country
The results of their research have been published m a
and its inhabitants.
called Descriptionde
work of several volumes
During Kl^ber's
be
to
administration Egypt began once
after his death
but
more
prosperous,

I'^gijpte.

the land

plunged again into the turmoils and strifes of contending


It was
invasion that the famous
during the French
destined to play such a largepart in Egyptian affairs,
prominence."

soon

was

nations.
All,who was

partiesand
Mehemet
firstcame

into

Mehemet
Ali

Mehemet

born

was

in 1769

at

AH

Kavala, a

coast. Although of a good family,he had had no


with most
Turks of his time who
case
young
official

lower

class.

growing up

littletown

the Macedonian
on
school education
the
as was
to
the
belonged
militaryand
"

ever,
How-

in the divan

of his imcle, the miitesellim


of his native
(vice-governor)
he developed at an early
city,
ness
mind for busiage a practical
and
acquired a quick
comprehension of affairs,
left him.
In his
which never
manhood
he
speculated
young
with abilityand
fortune in
crative
Macedonian
tobacco, the luof
his
product
country.
This career
was, however, cut
short in 1799, when his uncle,
in

compliancewith

an

order

/^

of the

Porte, sent to Egypt,


againstthe French invading
anny, a contingent of three
hundred soldiers,
equipped by
himself and under the leadership
Ali
of his young
son
Aga,
Ali
and appointed Mehemet

Mehemet

Ali

(1769-1849)
for his twenty-ninementor
It
cousin.
more
was
year-old
than a year before the Turkish
militaryforce landed in Abukir, and during
that time Mehemet
superiorto his cousin, soon
Ali,who was
intellectually
of
militia.
then so
Mehemet
became
the actual leader of his uncle's troop
to Cairo, and in the
himself before Rosetta, in the e.xpedition
distinguished
battle of Rachmaniyeh, that in 1801 he was
promoted by the kapudan pasha
of the Turkish
the commander-in-chief
troops, to the grade of major (binof Egypt,
Turkish governor
to the new
and was
bashi),
warmly reconmiended

IChosni Pasha."
and played his
and ability,
intelligence
and
Ali appointed
recalled
Mehemet
was
so
the
in his place." But neither the Divan
mameluke
nor
beys who reigned
which
the
with
in upper
from
new
themselves
a
danger
Egypt concealed
in
the
the
old
conditions
threatened
province.
so
power, rising
energetically,
united
At the same
time that the beys,abandoning their personalquarrels,
that

well

H.

Khosru

far exceeded

Mehemet

cards

W.

"

VOL.

Khosru

in 1805

XXIV.

in

MIXOK

SOME

450

STATES
[1806-1818 A.D.]

in

out

struggleagainstMehenict
Eg"-pt. This occurred

in 1806.

of

attack to his
in turning the double
Ali, however, succeeded
he bribed the high admiral,
With
of 50,000 ducats
a
sum

Mehenict
own

advantage.

who

for
procured

the

fleet to drive him

despatched a

Divan

Ali, the

of Eg}'pt and then threw


of the mamescale against the untlertakings
with
the
mamelukes
of
the
English,who occupied
understanding
forced a passage
time whilst Duckworth
for some
through the

prestigeof

The
lukes.
Alexandria

him

investiture of the whole

the

legalityinto

the

Dardanelles

Mehemet

Islamic

the

of

still lower

1807, placed them

in

estimation

them

forced

Orient, and

into

the

to

agreement

an

in the

next

year
pay

an

impossibletribute for the imdisturbed


sion
possesof upper
Egj'pt. But when the Porte, filledwith
of the pasha, entered
alarm
at the increasmg power
almost

mto

intrigueswith

new

mameluke

the
the

hemet
beys, Me-

himself

Ali

broke
he

agreement;
attacks

his

and

them

newed
re-

upon

several

won

in the years 1809


In February,
1810.

victories

and

1811, he

invited

leaders and
Cairo

to

and

discuss

to

their

to
dignitaries
bly
assemgeneral
a

peace

new

joint campaign

against the

inhabitants

of the Arabian
\\'hen

them
he

peninsula.
of
large number
had come
together
a

had

ously
treacher-

them

murdered.*
Mehemet
Mosque

of

Hassan

Sultax

the

Cairo

at

sent

an

army

Wahhabees.
defeated

Tusun

Pasha, Mehemet's

by superiorforces
Medina

Two

(1813).

strugglecontinued
of

Ibn

Se'oud

of Mehemet
caused the

he

war

begin anew.

Ali,experiencedat

first several

him

the

again

take

to

tribes whom

prevent

the

emir's

the

that

the

Ibrahim

emir

should

but

Jiddah

of

Se'oud
come
over-

and

Mecca.

of
The

until the death


demands
The

become

his

prisoner,

of 5lehemet
allowed
reinforcements
important

Pasha,

defeats,but
initiative ; the emir,

he had

Egypt,
againstthe
Ibn

evacuated

son

in

Judeiyideh;

fall

disadvantage for the Wahhabees


then
with
Tusun.
negotiatetl

without

(1815) ; his son


insisted
Ali, who
to

not

later

months

in the defiles of

son,

could

solute
ab-

Ali,now

master

the

second

son

by part of the Arab


capitulatein Direeyeh,his

abandoned

bought for gold,was obligedto


months
cutioner's
(1818). His head roUotl under the exesiegeof seven
sword
at Constantinople; the Wahhabees
were
conquered but not
destroyed; twelve years had not elapsed Ijcfore they had retaken Medina,
seized caravans
at the gates of Mecca, ami
again prohibitedthe faithful to
have access
into Yemen
Tlie expeditionmade
under the relga
to the Kaaba.
after
capital,

of Abdul-Aziz

did not have

any

more

efficacious results.

THK
iKn.iii

Ihr

pniiithiK by

MASSAfKK
Alcximilrc

OK

Biiln, in the

THK

MAMKLIKKS

Mi'lropolitan

Miwci

.1

An.

Nc"

Vi.rk)

SOME

452

MINOR

STATES

[lS3-i-18"4i.Dl
ance,
27th, 1832, Ibrahim delivered an attack, and Abdallah, aftor a desperateresistThe
Ottoman
which
was
obliged to surrender.
was
advancing
army,
defeated
before
to relieve the place,was
Damascus, which opened its gates
the
him
to the conqueror
(June 14th) ;
pasha of Aleppo tried in vain to stop Ibrathe Orontes; he lost throe thousand
and all his artillery.
at Homs
men
on
of the janissaries,
defeated
in his turn at
Hussein
Pasha, the exterminator
and
Antioch, could hardly rallyten thousand
Beilan, between Alexandretta
men
(July29th).
renewed
his demand
for the four pashaliksof Syria;
Ali then
Mehemet
confided
nothing of it,and a new
to Reshid
was
army
and endowed
serasker,although brave, intelligent,
energetic,
his inexperienced
military talents, could not count
upon
besides demoralised
poorly trained, and were
by their

hear

the sultan would


The new
Pasha.
remarkable

with

who

troops,

were

; Reshid,

battle of Konieh
sword

in

hand,

to do

with

him

with

him

thousand

Thirty

disaster.

recent

in

into the midst


; he

of the

made

was

the

of
fiight

hostile

prisonerand

greatest honour

the

remained

Ottomans

despairat

ranks;

field after

threw
soldiers,

would

death

conducted

(December

the

on

his

have

Ibrahim, who

to

The

21st, 1832).

the

himself,

victor

nothing
treated
free

was

Constantinople nothing could

Ibrahim's
to march
impede his progress.
upon
him
his
march
hasten
it
to
was
no
longer a ques;
European entourage urged
tion
and of reconstituting
of Syria,but of substitutingone
dynasty for another
.

the requisite
Ali did not have
breadth
Empire. Mehemet
height of ambition ; he wished only independence and territorial
a
aggrandisement; the conflict,which might have become
strugglebetween
the Arabian

of view

or

two

remained
nationalities,

and

vassal.
In

the

in the
of

into

Ibrahim

of the

by

czar

had

limits of

advanced

as

Muraviev.

General

Varennes, amba.s.sador

de

the

to

Adana.

Divan

The

upon
fifteen thousand

declared

Scutari.
men

suzerain

of

France,

far

However,
led

the

these

Mahmud

in the

conditions

then

and
cit}'

the

of the
also

latter
the

the

prepared to defend

Russians,
it.

him

The

had

creased
in-

district of

and

inadmissible

sunmioned

acing
men-

representations
to ent""r
again

Porte

Ali; but the demands


negotiationswith Mehemet
he
satisfied
with Syria,ho wanted
was
no
longer
;

marched

between

war

Brusa
and was
as
offers
of
aid made
the
being frightened,
accepted

; Mahmud,

name

M.

time

mean

Scutari

confined

Ibrahim

who

landed

French

and

this

intervention, pointed out to the


English ambassadors, frightened at
of
Russia
the
sultan
danger
letting
gain a footingin the heart of the empire;
be better, said they, to capitulateto his rebellious
it would
subject. The
himself to be persuaded, and on
sultan allowed
May 5th, 1833, the viceroy
Asia Elinor in return
for the cession of the pashalik
consented
to evacuate
with
of Acre, Aleppo, Tripoli,and Damascus,
their dependencies. Ibrahim
of Adana.
received the investiture of the pa.shalik
had
The
abandoned
Occident
her an
Turkey; only Russia had showed
effective and, in appearance,
disinterested
blinded
a
by
sympathy ; Mahmud,
and misled by the promises of St. Petersburg,signedwith Nicholas
resentment
a

treaty of offensive and

annihilated
of

the

defensive

alliance.
of the

political
independence

This
Porte

treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi

by recognisingthe right

in the internal
to intervene
difficulties of the empire;
power
of the autocrat
of all the Ru.?sias.
put herself at the mercy
settled, it was
not
only
tiuarrolbetween
lOgypt and Turkey was

foreign

Turkey
The

slumbering; both
armaments

and

sides, foreseeinga

preparingin silence.

severelypunished brigandage; the

activelypushing
beginning of 1834 Ibrahim

rupture,
In

the

discontentment

were

of the Moslem

their
had

population

HISTORY

THE

[1832-1840A.D.]
Syria,which

OF

MEDLEVAL

MODERN

AXD

EGYPT

453

AU
for having propardon the son of Mehemet
claimed
of
and Christians,
and established
led the
equality Mohammedans
the hope of avenging himself
his rival,and
man
Ottosultan to nourish
an
upon
invaded
the insurrection,took
Syria. Ibrahim, having overcome
army
the Euphrates and
observed
the movements
of the enemy.
up a positionon
European diplomacy intervened ; Russia and England urged the grand seigneur
France
was
to war;
openly disposed in favour of the viceroy of Egypt.
the possessionof his hereditarydomains; the Porte
Ali demanded
Mehemet
acceded to this demand
as
concerns
Egypt, Acre, and Tripoli,but claimed
of
the
of
rest
restitution
the
Syria. The viceroy burned his vessels,ceased
declared
himself
and
tribute,
to pay
indepentlent. Diplomacy laboured in

could

of

not

the

Russia, Mahmud
hostilities. On April 21st,1839, the first column
to open
established
crossed the river near
Bir, while Ibrahim
Aleppo and occupied Nizib, three leagues distant from
vain

for

intend

did not
upon

settlement

to

Damascus.

the

: on

force
He

advice

Ibrahim

of

upon

fanatical of all the Moslem


the most
of Naplouse and
of the
mountaineers
of the emir

and the Maronites


the

profiting
by

hatreil

of

Metuali

flocked

Beshir

the

Hafiz

his

Bir.

for

Arabs

of the

The

Lebanon.

to Ibrahim's

the

The

sent

out

was

Hafiz Pasha
of cannon.'*

TJie Intervetitimi
the second

For
one

disaster
the

30th, and
later
with

time

followed

the way

to

close

Ali

Constantinople stood

the

Sultan

Turkish

and

call to

horsemen,

Hejaz. On
destroyed;
sixty pieces

Ibrahim

to

open

Mahmud

died

fleet from

seemed

of

that

to

be

the
he

June

on

Five

Abdul-Mejid.

fleet ; instead

Fortune

men.

Druses

the Powers

upon
fell to his sixteen-year-okl
son

all his

with

of

another.

empire
the kapudan pasha sailed with
orders
the Egyptian
to attack

Mehemet

at

serasker

standard; Mehemet,

Ottomans,

the two armies met


at Nizib; the Ottoman
army
retired upon
Jlarash, abandoning one hundred

29th

army

headquarters

The
sheikhs of the Bedouins
sent
the desert.
twenty thousand
of
the
able
Mecca
offered all
and the sherif
population of the
June

Pasha

of the Turkish

to march
Aleppo; his plan was
rapidly
of that city,
a risingof the inhabitants
Orient, and on the co-operationof the

in

reckoned

ordered

days

Dardanelles

went

over

emptying

to

its horn

deaf
forgot the ring of Polykrates,however; was
and
demanded
less
nothing
more
nor
negotiation,
in Egypt, Syria,and Crete.
than the rightof inheritance in all his possessions,
In order to prevent Turkey from
of
again throwing herselfinto the arms
in
of
four
declared
the
collective
note
a
Russia,
July 27th, 1839,
great powers,
that they would
take the settlement of the Eastern
Question into their own
hands.
Russia, in order not to be entirelyleft out, had to give her assent
the
upon
to all the

and

to

Porte's offers of

support the convention


to

as

her eye upon


full

thought

how
in

supremacy
in his

He

Egyptian.

the

as

But
fifth power.
be decided.

question should
wished

to leave

rights. England
French

saw

different

were

France,

who

ions
opin-

strove

for

Napoleon's campaign had had


Mehemet
Ali,who was friendlyto France,
her
interests
endangered by the pasha,
and
feared
by a
Algiersquite sufficient,

Mediterranean, and

Egypt,

there

since

occupation of
too great weakening of Turkey to turn
the latter into a defenceless
prey of
itance
Russia.
The
latter did not wi.sh the powerful pasha to enter
into any inherrelaxation
of Turkey, or even
in
took pleasure
seeing a
a part of it,and
of the

the

the

cordial

relation

upheld Russia, and


expressed in

between

hence
the

France

I-'rance stood

and
alone.

(juadrupletreaty

of

England
This

Austria

state

of

and

Prussia

things was

July 15th, 1840, concluded

cially
offiat

SOME

454

STATES

MINOR

In this treaty
with the exclusion of France.
by the great powers
the
of
assured
to
Meheraet
of
the hereditarytenure
pashaUk
Eg}'pt was
Ali,
of
in
togetherwith the Hfelong possession a part of Syria, case he submitted
As Louis
within
disten days to the decisions of the conference.
Philippe's
without
well known, the allied powers,
selves
incUnation to war
troublingthemwas
London

of protest in France, the warlike


demand
for the frontier of the

cry

the

Thiers, or

Minister

of

the wild

about

ovennuch

arations
prep-

Rhine,

hostilities againstMehemet
ing
Ali,who had refased his submission, trustfleet
sailed
for
the
Beirut
An
Austrian
France.
coast;
Syrian
Anglobombarded
Acre
modore
was
taken, and Alexandria
were
by the English com-

began
to

and

Napier.

Ali, after the fall of

Mehemet

Thiers

the

ministry,fully

to preserve
realised his mistake and had to be glad even
hereditarypashalik
for the evacuation
of all Syria,Arabia, and Crete,the
of Egj'pt,in return
restoration
of the Turkish
fleet,and the payment of a yearly tribute; this
him a friend and
he owed
favour
wished thereby to make
to England, who

the

to

for herself the passage

assure

The
The

the

followingare

Suez./

through

Firman

of

Investiture

principalrightswhich

the

granted the

firman

roy
vice-

of Egj'pt): hereditary
the governor
was
the
of
Mehemet
in
dominion
Ali, subject to the rightof
over
Eg"'pt
family
pendence
investiture
and appointment by the Porte of every succeedingviceroy; indeadministration
of
of
the
circumscribed
internal
incomplete and
henceforth

(this title

used

for

"

"

and appointment of military


country; appointment of all ci\'ilofficials,
of non-political
treaties and
officers up
of colonel; conclusion
to the rank
conventions
with
(300,000
foreignstates; and limitation to a definite sum
pounds sterling)of the tribute to be paid the Porte, substitutingthe earlier
the

accordingto

detennined
in each instance proporwhich
tribute was
tionately
had
the revenues
of the country.
The
fonner
abuse
necessarily
of Turkish
resulted in the domination
agents, and in vexations of all sorts.
In opposition to these concessions, however, stood a mass
of restrictions,

statute,

to

whereby the Porte sought to protect and strengthen its sovereignty.We


have already spoken of the investiture of everj' new
viceroy by the Porte.
Other clauses provided for the limitation of the army
to eighteenthousand
and of the fleet to a few war-ships; for the le\yingof taxes in the name
naen
forms
uniof the sultan ; and
for the conformity of laws, of coinage,even
of army
to those in the rest of the empire. The.se regulations
not always
were
have
than
once
observed, but they could always furnish, and more
strictly
the
its
with
Porte
convenient
for
furnished,
Egyptian
a
oppressing
pretext
vassal.
The
Mehemet
had

made

Ali
the

in the
had

in
a

Pasha

in

objectof his life and


catastrophe,when

able

mind

Ali

all,of what he
although by no means
gone
policy. Despite the defeat he had underhe

was

an

old

man

of

seventy-two,

he

to

recover

and

1844

his

.son

it became

Januarj*,LS48,
Egj'pt in placeof

with

Mehemet

much,

last

In the year
and

attained

Days of

exhausted ;
his strengthwas
himself.
But now
body by such powerful exertion and excitement, he
ment.
rapidly increasingdebilitywhich developed into mental derange-

yet been

broken
showed

had

Last

was

called

necessary

his father.

to

for

take
the

part in the government,


Porte

to invest

Ibrahim

THE

HISTORY

OF

MEDIEVAL

AND

MODERN

EGYPT

455

(1848-1849A.D.]

through his energy and wisdom, through the greatness


talents
and
his
strength of his character, through his administrative
ceeded
dominating will,through his broad vision and his great efforts,had far exall oriental and
some
European regents of his time, who had freed
of the
to it the
Egypt from unworthy debasement, and had attracted
eyes
whole political
workl, who had enabled this old and formerly respected land
times
to a positionamong
civilised
of culture to work
up again in modern
Mehemet
Ali passed his last days in mental
lands
imbecility,and died
near
alone, at the age of eighty,on August 2nd, 1849, at his castle Shubra
of
the
second
Abbas
At
his
the
time
death
Cairo.
Pasha, had
successor,
Pasha
had died
his
Ibrahim
entered
governmental career, as
already
upon
after
his
ten montlis
appointment.
who

AH,

Mehi'iiiet

and

"

THE

Ali

Mehemet

While

OP

SUCCESSORS

was

ALI

MEHEMET

yet alive,owing

to

his sad

mental

condition

Egypt. But he had no time to


appointeflviceroy
He
died of
with
realise the hopes which
placed in him.
people,
reason,
his
father's
after
less
than
before
(and
death, November,
a year
consumption
Pasha

Ibrahim

of

was

1848). Ibrahim's

for the

miportance

country, however, does

in

and

what

not

lie

he

so

much
before

of ruler as
what
he was
career
accomplished
the armed
instrument
all in the fact that he was
It lies above
that time.
Without
him
till his death.
and remained
of the policy of his father
so
he did attain; because,surAli could never
Mehemet
have
attained what
rounded
by a himdred
difficulties,
obliged to turn his eyes a hundred
ways
in his

he

at once,

and

to

coukl

never

place hunself

the necessary

were

have

tlared

at the head

leave his country for a period of years


he fought the battles which
time the indispensable
at the same

where
of his army
of his policyand

consequences
carrying it out.

he
possessed no generals to whom
could have intrusted and confitled such great enterprises.
Pasha
Mehemet
All's grandson, but
of Ibrahim,
not the son
Abbas
was
His grandfatherhad
being instead the son of Tusun
Pasha, who died young.
introduced
from
his boj'hood,and finally
treated him with marked
partiality
of favour, however, were
him into the administration.
These marks
ably
probAli was
attached
Mehemet
due
rather
to his father,
Tusun, to whom
It
with a peculiaraffection,than
and his personal excellencies.
to himself
in this case
that Mehemet
Ali was
be admitted
must
completely lacking in
deceived
and that he was
to his grandhis usuallyclear insight,
as
son.
thoroughly
whom
In fact,Abbas
in
was
a man
hardly any praiseworthy trait could
be discovered ; he nmst
be regarded as a disgraceto his house.
When
in the year
he came
to power
early death,
1849, after Ibrahim's
means

and
and

whilst

of

Mehemet

destroy the
zealoaslyand

Ali

was

educational

still

He

alive, almost

institutions which

his first act


his

was

to

grandfather had

remove

founded

such care.
Of all the schools he left only the
the
likewise
disbanded
He
militaryinstitutions.
his
two
of
which
been
the
had
by
carefullyplanned
organisation
army,
diately
predecessors.He was filled with a deep hatred for Europeans and he immeall positionswhich
from
service
removed
them
the state
and from
to
tried by every
depended on his appointment; he even
possiblemeans
he
could
not
them
the; country.
from
entirely
remove
However, he found
in the administration,and
dispense with them
consequently the French
element,which until then had exercised an almost dominating influence on
so

medical

school

fostered

and

few

with

MINOR

STATES

abolished

by him,

SOME

456

[1849-1856 A. D.]

and

the government

which

was

was

merely supplantedby

This had in so far a beneficial result that the construction


English influence.
of a railway between
now
Alexanilria,Cairo, and Suez was
finallybegun;
^Iehenlet
Ali had
trust,
this was
always opposed with disundertaking which
an
in it a strengtheinngof the English influence which he
he saw
because

hated.
It is true, however, that
in the administration

Abbas

under

certain

duced
introimprovements were
the
abolishment
of
tain
cercountry, notably
and the revision of certain especially
initiated
taxes
oppressivemeasures
Ali ; and, above all,the suppressionof the system of monopolies.?
by Mehemet
is said to have
been contemplating a wholesale
murder
Abixas
of
Pasha
the high
all the Europeans in the country, as well as of all his relatives and
he hunself
was
murdered, and in July, 1854,
dignitariesof the land, when
The
Ali."
ences
differsucceeded
was
by his uncle. Said Pasha, a son of Mehemet
and
his successor
Abbas
It
between
were
chieflyin favour of Said.
the prosperityof his
be denied
that he had a great desire to advance
cannot
of useful institutions
after European models.
land and to give it all manner
and also too little
But
he had too little real insightinto what
was
necessary,
him.self
be
led
of the
he
allowed
in
his
to
conduct
more
by the whim
logic
;
made
than
he
orders
and
which
he
moment
plans
quickly
by principle
;
gave
and
countermanded
abrogated. Since,however, like most
people of weak
he was
tions
and variable character,
easilyled bj'outside influence,his good intenmight have been aiade fruitful of good had he fallen under the right
The
the case ; the European, principally
control.
contrary, however, was
French, entourage which almost wholly controlled him consisted for the most
interests and using their
far from
who were
forgettingtheir own
part of men
him
for the good of the country.
influence over
time it is not to be denied that various improvements in the
At the same
of the

of the country

administration

are

due

Said's rule.

to

To

of the

Chief among

them

are

the

monopoly.
peasant was given
and
at
back the free dispensationof his produce ; he could sell it to whom
who
then
until
had
been
what
priceshe pleased;and the pitiablelabourer,
for the benefit of the government, could now
almost
forced to work
exclusively
for
himself.
that
he
worked
mainly
say
various
We
the execution of which
should also mention
publicenterprises,
these
of the greatest importance to the country. Conspicuous among
was
the cleaningout and improvement of the Malmiudia
canal, built in the
was
and
Mehemet
1820 under
1819
Ali,and the only waterway from the
years
final and

the

interior

to

filled with
Said

Pa.sha

actual

the

abolishment

chief

mud,

so

port of the country

undertook

"

Alexandria.

navigation threatened
the task,by no means

that

to

This

canal

had

soon

become

easy,

of

an
impossibility.
deepening it and of

by the establishment of a system of locks; it is a credit to hLs


work
was
wisely planned, and completed with satisfactory
which
results. Still more
the railway constructions
important th;in this were
The stretch from Alexandria
Said undertook.
to Cairo,as alreadymentioned,
had been begun uiuler Abbas
Pasha, but it was not completed until the second
Said's
It
built wholly at the expense
of the Egyptian
of
reign.
was
year
the
of
the
Nile
and the canals,
antl,
including
expensivecrossings
government,
continued
It
also
Said
than 1,()00,0()()
who
cost more
jMHinds sterling.
was
improving

rule

the

that

it

the

stretch from

Cairo

to

Suez.

the important work of the Suez


all,however, should be mentioned
its
canal and Said's share in
accomplishment. The enthusiasm and eloquence
of M. de Lesseps succeeded
the viceroyto this projnot only in winning over
Above

HISTORY

THE

[1866-1876A.D.]
ect but also in

OP

making

MEDLEVAL

him

AND

MODERN

on. the

enthusiastic

EGYPT

subject,and

457

he did not

cease

and

energetically.He made
support it most
great monetary
promote
sacrifices,
engaging himself for no less than about
80,000,000 francs; in
he granted the canal company
important tracts of land and gave it
atidition,
to

extensive
and

labour

the most
privileges,
important of which
exemption from duty of all imported
denied

be

It cannot

projectis due

to

that the chief credit for the actual

M.

de

Lesseps

and

his tireless

the

were

materials

grant of free

and

execution

efforts,but

provisions.
of the

it should

canal

be

not

in the first years the work, although under


French
guidance,
carried
and
that
without
Said Pasha's
on
largely
by Egyptian money,

forgotten that
was

yet

would

it
reallymagnificentliberality

the work.
cruel
not
Said Pasha's end was
so
was
yet sad enough. His death was

ready

to

do

because

so

it

but also without


Pasha

Ismail
the same
Cairo as

weeks, and

and

rich

grown

Pasha's

but

it

in his

from

his

Ismail.

all the
They were
that Ismail was
h
ostile
to
bitterly
d
ied
in
the
most
Said, therefore,
only without princelyceremonial,

not

"

receptionwhich

he

held

of friends.

appointing

in the

citadel

of

in Alexandria.

ISMAIL

the

Abbas,
predecessor.
several

and

first official

for Said's funeral

Ismail
these was

him

actually to begin

without
the attendance
even
any
had
deliberatelybrought about this situation by
for the

hour

flattered

buried

official escort

for

risingsun
known

was

and

difficult

of his

foreseen

his death.

was
eagerlyawaiting
completeabandonment, and was

him

that

as

had
last illness all the parasiteswho
the
turned
to
newly
bounty
away
more

been

have

first acts

PASHA

calculated

were

publicationof

to

great hopes;

arouse

in which

one

of

the most

liberal principles
a programme,
reforms,modelled
proclaimed,extensive promises made, and far-reaching
announced.
He promised abolition of the corvee
after European institutions,
(compulsorylabour), abolition of slavery and suppressionof the slave trade,
in the system of instruction,
and
creation
of a civil list.
especiallegislation
These and similar innovations, had
they been put honestly and completely
have
into efTect,must
proved of the greatest importance to the country.
of these improvements were
lated
formuUnfortunately,however, although some
into laws, their actual execution
in
not
taken.?
most
was
cases
seriouslyunderwere

When

Pasha

Said

died

the

fellah,
happier than he had ever
oppressedor despoiled. There
of

the

which
which

country
he

dates

continued

he

country
been,

then

was

from

the

give
turn-bridgeover

built,the
sumptuous theatre,

the

to

was
was

to

khediviate
M.

It has

of apart of this sum, but


the use of which
has never

the national debt of

sterling.''

Egypt

of Ismail

Lesseps,the

Pasha.

The

marvellous
of

port
sup-

palaces

Ismalieh, a

was
pyramids, which
the
the
Eugenie,
garden of Esbekieh
railways,
of
witness
to the magnificenceof his ideas and

"

use

de

the Nile, the boulevards

acacia-lined

avenue

built to please the empre.ss


with its beautiful pond
all
his tastes.
In ten
years' reign Ismail
francs.
3,000,000,000

no

m
a flourishing
condition,and the
growing rich without fear of being
dence
public debt in Egypt. The deca-

been

Pasha

the

of

had

there
been

accounted

reached

the

enormous

for.

in

succeeded

documents
possible,
remains a surplusof

On

in
seven

hand,
or

November

borrowing

to

trace

the

eightmillions
18th, 1876,

figureof 113,573,301

pounds

MINOR

SOME

458

STATES
a873-1879 1.1X]

Ismail

from

ricli presents hat! extorted

by

the Sublime

Porte the
the
succession
which
the
throne
to
8th, 1873,
changed
by
lished
making the eldest son heir, instead of the eldest brother; he had thus estabhimself actually,though not
fonnally,as the independent ruler of
the yearly tribute of S2,250,000 due
was
Egypt ; the only sign of vassaldom
firman

the

Vasha

of June

He

Porte.

consular

attack

obtained

from

favour

of the

army
John and

the

powers

renunciation
of

court

of

their

justiceopened

in

his power
The
externallyby the conquest of Darfur.
the
the
in
in
failure.
resulted,
on
followingyear
Abyssinia
contrary,

on

An

the

international

extended

He

1875.

also

in
jurisdiction

penetratinginto the interior of that country was attacked by King


almost
completelydestroyed; a second anny, in March, 1876, was
taken
captive, together with the khedive's
the Egj'ptianslost
in a third defeat
son, and
all their artillerj'.
To this external disaster
added

was

in the

financial ruin

of

necessary
consequence
and
of tlie newly

interior

Ismail's

the

"

gance
extrava-

acquired right of
taken
advantage

was
making
of by usurers.
of
use
England made
embarrassment
of
the
khedive
pecuniar}'
buy for "4,000,000 his 177,000 shares in

loans,which

Suez

Canal.

his

At

request,

this
to

the

moreover.

the

general pajnnaster Cave


with
other officials on a financial embassy in
the hope of bringingorder
into his treasurj'.
No
from
this measure.
resultetl
improvement
the
tried
khedive
to
Finally
help himself out
of the difficulty
by suspending the pajinent

England

sent

of interest
"

the state

on

debt and

the two

into

one

state

debt

cent., and established for it a


which Eiu-opeancommissioners
as

court

Black

Slave

of

Morocco

Ramleh.

the daira

at

dated
consoli-

and

in

sentenced
full

tried

to

when

per

seven

sinking fund

the

daira

the

khedive

prevent

to

attached

were

guarantee for the creditors. The


however, complained,and the new

its interest
A

on

?'.e.,his privateexpenditure. He

itors,
crednational
interto

pay

protested
execution

the

of the sentence, it sequesteredthe


commission
under
the presidency of de

vice-regal
Lesseps,

palace
of England and France
for
to discover a method
appointed at the demand
end
fuiancial
declared
that
that
situation,
permanently improving Egypt's
the owner
and exploiterof the
if the khedive, who
could be attained
was
the
of his landed propshould
whole
of
the
tillable
soil,
give over
erty
greatest part
outside
the law.
tax
to the state and should promise to levy no
Ismail,
and in the new
in "hisextremity,agreed to both measures,
ministryformed
Pasha
in August, 1878, accepted as minister
of finance Mr. Wilson
by Nubar
The
minister
of public works
M. Blignieresof France.'
of England, and
as
at

khedive, however,
and
an

soon

found

this

limitation

of

his freedom

year tried to get rid of the European control.


energetic protest from Germany in which the other powers
in the

willing to

being
(June 26th, 1879)."

Ismail, not
sultan

next

abdicate

was
voluntarily,

irksome,
very
caused
This

joined,and
so
by the

forced to do

MINOR

SOME

460

STATES
[1880-1883 A.D.)

police,until soldiers put an


been killed and
said to have
protect
been

who

the

victims

of the

end

so

many

well-to-do

at
was
bread; commerce
longer a ministry; Arabi

a
was

Forty-nineEuropeans were
fleet did nothing to
The

which

fanaticism

national

inflamed by its appearance.


the
could took refuge on

departure of

the carnage.

to

eighty-sixwoundetl.

in the first instance


seized

generalpanic
ships; over forty thousand
families

left thousands

stand-still;
anarchy
actual

was

had

the

Europeans; all
left Egypt. The

of

natives

everywhere; there

without
was

no

dictator.

he did not
and when
him
to Constantinople,
of true
orders
oriental
an
example
highest
upon
the
Porte
to
take
underthe
and
more
delayed
ambiguously
longer
of order the more
the procedure of
itself the restoration
energeticwas
When
the British government.
France, where
against
public opinion was
her
when
fleet
from
far
refused
adventure
interference,
so
home,
joint
an
the
other
nations
of
followed
Alexandria
of
and
the
the
harbour
left
war-ships
of this refusal England
declared
that in consequence
its example, Gladstone
faileil to obey an
of
action.
Arabi
freetlom
Since
had regained complete
of Alexandria,
fortification
which
had
been
work
the
order to stop
beg\m on
the
forts
at the same
fire
and
11
Admiral
on
th, opened
Seymour, on July
ashes.
of
the
The
time reduced a large part
retreatingtroops and the
cityto
Arabi, although now
mob
helped to complete the work of destruction.
declared a rebel by the sultan and dej^rivedof his positionby the khedive,
to the knife against the
commanded
absolute, ruler and
proclaimed war
as
ill supported by deeds.
General Wolseley,
But his big wonls
infidels.
were
in the successful war
who
had nuide himself famous
againstthe Ashantis in
session
1873, and who had just brought the whole of the Suez Canal into his poswith
an
expedition corps increased to twenty-eight thousand men,
of Tel el-Kebir,and
him
attacked
on
Septendjer 13th, in the intrenchments
The
in Cairo.
Arabi surrendered
after a short battle dispersedhis army.
him
commuted
to lifelong
of death
exile,
was
sentence
pronounced upon
which he passed in Ceylon.
next?
the question.What
More
England, who
however, was
difficult,
desire to be forced out
of the positionshe had
the slightest
did not have
gained on the Nile, put all possibledifficulties in the way of the simplest
of order to the sultan,the
that of leaving the re-establishment
solution
of the territory,
the
lord
of
suzerain
Having once gained pos.^ession
country.
with France.
financial
the
control
wish
to
divide
did
she
not
even
any longer
financial
control
the
and
The
khedive
removed
appointed Colvin, an
joint
Englishman, as the only financial coun.'^ellor of his government. France even
for
of its share in the control, in return
acquiescedin a formal renunciation
from
her
the worthless engagement to withdraw
which
troops
England made
Egypt at the beginning of 1888, assuming that this could be done, in the
judgment of the powers, without danger to peace and quiet. Egypt acquired
the appearance
of an
and
more
English province; the Engli.shconsulmore
tance;
general,Sir Evelyn Baring, had the deciding voice in all questionsof imporand gendarmerie;
English officers stood at the head of the English army
of six thousand
men
occupied the country.
English troops to the number
The
finances,however, under the English protectorate fell into boundless
sultan

The

obey conferred
intrigue. The

now

summoned
him

the

"

"

confusion.
and Kordofan
took advantage of the disorganisation
The provincesDarfur
The hatred felt towards
of Egypt to throw off the sovereigntyof the khedive.
of the slave trade, procured an important
his rule,increased by the i)rohibition
Alimed, who proclaimed himself
followingin those regions for Muhammcd

HISTOKY

THE

OF

MEDLEVAL

AND

MODERN

EGYPT

461

[1883-1885A.D.]

the malidi,i.e. the messenger

to be

prophet;his first

forced
Hicks

his

whole

with
perished

1883, in

Egyptian

division

of

the

after

anny

penetrate
Sennar

into Kordofan.
and

attacked

joined

was

Europeans
Baker, formerly governor-general of

Sudan,

was

Suakim

orderetl

advance

to

troops sufficient even

as

far

Berber.

as

to

In

an

their

after

the

of

siege
khedive,
3rd-5th,
a

time

same

at

another
Suakim
on

felt

attempt

the

aid, but

clear the road

to

At

of the

number

Sir Samuel

for the
White

he lacked

work

the

submission

defeated
by Bedouins
the rebellion.

Khartum.

livingat

to

the

generalsent against him by the


three days' fight,
November
a

Cairo; especialfear

reigned at

Confusion

in Kordofan

al-Oboid

Pasha,

was

All

Sea.

the Red

to

attempt

an

God, sent to complete


against the Egyptians increased

successes

He
his followers.
months.
of seven

of

to

to

relieve

and Tokat, besieged by Osman


Digna, the
defeated
the
tireless allyof the raahdi,he was
near
Osman
1884
well al-Teb, on February 4th,
Digna's
;
Sinkat

fanatical hordes
on

March

first beaten

were

back

at

Tamai,

13th.i

Egyptian government was very anxious to


firm in advising
the Sudan, but England was
reconquer
that
both
and
convinced
men
it,
against
money
lacking for the undertaking. Sherif Pa.sha,
were
and
the prime minister, resigned in con.sequence,
took
his
Nubar
Pasha, although reluctantly,
place.
had
of the mahdi
The
rapidlyand
grown
power
only a few fortified placesin the Sudan, including
The

Khartum,

still held

General

out.

Gordon,

sent

to

forcements,
reincut off from
stronghold,was
conceptionAn
and, through an incomprehensiblemis-

relieve the latter


of

them,

cover

late.

the

Khartum

with it.

distances

The

anything,and

and

force sent

the

time

necessary

to

his relief arrived

too

Arabian

Country

Woman

Gordon
and all his force fell
January 26th, 1885,
in accomplishing
Lord
failed
under
expedition
Wolseley
left
the
mahdi.
to
Sudan
south of Wady-Halfa was

fell

Nile

to

the

and

on

"

INTERNAL

REORGANISATION

Evelyn Baring had been strugglingbravely


ever
appointment, trying to evolve out of the ever-changingpolicy
of coherent
and
sort
contradictoryorders of the British government some
For two
line of action,and to raise the administration
to a higher standard.
succeed.
All over
it seemed
doubtful whether
he would
or three years
Egypt
but
successful
not
there was
a
feelingof unrest, and the well-meant
very
efforts of the Briti.sh to improve the state of things were
making them very
into
influence
and
officials
The
of
introduction
Engli.sh
English
unpopular.
and
the
native
all the administrative
resented
officials,
was
by
departments
the action of the irrigation
officers in preventingthe customary abuses of the
had been
distribution of water
resented by the great landowners, who
was
from time
inniiemorial
in the habit of taking as much
as
they wanted, to
With

the internal difficultiesSir

since his

the detriment

of the fellaheen.

STATES

MINOR

SOME

462

[1883-1885 A.D.1

refonns, considered

that they
gained most by
and
the
of
Arabi
re-establishment
had good reason
to complain, for the defeat
aiul insist on the
the Christian money-lenders to return
of order had enabled
supposed to have been extinguishetlby the
payment of claims which we:
vency,
of all,the government
was
rebellion. Worst
driftingrapidly towards insolthe
bondholders
its
to
fulfil
and
unable
to
obligations
being quite
All departments were
of administration.
the expenses
being starved,
meet
in arrear.
To free itself
the salaries of poorly paid officials were
and even
from
its financial difficulties the government adopted a heroic remedy which
only created fresh troubles. On the advice of Lord Northbrook, who was
in September, 1884, to
out
to Cairo
sent
the

these latter,who

Even

"

which

revenues

the

paid into
of the

needs
the

been

have

should

paid into

for the benefit of the bondholders

cawsc

were

situation,certain

financial

the

examine

the treasury for the

administration.

ordinary

Immediately

tion
protested against this infracand
law
of liquidation,
the
the
Mixed
for
writ
bunals.
Trito
a
applied
In
the heroic remedy
this way

powers
of the

caisse

to the

failed,and

difficultieswere

internal

complications.
Fortunately for Egypt, the British
international

added

contrived

ernment
govinternational

the

solve

to

to
by timely concessions
difficulty
succeetled
in
and
negotiating
powers,
of March, 1885, by
convention
the London
the Egyptian government
which
was
lieved
rethe

from

enabled

was

for

to

annual

an

The
intemationali.sm.
international administration
a

end

the

to
stipulation

for the

indemnities

been
abuses

very
effect that
was

and

money

for

made
and

to

collection

creating a

allow

of

the

for

men

new

of

the

Sudan

if

Egypt

had

land

tax

had

been

to

army

portion of
Wood

could

the
shown

Briti.sh

much

not

the

years

convention

pay
be

would
set

to

had

one

and
in

constant

that

way
most

formed

an

had

drain

been

the
of

been

disbanded

garrisonbeing withdra^\"n.
sound
judgment as well

had

getically.
ener-

reform

beginning had
had

the

order, and

put

stopped.

tained
con-

at

appointed.

The

been

removed.

her

work

of retrenchment

the
iej)lace

Sir Evelyn
and
capacity for militaryorganisation,

work

of

million

great, for the London

Already something in the way


accomplished. The public accounts
the

required
burning of

sums

deficits

1883, it stillhad

and

international commission
years, another
this catastrophethe British reformers
obviate

in

of

for the

due

the

onerous

"9,000,000
"135,000. After

of

capitalthe

of the

of two

To

loan

payment

and

most

and
Liquidation,

sterling,
and boldly invested it in the improvement
of irrigation.The investment
proved most
remunerative, and helped very materially
the country from
to save
bankruptcy and
to
of
danger
being again subjectetl the evils of an

Woman

Ar.vbian

raise

out

1882

An

of

Law

paying

Alexandria

the

of

some

of the
stipulations

this

In
as

great

efficient force out

of

HISTORY

THE

OF

MEDLEVAL

AND

MODERN

EGYPT

463

[1883-1885 D.]
A.

unpromising material.

His

colleaguein

the

department of publicworks,
ships
By mitigatingthe hardirrigation
system, on which the prosperity
of the country mainly depends, he had
conferred
benefits
enormous
of permanent
the fellaheen,and had laid the foundation
on
budgetary equiNot
less active was
Sir Edgar Vincent, the financial
libriuin for the future.
and ruthlessly
cut down
adviser,who kept a firm hold on the purse-strings
in
all
of
that
departments
irrigation.
except
expenditure
The activityof the British officials naturallyproduced a certain amount
resistance
the part of their Egyptian colleagues,
of discontent and
and
on
declare
to
Granville
Lord
was
obliged
very plainlythat such resistance could
not be tolerated.
Writing (January, 1884) to Sir Evelyn Baring, he said:
clear to the Egyptian ministers
and governors
It should be made
of provinces
for the time
which
rests
that the responsibility
on
England obligesH. M.
govermnent to insist on the adoption of the policy whicli they recommend;
very

Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff,had been not


and
of the corvee,
uaproving the

less active.

"

and

that

and governors
that those ministers
necessary
should
their offices." Nubar
to hold
cease

it will be

follow this course


be
to
continued

prime minister,
direct interference

objectedto. was

resisted
in the

who

do

Pasha,

occasionally. What

he

provincialadministration

not
who

chiefly
and

the
for a time in preventing such interference.
native tribunals,and he succeeded
Maxwell
and
had
Clifford Lloyd, who
been
sent
out
to reform
Sir Benson
the interior,after coming into conflict with
the departments of justiceand
both
each other were
for a time
recalled,and the reforming activitj'
was
restricted to the departments of war,
publicworks, and finance. Gradually
natives and foreigners
the tension between
relaxed,and mutual confidence was
established.
but

as

had

Experience

formulated
cially
far

at
as

much

evolved
later

possibleto

the

working principlewhich
"

task is not

Our

period:
the Egyptians

teach

to

to

oflft-

was

rule the

tians,
Egyp-

rule themselves.
.

to be executed
European initiative suggests measures
by Egyptian agency,
the
in which
whilst European supervisioncontrols
manner
they are executed."
and
If that principlehad been firmly laid down
at the
clearlyunderstood
beginning,a good deal of needless friction would have been avoided.

INTERNATIONAL

The

international

PROBLEMS

The

remained.
difficulty

British

positionin Egypt

was

anomalous, and might easilygive rise to international


complications. The
sultan might well protest againstthe militaryoccupation of a portion of his

empire by foreigntroops. It was


hirn diplomatic support, and
other
Besides this,the British

government

secret

no

that

France

ready

was

to

give

might adopt a similar attitude.


powers
anxious
the occupation
to terminate
was

the situation and accelerating


possible. With a view to regularising
Wolff
the evacuation. Sir Henry Drummond
sent
to Constantinoplein
was
On
24th
of
that year
he conOctober
mission.
cluded
August, 1885, on a special
convention
Ottoman
and
which
a preliminary
an
an
English high
by
commissioner, acting in concert with the khedive, shoulil reorganise the Egyptian
the Sudan
and consider
what
changes
by pacific
tranquillise
means,
army,
commissioners
When
the two
might be necessary in th(" civil administration.
jissured of the .security
of the frontier and (he good working and stability
were
of the Egyptian government,
they should. jiresentreports to tlieir respective
as

soon

as

governments,

and

regulatingthe

these

.should

withdrawal

of

consult

the

as

to

the conclusion

English troops.

of

Mukhtar

convention
and

Pasha

SOME

464

STATES

MIXOR

[1886-1891 A.D.]

Henry Drummond
inquiry lasted till the
Sir

Wolff

appointed

commissioners,

and

their

joint
presented his report and
of the
home
the latter went
to report orally. The
remaining stipulations
Sir Henry Drummond
Wolff
were
duly earned out.
preliminaryconvention
proceeded to Constantinople,and signed on May 22nil, 1S87, the definitive
to an
end in
come
convention, according to which the occupation should
it in the
three years, but England should have
renew
a right to prolong or
threatened.
The
of internal peace or external securitybeing seriously
event
but
this
imder
the
of
authorised
of
sultan
convention,
signature
pressure
he refused to ratify it. Technically,therefore,the preFrance
and Russia
in force,and in realitythe Ottoman
missioner
comliminarj'convention still remains
continues

to

end

were

of 1SS6, when

the

former

reside in Cairo.

PROGRESS

OF

REFORM

steadilyincreasingprosperityof the countr}- during the years 1886


ference,
interthe danger of national bankruptcy and international
removed
of administrative
the area
and induced
Sir Evelyn Baring to widen
of disand the methods
pensing
In the provinces the local administration
reforms.
the
still
and
this
field
was
scandalouslyunsatisfactory,
justicewere
Here he met
directed his efforts.
the British representative
next
to which
Pasha,
with unexpected oppositionon the part of the prime minister,Nubar
The

and

1887

in June, ISSS.
Riaz
retirement
ended in Xubar's
in office till May, 1891.
remained
During these
of reform
made
and the prosperityof the countn,'
great
it
that
far
cesses
sucgained
improved
was
so
Egj-ptianarmy

which
and a conflict ensued
Pa.sha took his place,and
three

the work

years

The

progress.

new

debt waa
the national
the
land tax
abolished;
was
corvee
lightenedby a
in
and
in
the
reduced
spite of this
was
thirty per cent,
poorest provinces,
the
the
for lightening
and other measures
budgetarj'surplus
public burdens,
the

over

forces of the mahdi


; the
successful conversion; the

burden

of

specialcommissions
constantly increased; the quasi-judicial
which

at

were

once

barbarous

and

for

abolished ;
were
inefficient,
(afterwards Sir) John Scott,

brigandage,
the

native

Indian
an
improved, and Mr.
ad\n"er
judge of great experienceand sound judgment, was appointed judicial
This appointment was
to the khedive.
opposed by Riaz Pasha, and led to
the
of
ill-health.
his resignation
on
plea
His succes,sor, Mustapha Pasha
Fehmi, continued the work and co-operated
reform
of the native
with
The
the
officials.
cordially
English
very necessary
The
in
hand.
tribunals
then taken seriously
existingprocedure was
was
of
the
com-ts
was
greatly improved
simplifiedand accelerated : the working
by a carefullyorgani.'sed
system of inspectionand control ; the incompetent
and higher
of better education
eliminated and replacedby men
judges were
moral character; and for the future supply of well-qualified
judges,barristers,
tribimals

and
made

law

were

excellent school of law was


officials,
an
maintained, the native

in this direction is

established.
courts

If the
some

progress

day, under

may
mixed
tribunals,and remove
European control, replacethe anomalous
proper
which are at present
consular
all necessityfor the inconvenient
jurisdictions,
the
the
Meanwhile
reforming activityhas been
capitulations.
protectedby

prisons,publichealth,and education, and has attained very satisof the people.


the religious
results without ruffling
susceptibilities
factor}'
has
the
of Riaz
since the retirement
policy of teaching the
Only once
Eg\-ptiansto rule themselves led to friction with the native authorities. In

extended

to

SOME

466

MINOR

STATES
[1S98-1901

effected

without

the

of

influence

of

spheres

of Great
serious

of

project

seizing

with

Africa

those

under

force

the

with

el-Ghazal,

Marchand
orders

Marchand.

Major

and

scheme

for

appeared

small

of

short

time

Red

little

the

by

the

retire

the

the

up

Nile;

river

advance

resolute

object
into

small

the

whilst

west

Bahr-

Franco-

with
eastward, to join hands
French
its destination,
Congo reached
accompanied
by French
officers,

troops,

higher

this

the

in

the

the

from

formed

Congo

the

not

advantage

possessions

\\'ith

French

on

from

victorious

and

had

Sea.

from

Taking

her

A.D.]

was

government

uniting

Fashoda

force

Kitchener

General

the

to
sent

arrangement

conflict.

French

valley

Abyssinian

frustrated

was

under

The

body

the
and

occupy

The

European

despatched

was

France.

Egypt,

was

to

expedition

Abyssinian

of

Nile
upper
the
entrance

at

Major

of

danger

weakness

temporary

and

Britain

of

the

grand political
force
Anglo-Egyptian

an

of

attitude

but

the

British

government.

from

and
concession
to
Fashoda,
French
to
Major Marchand
as
a
allowed
to
retreat
route.
susceptibilities he was
by the Abyssinian
By an
the
French
ambassador
March
signed by Lord
Salisbury and
agreement
on
Article
convention
of
IV, to the Anglo-French
appended,
21st, 1899, and
as

14th,

June
in

and

drawn

was

to

dealt

which

1898,

region of the
line
marking

the

the

the

on

southern

with

from

map

frontier

of

19th,

the

According

1899.

together,
governor-general,
the

of

British

British

the
who

governor-general,
30th, 1901,
January
close

this

Sir
after

report

northern

Sudan

the

the

the

Nile,

countries

two

Free

Congo

State

Tripoli.

organised

that

agreement

and

the

who
far

civil

khedive

the

in
of

account

his

the

an

ment
agree-

is

report

vested

tion
recommendawithout

has

the

worked

dated

of

the

well.

Khartum,

made,

progress

appreciation

my

the

removed

arrangement

Wingate,

of

command
on

be

basis

signed on
January
and
EgA'ptian flags

British

and

cannot

recording

the

on

governments

military
supreme
is appointed
by the

without

influence

of

STjD.\N

was

Reginald
giving an

of

basin

of

of

of

spheres
the

influence

province

Egj'ptian

So

French
from

frontier

and

consent.

The

of

spheres

Turkish

government,

government's

cannot

the

to

and

and

excluded

.\XGLO-EGVPTI.VN

British

used

are

in

of

administration
between

British

was

the

the

THE

The

the

Niger, France
the
respective

"I

says:

in

manner

which

officials
officers, non-commissioned
officers, soldiers, and
British,
without
distinction
have
laboured
the
Egyptian, and Sudanese,
during
past
the
w'ork
of regenerating
to
the
Nor
I pass
push on
over
country.
can
year
mention
the
without
assistance
I have
received
valuable
from
loyal and
"

"

many

of

the

local

genuine

desire

progress

and

to

ulemas,
see

material

their

and

.sheikhs, and
country
moral

notables,
once

more

improvement."y

who

have

advancing

displayed
in

the

most

paths

of

CHAPTER

STATES

SMALL

OF

The

Africa
first to

for the
proper,
the land of the

which

originalrace

established

an

by

Africa

Carthaginians
It

the

dominated

fact

that

with

Herodotus

that

still recognisable,and

fifth

all ancient

the

to

also
all

called

was

been

in

the

of

expanse

it is

minor;

Arabs), applied

Tunis

has

"

been

tended
ex-

the
Barbary,
the foreignoccupations
because

that

of the

possessionof

century before
traits and

waste

Africa

the

present

is called

has

the characteristic

the

properly

country before

race

in the

and

is

(Afrikia among
"

continent.

prehistorictimes;

from

of

It

Vandal, Byzantine, Arabian"

Roman,

is

whole

the

AFRICA

Berbers

island.

an

name

NORTHERN

the Mediterranean

Hke

Sahara, is

over

"

between

Africa,

Northern
the desert of

II

our

it

era

ethnical

Berbers.

northern

It

Africa

described

was

which

names

are

writers

distinguishedit clearlyfrom the


the
The
of
Sudan.
or
Carthaginians without doubt
"Ethiopians,"
negroes
tried to exploitthe country and not to assimilate it ; they kept to the shores
the rest of the land only through the native
around the ports, and dominated
red mantle.
invested
with
the
who
It is not surprisingthat no
chiefs
were
traces

of

have

them

been

left.

But

the

Romans

years, they pushed their advance


millions
of colonists into the Tell,fused

six hundred

the

natives, founded

ruins

of

ruins

and

still

which

thousands

occupation, either.
after the retreat

by
Aures,
never

have

their

their

the

into

land

the

for

nearly

Sahara,

pantheon

with

duced
intro-

that

of

the protligious
populous cities,and raised monuments,
confound
our
imagination; and yet, except for these
of Latin
remain
traces
of the Roman
no
inscriptions,
Those

of the

become

ruled

posts

Roman

colonists

imperialeagles,those

type,

in the

mountains

Berbers.

completely subjugated

who
sons

of the

remained

in

of Latins
Kabail

who

the

Roman
467

dominion;

are

(Kabyle)

Moreover, history testifies


to

the

that

the

country

still distinguished

and

of the

Africa

inhabitants

was

of

MINOR

SOME

468

STATES
(711 A.D.)

Uke the Deren of Morocco, the


countries
the greater part of the mountainous
of
tribes
the
wandering in the Sahara
Jurjuraof Kabail, the Aures,and most
the
Africans
embraced
Christianity,
never
obeyed the proconsuls. If most of
it was
when
the official

a
religionpersecuted by
tinguish
they tried to disreligion
emperors.
fonns of religion
from the conquering peopleby practising
themselves
peculiarto themselves, by plunging into heresy. The Donatist schism was
resistance
of African
of the forms
agaii^t imperial orthodoxy. Later
one
the ^loslem conquerors.
towards
For a
this people acted in the same
way
Islam
of
of
Kabails
the
the
resisted
Jurjura are
propaganda
;
long time they
said to have
alternatelyaccepted and rejected the faith of the prophet as
The
times.
Tuareg given to the Berbers of the Sahara
name
as twelve
many
the Berbers,being tired of war,
has been translated by "apostate." When
themselves
from
did finally
distinguishing
accept Islam,we see them at once
their masters
by adopting heretical creeds; Ivharijism,Shiism, Ibadism,
them
Donatism
fortune with
as
or
Sofrism, for a long time had the same
after
until
and
It
Arianism
not
a
was
long
patient
propaganda,
formerly.
carried on not by the sword of the first teachers but by isolated missionaries
or
missionary'tribes (the sheurfa or the sheeurfa tribes; sheurfa pluralof
of the north as a majority became
orthodox
that the Mricans
Moslems.
sherif),
of
mtrusion
Arabic
the
their
rowed
Then
words, borlanguage open to
only was
from
all of them
the religious,
almost
commercial
or
a'dministrative,
vocabulary of the concjueringSemites.
The
anarchistic,
peoples of northern Africa,of Berber race, are essentially
small
their
small
into
divide
small
to
ven,states,
kingdoms,
comitiy
prone
eternal
condemned
to
between
wars
are
they
consequently
villagerepublics;
tribes and villagesand
they are exposed to
sof (parties)
; for that reason
invasion
and
of
are
easilyconquered. But they know how
foreign
dangers
for
their smallest
to
to recover
defence, to group
ciations
assoorganise
themselves,
the
whence
word
confederations
into
(Kbila,
Kabails, or Kabyles),
the formation
of military states.
to attempt
When, however, they
even
sions
their independence,it is only to fall again into their old divifinallyrecover
and to succumb
to the same
surprisesof foreignattacks.

they

it with

did

never

As

the

much

so

DYNASTIES

(683). The
and

ardour

warlike

Africa

moment

caliph.

At

conquest
able

been

have

his return

On

of the Atlantic.
Aures

AXD

SECTS

OF

XORTHERN

AFRICA

Sidi Okba

in which

never

as

the first Arab


invasion
surpriseswas
the
Berbers
the
from
conquered

of these

One

zeal

it became

as

soon

to

used

coukl

be

was

control
it for

of the seventh
west

to

century,

the

verj' shores
Berbers of the

killed in battle by the


would
continued, but the Arab conquerors
the Berbers
if they had
diverted their
not
of Spain (711).
the conquest
From
that

he

was

governed, nominally

heart, however, Barbarj'remained

at

least,by

envoys

of

the

Berber.

the schisof the Arab


matic
were
governors
Ibn
Their
and his sons.
Rostem
ar-Rahman
who
Ibadites and
had
that of the Wahhabites
doctrine was
Sofrites,
long
famous
in the Orient
of their rupture
since made
themselves
account
on
with Ali,son-in-law of the prophet. Ibn Khaldun
tells us that the Ibadites
The

most

imams

and

the

redoubtable
of

Sofrites

adversaries

Tiart, Abd

engaged

in

more

than

three

hundred

battles with

the troops

empire. But this Ibadite kingdom in the highlands of the central


The Arabs had maintained
Maghreb had been unable to complete its work.

of

the

NORTHERN

AFRICA

469

(800-1500A. D.]

themselves in the Byzantine fortresses of Afrikia,or Tunis, and


Rashid had organised there a sort of a mark, the rulershipover
ben al-Aglab(800) and to his descendants
the
had left to Ibrahim
driven

Aglabiteswere

The

out

by

the

Fatimites,whilst

in

Harun
which

ar-

he

Aglabites.^
the Maghreb,

called Morocco, the Idrisites established themselves


the country now
as rulers.
the Zirites in the eleventh
followed
After them
came
century, and they were
and
the
Almoravids
Almohads.
These
the
names
are
already familiar
by
the
of
of
the
in
and
connection
with
to us
through
history
Spain
conquest

Egypt
world

Their
and the crusades.
around
them
rather than

importance consists
in any

permanent

their origin.
After the great period of conquest followed
Africa
which three dynastiesruled in northern

in their influence on
the
effects upon
the place of

period of decline during


Merinids,the Zeianids,
who
and the Hafsites
occupiedregionsvaguelycorrespondingto the Morocco,
the end of the fourteenth
Algeria,and Tunis of to-day. Towards
century
fallen into such a state of dissolution that they were
these sultanshipshad
againstthe Arab tribes from within,and against the Portuguese and
helpless
In the fifteenth century the Portuguese conquered
Spanishfrom without.
Safi
and
Asemur
in the beginning of the sixteenth
and
and
Ceuta
Tangier,
their
The
teenth
conquests in the first years of the sixSjianishbegan
century.
century, and took Oran, Bougie,Dellys,Algiers,and Tripoli."
a

"

the

"

The

Sherifate

of

Morocco

Africa,from the shores of the Atlantic


medan
a
as
prolonged echo in the depths of the Mohamas
world.
The
Islamic
reaction,provoked by Portuguese or Spanish
took on two different forms: at Morocco
it was
the Sherifate;
in
aggression,
it
the Ottoman
the countries of Tunis and Algiers was
conquest.
south of Morocco, the sandy valleysdug by the intermittent
The extrenie
lost m
the sands, like those of Sajilmasa,
rivers of the Wady
Dra, the oases
of Berbers stronglymixed
with Arabs, formed
with their pojjulation
or Tafilet,
blows

These

delivered

to

Moslem

aroused

Syrtis,had

far

of fresh fanaticism

reserve

pilgrimswho
sheurfa whom

spoke of

and of ardent faith. In the fifteenth century


far from Mecca
started from
this region met
not
certain
of
the
took
be
to
true
descendants
The
they
prophet.
pilgrims

had

their home

the strangers to

coimtry and told


with

them.

the sheurfa

Of

these

of its wonders, thus

sheurfa,some

inducing

settled

in

the
others settled at Sajilmasa; they
the Hassanians, called from
that time forward
Filali. The former gave
were
in the sixteenth century ; the latter,
in the eighteenth
a dynasty to Morocco
her
the
rules
which
there
dynasty
to-day.
century, gave
The
Merinid
sultan
time
much
at that
was
occupied against the
very

Wady

Dra

they

return

the Saadians.

were

The

Portuguese of Ceuta, Alcazar-Srir,Tangier,and Asili ; the people of the land


tormented
Sus, left to themselves, were
by the Portuguese of Asemur, Safi,
and
these
enemies
of the true
Sainte-Croix.
faith they sought a
Against
first
leader inspiredby God.
called Ben Mbarek,
They
appliedto a marabout
is at Tigumdet, on the Wady
but he said to them : There
Dra, a sherif who
prophesiesthat great glory is destined for his two sons; address yourselves
desires will be fulfilled." This sherif of the Saadian
to him and your
family
al-Mahdi.
and Muhammed
called al-Kaim, his two sons
Abul-Abbas
was
were
The people of Sus went
Al-Kaim
wished
the baraka
to them.
to receive
from
of
of Ben
obedience
oath
Mbarek; then he demanded
(benediction)
an

of

"

SOME

470

STATES

MINOR

(1500-1550 A.D.]

the tribes of Sus ; the Mixsmuda


had
started,also promised to
was

about

to

"

It was
obey him.
war
jireachedand

commence,

and by the sheurfa


who
the bad Moslems

without
had

the great ."Mniohatl

Dercn, whence

of

doubt

submitted

veritable

conducted

holy
the

by

dynasty
which

war

marabouts

against the Portuguese,but also against


of necessity,against
to them, and, in case
the

Merinid

sultans
those
of
themselves,
Fez
and
Marrakesh

in the

(Morocco),

who

judged

lukewarm

too

were

of the

faith. "
tune
Forthe refonners; the^
two
sultans,through fear of their
them
assistance.
power,
gave
The
brothers gained the sutwo
preme
cause

favoured

in

authority
and

Marrakesh

killed its sultan.

Finallythe

Merinid

sultan of Fez was


fined
conthe northern
part of
Morocco, and the brothers shared
to

the south
years. "
Soon

between

(1535)

Abul-Abbas,
aid

asked
of

Fez.

place

ci\nl

for

broke
brothers.

conquered,

the Merinid
the

ruler

battle

took

Merinid

and

strange

between

some

war

two

being

from
A

the

between

out

them

sherif, near
Wady
young
al-Abitl,in which troops of renegades
the

formed

the

principalforce

of the
armies
either
on
Muhanmied
al-Mahdi
was
the
the
Merinid
victor;
.\x

wounded
and captured,and
the province of Mequinez

C.^v.^lryjian

Arab

This

recommenced.

(1550). Several
retired into

time

years

Fez

invested

was

previouslyAbul-Abbas

The
new

anxiety

taken
after
and
had abandoned

was

gave
as

war

long siege
city and

the

Tafilet.

FOREIGN

The

the

Then

(1547).

ransom

side.

again

whole

of Morocco

had

power
which
the

Turks

was

united

now

under

the younger

fight againstthe Christians,but


to

were

the

rivalryof

there
^hlgni^lc('nt

it.

cause

Between

the

son

of al-Kaim.

was
grave
of al-Kaim

more
son

an

.\iid(' with

was

the

the
and

for the religioussupremacy,


rivalrj'
father had
of
orthotloxy,whose
champion
the
of
the
There
also
the
at
Cairo.
antipathy
was
bought
rights
caliphate
for a Turk, for that far-away sultan who, in the Maghreb,was
of an African
The
sherif called Suleiman
the
of fish."
sultan
the protector of ])irates.
the
Suleiman
had
demand
that
sent
ambas.sador
to
in
1547,
an
Already,
his lieutenants in Africa took
should be put at liberty;aftenvards
Merinid

Suleiman

the

to

REL.\TIOXS

the

"

AFRICA

NORTHERN
[1550-1590A. D.]
to reinstate

their

rid of the

city and

that

avenge
Spaniardsof Oran
to

draw

to

deserters,came

to

expiate its

defection
the Turks, he entered
the

him

upon

price.
any
offer their services to

their offer imprudently and took them


he was
tribes of the Atlas ; on the way
taken to Stamboul
said that his head was
This Muhammed

al-Mahdi

and

ments.
punish-

alliance with

an

the

away

enemies, got
Fez (1553), reentered

ransoms

city,but
of

Tafilet

his
to

way

into

not

the

sultan.

the

citadel.

Suleiman

horsemen, pretending to

Muharamed

be

; he

al-Mahdi

accepted
expedition against the rebel
assassinated by their chief,and it is
and hung on a gate of the city(1557).
on

an

When
great man.
country the culture
residential city of Taroudant.

been

to have

appears

introduced

he had

of Sus

only governor

was

wrath

Turkish

at

took

with

by

occupied the

he

Tlemcen;

his head

have

on

to take

enough

was

it

made

himself

To

he

al-Mahdi

Muhainmcd

departure

in sympathy
Abul-Abbas, who was
the
Merinid by having him assassmated
on

brother

his

That
wished

Morocco, occupied Fez, installed


him
retired,after havmg made
a
large
pay
invaded

Turks

Hassun, and

proteg^,Abu
indemnity. After
their
from

The

him.

amis

471

into

very
that

in his
and had built a mosque
of the sugar-cane
likewise.
He
he embellished
Marrakesh
he became
sultan
of Morocco
When
and reviseil the system of taxation.
founded
the port of Agades on the ocean
domination
who might have extinguishedthe Turkish
the only man
He was
its
His
Mulei
with Philip
Africa
alliance
start.
at
in
Abdallah, sought an
son,

II.

The

troubles

which

desolated

Turkish

there was
always a
in the empire. It

and

later

Morocco

Spanish party

civil wars
these very
was
of the king of Portugal, Don
intervention
disaster of Alcazar-Kebir.

THE

Sebastian
of

the

made

which

in

the

that

reigningfamily and
1578
provoked the

Sebastian,which

THE

fact

ended

in the

SUDAN

expeditionon the pretext of supportinga


pretendant
family against the sherif Abul-Malik, who was
time
who
died
Abul-Malik's
that
and
reigningat
during the battle.
son,
who
the
and
who
from
it the title of
Abul-Abbas,
helped to gain
victory
got
of the greatest sovereignsof Morocco.
He
is above
all
one
al-Mansur, was
famous
for his conquest of the Sudan.
Since the time of the Almoravides,
Islamism
the blacks
of that
It was
had
been
land.
a
implanted among
Moslem
One
of
reigned at Timbuktu.
dynasty, that of the Sokia, which
these kings,after a pilgrimageto Mecca, in the fifteenth century, had received
from the caliphof Egypt the title of
lieutenant,in the Sudan, of the prince
of the believers."
Timbuktu
had acquired a great importance; the capital
not only the chief market
of central Africa,but a great centre
of learning.
was
It possesseda sort of university,
school
of
Mo.slem
the royal
besides
a
law;
line of the Sokia there was
the
Ben
of
learned legists,
Baba.
a dynasty
orthodox
Moslems; the sherif of Morocco
was
an
Legistsand kings were
Alide.
the
Abul-Abbas
al-Mansur, invoking his title of Imam, summoned
Sokia,who at that time was Ishak, son of David, to recognise his supremacy
and to pay him trilnite. Naturally his claims were
An
refused.
expedition
Don

had

OF

CONQUEST

from

came

in the

this

sherifian

"

was

decided

The

journey across

The
confided to Juder Pasha
(October, 1590).
was
army
the great desert took
The
four months
and a half.
king
Ishak,it is said, had collected a hundred and forty thousand warriors, who
were

led
and

upon.

into

battle

by

fled to Garu,

both

Moslem

four

hundred

marabouts

kilometers

and
to

the

fetishes.
east.

The

He

was

feated
de-

victorious

MINOR

SOME

472

STATES
[1591-1659 A.D.J

entered

army

Timbuktu

the

overcome

Ahmed

(1591).

resistance

the

of

the author

Baba,

Ben

The

then

Moroccans

was

whom

to
was

courageously
pillageof his house

for the

volumes.

hundred

towards

Ben

Juder

besiegedthe king. Finally

and

Garu

war
indenmity and an
a
pay
had suffered
during the long siege the invading army

But

tribute.

books.
and

exces.ses

and

surrender

appeared disposed to

Ishak
annual

among
Baba

famous

of many

turned

pasha

foremost
legists,

black

for their
reproached the Moroccans
which
sixteen
numljered
and library,
The

chief task of the

to

pasha Juder ordered the


was
was
by al-Mansur,
replacedby the pasha
A new
directed
Muhammed.
against Garu; the king Ishak,
campaign was
fled
still
tracked
before being besieged,
farther,to Kokia, but being pitilessly
and
Moroccan
His death
meharists, he died of exhaustion.
wiis
by Tuareg
of Senegal,of the Sutlan, of the sultan of
followed by the complete submission
The
victorious army
Bornu.
(1593) an immense
brought back to Morocco
took
therefrom
the
booty consisting mainly of ingots of gold. Al-Mansur
al-Debhi
raise
of
He
could
(the
now
structions
congilded).
magnificent
cognomen
like those of Badia, and coukl
import marble from Carrara, for
the prisonersbrought back
to
which he paid "its weight in sugar." Among
so

severely

that

to

avoid

its total

the

destruction

ill received

He

retreat.

and

Baba.
He
did not belie before the
finnness of soul. As the sultan,concealed
legistsaid: "God himself talks to mortals
Then he again
veil ; but thou art not God."

the most
illustrious was
Marrakesh
redoubtable
sovereignhis courageous
received
him, the black
by a veil,

Ben

by revelation and not beliind a


protestedagainst the brutalitycommitted
by the conquerors
and
audaciously asked the sultan why he had not rather
hhn
against the Turks; the sultan could answer
only with
he went

the Sunna.

As

paid homage

to Ben

his

and

from

out

the audience

Timbuktu,

at

turned

all the lettered

his

arms

citation from

of Morocco

men

them.
He consented,
Baba, begging him to teach among
spread throughout Africa. Later he obtained permissionto

renown

to Tunbuktu.

return

FALL

OF

THE

SAADIANS

in the Orient, all dynasties,even


when
as
they have been
when
for existence the
by holy persons, even
they have as a cause
in
austerityand pious poverty of their ancestors, finallyend, and sometimes
all the vices and all the
the first generation,by outdoing in luxury and ease
the precedingdynasties. It was
crimes for which
their founders condenmed
In

Africa,

founded

thus

with

the

the Saadian

Almoravids

sherifs.

strugglesbetween
delivered up
other

bad

and

with

Immediately

brothers,their

al-Araish

sheurfa, other
end, and had

to the

the Almohads
the death

after

connivance

mahdis.

In

it

was

the

same

with

(1603), their

Christians

(in 1609

al-Mansur

againstthem

other

marabouts,

with

aroused
Si)anish),

of al-Man.sur

general these

reform

preachers came

to

of Marrakesh.
hung up on the battlements
the saints
Others were
redoubtable
because they were
more
j^rudent; such were
of the oasis of Sajilmasa,such were
The
latter conthe Hassanian
sheurfa.
tinued
to lead poor, meditative,and virtuous
lives while all the time fighting
^\^len in 1659,
of the ports on
the ocean,
against the Christians,masters
about
the
the
after
defeat
of
the
Merinids
a hundred
Saadians, the
by
years
Saadian
founded
who
it
these
Hassanians
a
was
extinguished,
dynasty
was
it
illusion
at
that
the
new
dynasty
Morocco, entertaining
quickly dispelled
would initiate a period of greater purity and prosperity. The same
dynasty
rules there to-day.''
their

heads

NORTHEKN

AFRICA

473

A. D.]
[1664-1894

HASSANIAN

of this family to take the title of sultan

The firstone
1664

from

His

despot.

able

of

famous

the most

He

1672.

to

the land

DYNASTY

succeeded

was

his

by

was
Arshid,who ruled
brother,Mulai Ismail,perhaps

djTiasty a very cruel and at the


fifty-five
years (until1727).
and dissensions ; it enjoyed
by wars

this

torn

was

who

Sidi Muhammed

time

same

"

rule lasted

Under

his

period of

very

sors
succes-

repose

showed

under Mulai
inclination
(1757-1789),
a marked
but after his death the old tyranny and lawtowards European civilisation,
lessness
resumed.
ar-Rahman
were
During the reign of Abd
(1822-1859)
occurred in Algeriathe revolt of Abdul-Kadir
againstFrance ; the assistance
Morocco
attack
led
to
to
Morocco
an
Algeria
by French troops.
givenby
upon

prince de Joinville bombarded


Tangier and Mogador,
defeated
the
Moroccan
Bougeaud
troops at Isly. Peace was
but
Abdul-Kadir's
September 4th, 1844,
attempts to stir up a

August, 1844,

In

and Marshal
concluded
on

in Morocco

revolt

new

refused

the

aid the

to

led to further

soon

Algerian

captured the city of

Tasa.

disturbances.

patriot,who

France

This time
attacked

thereupon

again

interfered and

forced

the sultan

and
Morocco
Abdul-Kadir

surrender."

to

change of rulers in 1859, when Abd ar-Rahman


died,and his successor,
Muhammed, had to defend himself againstother pretendersto the throne,
led to plunderingraids upon
can
Spanish and Franco- Algerianterritory
by Morocunwelcome
to
and
the
not
Spain
wholly
opportunity of
troops,
gave
in
the
the
sword
her
old
Mohanmiedan
world.
against
taking up
opponent
and
declared
On October
November
24th, 1859, Spain
war
on
Morocco,
upon
the African coast.
On February 4th of the following
18th landed an anny
on
from Ceuta
towards Tetuan, gained
year the Spaniards,advancing southward
of the latter city,and thus procured the ducal title
a victoryin the vicinity
The
for the Spanish general O'Donnell.
negotiationswhich followed
peace
A

Sidi

this defeat led to


defeat,on March

European
Tetuan,

no

result.

23rd, were

April 26th,

on

missionaries

they

anrl forced

army

to

to

had

imtil the Moroccans


of their
convinced

accept
A

1860.

allowed

were

Not

small

This

amnesty.

an

of land

tract

suffered

impotence over

second

againsta

led to the Peace

of

surrendered,Spanish

was

their vocation
throughout Moroccan
pursue
of 400,000,000 reals was
imposed.c

ritory,
ter-

and a war
indemnity
died in 1873, and was
succeeded
Sidi Muhammed
by his son, Mulai Hassan
with Europe which has been
who instituted the policyof friendlyintercourse
In 1880 a conference
held at Madrid
to determine
continued by his son.
was
be
consuls
of the protectionwhich
afforded
to
the extent
foreign
by
may
serious
called on
to subdue
Moroccan
a
subjects. In 1892 the sultan was
Kabail
discontented
attacked by the Kabails.

of

revolt
Melilla

the

was

indemnity

war
a

treaty with

neutral
The

Abdul

only
the

Mulai

IV,

fourteen

Moroccan
Mulai

late sultan

the

years
court

Abdul

Mulai

Spanish
Spain, in

in

latter

which

the

were

Spanish fort
reduced to
finally
a

sultan

the

in

mission
sub-

Morocco

1894

pledged himself
Kabails,and to

near

to

pay

establish

Melilla.

died in 1894, and

Hassan

fourteenth
of
was

Aziz

1893

troops,and

Moroccan

20,000,000 pesetas,to punish

around

zone

sultan
Aziz

of

The

and

combined

by
concluded

and
tribes,

age.

given

succeeded

Hassan,

ruler
The

to

succeeded

was

dynasty, who

followingaccount

in the

in 1894.

of the

London

the
At

throne
the

Times
on

time

the

of his
of June
death

by
was

his son, Mulai


at that time

accession

and

of

10th, 1901."
of his father,the

of his father's

death

young

SOME

474

MINOR

STATES
[1894-1901 I.D.]

Abdul

Aziz

in Rabat

his mother, a Circassian


Mulai
Hassan
tlied during a

with

lady,and it was there


that he was
proclaimed.
punitiveexpeditionin
the central provincesof his countrj- ; but, owmg
to the extraordinary'
capability
of Si Ahmed
Ben Musa, the chamberlain,his shereefian majesty's death was
concealed
from
the world, and
for two
the palanquin-bearers
days even
imagined that they were
carrying a living,
sultan,and never
though ill,
pected
susthat their burden
Two
for
sufficient
was
a
the
were
days
corpse.
It gave him time to proclaim
Aziz
in
wily chamberlain.
Abdul
Rabat,
young
antl to lay the foundations
of his plans by which
he aftenvards
became
vizir
and practically
whilst
the
real
of
holder
the
title
sultan,
was
kept hidden
was

in

away
Aziz

the

had

palace. But

Mulai

Abdul

elder

brother,Mulai Muhanimed, who had been viceroy of the south,


and
who
by his generosity with other
and by his libertine ways
people'smoney
was
extremely popular with the general
public. A risingin his favour occurred,
an

"

"

the iron

but

crushed

will

it, and

prisonsare
whilst Mulai

of

even

full of the

the

vizir

."\iimed

Si

tonlay (1901)
who

tribesmen

Muhammed

himself

the

rose,

lives in

Mequinez. The vizir died


in 1900, still in possession of his great
influence,and leaving to be confiscated
ing,
by his royalmaster a huge fortune,amountit is said, to some
millions sterling,
been
of which
had
squeezed
penny
every
the WTetched
from
and extorted
tion
populaconfinement

in

of the country.
His death gave Mulai
nineteen
Abdul
Aziz, then some
years of

opportunity of emerging from his


age, an
enforced
almost
seclusion and of exercising
his

authority, for

identityhad
by

that

Since

of

been
his

till this

of

period his

entirelyovershadowed

powerful

the death
come

up

and

cruel

Si Ahmed

fonvard, and

he
the

has

^"izir.
tainly
cer-

northern

blood inherited from his Circassian mother


has rendered him not a littlesusceptible
to

European influence,though possiblynot to


ate
sultanhis own
advantage. The Moorish
that
descent
from
the
a
essentially religious
depending upon
one,
A

is

so

Young

prophet which
that

any
antagonism of
"

Moob

confers

commander
el-Mumenin
would
of
the
court
at
regime
At
faction.
fanatical religious

the titleof Amir


in

the

change
the large and

of the faithful

"

once

raise the

present these

his shereefian
than
progressivetendencies have done little more
He rides a bicycle,
photographs,and enjoys
majesty in European inventions.
tions
inventhe cinematograph. So laxHsh has he been in obtaining all the newest
and toys of Europe that one
tradingJew alone, who brought him a real
circus to the capital,has received some
"20,000 of the country's revenue,
drawn
from
of Mazagan.
the custom-house
It is the custom,
unfortunately,
the
for oriental monarchs
their privatefortunes and to draw upon
to hoard
Mulai
for
their
of
their
In
resources
privateamusements.
country
appearance
interest

NORTHEKN

AFRICA

475

[1894-1901A.D.]

Abdul

is tall and

Aziz

well-built.

occasions,in his loose white

In

bearing he is very

robes, he looks, and

is,a

dignified.On public
sultan.

His

life is

one

of great simplicity. He rises at dawn, and prays at the regularstated intervals


to the custom
throughout the day. His food is sunple,and eaten, accortling
of his country, without

knife and

fork.

allows him to come


into actiial
positionof a sultan of Morocco never
touch with his subjects,and
the principalpower
therefore rests with the
grand vizir. The present (1901) holder of tliis important office,though he
prefersto call himself the minister of war, is a young and energeticman, Kaid
who
in former
Mehedi
al-Meneblii,
was
days an understudy of Si Ahmed.
and
His influence is all-powerful,
it was
that, in April,
through his agency
nominal
the
refined
and honest
elderlyHaj Mukhtar, the
a
grand vizir,
1901,
who
had
all
in
his power
done
sent a prisoner
old man,
not to be appointed,was
The

He knew
confiscated.
to Fez, whilst all his property was
before,when
a year
he received his appointment, what his fate would
be.
Such falls from power
his fate until the
of every-day occurrence
in Morocco.
No
knows
are
man
and the writer has been the guest of a great local governor,
fatal day arrives,

full of splenditl
served by a horde of
whose stables were
horses, and who was
attendants and servants
he has given in charitya loaf
and within a month
of bread to the same
governor'sson, begging in the streets,whilst the father
"

in

whose
tracted
weddmg atprison. The son of another
great official,
of tribesmen,and whose
generositywas unsurpassed,was
met
by the writer within a year loading the baggage mules of a European
No complaint,no despondency
amongst the muleteers of the sultan's army.
envoy
merely the recognitionthat the wheel of fortvine had turned !
The great palace
It is a picturescjue
court, that of the sultan of Morocco.
and
with
the
iridescent
roofs,the miles
courtyards,
green-tiled
topped
squares
of
of fortified gardens, the high windowless
walls, all present an appearance
the
do
for
unfathomable
within,
Seldom,
men
indeed,
mystery.
penetrate
of the great
Even
the ministers
precinctsare sacred to the rule of women.
their
embassies
the
Moorish
to
on
court, see little more
periodical
powers,
than the outside walls and the great green gates. At privateaudiences with
the sultan the visitor is led through tangled vine-clad gardens to some
little
summer-house
rich in exquisiteplaster-workand tiles,
half-ruined,
perhaps,
and yet a gem, where, under
and
sits the
in
colours
a ceiling
gilding,
gorgeous
almost patheticfigureof the sultan.
The grand vizir stands by his master's
side,and without the doorway, out of sightof their sovereign,are seated
half a dozen
soldiers awaiting orders ; and all around, the tall dark cypresses
shoot up their pillar-like
forms.
Very different is the publicreceptionof the
accredited ministers of Europe
different and
more
humiliating. The
very
sultan
is mounted, seated
of state, surhorseback
under
his
umbrella
rounded
on
led horses
of
His
and
his
state.
officers
by his courtiers
preceded by
and
their marvellous
tails,and the sun
manes
champ their bits and wave
glitterson the lances of the spear-bearersand the gold-embroideredsaddles.
The empty green -and-gold brougham, part of all processions,
creaks and groans

lay dying

thousands

"

"

in the bright
position,and in front of it all,bareheaded
and kings of Europe.
foot,stand the envoys of the emperors
and his procession
A blare of trumpets, a banging of salutes,and
the sultan
the
the
and
disappearthrough
reception,as picturesque
great jmlace gates,
as

it is

brought

sunshine,and

as

it is
Tlie

and

into

on

humiliating,is

over.

usuallydivide their time between their southern


takings,
Marrakesh
and Fez respectively.They are great undercapitals,
and
their
their
these flittings
of sultans,for, with their army,
court,

sultans

northern

of

Morocco

SOME

476

MINOR

STATES
[1500-1515 A.D.1

hangers-on,the imperialpartj' often numbers


some
thirtythousand or forty
thousand
His shereefian majesty's progresses
through the country
persons.
leave poverty, destitution,and famine
behind
them, for,like locusts,they eat
lies in its young
sultan.
He has
one
hope for Morocco
up everything. The
already shown signsof a desire for the improvement of his country.**

Turkish
The

and

Greek

Conquests

in

North

the

of

Africa

Ottoman

pirates,although hunted down by the knightsof


and of Egypt, swarmed
there like anta,
upon
their
the
The anarchy
had
island
of
Lesbos.
and
at Mytilene on
headtjuarters
in
Africa
them
to the
a good opportunity to pass
over
appeared to
existing
the

Rhodes

shores

of Anatolia

Occident.
And thus the feebleness of the Merinids, of the Zeianids,and of the
Hafsides had as a last effect the opening up of a new
field for the battle between
Their
became
states
own
Christianityand the sultan of the Turks.
the stake in the final struggle between
A

Khair

porter

of

ad-din.

surprisedone
himself

forced

Islam

anil the

of
sj)irit

the crusades.

Mytilene (Lesbos) had four sons, Elias,Ishak, Arudj [Horuj],


The third,Arudj, had practisedpiracyfrom his youth.
Being

day by
to

row.

Rhodes, he had seen Elias killed and was


he was
tradition relates that afterwards
when
the militaryorganisationof the knights.
remembered
galleyfrom
A

reigningin Algiershe
He
succeeded
in escaping,went
well received by the Hafside
to Tunis, was
in the island
for himself
sultan, and founded
an
independent establishment
There
he was
of Jerba.
brother, Ivliair ad-din, who
joined by his younger
had followed
in his footsteps,
and both
of them, heaping the sultan of Tunis
with presents,made
him
their accomplice. They often made
good captures.
On
one
Spaniards
singleoccasion they gave to the Hafside ruler fiftyyoung
clothed in
holding dogs in leash, with rare birds and four noble maidens
beautiful garments arid momited
on
splendidhorses.
An envoy
from
to
came
Arudj and Khair ad-din begging them to
Bougie
that
in
and
the
to
come
country
help
expulsionof the Spaniards. The harbour
of Bougie is the deepest and
safest of all tho.se oppositeSpain, France, and
Italy. The brothers accepted,and their future was decided from that day;
but the beginningswere
painful. Bougie,built in the form of an amphitheatre,
is easy to defend.
The
Spaniards held their ground well. Arudj had his
with
arm
broken, and the corsairs retreated (1512). They had to be content
occupying Jijelli.They returned in force to Bougie in 1515 at the request
of Ahmed
for their

ben

al-Kadi, the

supply of powder
refused to replenishit.

better this time,


of Kuko, and succeeded
no
deficient,and their friend the sultan of Tunis

sultan
was

occupation

of

ALGIERS

Arabs, the protector of


Finally Selim at-Teumi, the chief of the Tholeba
condition that
on
Algiers,made them offers in his turn ; he gave them .\lgiers
and drive the Spaniards out of
they would destroy the towers of the Penon
afterwards
them.fc
killed
Arudj entered Algierswith his soldiers and soon
Selim.
He
then proceeded to enlargehis territory,
comiuering the valleyof
the Sheliff and Tlemcen.
In the latter place he was
attacked
by the Spaniards.
flee
He was
the
of
rebellion
inhabitants
to
account
on
obliged
among
of Tlemcen, and was
killed by a Spaniard.""
Arudj had been fourteen years in Africa and had stained his hands with
barbarous
bloodshed; but he had acquired great glory,primarilyand above

NORTHERN
(1515-1533 D.]
he
all because

AFRICA

477

A.

of

be master

had

part

perhaps

had

This

made

death-blow

superiorto

his boldness

wars.

He

can

Cbrtes.
His brother

than

of Africa

coast

pirate,after

the

Spaniards that

it is necessary

he had

become

once

in order

to

occupy
of
master

to

large
Algiers,
a

the

to

that

better

the sea, but he had


on
single excursion
conquered
Sheliff,Titeri,Dahra, Waransenis, Tlemcen; he had dealt

not

the valley of the

as

of the

in the interior.

zone

understood

Zeianid

dynasty.

It

is true

that

adversaries,but his muskets

of his

his armament
worth

not

were

was

much

so

and his rude geniuswhich was


and his tenacity,
for great
made
be compared to only one
of his contemporaries Hernando
"

Khair

him, being hailed as king by all the


were
was
a young
never
sovereign if he deserves
in
situation
his
at
accession.
The new
that title
a more
desperate
empire
seemed to have gone to piecesand dissolved with Arudj.
Khair ad-din,worthy of his brother, did not hesitate an instant in facing
which
all the perilssiu-roundinghim, and took the only course
could dispel
that

"Turks"

in

ad-din

succeeded

Algiers: but

"

"

He

them.

turned

to

the

his vassal.

to

become

of

beyler-bey,and

from

sultan

Selim
that

of

and
Stamboul, Selim the Inflexible,

accepted, conferred
moment

on

Kliair

(1518) Barbarossa's

ad-din

offered
the

realm, which

title
till

then had

it remained
been only an embryonic state, became
what
until the
finalrevolt of its janissaries an integralpart of the Ottoman
Empire. Selim
and permitted him to recruit
to I^air
ad-din,
sent two thousand
janissaries
"

More
than
four thousand
he pleased in Anatolia.
incited
as
many
men,
by the hope of plunder, responded to his call.'' A fleet sent against him
with disaster and defeat, but soon
Ivhair ad-din was
from Sicilymet
driven
and by the treacheryof the sultan of Kuko,
out of Algiersby the Tunisians
for five years to his life of piracy,capthe Kabail district. He returned
m
turing
various placeson the coast until he was
strong enough to regainAlgiers,
himself more
this time establishing
strongly in that place by the capture of
Andrea
Doria tried in vain to repair
the Spanish fortress called the Penon.o
with
check
Shershel
fifteen hundred
soldiers.
a
by seizing
(1531)
60
grave
his
of
the
Turkish
attack
A return
garrisonrouted
engaged
troop, which was
the shore.
in pillaging,
and he fled,leavingsix hundred
men
on
Khair
broad scale.
ad-din then completed his work
He gave
the
on
a
maritime
warfare.
The
of
to
development
was
possible
Algiers
port
greatest
At the same
time the war
for rapid courses.
of confilledwith ships made
quest
established
in the interior. Stations were
continued
to guard the most
The
janissarieswere
energeticallyheld to their duty.
important routes.
resolved to protect himself
Khair
ad-din even
against their demands
by
of
thousand
Albanians, Greeks, or Slavs, on whose
eight
recruitinga corps
he could depend.
He had a largepersonalguard,composed of Spanish
fidelity
renegades.
for attacking the kingdom of the
Finallyhe selected a propitiousmoment
Hafsides,accordingto his first intention. But before that he had received from
the sultan of Stamboul
him
a new
dignity; the sultan had named
kapudan
whilst preservinghis title of beyler-bey
of Africa.
pasha of the Ottoman
fleet,
as

CONFLICT

WITH

CHARLES

belonged to a degenerate prince,Mulei Hassan, who hardly dared


mountain
his gardens. The Arabs held the plains. The
nearest
emerge
to the city,Jebel Resas, recognised only the authority of a marabout;
a
littlelocal dynasty occupiedKeruan, and made
itself respectedclear to the
Tunis

from

MINOR

SOME

478

STATES
[1533-1541A.D.]

south

All the rest of Tunis


ad-din left Stamboul

of Constantine.

independent. Khair
thousand
soldiers,rallied
Tunis

amongst

in

August,
the Arabs.

1533.

all his
After

also in revolt

was

eighty galleys and


Bona, and appeared

defence

Mulei

Hassan

Tunis, although she had surrendered, was


their submission, and up to the
made

the cities of the coast


of Constantine
the pro\Tnce

tribes

else

with

followingat
short

or

took

wholly
eight,
before

refuge

Then
pillaged.
district south

recognised Barbarossa.

of

The

powerful
long in coming, and this time it was delivered by Charles V in
left Barcelona
in May, 1535, with four hundred
who
ships,of which
person,
of
and with an army
nearly thirtythousand men.
gallej-s,
ninety were
hard
fortified in haste, but the city was
to defend; it
Goletta had been
full of Christian
captivesand doubtful renegades,and Ivhair ad-din had
was
The Spanish army
under him.
took Goletta.
Khair
only nine thousand men
ad-din delivered battle not far from Carthage. He was
defeated,and Charles
of the Hafsides, which he gave up to plunder.
X, in his turn, entered the capital
and children.
The
There perished,it is said,seventy thousand
men,
women,
the
of
taken
when
of
Arab
the
friendship some
point
being
beyler-beywas on
the west, and he regained Bona
towards
with
for him
chiefs opened a way
The
he
reached
bands.
his decimated
as
intrepidcorsair,as soon
Algiers,
the Mediterranean, which
hastened
to undertake
a marauding expeditionon
He
had been
pillageda
deprived of its defenders.
surprisedPort Mahon.
of captives upon
his ships,so
part of Majorca, and loaded a large number
of his raid reached
in the midst of the fetes given to
Rome
that the news

ripostewas

not

celebrate the capture of Tunis.


The principaloccupation of Ivhair ad-din, since 1536, had been to command
the French
and sometimes
fleet in the Mediterranean.
the Ottoman
Hassan
of Algiersto his lieutenant,
He
had left the government
Agha, or
the eunuch, and
the latter had continued
Hassan
to earn,on
petty battles,
the south as
the west, on the side of Tlemcen, sometimes
sometimes
on
on
of Christian
far as Beskra.
to the whole
However, Charles V announced
Europe that he would soon destroyBarbarossa's
lair,and in fact towards the
fleet
learned
with terror that an enormous
of August, 1541, the .\lgerians
was
assembling
sixty-five
galleysand four hundred and fifty-one
transports
at Spezzia. It carried twenty-nine thousand
troopers, Germans, Italians,
and Spaniards,includingthe knights of Malta.
Counting all the crews, a
total
of
thousand
hundred
and
two
sum
thirty-six
fiftywas reached.
Among
of note
it
of .^ba, Hernando
Andrea
duke
the men
the
were
Doria,
upon
end
of

Cortes

and

his two

sons.

Turks,
Agha had only eight hundred
Majorcan renegades and Moriscoes of
who
with
iron.
A
whole
Andalusia
armed
month
were
passed, and the
with
its storms
autumn
was
was
approaching, but the zeal of the emperor
such that he insisted on startingnevertheless,and this multitude
of ships,
loaded with
soldiers and munitions
entered the bay of Algiersin
of war,
order
October
19th.
The
took
on
good
landing
place on the 23rd, in calm
.\11 at once
weather.
raised great
the sky clouded
the
north wind
over,
the
and
of
rain
fell.
The
torrents
waves
on
ful
Spanish army passed a frightsea,
left
The
food.
tents
or
night without
powder being wet, the only arms
and
swords
kind of halberd.
time
the transport ships,
At the same
a
were
rolled by the waves,
assailed their crews
bands
of Arabs
to shore,and
came
and tore up their cargo.
The galleys,
held in place
although at anchor, were
hours
Charles asked how
they
only by a great effort of the oarsmen.
many
could still hold out.
said he, "it is at
"Two," replieda pilot. "Good!"
To

oppose

five thousand

to

such

forces Hassan

Algerian Moors,

few

SOME

480

MINOR

STATES
[1587-1600 A-a)

hands

of

beyler-bpys,or,
At

that

time

when

they were

neither

in those of their

away,

the governor

of Constantine

tenants).
caUphs (lieuthe caids of

nor

(Urectlywith

Staniboul.
The
corresponded
was
army
far from
having acquired the independence it attained later. It comprised
almost as many
renegades as native Turks, and was easilybalanced by the
Zouaoua
mercenaries
regiments of Kabail
(Igaouaouen) and of numerous
almost
raised from
ad-din;
every^vhere,following the tradition of Khair
rough battles from time to time made
great gaps in it. On the other hand,
formed
the reis,or corsair captains,who
and
sort of a guild called taiffa,
a
Tunis

and

TIenicen

whose

crews,

workmen,

and

slaves

naturallyinclined

formed

even

chiefs who

considerable

force, were

had

acquiredsuch a degreeof
hundred
maritime
a
expeditions. They submitted to them
from
from
and
much
fear,
as
certainlythey would have laughed
respect as
who
wished to hold up his head againstthe hero of Lepanto,
at a galleycaptain
the padisha'sadmiral.
and

always
preponderance in

to

obey

the natives did not extend to the limits to which the


The government over
have
carried it. It stopped at the southern
French
boundary of the Tell.
with
themselves
their customs
habits.
The beyler-beysdid not concern
or
from
for their troops and the
them
free passage
All that they demanded
was
and more
payment of taxes, heavy perhaps in the north but becoming more
the
south.
could
thus
maintain
their
domination
with a
towards
They
light
number
double

small
corps
with

average
fifteen

rare

of
its

soldiers.

Even

size,would

have

then

been

this small

number,

insufficient had

they

size of the

anny

men.

at

It

the end
never

of the sixteenth

exceeded

twenty-two

even

an

army

known

how,
subjects. The
probably
century was

skill,to profitby the social organisationof

thousand

or

not

their

thousand.

Of

these

thousand, one-third remained in Algiersand took part in the maritime


fortresses
or
expeditions;the second third was
garrisoned in certain towns
of the interior,as Tebessa, Constantine, Bcskra, Bougie, Tlemcen, Mostaand was
there dividetl into t^effara,
or
companies of twenty-threemen;
ganem,
which
columns
the last third formed
(mahallat)
were
separated into kreubbat,
A
of
called
tents."
were
zbentout,and the artillery
or
adventurers,
corps
It
small
force
maintain
reckoned
to
was
a surface
separately.
a
over
peace
as
largeas half of contemporary' Algeria and Tunis ; but these regulartroops
and the Maghzen.
were
supported by the Zmoul
Zmovil
often gathered
tribes composed of fugitivenatives who
The
were
the authority of a sheikh or a priest. The
of Algiers
under
government
granted them lands, and they had?only to pay their .'^heikhcertain taxes; in
return
they engaged to protect the soldiers and travellers within a circle as
their territory.The principal
of their huts or tents was
as
placed
large
group
main
konak.
It
been
and
called
has
a
thoroughfare
was
possibleto
upon
the
mark
the line of konaks
from Sig to Miliana.
out
trace
They nearly
of
the
Shcliff
route
valley.
present
The
warlike tribes,ahnost all of which had been sovereign
Maghzen were
in their own
regions. The government preservedfor them their old authority.
the
They paid neither the land tax nor the animal tax, but they assumed
of collecting
them
from
tribes which
had fallen
certain other
responsibility
their
their subjects,
and that, flattering
to the level of rayahs. They had
all the country was
pride,was enough to guarantee their fidelity.Almost
thus divided among
Maghzen and rayahs.
that of developing pride, brutality,
The only danger of this system was
for the most
and lawlessness among
men
part of low origin,such as the Turktoo
i-sh soldiers,by liftingthem
above
the conquered people. This
high
fifteen

"

NORTHERN

AFRICA

481

A. D.]
[1600-1700

increased by the fact that their famous


mihtia (odjak)was
a sort
the
of
chiefs
which
had
Httle
republic,
authority. The simple soldier or
of bread
janissarywas called yoldash. He received regularlytwenty ounces

danger

was

of

and a wage
service he
rank made

of about

seventy

allowed

was

cents

$3.11.

month.

At

extra

was

pay

the

end

called

of five years

saksan, and

of

the

degrees of rank were


given in order of age.
(superiorcommander), and after two more
of the army) ; he kept this office only two months,
months aga (captain-general
he kept till his
and then received the honorary title of mansid
aga, which
The
in
and
in
resulted
advancement
in the soldiers
death.
equality
pay
their
and
them
of
officers
little
account
when
comrades,
as
holding
regarding
the state.
This was
to overturn
the fancy took them
when
seen
distinctly
the beyler-beys
were
replacedby pashas,servingterms of three years.
The

no

difference.

That

All

oldest officer became

THE

kiaia

corsairs;

the

barbary

regencies

at the end of the sixteenth


The corsairs of Algeriawere
Their galleys,
which dispensed with
sailors of their time.
and
of
not
was
strictly
might burden them, were
necessary

century the first

everythingwhich
an
incomparable
submitted
to the severest
were
swiftness,and their crews
discipline.They
all the Christian
as were
were
composed of galleyslaves,
galleys. Besides a
soldiers
who
in
the prizes,
had an interest
of
number
the galleyscarried cannon
and artillerymen.No slave was
allowed to change his place when
the
in all kinds of weather.
It was
at sea; navigation continued
galleywas
full of
rarelythat they returned to port without bringingshipsof commerce
and
The
their
of
sold
merchandise.
at
clothes,
men
were
despoiled
men,
calledbadestan ; the merchandise
auction on the publicsquare
and wine also
found ready buyers. The whole
The victors
cityrejoicedat these markets.
.shared a considerable part of the booty; twelve
allotted
to the
per cent, was
his
the
to
one
beyler-beyor to
lieutenant,
applied
repairsof the
per cent, was
The rest was
and one for the support of the mosques.
divided
port of Algiers,
the
equallybetween the shipowners on the one side and the captain (reis),
the other.
and the crew-masters
The lower citybelonged to the
on
soldiers,
reis. They had
built there spacious houses
with
thick walls pierced with
low doors and narrow
windows
like fortresses.
their
There, all together,
were
in
combined
which
with
the
a
was
dwellings,
European luxury
quaintly
of
the
There
for
of
servitors
Orient.
reserved
were
rooms
numerous
luxury
for
and
filled
with
which
could
with
stores
serve
war
everything
race,
every
inexhaustible provisions,
rounded
private baths, and those great vaulted halls surwhich they also called baths, but for which the word
by small rooms
indicate the
hagnes,derived from the Italian bagni, does not sufficiently
Some
of these bagms have held as many
three thousand
as
purpose.
tives.
capWine
sold in them, and they were
almost
like pleasureresorts
was
up
slaves employed in the city then
hour in the evening. The
to a certain
with
returned
real power
of the reis,the carelessness
to sleep. The
to them
which they spent their fortunes, the splendour of their escorts
(when they
followed
went
out they were
by pages all clothed in silk),made them, in this
little
world where death was
so
dreaded,the most enviable of mortals. Their
till the
reached
these
It was
ambition
than
not
attainments.
no
higher
seventeenth
of

successors

to form

a
H.

century that, relieved of their obligations to the immediate


Barbaro.ssa,they t)egan, followingthe example of the anny,

state
W.

"

within
VOL.

XXIV.

state
2

and

could

even

usurp

the

supreme

power.

SOME

482

MINOR

STATES
[1588-1655

surprisingfact

Calabrian,six

one
we

have

which

is the

A.

D.]

of

renegades who held a high rank in


maritinie
reis in 1588 enuthis barbarous
aristocracy. Of the thirty-five
merated
at least twenty-two
of distinct origin:
by Father Dan, there were
one
Hungarian, one Frenchinan, one Albanian, two Spaniards,one Jew, one
politan,
Neaone
Corsican,two Venetians, one Paduaii, three Greeks, one Silician,
A

seen,

and

that

life of adventure

It

Genoese.

was

almost

is sufficient to

give a

exercised

the

over

the

correct

in the

same

idea of the

of the sixteenth

men

army,

as

attraction

century.

that

little city of Kabail


a
Algiers,originally
origin,
of Andalusian, and governed by pure Turks, was
with a slightintemiixture
turlianed Europc-ans and
filled with
soon
outgrew its limits and became
a
in character,
city of nearly a hundred thousaiul souls,wholly Mediterranean
It kept and was
to keep the
although always under the mask of Islam.
oriental
It was
the White, built up in the
of
an
city.
Algiers
appearance
of an
form
amphitheatre on the shore of a blue sea, with its cubic houses,
It had its Fort Victory,built on
with its terraces
risingone above another.
of the most
brilliant triumphs of
the site of Charles V's tent, in token of one
which
continued
to defy the assaults
the Crescent, its high battlemented
walls,
its
and
front
its
with cannon
of the Christians,
fortifications,
sea
bristling
barracks
always turned against the enemies of the one God, and its seven
full of soldiers always ready to earn
paradisein the jihcul.But behind this
the soul of all
exterior a slow evolution
was
modifying the blood and even
the mental
to contribute, togetherwith
its inhabitants, and
attitude
of
was.
towards the corruption of Algiers. This corruption
the soldiers and sailors,
little Turkey relaxed
to the empire. However
detrimental
the ties with
was
herself
ad-din had bound
she
to
which Khair
to
enter
was
a new
Algiers her,
of
uicline
and individual path, and, in spiteof some
to
towards
periods glory,
That
which
call Algeria was
to follow the same
decadence.
we
destiny.
the
death
of
Ali
touch on the commencement
of
we
Immediately after
Euldj
that evolution
which, from fall to fall,ended at last in the French occupation
It thus

came

about

number

of ISm.b
The Barbary regencies
had in the middle of the
practically
independent states. They sometimes
in its

Porte

; but

this

done

rather

in

seventeenth
sent

naval

century become
to

succour

the

spiritof

voluntary goodwill
recognitionof community of creed and origin similar to that which
formerly made Carthage give occasional aid to Tyre, than out of the obedient
suborflination of provincialgovernments to central authority. The strength
of Algiers,
and audacity of these piratical
had so increased
states, especially
that not only did their sciuadronsravage
the Christian coasts of the Mediterranean,
but their cruisers carried on
their depredationsbeyond the straits of
and southward
in the Atlantic.
Gibraltar,both northward
They pillagedthe
than once
island of Madeira; and the Algerincrovers
landetl in Ireland,
more
and carried off captivesinto slavery. They even
and sacked towns
and villages
ventured as far as Iceland and Scandinavia, as if in retaliation for the exploits
of
in
centuries
the old Norse
the
Mediterranean
before.
seven
sea-kings
Algiers
force comprising,besides lightgalleys,
than
had a marine
more
forty welleach manned
built and well-equipped.ships,
to four
by from three hundred
The
hundred
of
number
corsairs,and mounting from forty to fiftyguns.
toiled in slaveryin the dockyards anil arsenals at Algiers or at
Christians who
wars

was

and

the

in her fleets fluctuated from

oar

Tunis

and

Admiral
the

dey

Tripolihad

Blake

tamed

their Heets

between
and

their

t"Mi

thou.sand to twenty thousand.

.slaves,
though

the savage
prideof these barbarians
of Algiersinto the surrender
of all his English

on

smaller

scale.

He

awed

prisoners;and

when

in 1655.

NORTHERN
(165^1853

A.

483

n]

dey

of Tunis

the guns

of the

the

AFRICA

refused

town,

to do

the same,

destroyed

Blake

burned

the

piratefleet under
compelletlobedience to his

forts,and

fort
Ruyter and the French admiral de Beaualso at different times
punished the insolence of the Barbary corsairs;
never
but their outrages and cruelties were
entirelyquelled. In 1663 England
to be at
concluded a treaty with Algiersand the Porte by which she was
the
when
broke
their
chastise
without
to
Algerines
they
engagements,
liberty
of amity between
its being consitlcred a breach
England and Turkey. The
dahis or deys. According to
rulers of the Barbary states styled themselves
the
chiefs
termed
themselves
authorities,
deys as delegatesof
Algerine
some
the
title
from
the
old Asiatic word
to
the sultan.
came
others,
According
the
of
the
time
ancient
at
a superior,
even
republic of
dahi, which signified
elected
the Ishmaelites.
They were
by the
amongst
Mecca, and afterwards
of the janissaries
and
others of
military body, consistingof the descendants
Turkish race.
They used to apply to the sultan for his firman appointing
their election; but this soon
became
them pashas and confii-mhig
a
mere
formality.e
The

demands.

Dutch

admiral

the

Algeria
The

presence

of

in

ships of

de

Nineteenth

the

empire in France had caused


but after the re-establishment
pirates,
and the

to the

troublesome

Christian

Mediterranean

in the

war

powers.

Century

lull in the

of

during the revolution


of the Algerine
exiu^ditions
in 1814
they again became

peace
1815 the

In

American

commodore

catur
De-

an
gained a victory over
Algerine war-ship,and after the capture of
make
with
the United
forced
to
States (June
was
another, Algeria
peace
and
herself
the
American
to
30th, 1815),
pledged
recognise
flag. In the
failed
of
certain
to
execute
to
1816, Algeriahaving
summer
promises made
the
of Italian ships
the crews
before, and having massacred
England
year
Lord Exmouth
under the English flag.
appeared in front of the cityof
sailing
which
fications,
destroyed both the city and fortiAlgiersand began a bombardment
and reduced
the Algerinesto accept the terms
Their spirit,
offered.
rebuilt,and in the very next
however,was not crushed ; the fortifications were
raids
the
the
piratical
began again; only
shipsbelonging to states which
year
safe from attack.
had given giftsto the dey were
Finally,however, Algeria
in a dispute with
debt
became
France
involved
contracted
over
a
by the
of Algeria. This, in connection
French government to two Jewish
merchants
with the repeatedinjuries
to French
ships,led to a war which was the end of
The story of the war
the piratical
state.
belongsmore
properlyin the history
in
of France.
Suffice it to say that after severe
were
fightingthe French
the end successful,and on July 5th, 1830, the dey capitulated,
being allowed
to retire with his family to Naples.
The
French
had attacked
to
Algeriaon the understanding that they were
and
restored
in
retire after they had
the
offenders
but
1833
order,
punished
of colonising
the country.
its intention
the French
Many
ministryannounced

difficultieswere
received

in

incensed
The
natives
at the treatment
were
way.
of conquerors
who
their
national
hands
and
outraged
conflicts
Constant
made
no
attempt to conciliate them.

the

the

at
they
feelingsand
religious
took place,and
in 1832

the

emir

for fifteen years was


the most
War with him
continued, with

obligedto
lived under

surrender
close

in

Abdul-Kadir

dangerous
intervals

December,

1847.

appeared
the

enemy
of peace, until
He was
taken

supervisionuntil 1852, when

Louis

on

French
the
to

the

had

scene,

in

heroic

France,

Napoleon

gave

who

Algeria.

emir
where
him

was

he

his

MINOK

SOME

484

STATES
[1851-1860 I.D.]

libertyon

condition

that

then

in

and

lived

Algeria.
he distinguished
Damascus, where
of
the
1860.
He died
massacres
during
not

afterwards

return

Abdul-Kadir

to

in

Christians

by protectingthe

himself

in 188.3.''

Damascus

at

Brusa

would

ho

been removed
to France, the French
possessions
There
could no
regarded as secure.
longer be any
whoever
talk of giving up conquered
territorj%
might be in power at Paris,
and
the
of keeping and
be
the
and however
might
tlifficulty
great
expense
the
The
the
national
across
sea.
assembly declared
administering
province
been
hitherto
called
which
had
be
to
a regency,
a lasting
Algeria,
possession
of the republic,
and granted the inhabitants
the right to elect four delegates
also made
efforts to keep
to the legi.?lative
constant
body; the government
the Arabian
were
tribes,which
always inclined to
and rebellion,in obedience, fear,and peace
hostility
by appointingenergeticand reliable governors-general,
such as Cavaignac,Changaruier, and Charron.
At the same
time the republicfurthered colonisation
by establishing
European settlements at the expense
of the state.
The militaryand aggressiveprocedure
tribes in the south and
against the restless Kabail
After

in North

had

Abdul-Kadir
Africa

could

be

the

of

west

colonial

district

still

was

forceful

more

and

of the militarycelebrities of
vigorous. Most
the
the
St.
as
empire, such
generals Pelissier,
their first laurels in
Arnaud, and MacMahon, won
tary
Africa, and acquired their strategicskill and miliin
the
natives.
The
experience fightingagainst

long administration

pnimotod
of l-'rcnch

rule

fruitful and

well-wooded

the

empire just as

new

had

been

for

that

oa.sis districts of

regions

in

the

linnightinto

Arabi.vn

to

General

were

the annexation

replace nomadic

levies and

taxes

extension

The

oasis
was

the

subjugation of the
Laghuat, or al-Aghuat,
used
for the glory of

conquest of the

lands

of

the

Sahara

1856

and

to France

life

this

respect for

easier for them.

the system of

by

in money

and

were

subjection;the

or

produce

were

their old habits and

The

attempt

1857.

governor-general. The

In

plan

toms
cus-

made

was

fixed abodes, and only moderate


demanded.
Commercial
routes

laid out, the northern


part of the central Sahara explored,caravan
with
Timbuktu
and
markets
and new
Senegal established,

of

smala

the

kingdom of July. The


of
Tuggurt,
Wady Suf, and of other

steppe

industry. An expeditionon
up to French
the tribes of Great
Kabylia led to their

had

of

(1851-1858)
and

powerful tribe of the


Banu
Mzab
voluntarilyrecognised the supremacy
of France.
natives
The
left in possessionof
were
all their traditional
rights,customs, and patriarchal
usages,

made

Yusuf

Randon

consolidation

in Africa.

Pelissier and

by

An

of General

greatly the

Randon
a largescale under
complete subjugation in

the year 1860 Marshal


lY-lissierwas
of appointing a separate minister

nections
con-

opened
against

the

paigns
cam-

appointed
for Algeria

been

given up after a short exjieriment.


sion
Nevertheless,however
activelythe French government carried on its misof civilisation,
the re.'^erved element amongst the natives showed
nation
littleinclitowards

the

foreignintruders.

and
Race, religion,

traditional customs

NORTHERN

AFRICA

485

(1865-1904A.D.]

formed

insumiountable

an

that

barrier,so

the

could

conquerors

lay

never

The
situation was
littlechanged when
in 1865 the emperor
down the sword.
himself appeared in the colony and by proclamations full of promises tried
the Mohammedan
tribes to a peacefulunion ; the following
to win over
years

full of

just as

were

Saida

the preceding ones.


The
French
as
disciuict
military
The caravanindependent spiritof the Arab Bedouins.
serai
antl Geryvillewas
destroyed by the united tribes under

chiefs

8i-Lala, Si-Hamed

system irritated
between
their warlike

Murei

Kersar,

waste

by

the tribes in the

of their

robbed

were

the

warlike

Colonib

colonel
in drivingthe
and

Arabs

and

herds

bands.

Not
into

Sidi Muhammed
faithful to France
cultivated land was
laid

remained

all the
a

putting a

After

the Sahara.

the

to

the

lands

of the Franco-German
time, so that at the outbreak
could transport a largepart of the African
army
Since the great insurrection of 1871 there have
Amama
that of al-Ainri in 1876, and that of Bou

war

Si-Lala

near

Golea

the

did

years' war

two

check

frontier

Hamed

El

in

after

and

Hamza,
had

fruits,and
until

succeed

back

Ben

vicinitywhich

to

raids

decisive defeat
remained

and

of Si-

quiet for

the Paris goverimient

Europe./

been
in

the enterprising

barbaric

revolts

two

1881,

in

Algeria,

in southern

Oran,

important event was


repressednot without
difficulty.Another
of Myab (1882), where
the inhabitants, tributarysince 1853,
annexation
Since 1896 Algeriahas suffered from
refused to fulfiltheir engagements.
several occasions, especially
anti-Jewish agitation,which
at Algiers,
on

which
the
had
the

Oran,

were

and

Constantine,

the difficultiesraised
constant

change

by

has

led to

bloodshed.

riot and

this anti-Semitic

In

propaganda, there

of

consequence

has

latelybeen

governors.^'

After

conqueringTunis in 1535, Charles V restored the cityto its legitimate


ruler,Hassan, and the Spaniards fortified the strongholdGoletta,but their
established
in the interior. Finally,in 1574 the Spaniards
authoritywas never
driven
and Tunis
became
Turkish
out
a
were
by tlie Ottomans
province,
whose
governed by military rulers or deys appointed by the janis.saries,
rulers
in
the
the
civil
last
1705
was
or
authority
disputed by
beys. Finally,
and
Hosain
ben
overthrown
established
which
Ali, as bey,
a dynasty
dey was
has continued down
to the present day.
Hamuda, who reigned from 1782
hhnself independent of the Turkish j-oke.
to 1814, made
Like Algeria,Tunis
anil dependent for revenue
its
was
a piratestate
on
in 1819 the European powers
raids. Consequently when
piratical
put an end
involved
in debt.
After the
and more
to piracy the country became
more
the
increased
of
the
of
PVench
and
political
i
mportance
Algeriaby
capture
in its old regency,
but the
Tunis, Turkey tried to regain its lost supremacy
himself
attached
more
bey Sidi Ahmed
closelyto France and attempted to
his
the
Crimean
Europcanise
country. During
war, however, he aided the
In 1858
Sidi Muhannned
ascended
the throne and
Port"! against Russia*
speedilycaused a revolt of the native tribes the Arabs, Moors, and Kabails
He
died, however, in the following year, and
by his attempts at reform.
"

"

his successor,
1871
the

the

as-Saduk, restored

Muhammed

abolishingthe newly
sultan

established

issued

firman

constitution

making

hereditaryrule of the bey. In


boundary dispute to invade Tunisian

1881

things to
and

Tunis
the

tlunr former

reducing
an

French

and
territory,

the

state

autonomous

seized the
on

May

state

12th

"

In

head-tax.

under

pretext of
forced

the

SOME

486

MINOE

STATES
[1881-1904 i.D.]

which

of Kasr

he gave
the
on

as-Said, or Bardo, by
bey
Treaty
up his
of
the
whereas
succession
the
throne
French,
rights
government to
assured
of the followingyear Muhammed
to his family. In October
was
died,
in whose
and
succeeded
was
by his brother, Sidi Muhammed,
reign the
under the protectionof France.
country remained
In 1883 it was
decided to undertake
a
thorough reform of the government

sign the

to

and

of the

administration

almost

country, and

the

bey

in

continues

from

the French

exclusivelygoverned by

to

measure

onwards

1884

minister

Tunisia

has

been

theless,
Neverre.sident-general.
his native subjects,
and

reign over

is the ostensible head

of the government
in their eyes.
On the whole, French
has been indirectly
the country
and wiselyexercised,so that the

control over
benefits of French
exercise
last

the

of

two

rule haw

three

or

hitherto been

hand

firm

that

put

an

"

despotism

MoNASTiR,

the

bey

which

of

minister

Tunis,

the small

In

is

French

than

short, some

of
a

country

but

in

thousand

like west

country

to

an

Such

French

Australia, where
Tunis, where
Berbers

and

French

the

or

minister

resident,and
parliamentarycontrol,by
control the administration.

settlers would

colony
have

much

like to

into
to

one

turn

with

recommend

what
representative
it in

native

population is very sparse,


million eight hundred
are
one
as
compared with a hundred and
propositionis altogetheranother

there
Arabs

twenty-fivethou.sand Christians,such a
lead to very
serious
matter, and would
troubles, as
later

should be
the present triumvirate

to direct and

are

English crown
policymight

like

Mohaiiunedan

Sooner

corruption. In the
agitation

Tunis

IN

colonists

by

on

of constitutional

thousand

ten

practicallyanalogous

carried

the
foreignaffairs,
kind

of French

body

institutions.
a

apparent than has the

more

oriental

to

of the nineteenth
century, however, an
years
the French
colonists"
for a government which

sprang
up amongst
less that of the benevolent

of the

much

end

has

been

the

case

in

become
or
Algeria.
a
positionof the puppet prince must
but
Tunis
continue
must
to be governed d("spotically,
superfluity,
wisely,
and well by a singleFrench
until perhaps some
distant
viceroyor pro-con.'^ul,
the Arabs
and
have
Mohammedanism
epoch when
jointlydisappeared,and
of the Berber
the great mass
its
Africa has abandoned
populationof Roman
with the East, and returned
fatal connection
to that community of European
nations to which by blood aiul affinities it belongs.''
the

-v"5Sw-

^m

CHAPTER

THE

first

Thk

has

Arabs
the

OF

HISTORY

period

MEDLEV.\L

historj*dowii
previous volume.

world

of

in

PERSIA

Persia's

to

After
which

countn,'

history,for

MODERN

.\ND

Persian
in

literarylife of the

religiousand
view

of

related

been

III

conquest by the

that
is of

time

it is rather

interest from

the

Persia

has

its

politicaldevelopment
passive whilst foreign invaders and foreign armies have
its territories. Its politicalimportance to-tlayis due
to the
swept across
in
that are seeking to gain "influence"
the country.
rival European powers
The
second
period of Persian history begins in the year 640 of our era with
point
been

of

more

less

or

""

the

battle

for

revive
the

time

and

at

the

one

the
the

crown

Without
will be of

another

is in the

put

the

hour

the

two

that

customs

long
the

on

possessionof

of national

duration.
crown
a

ruin.

From

periods is logical. Iranian


some
dynasty will arise and

doubt

and

manners

none

after

sounded

continuity of

end.

an

Islam, but

of

Afghans

moment

view

brief time

which

Nehavend,

of

political
point of
independence is

Arabs,

of Jamshid

Turkish

in Persia

existed

before

Turks, Mongols,

the present
it will
tribe,to-morrow
; at

nally
The change is no less profound interpossessionof the Ru.ssians.
than externally. The
old religion
out : it counts
has been rooted
to-day
followers, who live,in poverty and under
only eight thousand
oppression,in
The
a few
villagesof Kirnian.
religionimported by the "lizard eaters" has
a
put out the fire in the temples, introduced
strange language there, and

be

in the

silenced

the

Zend-Avesta.

If

the

national

tongue has survived

amongst

the

people,it also has received marks of slaveryand has replenishedits vocabular}'


in honour
of its conquerors.
Nevertheleas, if we look closely,we shall find
that the national
has disappeared from
clement
the surface more
than from
beneath,
more

than

new

faith

and
she
to

that
has

Persia

in

transformed

hereditary habits

justice that for the

mass

of the

him
has transformed
stranger
herself,that she has adapted her life and her

accepting
and

the

traditions,and

Mohammedan

Islam.
488

world

that

it is not

Persia stands

without

outside of

OF

HISTORY

THE

MEDIEVAL

AND

MODERN

PERSIA

489

[WO-700A.D.]
In

fact,the

framed

Islam

formulas;
had

which

base

at all Islani ; it is the old

the

not

never

fmidaniental

the

is not

spoken
livingreligionwhich

popularand
except

of Persia

Moslem

in

upon

to

sacerdotal
the

had

religion an
of the people"

both

in

had

common

grown

Persia

artificial

conscience

nothing

which

of
religion

"

with
up.

the

Thus

struction
con-

but

the

other
in the

evolution
is the only guiding thread which
religious
the national
and to give an approxmiate
idea of the
follow
to
spirit
us
pennits
from
within
to start
Iranian life in the second period; it is easier and surer
rather than from without, from the historyof thought rather than from the
revolutions.
incoherent succession of political

modern

anarchy of

Persia

converted
For this
Persia the day followingits conquest was
en
masse.
all of which, however, may
be
reduced
to two :
different
exist,
reasons
many
of the masters
in
the
the religion
second
in the first place,Islam was
place,
;
Persia cared very little for the old state religion.Moreover, the two religions

pointsof contact
many
convictions
offer to
already so
had

so

from
that the passage
to the other did not
one
serious
in dogma,
difficulties
shaken
any very

mythology. The old Aryan polytheism


possibleto the Semitic dogma in Mazdaism, and

had

as
near
already come
was
only an Ormazd,
The
Arab
cult in its simplicity
at a distance.
who kept his creatures
more
ritual was
deliverance as far as the Mazdian
concerned,and, from a
was
a
by the Avesta
higher point of view, the practiceof charity recommended
than an equivalentin the tithe for the poor imposed by the Koran.
found more
In Arab
already
mythology the Persians found much with which they were
acquainted all the legends,for instance, concerning the end of the world,
from
had borrowed
them, sometimes
paradiseand hades, which Mohammed
without
sometimes
directly,
knowmg it,by the intermediaryroad of Jewish
and Christian mythologies.
of religion,
has the most
it is mythology which
Of the three elements
resistance
and the most
vigour; it is the only one which a people never
Persia transportedits mythwhen
it thinks
it is converted.
ology
even
renounces,
fell
heir
whole
into
the
Mohanmied
to
Zoroaster;
as
a
new
religion.
and the serpent Johak
Dedjal and Antichrist to Ormazd
; Saochyant, the son
is to inaugurate the
stillto be born to the Prophet, who
at the end of time
his promises to mankind
under
the
reign of eternal life,returned to make
MaMi.
All that tribe of demons, jinns,divs,and periswhich
Arabic name
in
animate
to reign in peace
the waters, mountains, and deserts,continued
of
their empire as if nothing had happened in the temples. For the mass
peoplenothing had changed, either in heaven, on the earth,or in hell ; there
and Mohammed,
and the eightwords
to learn,Allah
were
names
only two new

cult,or
as

Allah

"

of the Moslem
The
which

had

be

credo to

reaction
ruled

went

substituted

still

ancient

for

further, and

Persia

returned

the twenty-one words


the

of Honover.

principlesof

political
theology
empire almost the
theory the power belonged
gloryby his superterrestrial

affirm

to

ruin.
According to Persian
king,the son of God, invested with divine
of Mohammed's
revolutions
Persia
united
the head
origin. Owing to political
on
legitimatesuccessor, the Arabian Ali,who had been excluded from
the caliphate,all the splendour and
sanctity of the old national royalty.
The one
she had once
called in her protocols the divine king,son of heaven,"
and in her sacred books the "lord and guide"
lord in a worldly sense, guide

day

after the national

their

to the

"

"

SOME

490

MINOR

STATES
[750-1060

intellectual

she

A.

D.]

"

the chief."
by the Arabic word Imam,
This was
the simplesttitle imaginable and at the same
time the most
august,
for in it was
included all the sovereigntyof the world
and of the mind.
In
raised to power
regard to the caliphs,who were
by the blind clamour of the
she upheld the hereditaryrightsof the imam
by crime and intrigues,
masses,
in

an

Ali, the

infallible and

his death

At

"

after%vards

she

about

last Sassanid

his two
Husein

that

the

on

revolution

The

of God.

descendants.

king,so

of Husein

blood

sacred

gathered about

their

right;and

divine

called

now

the

union

the

imamate

of

sons,

had
fixed

wa.s

ancient

Persia

Hassan

and

married
in his

and

Islam

Husein, and
the
a daughter of
blood by a doubly
was

sealed

in the

plainsof Kerbela.

which

overturned

the

in favour of the
Omayyad usurpers
the work
of Persia.
If she did
Prophet, was
the favourite familyfor which she thought she was
not bring into power
fighting,
under
to triumph. For an instant,
she at least caused her principle
al-Mamun,'
the representative
of the principlewho
seemed
it was
the point of
even
on
the
of
in
favour
the
abdication
of All's.
of
descendant
a
by
caliph
triumphing
the throne
The first Abbasids, placed on
surrounded
themselves
Persia,
by
with Persians ; their first ministers,the Barmecides, were
suspected of belonging
the
of
of
to
heart
Zoroaster.
The
Khusrau
at
religion
days
(Chosroes)
returned ; Hellenic tradition,
formerly brought to Ctesiphon by the Nestorians
after two
renewed
and the New
centuries of interruption.
PlatoniaiLs,was
brilliantly
the palaces of Baghdad
Greek
re-echo, as once
philcsophy made
There
Anoshirvan.
those of Ctesiphon did under
sembling
appeared something reof disinterested learning; the motecallemin
free thought, and a spirit
sects
and systems in courteous
to discuss religious
came
controversy before
Thus
al-Mamim.
began what has been called Arabic philosophy,but which
according to Kenan's
expressionmight better te called Greco-Sassanid, for
but the language ; the foundation
and those
is Greek
it has nothing Arabic
Persians
the
it
who
Sassanid
or Syrians,taking up
again
inspiration.
apply are
in
the most
of the great writers
Philosophy, history,geograjihy,grammar
the best Arabic
basids
period in all branches
except poetry, are Persians; the Ab-

Abbasids,

the

nephews

of

the

"

are

real Sassanids

of Arab

Orthodoxy again gained

blood.

hand

upper

in the state

under

the

successors

realised that

to
to adhere
they no longer had any reason
But
solution
the Shiite doctrines.
this triumph of orthodoxy coincided with the disof the caliphate,exhausted
by its immensity, and, in the breaking
the
the
Persian
of
empire,
provincesseparated and followed independent
up
the Taharids, the SafTarids,the Samanids, and
the Buyids.
destinies, with
of
the
of
the
All
those
national
sentiment.
founders
It was
reawakening
memories
of the
or
dynasties,rebel governors
simple adventurers, opposed
time before Islam to the prestigeof the caliphateof Baghdad, in order to be
followed
by the nation into a strugglewhich seemed
sacrilegious.The
from beyond the Oxus, of doubtful
Samanids, come
origin,perhaps Tatar,

of

al-Mamun,

pretended to
Behram
epxich,
simple fishers
themselves
were

to

in

hold

who

the

be

the

who

who

settled

in

Bactria, and
the

direct descendants

of the Sas.sanid
of one
of the last heroes
the Turks.
The Buyids,
died in exile amongst
the Samanids
whilst
Media
were
establishing

descendants

Tchubinek,

who

caliphsand

for

the

major-domos of the palace


hands, pretended to be
ture
again expressed herself in litera-

century

as

caliphatein their

of the Sassanids.

after three centuries

Persia

of silence.

['The

seventh

.\bbasid

caliph,813-833.]

OF

HISTORY

THE

MEDLEVAL

AND

MODERN

PERSIA

491

[750-1050 D.]
A.

LITERATURE

caliphshad tried to extinguishthe


writing had been forbidden; when

national

language in Persia;the
came
belanguage of the Koran
the language of the administration,it had, by the force of circumstances,
also the language of science,of theology,of poetry, of thought. With
become
the rise of the national
dynastiesthe Persian language rose again from the
it had not been possibleto extirpateit,and penetratedthe
lower ranks,where
The
Pahlavic

The

its literature.

and

court

poets, without

to manipulate the language of Mohammed


the
the desert ; but they began to throw

poetry, and a national


poetry, as in Europe a
with the support of the

literature
few

was

centuries

still held

doubt,
the

of

Petrarch

later

The

and

kasida

Dante

and

the

the Transoxanian
of the Samanids.
court
of Ahmed,
third of this dynasty, Nasir, the son

It

of the
of the

national

the

of the Persian
The

school

poets, Rudagi,

the blind

of

of his

the

"

at

about

the

the

historic

models

There

faithful to

more

legends as ancient
its origindown

presentunent

that

the

as

end

the

Thus
as

of

well

as

in

first in date

those
the

The

into
which

of

mass

the
was

Samanids

same

had

stories and

the

whole

of its

if with

last

Sassanids,as
approaching, had
scattered,and had published
Then
the deluge had

drama

national

language;

fields which

followed

which

in

form,

tradition,in
olden
times, a

and

Iran

the

the renaissance

thrown

was

oral
of

the

it

only

protectionof

the

the Sassanids.

to

Persian

was

substance

memories

historyfrom

poet

in the

was

with

was

that

Persian

of Bokhara.

Arabic.

were

was

; his favourite

successors

trulynational, in
same
period,under

epic poetry.

remained

and

Rudagi

and
the inspiration
shade by a poetry

born

is connectecl

poetry

formed

were

ghazelin

charmed
disguise,
name

it

honour
an
the
rhythm
poets of
mill
of Arabic
vulgar tongue into the
formed
in the shadow
of the foreign
and

tradition.

Latin

the

was

collected all this

epic treasure, which was loose and


it in the language of the time, the Pahlavic.
and
of Persia had been lost in oblivion.
the epic book
The national
come
dynastiestook up the work of the last Sassanids; the ephemeral house of
translated
into Persian.
the Saffarids had
the old uncomprehended book
The Samanids
who overthrew
them continued
their work, called the prestige
of poetry to aid the national
thought, and the Persian book began to receive
form
the
under
He died at the
a poetical
poet, Dakiki.
pen of a Guebers
of his

commencement

by

dynasty

new

work

national

them, Mahmud

the

binding Persia
Arabic
court

out

and

was

of
at

to

; the

by
completed

Ghaznevid,

Baghtlad,who

the
his

work

founded

under

that

fixed, the ancient


epic was
of
genius a poet ; Persia had

Turkish

intolerant

an

imposed
for

Firdusi

tradition

princes,under

wrote

with

the

broke
the

greatest of
the

last ties

sword, but

saved
definitively

by

the

drove
at

his

Persian

happy

of herself.

INVASIONS

Unfortunately, this regaining of consciousness


The
evil destinyof Persia demanded
that

fortune.

who

benefit of Persian; it was


the Book
of Kings ; the

regainedconsciousness

BARBARIAN

in their turn
away
of the Ghaznevids; the

fanatic

the Koran

the

was

carried

were

slave, that

Turkish

administration
order

Samanids

was

not

centuries of

should
coincide
with
the great movement
abandonment
barbarians of central Asia and impelled them
towards

regaining of
anarchy and
agitatedthe

which
the Occident.

As

far

SOME

492

MINOR

STATES
[1050-1500 A.1".1

back

as

had

Persia had

her memory

goes,
in olden

Ijut
neighbovirs,

she

times

terrible nomads

the

had

been

of Turkestan

able

to keep them
behind
barrier of the great river and
the barbarians,to sow
of the desert and to plant her colonies among
her
cities there and to lighther fire temples; all the ancient part of the epic tells
Now
the force of expanof the triumphant struggleof Iran againstTuran.
sion
ami it is the desert which crosses
the Oxus and invades
has been broken

for

she

Oxus;

the

had

been

alile

to

even

the

cross

Persia.

strength of the traditions of culture in


her enemies.
At
over
gained the ascendant
times
few
in
she
absorbed
her
three successive
number
to form
invaders,too
anything else than a governmental caste, too limited in intellect to bring or
to create
a civilisation peculiarto themselves, politic
enough to recognisethe
it only the better to organise the exploitation
value of Persian traditions,
were
of the vanquished. The
Seljuks of the eleventh century were
Turks, but
Nevertheless,such

Persia

three

that

administrators

their

she

for

thingsof the

his

of gold piled about


him.
around
Under

Those

Persians.

were

admiration

devoted

still the

was

times

divan,
third

the

mind

handfuls

throws

Seljuk,Malik

and colleges;
his astronomers
mosques
reforms
of the Gregorian calendar.
It was
with

these

of Shiraz

in the thirteenth

and

who

of

hour

an

divan

his

court

and

themselves

rulers

wrote

cities became

five centuries

were

filled

ahead

of the

during his reign that Omar


yam
Khay(juatrains.On the fall of the Seljuksten little local dynasties,
of destruction,ruining in one
Atabeg Turks, pursued a course

of the

century

the

Shah,

his

wrote

those

have
a
moreover,
Turkish
w'ith
lord,
great
bags
of it to the poets who
sing

barbarians,

; the

made

Persia;

but

peace

and

here

caused

poetry

there
to

the

at

blossom

of

court

once

more;

of the Atabegs of Shirvan, and it


the court
There
that Sadi wrote
his Gulistan.
term
was
a
at

for the

was

of

of

one

Nizanii

anarchy

still pagan
century on the arrival of the Mongols, who were
But the Mongols themselves
peace only through devastation.

fell mider
the charm
of knowledge the fierce Hulagu founded
the Ilkhanian
observatory of Maragha and had Nasir ad-din compose
The
tables.
converted
to the
Mongols became
religionof their subjects.
with
civilisation,
they passed aw'ay in
Losing their force through contact
their turn.
Then
Transoxania, impelled to take up the work of destruction,
his passage
from
the Oxus
marked
to the Euphrates
sent forth Timur, who
with pyramids of human
heads.
His son, Shah
Rukh, trying to remedy the
his
rebuilt
Merv
and
Herat
of his grandsons gave
evil done by
father,
; one
had made the first
his name
of Ulug Bey ; another, Bai.sanghes,
to the Tables
critical edition of the Book
of Kim/s. M the court of the sultans of Herat,
other descendants
of Timur, Persian thought sheds
last gleam under
the
a
auspicesof a Turkish Maecenas, the Aizir Ali Shir,a poet himself,who formed
in their turn

the

Turkish

poetry

great poet

It

Shah

the

was

on

the

model

of Persian

Persia,Jami, the

Mirkhond

historian
Devlet

of

and

his

son

romancer

as

the last
the

friend
he

had

prot^g^s
great chroniclers.

as

last of

the

might write his Biography of the Poets; there will be no


epoch when the Renaissance was begiiming in the Occident.

the

great dynasty
to

the

had

He

of Sufism

Khondemir,

SUFIC

After

poetry.

successors

of

of Timur

Persia, that

be descended

from

more.

DYNASTY

in

of the

the
Sofis.

sixteenth
The

Ali; they enthroned

century

Sofis

are

Ali and

arose

descended

the
or

last
tend
pre-

the Shiite doctrines

'

"

'

'*'"-*"

All*"

*""*ll"'t";i';;""

.;

INTERIOR

UF

PEliSlAN

PALACE

SOME

494

MINOR

STATES

[180O-1903a.Di1
At

the

action

and

time

produced

mnovation, that
religious
for centuries
of Babisiii.
Persia, demoralised
by ten foreignconquests, by
in which she believes just enough to persecute
the yoke of a composite religion
of a mystic philosophy which
unbelievers, by the enervation
discourages
same

takes

was

all aim

away

in life

create

and

from

derived

Sufism

from

Persia

"

unexpected effort to
in its dogmas
originality
an

and

for herself
in its
old

at

attempt

an

made

mytholog}';
Alide

in the

virile ideal.
its

Babism

century
has

little

metaphysical doctrine

formed

sects

nineteenth

about

the

dogma

is
of

divine incarnation : but its morals


revolution, they are as the morals of
a
are
It
Occident.
the
legalinjustice
polygamy, the great
; it suppresses
suppresses
it
the
oriental
of
degradation;
reorganises
source
family,and it elevates man
in

from

years

end

one

"theblood
be

up to his level.
of Persia to the

bringingwoman
of

founder

The

will be

recoveringand
so
bj'Babism.^

Babis,

of the

the

recently
as

As

in 1849.

at Tabriz

is

martyrs,

regeneratedshe

Babism, which spread in less than five


bathed in
other, and which in 1852 was

spreading in

Bab, Mirza
1903

there

Ali

silence.

Muhammed,

was

massacre

If Persia

can

executed
was
of his followers

at Yazd.

IN

PERSIA

THE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY

began at the very outset of the nineteenth


Georgia. The founder of the Kajar dynasty,
(1795),had succeeded in reconquering that countr\-, but in
Aga Muhammed
its czar
1800
voluntarilysurrendered his authority to Russia, and when his
its ruler,Path
Ali Shah,
brother refused to recognisethe act, Persia, under
in
of
the
of
the
took
successes
on
crown
spite some
prince
part
up arms, but,
Abbas
Mirza and the fonnal
occupation of Erivan by the Persians, not much
while England, the Indian government, and
accomplished. In the mean
was
France sent embassies
to Persia seeking to establish
diplomaticrelations,and
European

interference in Persia
.with

century, in connection

incited the

France

shah

to

the

renew

with

war

Ru.ssia.

The

Persians

were

sign the Treaty of Gulistan,which formallyceded


to Russia
Georgia,Derbent, Baku, Shirvan, Sheki, Ganja, the Talish,Moghan,
with Russia broke out in
and Karabagh (October 12th, 1813). Another
war
in the Treaty of Turkmantchai,
of which
terminated
which
have
1826
we
with
in
and
accordance
which
Persia
cede
to
was
obliged
already spoken
of
about
Nakhitchevan
and
to
Erivan
to Russia,
indemnity
"3,000,pay a war
vessels on
the Caspian. War
000, and to give up her right to have armed
Persia's other troublesome
with
neighbour Turkey broke out in 1821, and
concluded
until July, 1823.
Persia was
also involved
not
was
definitely
peace
in fightingwith
Afghanistan, her neighbour on the other side. A Persian
expeditioninto the country under Abbas Mirza captured several placesand
An
the whole successful.
was
on
attempt to take Herat, however, resulted
and

defeated

were

forced to

"

"

in failure.

Path
and
at

once

which
In

died in 1834, and was


father,Abbas Mirza,had

Ali Shah

Shah, whose

he

aided

in

resolved

to

extend

wished

to

Russia

spiteof

placingMuhammed
his

on

by his grandson,Muhammed
precedingj'ear. Both England
the

throne.

The

new

ruler

the

of Afghanistan,
dominions
at
expense
desiringto re-e=itablish the empire of the Sufis.
counsel
of England, Muhammed
laid siegeto Herat,

annex,

the adverse

and it was
induced
to

only after

1848, and

England

withdraw

succeeded
died in the

firm

intervention

after

and

Russia

ten
were

the part of the British that he was


died in
Shah
siege. Muhammed
instiaimental in establishing
his son and
on

months'

OF

HISTORY

THE

MEDIEVAL

AND

MODERN

PERSIA

495

[1848-H'03A.P.]
successor, Nasir

ad-din, on

the throne

in

The reignof
spiteof rival claimants.
whole by an
increase of Russian
on
Nasir ad-din wjis
influence
British. Persia's sympathies were
stronglywith Russia in the Crimean
over
and decidedlyagainst England, the ally of the hated Sunnite. Turks,
war
and Persia's repeatedattempts to gain possessionof Herat
were
displeasing
the latter power
1856
declared war;
to England. In
English troops were
marked

landed
(1 857).
r.iore
was

the

on

the

Gulf

Persian

this encounter

After

and
the Persians
the shah's attitude

and the appointment


friendly,
very acceptableto the Persian
led

Baluchistan
in

to

demarcation

1872, carried

by

of Sir
court.

forced

were

towards

to

Great

Henry Rawlinson
Disputes with

of the frontier

as

Britain

Herat
became

envoy

in 1859

restore

Afghanistan and

between

Persia

and

chistan
Balu-

In the next
English commissioner.
year
the shah visited Europe, and
In
repeated his visit in 1878 and in 1889.
assassinated
1896 Nasir ad-din was
near
Teheran, and his son Muzaffar ad-din
During his reign different European powers, chief
quietlysucceeded him.
them
and
their efforts to gain influence
Russia, have continued
England
among
concessions in Persia.
and specialcommercial
Russia appears
to have
been
out

an

in this respect. She has established consuls


the most successful
and banks
and
made
has
the
extensive
to
in
loans
the government;
more
important towns,
the concession for a road from Tabriz
to Teheran.
in 1902 she obtained
One of the most
in connection
important questions to foreign powers
To
with Persia is that of the Persian
Gulf.
the Russians, who
have been

tryingso long to find an outlet on the


questionis e.specially
important."
The
claim of England to supremacy
definite treaties

or

international

in India, and
position

The

northern

shore

on

of

what

ocean,

law, but

somewhere

in the Persian
the

on

she has done

Gulf

somehow,

is based

the

not

on

necessityof

to reclaim

the gulf is divided

and

between

safeguardingher
.thegulffrom barbarism.

Baluchistan

and

Persia;

the whole
of which
to the south lies the Arabian
Peninsula,over
Turkey
exercise
her
actual
claims to
suzerainty,although
possessionsthere are confined
of the southern
to the singleport of Basra.
The whole
littoral is held

by petty independent chiefs who long lived in piracy. Early in the last
century England put down piracy and the slave trade, and induced the chiefs
of which
to enter into engagements, the terms
of them
greatly,some
vary
treatingthe chief as an independent sovereign,others reducing him to the
to perform the
positionof an Indian
feudatory. England has continued
and
the
and
she
of
has
duty
buoying,lighting,
policing
gulf,
enjoyed a practical
monopoly of its trade.
According to the consular report for 1902, out of
and thirty-eight
a hundred
shipswhich entered the port of Bushire,a hundred
and thirty-three
and twenty-one which
British,whilst of the hundred
were
cleared from
it only four belonged to other nationalities.
Yet the only place
in the gulf which is actuallyBritish territoryis one
mile at Bas.sadore,
square
and the only territory
which
British protectorate has been formally
over
a
It is thus obviously open
to any
proclaimed is the island of Bahrein.
great
itself
in
the
obtain
to
to
establish
a concession
gulf
European power desiring
from Turkey or Persia.
That
Russia
has
desires to obtain
Bander
Abbas
but
it
is
she
will
formal
been
that
make
not
a
long
perfectlyclear,
probable
for it for some
time to come.
Her
demand
policyobviously is to get Persia
into her power
of loans, commercial
and more
treaties,and
more
by means
concessions
for roads.
she may
hope to work her way to
By these means
Bander Abbas, and to obtain a monopoly of its trade,whilst it still nominally

remains

Persian.

Then

may

has been obtained,the work

come

of

claim

turning it

for its formal


into

an

cession,and

arsenal may

when

this

be commenced.^

SUmL\IlY

CHRONOLOGICAL

Under

Persia

THE

OF

Arabs

the

HISTORY

(642-1258

OF

PERSIA

a.d.)

A.D.

"41

Arab

under
Tahirid

820-873

and

874

Samanid

dynasty

901

Samanids

under

in

Khora"an.

It

the

Although
themselves

is

countn.-

nally
nomi-

now

practically independent.
rule
by Saffiurids,who

is overthrown

Fars.
rises under

Ismail,

of Samanid

End

rules

dynasty

in Khorasan

998

end of Persian empire.


make
rule, the governors
soon

marks

of Xehavend

Battle

.\hmed, grandson of Saman.


Saffarids.
overthrow
Ahmed,

of

son

dynasty.

and
Samanids
Khorasan
drives
to Bokhara, where
conquers
Mahmud
extensive
in India.
makes
by Turkomans.
conquests
and takes Hamadan
and Ispahan.
Mahmud
attacks
in the west
1028-1030
Buyids or Bowides
Mas'ud
Mahmud'sson
1037
(10.37-1041) is attacked
by Seljuks under Togrul Beg. They occupy
Irak.
Fars, the Persian Irak and the Arabian
Azerbaijan, Armenia,
105.5 Togrul overthrows
Buyids in Baghdad.
for Seljuks
shahs
Khwarezmian
Atsiz, governor
1097
(1097-1231) become
powerful under
999

they

in
1150

Ghaznevid,

the

Mahmud,

overthrown

are

Khwarezm.

Qhurid

of

sultans

region

between

Herat

and

Ghazni

powerful under

become

Aladdin

Husein.
Ghaznevids

1194

Khwarezmian

1203

Ghurids

Khosru

Takash

defeated

and
Muhammed

1229

Tule, youngest

1258

Persia

Tatars

but
1387

Timur

they

1405

Timur
Shah
the

his

Rukh

Shah

Rukh

is succeeded

1467

1478

heirs.

His

Khalil.

Persian

and

by Rhalil
Khalil's

succeeds

Baghdad.
himself

dependent,
in-

Tatar

called

are

successors

khans

of

Persia,

He

kills

seventy

thousand

Shah, although Timur

bad

rule

soon

his

removes

provinces the

results

had

in his

Ispahan,

med
designated FMr Muham-

deposition.

capital from

Samarkand

revolt

Kara

Turkomans

in

persons

under

Herat.

to

Yusuf

and

In

conquer

of Persia.

dies, and

is succeeded

by his

Ulug Bey.
Ulug is put to death by his son,
Baber
for a short
by soldiers.
usurps
power
to power.
period,and after his death Abu
Said, great-erandson of Timur. succeeds
Uzun
overthrows
Yusuf.
Hassan,
Turkoman,
a
kingdom founded
by Kara
Abu
Said is taken
Hassan.
His son
prisoner and killed by Uzun
reigns in Bokhara, his
brother
in Farghana.
Abdul-Latif, who

1468

provinces.

Hulagu
conquers
Arabian
Irak, makes
son

of Ilkhans.

Persia
conquers
of their heads.

successor.

northwest

large part
1446

dynasty

dies without

pyramid

dies, and
as

1408

Tul"5's

powerful.

(Tamerlane)

making

Persian

over

Syria, Anatolia, and

over

founds

not

are

rule

to

Mongols (1258-1.501).

and

last Ilkhan,

Buseid,

Jenghiz Khan.

his dominion
and

1335

bv

succeeds
JengKiz,

of

son

extends

Ghazni

takes

of Persia.

conquered

is
under

Malik

defeats

most

conquers

1220

He

overthrown
by Ghurids.
are
from
Ghurids.
Seljuks and takes Khorasan
of Takash, who
son
shah, Muhammed,
by Khwarezmian

under

1183

Uzun
Yakub

Hassan

is himself

dies, and

son,

killed

soon

is succeeded

on

the

throne

of Persia

by

his

son

Takub.

dies

by poison, and is succeeded


Alamnt,
probably by his son
though there is
doubt
the subject, and
it would appear
that a period of civil war
some
on
intervened,
various
nobles
during which
usurped the power.
Husein
1487-1506
Miiza,
great-great-grandson of Timur, reigns at Herat.
1485

Sunc
1.501

Ismail

I founds

descendant
1502-1503

Ismail

Persian

of Sheikh

Dtnastt

dynasty
Sufi.

destroys Turkoman

He

(1501-1721

of Sufi.
takes

old

dominion,
496

Ismail
Persian
conquers

a.d.)
is

grandson of

title of Shah

Azerbaijan

or

and

Hassan
Shainshah.

Uzun

Armenia.

and

CHRONOLOGICAL
khan, Shaibani,

the Usbeg
1510 Ismail conquers
by the
1514 Ismail is defeated

sultan

Ottoman

belief,which

of

form

is regarded
and Kurdistan.

Diarbekir

annexes

SUMMARY
descendant

Selim

heretical

as

death, Ismail subdues


Georgia.
an
empire extending from
He is succeeded
and Irab.
by Tamasp.
of Usbegs.
1527 Persians defeat army

1519

of

Jenghiz Khan.

Ismail

had

by the orthodox

introduced

Turkish

the

Shiitic

Sunnites.

Selim

SeUm's

On

is recovered

Baghdad

from

Kurdish

Khorasan, Turkestan, to Diarbekir

Kerman,

1523 Ismail dies,leaving

1528

I.

497

usurper.

Baghdad from Persians.


is entertained
court.
at Persian
1543 Indian emperor
Humayun
with Turkey.
1548 Rebellion of shah's brother, in alliance with sultan, leads to war
Georgia.
1552 Persians invade
of Suleiman, takes refuge with Tamasp, who is prevailed upon
to give him
1559 Bayazid, son
between
Persia and Turkey.
This cements
peace
up to his father.
arrives in Persia
to make
from
a commercial
1561 English envoy
Queen Elizabeth
treaty
no
important results.
dies, and is succeeded
by Ismail EC.
1575 Tamasp
He is succeeded
by his brother, Muhammed
1577 Ismail II dies after two
years of misrule.
Muhammed
is a weak
ruler, and his reign is disturbed
the Blind.
by rebellion within
1534

and
1586

takes

Suleiman

Shah

without.

foes

the

AbbM

of Persian

Great,

rulers.

of

son

Muhammed,

Ispahan

Makes

his

At

and

England, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Holland,

throne.

to

comes

capital.

He

his court

India.

On

are

is most
distinguished
ambassadors
from

his accession

Abbas

is

obliged to fight Usbegs, but is called off by Turks.


treaty with

Murad

III.

Khorasan

from

1590

Abbas

makes

1597

Abbas

retakes

1601

Bahrein, and the province of Lar.


in which
War
begins again with Ottomans
II.
signed under Othman

1609

Persians

Herat

and

He

Usbegs.

extends

his dominion

Balkh,

over

the

retake

Kandahar

from

the Grand

Persians

lost

recover

Peace

is

Gombroon

(Bender-

Mogul.

factories
Dutch
establish
1620, English, French, and
Abbas)
1628 Abbas
by his grandson, who rules under
dies,and is succeeded

1620

provinces.

About

at

commits

and

barbarities

many

empire

declines

under

name

Shah

Sufi.

Sufi

him.

1641

IV.
is taken
by Grand
Mogul.
Baghdad is conquered by Murad
receives foreignembassies
n.
Abbas
Sufi dies, and is succeeded
by his son, Abbas
is tolerant of other religions. He is a drunkard.

1647

Kandahar

1666

1720

of Suleiman.
He is a weak
son
Sufi,under name
Persia
declines ; no
occurs
during his rei^n.
prince under whom
important event
shores
of Caspian.
Dutch
seize
annually. Tatars ravage
Usbegs invade Khorasan
visit magnificentPersian
island of Kishm
in Persian gulf. Many
court.
foreigners
Suleiman
and bigoted ruler,
dies,and is succeeded
by his son Huseln.
Husein, a weak
brings his empire to ruin.
take posses(Abdalis) revolt, and under Mir Wais
Afghan tribes of Ghilzais and Durranio
sion
is constituted
into an
of Kandahar, which
independent kingdom.
Mir Wais
dies,and is succeeded
by his brother, Mir Abdallah, who gives dissatisfaction
nobles.
to Afghan
Mir Abdallah
of Mir Wais.
is prois killed by his nephew, Mir Mahmud,
Mahmnd
son
claimed
king.
invades Persia and takes Kerman,
which
is retaken
Mahmud
by Persian general Lutf

1722

Ispahan

1638

1694
1709
1713
1717

Kandahar

Abbas

All

dies,and

is succeeded

Khan.

by Afghans after

is taken

Persia, and

in order

finallybecomes
1725 Ashraf,

of

son

Turkish
1729

Nadir
of

by Persians.
by his

is retaken
II

and

Abdallah, succeeds

siege. Mahmud

power

mas.sacres

Mahmud;

his

thousands

becomes
of

ruler

of

Persians.

He

on

reign is disturbed

Russian

and

by

Persia.

on

Khan),

(Kuli

months'

seven

his

insane.
Mir

designs

Husein,

establish

to

powerful Persian

Tamasp

throne.

has

chief,drives out Ashraf, and placesTamasp,


claimed
since his father's
royal title ever

son
render
sur-

to .Mahmud.

1732

Tamasp

is defeated

In consequence.
by Turks, and cedes to them Georgia and Armenia.
Taniiisp and raises his infant son. Abbas
III, to the throne.
After three
1733 Nadir attacks
Baghdad and is defeated
by Turkish
general Topal Osman.
months
Nadir
and takes it.
again attacks Baghdad
Nadir
1734-1735
occupies Armeni.a and Georgia, drives out Turks, and concludes treaty with
Nadir

dethrones

Porte.
1736

Abbas

III

up.

He
H.

W.

dies,and
raises
"

VOL.

Nadir

becomes

empire to
XXIV.

its former
K

shah

on

glory.

condition

that

the

Shiitic

heresy be given

SOME

498

173S

Nadir

1739

Nadir
tants

1743

is

Nadir

1747

Nadir

suspicious of his

gains victory

1753

Kurim

single battle captures

Delhi.

Kuli

this time
From
out.
his subjects.

the

over

proclaimed ruler.
and is permanently

his eyes

puts

he

Turks

nobles.

by

and

that

cruel

is

Ahmed,
is deposed

Adil

son

and

is murdered

Nadir,
1748

Kandahar.
in

and

violentlysavage

so

1745

India

STATES

thousands

Many

of inhab-

massacred.

are

Nadir

and

Balkh

conquers
invades

MINOR

is

and

terror

makes

to

treaty with

Nadir is

on

them.

Period

of

anarchy

follows.

Kingdom

of

Afghans

is founded

Adil

Shah,

in eastern

nephew

of

Iran under

lost to Persia.

Ibrahim
is soon
killed by troops.
by his brother Ibrahim.
Shah
The
blinded
succeeds.
He is deposedseveral times,
Rokh, grandson of Husein
and finallyestablished
in Khorasan
by Ahmed
Khan, king of Afghans. In the mean
of the reigningdynasty,
time Muhammed
Husein
Khan, of the tribe of Kujurs, ancestor
has established
his authority in Mazendcran.
Azerbaijan, Ghilan, and Georgia are
of tribe of Bukhtari, puts descendant
of house of
Khan,
independent. Ali Murdan
Sufi

throne

on

blinded

and

and

tisks Kurim

succeeds

Khan

and

other

chiefs

to

aid him.

1756

his rule, and


Persia under
uniting southern
occupies Shiraz.
He is a wise and just ruler; never
calls himself shah, but only vakil of Sufi Shah.
Kurim
He is forced to retreat to Shiraz by Muhamtakes Ispahan and large part of Irak.
med

1757

Muhammed

Khan

Husein
lack

Khan.

besiegesKurim
of

union

Khorasan
1776

Basra

in

alone

is left under

surrenders

Saduk

to

to retire to Mazenderan.
is eventually defeated

Shiraz, but is forced


followers, Muhammed

at
his

among

of Shah

dominion

Rokh.

of Kurim.

brother

Khan,

Owine
to
kiUed.

and

Internal

of Persia is

commerce

revived

1779
1781
1785

1789

during later years of Kurim.


Kurim
Another
dies,nearly eighty years old.
period of anarchy follows.
Ali
Murad, nephew of Kurim, finallyobtains the crown.
khan
of the Kajar tribe in
Ali Murad
dies v"hile on
his way
Muhammed,
to fight Aga
Khan.
Mazenderan.
He is succeeded
by Giaflfer (Jaafer) Khan, son of Saduk
During
his reign he is occupied chiefly in fighting Aga Muhammed
Khan.
Giaffer Ivhan
of the conspiis murdered.
interval
of a few months
one
During an
rators
who
of Giaffer, then succeeds
killed Giaffer
to
reigns. Lntf Ali Khan, son
Lutf .Ali is distinguishedfor his noble
qualities,but is rash and proud. He
power.
offends
of his most
to Aga
Hadji Ibrahim, one
powerful supporters, who goes over
Muhammed

1791

Hadji

Khan.

Ibrahim

disarms
1792

Lutf

and

sends

of Shiraz.

out

Lutf

With

Muhammed

Aga

is ruler

Kerman.

Aha

Russia.

He

Muhammed

Khan

Russians
makes
Muhammed

is

is crowned

tortures

Feth

\l\ is not

with

Russia.

Shah

retreat

transferred

its

allegiance

to make

death

on

In the

Shah.

Rokh

him

of the empress

year

same

he

subdues

give up his concealed


Catherine,

and

jewels.

Muhammed

Russia.

murdereii, and

Muhammed's

"

Muhammed

a.s

the blind

Georgia, but

trejity with

Ibrahim

1800

take

has

Heraclius

Tiflis.

enters

Khorasan, and

1797

At the death of Lutf Aii.


Kajar dynasty.
Irak, Fars, and
Mazenderan,
Ghilan, over

of

begins rule

Khan

prox-inces of Astrabad,

over

killed.
finally

Eh-N.^STT

He makes
Teheran
his capital.
marcher
against Georgia, which under

Muhammed
to

1796

for

Muhammed's
advancing
boldly attacks Aga
and self-possession.\li is defeated.
Ali after repeatedly attempting to regain his kingdom is captured and

he
1795

Ibrahim
troops desert him.
Aga Muhammed.
Owing to Muhammed's
army.

All's
Sends

resolution

K.^JAR
1794

Lutf

all of

Almost
them

Ali

calm
1793

Shiraz.

seizes

soldiers

"

owing

nephew

actually crowned

Georgian ruler, George,

son

the

to

Baba
untU

of Heraclius

firmness
under

Khan,
the

and

good

following j'ear.
his

renounces

crown

of Hadji
management
him.
Ab, succeeds
He
begins contest
soon

Feth

name

in favour

of Russia.

His

brother

1802

Russia
repudiates the act and war
ensues.
gains possessionof Derbent, Baku,
makes
India
the Talish, and
British
Shirvan, Sheki. Ganja (F.lizabethpoll,
Mugan.
commercial
and
politicaltreaties with Persia.
Georgia is declared a Russian
province. A few years later France enters into diplomatic
relations
with
British send
officers are
sent
to drill army.
Persia, and the French
mission

1809

French

to

Persia.

general Gardanne

Sir Harford
1810

Malcolm

is sent

is dismissed

Jones, concludes
as

Ali, founder

envoy

of

from

Babism,

owing

treaty with

England
is boni

with

Peace

to

of Tilsit.

British

diplomatist,

Persia.
two

in Shiraz

officers and
about

field

this time.

pieces.

Said

med
Muham-

CHRONOLOGICAL

1811

Persia declares

1813

Treaty of Gulistan.
Russia

and

1822
1823
1826

Persia

all her

loses

right to

obtains

have

possessions in the Caucasus,


the Caspian.
war
on

north

of

Armenia,

ships of

with
Turkey.
between
Turkey
Treaty of Erzerum
making declaration
Persians, without
with
meet
but they soon
reverses;
War

1827

Campaign

1828

Peace

reopens.
is concluded

through

British

Persia.

and

of war,

No

attack

territorial
Russia.

negotiations for peace

mediation

changes

At

they
begun, but

are

Turkmantchai.

at

Persia

made.

are

first

successful,

are

futile.

prove

gives up

Erivan,

1846

besides
Armenia, with the rich monastery
Etchmiadzin,
paying a
indemnity of "3,000,000.
war
in Teheran, and
Russian
ambassador
with his
Popular rage breaks out against Russians
Soon
afterwards
alliance
with
wife and
Russia
is
largest part of his suite is killed.
strengthened and that with England weakened.
Mirza
dies.
His death
is a great loss to his country.
Crown
prince Abbas
Feth Ali dies, and is succeeded
by his son, Ali Shah, who reigns for twenty days. Muhamthrone
med
of Russia
through influence
Shah, a grandson of Feth Ali, is placed on
Russia
and
and
in opposition to Ali Shah.
England
England
struggle for influence
in Persia; Russia
against Herat
an
e.xpedition, which
persuades Persia to undertake
unsuccessfiil.
proves
Shah
Herat
and
again invades
lays siege to city.
Siege of Herat is raised owing to English efforts.
hand
in Persian
affairs.
England gains but does not maintain
upper
Persia concludes
treaty with Russia, giving latter right to use two ports on Caspian Sea

1847

Treaty of Erzerum

with

1848

years.
Muhainmed

dies, and

and

Nakhitchevan,

1829

1833
1834

1837
1838
1840

war-ships.

for

Shah

introduces

vizir and

teachings have

1850

Babist

1852

Persia incorporates sultanate

1852

England

in terrible

results

tries

Persian

to

settles

Turkey

spread

Nasir

by

such

that

extent

an

An

of Herat.

persecutions and massacres


independence of

secure

is

Said

attempt
and

lasted

Muhammed
the

on

of members
Herat

had

to

for about

He
appoints
suppressed.

ad-din.

in Khorasan

Insurrection
to

disputes which

frontier

is succeeded

reforms.

[-

499

Russia.

on

war

SUMMARY

Ali is

shah's

life

of the

Babist

land

troops

by

Mirza

put
three

to

five
Taki

death.
Babists

sect.

Bushire

at

on

the

Gulf.
active

part in Crimean

Persia, though

1855

Persia

1856

1868

which
defeated.
sends
are
troops against them,
the following
mediation.
In
England^ through French
years
Persia fightswith Turkomans,
but with no
lasting result.
Sir Henry
British
minister
the
celebrated
to Persia.
Rawlinson,
orientalist, becomes
he is succeeded
Alison.
About
by Mr. Charles
a
year later
between
between
England and Persia for communication
Telegraph convention
Europe

1872

Renewal

1873

Shah

1857
1859

1879
1881
1887

Peace

is concluded

with

of

telegraph convention.

visits

England.
to Persia.
Treaty of Berlin gives city of Kotur
Shah
visits Europe.
Persia
between
(ratified 1882) settles boundaries
Treaty with Russia
territory conquered by Russia.
Ayub Khan, son of Shir Ali of Afghanistan, who, through agreement
confined

Abdar-rahman
1888

Karun

1889

"Imperial

river

Abdul

is

Azim

at

As

1891

Twenty-eight

1893

In

1897
1898

convention

Shah

with

persons

Russia,

raise

with
revolt

England, has
against Amir

visits

with

British

Europe
forbidden

are

cedes

royal charter.

for third
in

Russia

1900

Russian

Shah

government

makes

second

secures

visit to

important
Europe.

Persia.

in Persia.

lands

loan

demands

time.

on

the

northern

frontier

of Khorasan

exchange for land on the frontier of Azerbaijan.


Persia gives France
exclusive
right to excavate
antiquities in Persia.
ad-din.
Na.sir ad-din
is assassinated.
He is succeeded
by his son, Muzaflfar
M. ,1.de Morgan
of excavation
at Susa
(Shushan).
begins work
to nothing.
Negotiations for a British loan came

1902

Turkoman

unsuccessful, and is sent a prisoner to India.


Shah
Teheran
and
navigation.
Railway between

die of cholera
Persia

tries to

the

and

is

business

Russia, railways

to

thousand

and

1884, escapes

starts

advantage.

concession

since

of Persia"

Bank

1890

Teheran

of Afghanistan.
He
opened to international
is opened.

corresponding

1896

war.

India.

been

1895

no

Herat.
reconquers
Shah
English seize Bushire.

and

1878

favouring Russia,

takes

1853

to Persia.

Shah

visits Europe.

in

CHAPTER

THE

BUFFER

IV

STATES

OF

CENTRAL

ASIA

Afghaxist.\n
In the

the north
high lands of eastern Afghanistan,-nhich are bounded
on
peaks of the Hindu Kush or the Indian Caucasus, anterior Asia
"roof
of the world"
whicli is the geographic centre
of the continent
in which
India, the Chinese Empire, and the territories of immense
together. In this region,one of the least explored of the continent,

the snowy
touches that

by

and
Russia

come

the

base

of the

table-lands

upon

which

arise the great

mountains,

passes
sur-

highestpeaks of the Pyrenees in altitude. A little distance to the


the plainsof Turkestan
and the valley of the Indus, pass the
west, between
have been in all time the most
routes which
frequented; hence the extreme
militarj'
importance of Afghanistan and the great role this country plays in
and of popular migrations.
the historyof commerce
Neither tradition nor
crossed in the
was
legend tells us that the mountain
But the relationship
the cults,
time of the Aryan ancestors.
existingbetween
ceremonies, prayers, language, and civilisation of the people of the Iranian
Rivers"
and
the people of the Hindu
Rivers"
is so close as to
"Seven
"Seven
almost
and
leaves no
amount
to identity,
doubt that the gates to the mountains
between
the two
known
used
and
of
the
water.shed
were
by the
slopes
of
Hellenic
Then
the
of
Alexander.
constitution
expeditions
states, which
the

stretclicd from

Bactria

perhaps into the heart


world

through these
and

putting India

clear
of

the

other

side

India, joined again the

defiles

probably

to

also

of

the

armed

into connnunication

Hindu

Kush

of
two
;

afterwards

propagandists chose
with

the

countries

the

600

Arj'^an

Buddhist

sionaries
mis-

for
Asia and of
in the rocks of

same

routes

of northern

the extreme
Orient.
Gigantic images, carved centuries ago
have
Bamian,
seen
expeditionsof war, of
pass before them
many
influence upon
which
have
exercised
considerable
of
or
commerce,
of the world.

and

mountains
tlie snowy
extremities
of the

propaganda,
the

history

MINOR

SOME

502

STATES
(1838-1863A.D.)

1st, 1838, on the pretext that Dost


against the British ally Ranjit Singh,

October

Afghanistan on
wrongfully fought
that the militarj'plans of the Afghan princes revealed a hostile attitude
towards
India, and that Shah Shuja had asked for assistance as the legitimate
and
An
successor.
Anglo-Indian army of twelve thousand men
forty
started
followers
in
thousand
Afghanistan
Februarj',
1839,
against
camp
crossed the Indus
on
February 20th, went through the Bolan Pass in March
without
not
and the I^ojak Pass on
April 7th
great loss and on April
where
Shah
25th reached
Kandahar,
Shuja formally took possessionof his
On
w'hich
had always been considered impregnabl
July 22nd, Ghazni,
government.
the
On
with
taken
the
August 6th,
was
through treachery.
shah,
into the devastated
British main force,moved
Kabul, and the English already
regarded the land as a fief of the Anglo-Indian Empire. They had, however,
declared

war

on

hail

Muhammed

"

taken
the
was

did
more

neither

consideration

into

"

the

nature

of the land

the

nor

character

of

terriblyundeceived.
Afghanistan
but not
in a helplesssituation,
conquered. Dost Muhammed,
overrun
his crafty son
indeed
surrender
much
the
to the English, but
was
so
The
latter placed himself
of a far-reachingconat the head
active.
spiracy

Afghans,and

in

in consequence

which

neither

the

British

soon

were

the

British

minister

commissioner, Alexander
Bumes, nor
of Kabul, would
court
believe,in

the

at
Macnaghten,
The
and the dreary retreat of
at Kabul
massacre
spite of all indications.
to need repetition."
the English are too well known
to English
Only one Briton of rank escaped death to bring the sad news
from
Kandahar, which had remained
headquarters. General Nott marched
in British possession,
against Ghazni, which he occupied on September 6th,
and which, in spiteof its flourishing
without
much
opposition,
condition,
1842,
Pollock had started towards the other
while General
he destroyed. In the mean
of September.
central point,Kabul, to joinforces there with Nott in the middle
of
this
liberation
of
the
and
the
destruction
The
place
captured English
organised
followed the defeat of Akbar's
men.
Afghanistan appeared ruined and discember,
enough, so that the British generalsbegan a quick retreat in Deleaving the land to itself. The transports of xnctory led them to
the captured Afghans, even
Dost
the follyof liberating
Muhammed
commit
from
Hindustan
and
well
of
the
of things
state
himself.
aware
Returning
allowed
himself
be
welcomed
to
in that countrj',Dost Muhammed
as a
gladly
in
1846
saviour in Kabul, and began to strengthen his dominion.
Already
he seized an
opportunitj'to operate against England, and entered into an
alliance with the Sikhs.
However, the battle of February 21st,1849, destroyed
of his allies and his own
the power
hopes,so that he fled discouragedover the
""

Indus, with sixteen


nevertheless,took
found
In

order

to

time

secure

neighbours,he had
with

the

thousand
no

and

new

The

steps against him

leisure

his conquests

enlarge and

to

by being

alreadysigned a

Indo-British

he concluded

of his warriors.

decided

government

on

on

British Indian

strengthenhis
good

tenns

treaty of offensive and


March

20th,

government,

the contrary. Dost

; on

1855.

own

with

his eastern

defensive
In

hammed
Mu-

kingdom.
alliance

January, 1857,

with

the British government,


as the representative
of Punjab, John
the negotiations.
Lawrence, conducted

alliance

of which, the governor


Tlie prosperityof the

Afghan realm had on the whole begun to increase,


of
when
in 1860
Khan
Sultan Ahmed
again disturbed
Afzul
Khan
of Kunduz,
the son
of Dost
Herat
a disagreement with
who was
the Afghans. But Dost Muhammed
Muhammed,
very popularamong
turbances
he had
restored
knew
how
the equilibriumnow,
it in the disto restore
as
in 1861.
In the beginningof 1862, however, a Persian
in Bokhara
but

the

peace
fell into

was

OF

STATES

BUFFER

THE

CENTRAL

ASIA

503

n863-1001A.D.]

Afghan boundary, and Sultan Ahmed


Persians,marched
againstFarah and
Khan of Herat, at the
all
Then
Afghanistan was aroused
Kandahar at the head of an army
corps.
tened
hasThe grey-headed amir Dost Mulianmied
unavoidable.
became
and war
time
of his army
callingat the same
at the head
against the enemy,
He cleared the frontiers and then
the help of the British in British India.
on
fell
into
his
which
on
May 26th, 1863, after a
advanced upon
Herat,
power
the
Ivlian
before
Alinied
died
capture of the city.
shortly
tedious siege.
the
at
few
died
Dost Muhammed
a
days afterwards,
age of ninety-two,after
Herat
ruler
of the realm.
his
heir
and
Ali
his son, Sher
as
Klian, as
designating
the
without
part of
remained in the hands of the Afghans,
any oppositionon

Nedjed again threatened

from

amiy

the

of the
instigation

fell into confusion.


For, after Dost Muhammed's
Persia,but the realm soon
death,his sons and grandsonsbegan to quarrelamongst themselves,and a wild

strifebroke

out

Barak^ai,which

Ln the tribe of the

caused

terrible devastation

in the country.c
Dost Muhammed

succeeded
was
by his son, Sher Ali,who,
and
after many
throne
until
the
wars
hunself
establish
on
not
his
After
five
and
authority was
his brothers
nephews.
years
accorded
in Kabul, and in 1869 a splendid receptionwas

however, did
disputeswith
lished
firmly estabhim

at Am-

Mayo, Lawrence's successor.


boimhad been approaching the northern
time the Russians
dary of Afghanistan,and Sher Ali again turned to the English for support.
at Engand being hurt,moreover,
land's
Not meeting with a favourable
response,
balla

the earl of

by

In the

mean

refusal to take his part in a dispute with Persia, the amir now
began
when
in
Russia.
and
to
England
1878,
Accordmgly,
more
more
the receptionof a British resident at Kabul, Sher Ali refused and
demanded
to

look

war

was

at

declared.

once

1878, Kandahar
under

resolutely
;

English advanced

The

fell into

defeated

Kabul
Ali fled from
His son, Yakub
Khan, who

Sher

the

with

English
September of the
nari,was
Roberts
the

was

The

taken out from


of the Barakzai
a

land

Yakub
amir

long before war


Abdurrahman
as amir
had

been

in

Kotal.

was,

Kabul,

which

he entered
the

in

October,

and

Great

Britain, but

sent

of Sher

Abdurrahman,
nephew
the province of Kandahar
and given to the sirdar Sher Ali
jurisdiction

family.
containingso

not

Ali,who

his

under

Peiwar

In
however, of short duration.
Louis
Sir
resident
at
Kabul,
CavagEnglish
suite and the war
began again. Sir Frederick
peace

India.

to

by

at the

the

year

same

troops

of

force

north, where he died in February, 1879.


proclaimed amir, concluded a treaty of peace

was

May.

in the

the amir's

end

was

the

to

killed with his whole


marched
at once
upon

deposed amir
recognisedas

In

in

hands

their

Roberts

Sir Frederick

occupied by the
beginning of 1879, and

Jalalabad

Ali,
was

Khan

to the throne,however, it was


Shortly after the proclamation of
of the amir Sher
in July,1880, Ayub Khan, another
son
of
since
his
Herat
the
death
of
father,defeated
possession

broke

many
out

claimants

afresh.

Kandahar.
Roberts
made
General
marched
a
and
General Barrows
upon
of
defeated Ayub Khan
the 1st
forced march
to relieve the city,
on
September,
In the next
of Abdurrahman.
the dominion
and placed the province under
time retired,
Ayub Khan again attacked
year, the English having in the mean

Kandahar,
succeeded

of

in

which

however,
possessionin July. Abdurrahman,
drove him to take refugein Persia,incorporating
followed,
kingdom. During the''^
twenty years that now
death in 1901, Afghanistan enjoyed a period of comparative
central
The
occasional
civil
wars.
only by
power was
he

defeatinghim

Herat in his own


until Abdurrahman's

quiet,broken

took

and

MINOR

SOME

504

STATES
[1350-1750 A.1X]

equipped with European


by the organisation of a regular anny
introduced
into the country.
certain
law
extent
and
and
order
to a
were
arms,
the "infidels" of Kafiristan and
In 1895
the amir
subdued
compelled them

established

to

accept Islam.
Abdurrahman

succeeded

was

accession

in

1901

by

place quietlyand

took

to the throne

his son,
without

Habib
any

Ullah, whose

disturbance.

He

friendlypolicytowards England, although the latter country


of Russian
desires to establish direct
has felt some
accomit
on
apprehen.-;ion
with
the
the
relations
commercial
frontier,in oppositionto the
Afghans on
hold no
Russia and England that Russia would
direct
agreement between
diplomaticnegotiationswith Afghanistan.
has

maintained

Tibet

comprises almost exactly half of the vast semicircle of mountains


radius
of eight hundred
kilometres, extends west of populous
a
from
the first Mongolian promontories of the Tian-Shan
to the openings
in the eastern
Hunalaya, through which the Tsangpo, the Salwin,and
The high bordering chain of
Mekong escape towarcb the Indian Ocean.
Kwanlun
diNndes this semicircle into two parts which contrast
singularly

Tibet

which,
China,
the
the

with

other

each

with
other

the- north

; on

which

rivers

is the closed basin

lose themselves

in the

sands;

of the Tarim
the south

and

of several

rises the

high
deepest hollows in the interior
rises the most
massive protuberanceon the surface of the earth.
of a continent
if
the irregularities
of contour
Taken
caused by
whole,
a
one
disregards
as
of the most
demarcated
its political
frontiers, Tibet is one
clearly
regionsof
the
northwest
the
which
at
the Old World.
are
on
Resting
jagged ranges
furrowed
and
Kashmir, Tibet widens gradually
by the valleys of Ladak
the southeast
and east between
the dominating ridgesof the Asiatic
towards
the Kwanlun
Like the Pamir, the two
continent
and the Himalaya.
great
the triangularmass
of Tibet on
chains which dominate
the north and south
are
regardedby the people who live at their base as the roofs of the world,"
the "steps of heaven,"' and the "sojourn of the gods." They seem
to form
limits
of
of
in
which
the
diadem
the sun
the
another
land, to
snow
shining
the
of
the
few
enchanted
an
gives
explorers
region,but which
appearance
is a land of cold, of misery cau.sed by snow,
and of
who have reached it know
plateau of Tibet.

the

At

side of

one

on

of the

"

"

If the

famine.
state

Asia

of

Tibetan

in

last century, this

the nature
defenders

success

of its soil.
have

other
has succeeded
better than
any
isolated condition of its people during the
is tlue chiefly
to the high relief of the country and to

government

prolonging the

been

Tibet

better

rises like

able

than

citadel in the

those

of

centre

India, China,

of Asia; its
or

Japan

to

entry into their abode.


greatest part of Tibet is yet unexplored,or

prohibitan
The
the
was

Catholic
not

at least the itineraries of


into it
the country' when
entrance
In the first half of the
be traced with certitude.
Friuli friar,
Odoric Pordenone, went
to Tibet from China

missionaries
forbidden cannot

fourteenth

centun.*

and resided at Lhasa.


Andrada
missionar"'

who

traversed

Three centuries later,in 1675 and 1676, the Portuguese


penetrated twice into Tibet, where he was well received
Griiber and d'Orville,
by the Buddhist priests. In 1661 other Jesuit priests,
from
China
went
to Hindustan,
Lhasa.
In the following
through
passing
the
Tuscan
still
Desideri
and
the
others,
Portuguese Manoel FrejTe,
century
visited the capitalof Tibet coming from India.
But the Capuchins had already

THE

BUFFER

OF

STATES

CENTRAL

ASIA

505

[1750-1901A.D.]

under

Catholic mission at Lhasa


in the country no
Penna, wlio remained
allowed
the Tibetan
time
government
founded

the

less than

direction

twenty-two

of

Orazio

della

At

years.

that

freelythrough the
carefullyguarded in our days. A lay
to

strangers

go

are
so
passes of the Himalaya which
exploreralso resided for several years at Lhasa, and from thence
back
China by the Kuku-nor, to come
by way
again to Hindustan

traveller

That
a

learned

and
cause

the

was

and

man

Dutchman

good

der

Van

Putte, who

is known

Unfortunately he

observer.

fearinglest,badly classified as they were,


papers,
Tibet has been
of propagatingerrors.
Southeastern

missionaries,but
north have

all recent

failed.

The

Prjevalskihad

Russian

have

been

destroyed his maps


they might
by

be

the

traversed

French
northeast and
to retire twice without
being

Tibet

enter

to

from

the

the Hungarian B61a


of the country, and
obliged to retrace his steps.6 The only Englishman
before the recent
the sacred cityof Lhasa
to enter
militaryexpeditionunder
Thomas
He
reached
Colonel Younghusband
there in 1811,
was
Manning.
the
last
but was
not allowed
to remain.
During
century European travellers
turned
have been firmly and persistently
back from any approach to the capital
of Tibet.
The well-known
Scandinavian
explorerSven Hedin was turned
within a five days'journey of it. The Englishman Landor,
back in 1901 when
into
the country in 1897, was
taken
who
penetrated
prisonerwhen within a
of Lhasa
and severelytortured before he was
short distance
sent back
finally
to the frontier under
militaryescort.

able to

into

to

attempts

to

went

of Lhasa.

penetrate

the

heart

likewise

Szechenyi was

"i

The
that

of the inhabitants

great mass

is,the

Turks

and

the

of
of

Tibet, except the Hors


Khatchi

and

and the Soks


the various independent
of the race
group
the most
dowed
richlyen-

Mongols
peoplesof the provinceof Kham, belong to the same
called Mongolians. The
Tibetans
are
certainlyamong
peoples of the earth; nearly all travellers who have penetrated into
their country agree in praisingtheir gentleness,
their humanity, the frankness
of their language and conduct, their dignity,without
ostentation
in the case
of those in authority and spontaneous among
the common
people. Brave,
fond
of
and
music,
naturallygay,
dancing,
singing,the Tibetans
courageous,
be a model
if
would
little
initiative.
But
had
a
they
people
they passively
allow themselves
and
into a docile herd.
to be transformed
to be disciplined
The word
is their law.
Even
the will of the Chinese residents,
of the lamas
that the
strangersas they are, is scrupulouslyobeyed, and it is on this account
to guard its frontiers
nation,although so hospitableand gracious,has come
in order to prevent travellers from
entering the country. The inhabitants
of Bodyul (Tibet) have
toms
long been a civilised people. It is true that the cusof the Stone
in certain religious
Age are maintained
ceremonies, since
the prelatesuse
"stone
of thunder"
the heads
of the lamas.
to tonsure
a
The .same
of
human
continues
also
the
on
history
high plateaus of Tibet,
age
where the shepherds of numerous
stone
use
cooking-pots;but
encampments
that comes
from
their extreme
ence
isolation; they are not ignorant of the exist-

"

of iron
metal

are

and

glad

to

copper,
do so.

and

those

of them

who

"

can

procure

instruments

of

It is well known
that Tibet is the centre of that religion
which disputes
with Christianity
the first place in regard to the number
of its confessors.
The

Tibetans

are

the most

zealous of

Buddhists,although their cult,modified

MINOR

SOME

506

STATES
[450-1901 *.D.]

by the influence of anterior rites,of climate, of mode


the
in appearance
with surroundingpeoples,resembles
after first

It was
only in the fifth century,
missionaries
that the Hindu
earlier,
Their
to those
analogous
rites,
people.

muni.

that

time

in

offeringsand

prayers

to

the forces of nature; but


bo
Pon
cult replacedthe Bon
or

two

built

until

began

life,and

old

of contact

of Chakyareligion
made

attempts

the conversion

three

turies
cen-

of the Tibetan

of the

Chinese
taoism, consisted at
lakes,mountains, and trees, representing

the

hundred

religionto
A

698.

of

not
first temple was
all sides,
and
edifices and convents
on
arose
"
It
Tibet like the
was
light of the sun."

years

any

hundred
the
the

passed before the


in the

extent

aftenvards

years

religionof

golden

country.

Buddha
of

age

The

religious
shone

the

new

over

theocratic

for, according to the Mongolian historian Sanang Setzen, the unbounded


felt for the priestsgave
to the people a felicity
respect which was
"

power,

it does not appear


that the
like to that of the blessed spirits."Nevertheless,
to Buddhism
cults anterior
were
entirelyvanquished, since, according to
the same
writer, " the love of good thoughts and of meritorious acts was
The
doctrine was
not
re-established
afterwards
forgotten like a dream."
became
divided
in full force until the end of the tenth century, and then it soon
into

The

later.

Buddhism

Tibetan

sects.

monk

its

religiousrevival

Tsongkapa

or

bonnets," diik-paor shammar,

incarnation

of

The

of human

new-born
or
Ar/iouftiZgan,

four
of

hundred

the

the

as

years

mulated
doctrine, forthe

"

yellow

the old sect

reformer

"

of

revision

has maintained
in Nepal
its power
Tsongkapa was regarded by his followers as the
who
had taken on the appearthe divinity,
as
a livingBuddha
ance
He never
nature.
dies,but passes from body to body in the

of the "red
and Bhutan.

form

the

arc
precepts, and modified the ritual ; his disciples
geluk-pa,whose cult predominates in Tibet, whilst

new

bonnets,"

had

undertook

Tashi

in

lama

the

Buddha," and it is thus that he is perpetuated


sacred monastery of Tashilunpo, near

in the veneration
rivals him
of the
now
living Buddha
him
in
his
in
thanks to
residence
the
Tibetans, and surpasses
political
power,
capitaland to his direct relation with the Chinese ministers ; this is the dalailama
in the
the "prelateof the ocean," the story of whose enthronement
or
is differently
in the sixteenth
related ; but whether it was
seat of Buddha
or
in the seventeenth
h;is taken
rank
century, the ecclesiastical princeof Lhasa
from
reincarnated
divinities who
are
generation to
amongst the immortal
third
Buddha
in
the
of
the
The
generation.
living
hierarchy
religionis that
of Urga in Mongolia ; but there are
still others,and in Tibet even
the superior
of a monastery situated on
of Lake
Palti is regarded as
the southern
bank

Shigatse.

divine
The

the

Buddha.
life of most

form

most

Tibetans

of prayers.

The

others

is

six

translate

commentators

but which
often

.Another

passed in invocations

Om
magic syllables,

by

"O

jewel

declare to be untranslatable

repeated. The sacred


and
temples,beside

is
inscription

in the
"

are

in conjurationsin
which
padme houm

and

mani

"

lotus, thus
the

fonnula

may

which

he

be!"

is most

found

everj'where,on the walls of


statues
rudely hewn in the
live rocks.
Manis, or ramparts built beside the paths,are composed of stones,
of which
each one
bears the sacramental
have been
phrase. Brotherhoods
of carving the sacred inscription
in huge characters
formed for the sole purpose
the sides of the mountains, so that the traveller passingat full gallopmay
on
houses

be able to read

the words

employed in all
nowhere
are
prevails,
also

the wind

and

roads, on

colossal

of salvation.

other

water, are

the

else

The korlos,kiwrtens,or prayer


wheels,
countries,except Japan, where the cult of Buddha

so

frequent as

used to turn

these

in Tibet ;

even

cylinders,
every

the

forces of nature,
revolution of which

508

SOME

MINOR

STATES
[1901^D.]

Sungarians
Buddha"

at

has

of eastern

the
been

Asia.

sacred mountain
in the city; the
and

on

the

beginning of the eighteenthcentury.


since

ever

When

the seventh

century

the

The

"mountain
venerated

most

of

place

the

day begins to decUne, leaving the profileof the


againstthe blue of the sky, all work stops
gather in groups on the terraces, in the streets,
and
prostrate themselves, chanting their prayers.

still plainlyvisible
inhabitants

public squares

THE

GOVERNMENT

OF

TIBET

In

the government
of Tibet is purely theocratic.
The dalai
appearance
lama, called also gyalba-rembotche, "jewel of majesty" or "sovereign treasure,"
in his hands.
holds all power
He is at once
of
king and god; master
the lives and

fortunes
of his subjects,
other than
he has no limit to his power
be directed by
to let himself
good pleasure; nevertheless he consents
in his ordinarj'decisions.
ancient custom
Moreover, his very grandeur prevents
him
from
his
self
himdirectlyoppressing
people; being obligedto concern
of the state, he is replaced in the
only with the high spiritualmatters
whom
the
chooses in a superior
government proper by a \iceroy
emperor
council composed of three great priests. This supreme
administrator
is the
nomakhan
or
gyalbo,obligedlike all other Tibetans to be only the humble servitor
of the grand lama.
-The nomakhan
directs the administration,either by
himself
or
through the intermediary of four ministers and sixteen inferior
the other officials,
mandarins:
almost
all chosen from
the class of lamas,
named
But
the side of the government
at
are
by the minister.
are
kirichais
Chinese residents,who
watch
the
two
ambans,
cials,
offior
over
high
his

own

and

occasions transmit
the desires of the emperor.
to them
established
and
followed
is that
principle
bj-Kanghi,
by his successors,
in the affairs of Tibet everj-thing
and to war
shall
relatingto generalpolitics
be dealt with by the govermnent
of Peking, but that the care
of the special
on

grave

The

interests of the land

and of the local policeshall belong


and the various other more
Lhasa, Tashilunpo (Shigatse),
provincesof Tibet. All the ci\'il employees are Tibetans.

to

crises in the government


with his human
exterior

lama

to

tuktu, that

prelates,unite

is, the

of Tibet

chief

take

occur
on

when

again

the

dalai

exterior

less
The

of

of

independent
most

serious

deigns to part
child.

massacre

these
dozen

the

then

Tibetans

the future

at

the

soldiers suffices;most
men.^

command

of

the

conclave

and

The

khu-

in
spend a
of
lots.
designatedby
casting
prayer;
pope
But it is the Chinese embas-sy which
controls this pretended chance ; in 1792
it presentedthe conclave with a magnificenturn
of gold,out of which the name
of the new
master
since the sending of this gift
to be dra\\-n,and
was
ever
no
representativeof a family hostile to the empire has ever been appointed
his dignity unless
by the electors. Moreover, the dalai lama cannot
assume
of China.
provided with a regular diploma signed by the emperor
Pope,
king,and ministers all receive an annual subsidy from Peking.
All the able-bodied
population of Tibet is obliged to constitute a sort of
national guard for the defence
of the country, but the only permanent
troops
of
are
composed
strangers,Manchus, Mongols,and Turks, which the Chinese
goverimient is Siiid to employ preferablybecause they are easier to support
and are
willingto eat the flesh of horses and wild asses
(dziggetai)
; the
real reason
is that in their quality of foreigners they would
hesitate to
not

fastingand

in

the

the authorities

or

is

the

of their chiefs.

garrisons are

week

small

composed

of

number

only

of
few

BUFFER

THE

STATES

OF

CENTRAL

ASIA

509

[630-1903i.D.]

OUTLINE

historyof

The

eleventh

in the

second

and

Tibet

annals

Chinese

The

century

b.c,

The

ancient, although much


the nomads

mention

of it is

of the

legendary.

Kuku-nor

districts
The Tibetan
annals begin between
the fifth
and
there are lists of kings covering the period

to

b.c.

HISTORY

important event during this time was the conversion


was
Buddhism,
finallyaccomplished in the eighth century.
favoured
the new
The first king who
was
religion
Srong-btsan-sgam-po(630),
of whose
wives was
the daughter of the Chinese
This king exone
tended
emperor.
his realm
by conquests, through Nepal and into India on the south
the west.
and to Ladak
in 789,
to the throne
on
Muni-btsan-po,who came
attempted to improve the condition of his subjectsby reducing them all to
level and
the same
abolishingall distinctions of rank and property, but his
After the death
of Glang-dharma (899)
not successful.
was
levelling
process
divided
his two
between
and
became
the kingdom was
still further split
sons,
Khan
under
their
the
Kublai
Ln the
east of Tibet
successors.
conquered
up
Buddhism
middle of the thirteenth century, and established
more
firmlythan
of the country.
Ever
since that time the historyof
heretofore as the religion
the historyof internal disputesbetween
Tibet has been
In
sects.
religious
I\Iian gave the chief power
Tibet to Phagspa Lodoi Gyalt1270 Kublai
over
sect (so called from
the
shan, chief of the Sakya sect,and lamas of the same
down

914

is very

begin

centuries

OF

to

a.d.

most

which

to

which

monastery

their

home)

ruled

until

At that time the author1340.


ity
the
and
whilst
in
increase,
an
settled,
uncountry was
state, the reformer, Tsongkapa, appeared and established
The internal difficulties in China during this period opened
was

of rival monasteries
divided

began

to

dynasty.
His
Mongolian interference in Tibet, under Tengir To.
Kushri
Khan, conquered the whole of Tibet, and invested the dalai lama
the whole
the supreme
authority over
country (1645). This ruler was

new

field for

the

fifth of the
lamas

dalai

have

lamas

of

to be

continued

monastery

Lhasa.

near

Since

then

son,

with
the

the dalai

the combined

and political
leaders of the
spiritual
office
the
Chinese
by
supreme
ment
governin 1653.
During the eighteenthcentury the English in India tried to
the Tibetans, but the assistance given by
establish friendlyrelations with
the English to the Gurkhas, who
invaded Tibet from Nepal in 1790, checked
inclinations
the
Tibetans
have
the friendshipof
had to cultivate
any
may

people,having

the nation
India

been

of the

and

Tibet

confirmed

"sahib"
have

in the

the

on

been

south.

Since

that

time

jealouslyguarded. During

the

passes between
last century Russian

the

and Englishdesignsin central Asia have cau.sed Tibet to be dragged from


positionof isolation and .seclusion which .she has been tryingto maintain.
been
The English have
frontier;they have
a
graduallynearing the Tibetan
resident in Nepal ; Sikhim
and Darjilingare
In 1886 Sikhim
in their power.
invaded
was
by the Tibetans, and in 1S90, after they had been driven back,
the Chinese amban
of drawing up
went
at Lhasa
to (Calcutta for the purpose
China
and
India
in
Tibet and
frontier
between
the
between
to
a treaty
regard
the

Sikhim

and

to the

government
meet

on

informed

the
the

suggested
frontier
senior

that

the two

joint Chinese

countries.
and

Intlian

In

1902

the Chinese

commission

should

to discu.ss the

amban

appointed to proceed

to

at

situation,and in June, 1903, the viceroy


Lha.sa that Colonel
Younghusband had been

Khamba-.Iong,

near

the

frontier,there

to

nicest

the

Chinese commissioners.
The
latter,however, failed to put in
and
the
British
returned
commissioner
to Simla, to receive
appearance,

Tibetan
an

between

commerce

and

SOME

510

MIXOR

STATES
[1903-1904

the viceroy. In

instructions from

the

mean

time

it was

learned

A.

D.)

that the dalai

of Russia,and the Indian goverimient felt


sent a present to the czar
demonstration
were
prestigewould be seriouslyaffected unless some
under Colonel Younghusband
made
Accordingly a "mission"
againstTibet.
in contact
with Tibetan
sent into Tibet with a militaryescort, which
came
was
and
the Indian
Lhasa
of the
soldiers half-way between
frontier,and many
shot
down
Maxims.
The
native
were
by
English
English expedition
troops
in August, 1904, but found it impossibleto communicate
reached Lhasa
with the dalai lama, who
fled,presumably into Mongolia. For a time there
lama

had

that

its

seemed
a

state

to

be

doubt

some

without

head,

whether

negotiations could be carried on in


on
finally,
September 7th, Colonel Younghusband

as

but

to

signed a treaty with the Tibetan officialsin the palace of Potala.


have
throughout disclaimed any intentions upon Tibet, but
counsellor
of the
and favourite
Russian
Mongolian subject by

dalai lama, who

has

The
the

just abdicated,

sians
Rustutor
was

birth,and used his influence to incline his


master
favourably to Ru.ssia and to destroy the influence of China. Tibet is
still recognisedas a dependency of China. ""

Nepal is

one

of the

British government
and

"unknown
countries"
has bfeen recognisedby the

of Hindustan.

king of

the

Although the

country

as

suzerain

English resident has the right to live in the capital,guarded


forbidden to ordinary
by sepoys, nevertheless the frontier of Nepal is strictly
travellers as well as to topographers.
The existence of Nepal as a state distinct from the rest of India is explained
by the geography of the country. On the north the vast desert plateaus
the Himalaya and the Trans-Himalaya constitute
the natural
between
dary
bounof Nepal, and on the south the marshy forest of the Tarai forms a barrier,
between
the region of valleysand that
at once
ethnographicaland political,
of the plain. Nepal is composed of zones
of vegetation built up on
the
sides of the central Himalayas. The fact that it is a geographicalunit is
sions,
owing to the climate, and not to the slopes of the watersheds.
Wars, invaand
treaties have
variously modified the politicalboundaries; the
of the Tibetan
custom-houses
had frequently to advance
frontier have
or
power,

withdraw
The

seaport

an

their

posts.

variety of
towns

peoples than

in the

is still very

races

it would

be

great in Nepal; with

impossibleto

find

more

the

exception of
of different
representatives

cities of

Nepal.
West
of the Gandak
the predominant race
is that of the Hindu
Arj'ans."
The
founded
not
Nepalese are the only people of India whose
territorywas
The
of Nepal have
Hindu
inhabitants of the west
by the soldiers of Islam.
and speak dialects connected
with
the common
Sanskrit stock; they
names
class themselves
al.so as
belonging to the two higher classes of Brahmins
and Kshatriyas. In realitythe race
of the
is much
mixed, and a number
Rajputs of Nepal have wholly Tibetan features.
The
Khas, who
are
frequently though incorrectly called Ghurkas, or
But
Goorkhas, are undoubtedly of Hindu
origin and of Kshatriya rank.
there are other militarytribes which, while callingthemselves
have
Hindu,
better
the
much
traditions and
These
customs.
are
preserved their own
the
Majars or Magyars, and
Gurungs livingnorth of Ghurka.
They speak
IQias with their masters, but amongst themselves they always use their Tibetan
"

BUFFER

THE

STATES

OF

CENTRAL

ASIA

511

[1200-1881A.D.]

The

Khas

of

Ghurka, the Magyars, the Giirungs,and

the Limbus
of
force of Nepal; but
this is not sufficiently
large for their warlike instincts. Like the Swiss of
mercenaries.
These
former
formly
as
days, they emigrate to serve
Nepalese, uniidiom.
the

eastern

districts

aknost

compose

the entire armed

the

of Ghurkas, are very numerous


in the British
name
for
valued
their
their endurance,
are
they
highly
army,
courage,
their
address, and their promptitude. They are easy to discipline,
be less dangerous against their own
not
and perhaps would
country, if war
break
the
should one
between
and
out
day
Anglo-Indian Empire
Nepal.
traces of the ancient matriarchal
to have been preserved
Some
system seem
of Newar
have the right
amongst them ; accordingto Kirkpatrick,the women
husbands
to marrj'
as
as
they please and to repudiate them on the
many
slightest
pretext. After the twelfth century of the Christian era Buddhist
from
the persecutionof the Brahmans
zealots fleeing
to ask asylum of
came
in return
the Newars, and
for the hospitalityreceived
they brought them
their books and knowledge of the arts and sciences of Hindustan.
Precious
works of this period,of which
the names
had been known, were
not
even
found in the libraries of Nepal. About
two-thirds of the Newars
still
are
whilst
tribes
and
the
the
north
have
east
on
Buddhists,but,
neighbouring
lamas
like the Tibetans
of Shamanism, the Nepalese
and practisea kind
have
and
their ceremonies
monasteries
no
approach those of Hindu
proper
divinities and sjonbols have
entered
into their temples.
cults; Bralunanic
thousand
The architecture of the two
temples or sanctuaries in the valley
bears witness
the influences of the north and
to the strugglebetween
south,
and the mixture
of the two styleshas been accomplished with a certain degree
of originality.The ornaments
which the Hindu
artists firstcarved recall those
that are seen
the
the
of
banks
the
on
temples on
Ganges, but the use of wood
in construction,the projectionof the upper
and the superposition
of
stories,

designatedby

in which

Indian

roofs

are

The

characteristic of Chinese

architecture.

is

singularlyhampered by the rigours of the


but also at several stations of the
frontier,
and some
merchandise
taxes are put on
interior,
goods are wholly prohibited.
Nepal, as a militarykingdom threatened on both sides by two empires more
of customs
defend itself only by means
and passcan
powerful than itself,
ports;
but in spite of its dislike for foreigntraders it is obliged to receive
them.
it into their country as
Tibetans
to buy opium to introduce
come
of

commerce

custom-house.

Not

Nepal
only on

the

of Hindus
contraband
; hundreds
and English merchants, who
are

Nepalese,have
paid
rubber-plant,buikling wood,
to be

come

in local

to

the

becoming more
produce, such

iron

and

annual
and
as

fairs of
more

the

wood

objects,wools,

copper

Khatmandu,
to

necessary
and gum

horses

the

of the
"

sober

gold dust, different minerals or borax


Even
imported from the plainsof Tibet.
Nepal, representedby about fifty
send to the Anglo-Indiansthe products of its induswholesale merchants, can
try,
notably blankets and ])aper which is finn as parchment and made from
the fibre of the daphne cannahina.b
The present ruling family dates only from
1768.
Since the war
of 1814and

tireless little animals

1816, in which the Ghurkas


conquests they had made
the relations

"

salt and

after
in the

stubborn

resistance

plainsof India

and

were

driven

from

the

the

adjoininghill states,
friendly. A resident is

Nepal with the British have been


is exercised
stationed at Khatmandu, but no interference
with the internal
bom
The
administration.
Sah, was
present maharaja, Prithiwi Vir Vikrama
in 1875, and succeeded
in 1881.
But
of old standing,he is a roi
by custom
all power
faineant,
being vested in the minister. For many
years the minister
of

SOME

512

MINOR

STATES
[1846-1892 A.D.]

Jung Bahadur, G.C.B.,

was

died in 1877.
the head of a

rivals in 1846, and


in 1885

who

by

estabUshcd
His
rival

son

his

and

positionby murtieringhis

successor

faction,Vir

of his

two

his
minister, and has strengthened
daughters to the inaharaja. In March, 1S92, Lord
in

commander-in-chief

India,visited Khatmandu,

dered
mur-

Jung, G.C.S.I.,
positionby marrying

is the present

who

in his turn

was

Shamsher

and

Roberts, then

reviewed

the

army."i

Bhutan
Between

the two native states of Nepal and Bhutan


are
interposedBritish
militaryand commercial posts. On the east, the English,without conquering

Bhutan, have at least annexed to their empire the eighteendwars which are
naturallydependent upon it,that is,the "gates" of the Himalaya, the only
itants
regionsof the country whose products have any value and where the inhabto
quillity
tranare
gathered in any considerable numbers.
assure
Moreover,
the frontier,
the English government
the
of
Bhutan
on
gives
rajah
an
annual
the wisdom
of the
subsidy, the regularityof which depends upon
pensioner.
of the dwars, opening upon
the plainsof Bengal and Assam,
Deprived now
rather
Bhutan, or
Bhut-ant, that is,the extremity of the land of Bhut or
Bhot, consists only of narrow
valleys,separated one from another by high
crossed by different paths.
ranges
the Tibetans,and their name
The Bhutanese
race
as
belong to the same
is derived from
that of the Bods
the same
of the plateau and of the
root
as
Bhutanese
in
of the southern
and
Koumaon
slope Nepal
; they are
frequently
called Lo.
They are small but robust, and might be considered one of the
it not for the prevalenceof the goitre
best-lookingraces -of India were
among
The
of the most
them.
Bhutanese
to be one
oppressed peoples;
appear
they own
nothing,and their fate depends on the capriceof the lords or the
them.
The
monks
who
scribe
English envoys who visit their country degovern
the condition

of the

Bhutanese

as

most

mi.serable

; the

land

does

not

of their hars'est
belong to them and the state inherits all their acquisitions;
they keep only that which is absolutelynecessary to obtain a few betel leaves,
and
starvation
to keep the people from
by the governors,
; the rest is taken
who
receive no
the
take
but
who
have
commission
to
out of
a
salary
right
the taxes.
In order to enjoy the products of their labour in peace, thousands
of Bhutanese
emigrate annually into the provinces of the Indian Empire,
and

above

all into British

Sikhim.

It is not
been

surprisingthat under
Commerce, which is
importance and has even

of

natural

great

have

which
not

are

they
weave

bark

riches and

has

wonderful

power

afraid of

an

such

poverishe
a
regime the country should be immonopoly of the government, ha.s never
diminished, although Bhutan
posses.sea
of hor.scs
beautiful
excellent race
ponies
of endurance.
The
Bhutanese
when
they
a

"

"

beingdespoiledof

the fruits of their labours

cultivate the terraces,built upon


the side of the
thick stuffs,
produce elegant objects in iron and
of the daphne papyriferainto paper
and even
into

wood

with

.some

resemblance

pagodas
The
Chinese

taste, and
to

coii.struct

those

are

with
hills,

industrious;
great care,

the
brass, transform
kind
of satin,carve
a

spacious and comfortable


Alps. In several

in the Swiss

"

chalets which
cities there

are

bear
rich

of Chine.se architecture.

government

of the

the
ministers,

real

country

is modelled

of
depositaries

power

on

Tibet,except that
Bodyul (Tibet),have

that of
in the

THE

BUFFER

STATES

CENTRAL

OF

ASIA

513

[1700-1865 D.]
A.

in Bhutan.
their appearance
The titular sovereign,a sort of
yet made
has
the
of
in Sanskrit
received
name
tclwigyal,
dharmarajah,
grand lama,
law."
On
the
this
Buddha
the council of lenehen,
death of
"king of the
or
the god has
ministers,hunts for one or two years to find the child in whom
deigned to incarnate hhnself,and it usuallyfinds him in the family of one of
of the country. Beside the spiritual
the chief dignitaries
sovereignreigns
is likewise appointetl
another rajah,the deb, who
by the council of ministers,
or rather by the party which
happens to be in power ; in theory the authority
not

lasts only three years, but he can


himself on the
always maintain
thi'one if he enjoys the favour of the influential lords.
of the "king of
the state,which
the power
Between
oflficially
recogni.ses
tribes
of
the
and
the
eastern
the law,"
Himalaya are interposed
independent
of the lama
the domains
rajahs,or priestkings,who call themselves vassals
thanks to their remoteness
of the dalai lama, but who are in reality
sovereigns,
of the deb

Lhasa

from
of the
the

country

Tibet

and

Himalaya.
and

of the

the difficulty
of communication
through the passes
these petty potentates
spiteof the rivalries between
Bhotiyas is fairlyimportant as a commercial route between
to

In

Assam.''

of its
the number
Little is known
or
concerning the interior of Bhutan
As for the historyof the coimtry, its only importance is due
inhabitants.
India and Tibet.
the boundary between
The
to its geographicalpositionon
the
seventeenth
land was
conquered by Tibetan soldiers in
century, and
the close of the eighteenth
into contact
with the English towards
first came
century. In 1774 the East India Company concluded a treaty of peace with
until 1826, when
the British
left undisturbed
Bhutan, and the country was
Then
the Bhutanese
accused of taking possessionof
were
occupiedAssam.
ting
to the outer
the dwars, or outlets from their mountains
world,and of commitBritish
soil.
These
frontier
and
on
aggressions
disputes
depredations
forced the Bhutanese
to come
the British finally
continued until 1865, when
concluded.
This
ceded
the
and
of
to terms,
a
was
eighteen
treaty
peace
have already been mentioned, to *ho English, in return
for
dwars, which
annual
which
the Bhutan
subsidy. Since then
government received an

nodalngof importance has

occurred

in the

the

southeastern

India, Siam
is part of
China, and
is divided

the

covmtry.

India

Farther

Of

historyof

constitutingwhat used to be called Indo-China, the


of Farther
peninsula of Asia, which to-day goes by the name
its
which
has preserved
is the only one
independence. Burma
Cochin
British India; the provinces of Tongking, Laos, Annam,
The Malay Peninsula
Cambodia
united in French Indo-China.
are
countries

between

Great

Britain

and

Siam,

the southern

part, or

the Strait

English crown
province,whilst several districts lying
ish
Britin
the
the Siamese
between
centre and northeast are under
po.sscssions
it
forms
because
is
to
Siam
a
Europe chiefly
important
protection.
and
in
Far
the
and
French
buffer state between
East,
English
possessions
also because
through it it is possibleto open up conunercial routes into
settlements,being

an

China."

southern

with
watered

Compared
Indo-China
H.

W.

"

VOL.

the

by
XXIV.

other
the
2L

river

Menam,

of the peninsula,the slope of


"mother
of waters,"is not very great

basins
or

SOME

514

MIXOK

STATES
[1903

in extent, but it occupiesa

central

positionwhich

insures

it

place of

A.

D.]

tance
impor-

The
river and
several
other
history of transgangeticIndia.
the
the
northern
delta enter
at
in one
sea
streams
tremity
exuniting their mouths
From
the Gulf of
of a gulf which
penetrates far into the interior.
Bengal to the Gulf of Tongking the coast of Siam forms the geographical
the

in

of Indo-China.

centre

People
Nearly
and

Siamese

all Thais.

are

Upper Burman

the

region of

of Siam belong to the same


Shans, Laos,
race;
in the
The
Shans
numerous
are
very
proper
of
its
Chinese
Irawadi
and
affluents,on the

all the inhabitants

of them
have
settled in that part
Salween, and large numbers
The Lovas, better
of the Sittang basin which has become
English territorj'.
related to the Shans and live
of Laos, or Laotians, are
kno^\Ti by the name
the Salween
and
in the northern
regionsof the land of Siam, chieflybetween
of the

banks

live in the coast regions; they are the most


the Mekong. The Siamese proper
sant
civilised of the Thais, but not the purest of race, since,owing to the incesethnical
different
elements.
demands
of commerce,
they represent very
towards
most
modifying
Chinese, Burmans, and Malays have contributed

the Chinese much


Taken
the Thais resemble
more
as
a whole
than
they resemble the Jndians or Malays, and yet their physiognomy, their
of thinking present so many
characteristic Indian
and their way
customs,
its claim to descent
nation to a certain extent
traits that the Siamese
justifies
the Thai

type.

Indo-Chinese
The
well named
the Brahmans.
Siamese
are
; everything
and
i
nstitutions
them
civil
participates
religious
customs,
manners,
whilst their
in that double character.
Their festivals are of Brahnianic origin,
from
Chinese institutions.
mode
of government and their laws are clearlyborrowed
from

about

"

"

The

language, like the other

monosyllabic,and
taken

from

includes

words

no

of

principalidioms of Indo-China, is
than one
more
syllableexcept those

foreignlanguages.

the most
part very good-tempered and remarkably
tomary
patient,but they wholly lack initiative ; they work regularlyat their cusmethods.
No
labours, but are not ingeniousenough to discover new
taken care
of everyhumane
are
people are more
hospitableor more
; the poor
where,
and travellers find along their routes
shelters where
they can cook
The

and

Siamese

the

pass

made
night; the recommendation
by the Buddhists
of
for
fresh
water
jars
thirstywayfarers is nowhere

along the road


Siam
observed.
with

mixed
as

in the

country of Indo-China
elements; it has not
religious

Himalayas, on
Mongols and in the
idolatry,at least in

confused

Everj' son

of

mixture

the
of

in the

Laos,

as

Buddhist

family has

to

in

to

place

better
is least

Buddhism

degenerated into Shamanism,


the plateau of Tibet, and above all on

valleysof the

temples

in which

is the

other

the steppes of the


aloof from
Hindu
several

for

are

forests

of the

modern

the

Buriats

times,

it has also held

for in the

sculpture on

religiousbuildingsof Cambodia,

and

Brahnianic

pass

through

motives
a

monastic

may
state;

be

detected.

between

the

men
twenty
twentj'-one the young
years
go to a monastery, take off
their civil dress, and renounce
and dignityduring the time of
their rank
Even
the kings are
claustration.
subject to this rule,and on emerging from
the monastery they have to be crowned
none
although they remain
anew,
the less high priests
and are responsible
for the prosperityof the monasteries.

of

The
of

and

Siamese
nation expends
and
monks. *"
priests

annually more

than

"25,000,000

for the

support

STATES

MINOR

SOME

516

[1781-1893A.D.]
He
was
an

for the
able personage
monarchy.
an
devoted
He
to science.
enlightenedrulor,as well as a philosopherand a man
knew
Latin
and English,and took great pains to acquire a correct
styleof
writingin the latter language. Amusing incidents are related of times when
the British coneven
sul,
he routed out English-speakingmissionaries,and once
in
the
nuddle
of
the
to consult them
night.
some
Englishphrase
concerning
In Sir John
Bowring's work on Siam is an appendix on the historyof that
by th(" king himself, and also a letter concerning his own
country written
''On the year of Christian
is made
which
the followingextract
from
:
dynasty,
sent
to
brother
tranquelCambodia, which was
kings were
era
1781, when two
the
of rebellion,
in distress or disturbance
7,^
King Phya Tarsing, marked
He
mad
remained
here.
furious,saying he is Budh, etc., and put
or
came

chief potentate of

eastern

"

of innocents

persons

many

the
lawful

and

taxes

pay
reasonable

the mad

apprehended

death,

to

various

people to

causes;

king

and

put

than

more

thousand

ten

ami

men,

pelled
com-

royal treiisure,with any


great insurgentstook place,who

of money

amounts
so

here

to

death,

to

and

sent

their mission

to

bodia,
Cam-

Siam
here for
antl of Northern
to return
invited two kings of war
and throne of whole Siam and its dependency.
the crown
in May, 1782, in name
of
"Our
grandfatherwas enthroned and crowned
'
his
in
book
continued
8
Phra
reign
twenty;
Budhyot fa chulatoke,'marked

and

seven

his demise

years

took

place on

the year

1809, in which our father has


tinued
August, 1809; his reign con-

took
him.
His coronation
place on
happily fifteen years; his expirationtook place in the year 1824, in
of July. Our
month
elder brother, the late king,succeeded
our
royal father;
Param
Dkar\vik
His name
his coronation
took placeon August, 1824.
was
chau yu
Phra
in
Siamese
a
nd
name
Nangklau
rajah-dhiraj(proper Sanskrit),
took
his
demise
His reign continued
Acca.
place on 2nd
twenty-sixyears;
crowned
I
of
him
and
then
on
May
was
concluded,
April,1851 ;
my succession
15th of that year."c
who
The elder brother referred to was
usurped the
an
illegitimate
son,
while living
ruler in the mean
throne and reigneduntil his death, the legitimate
brother was
in the priesthood. At Mongkut's accession in 1851 his younger
crowned
as second
king,and held that office until his death in 1865, when he
The
his
succeeded
name
given to the son is
was
by
son, George Washington.
civilisation. He
in a way
indicative
of the father's sympathies with western
gence
his
elder
remarkable
than
brother, Mongkut, for his intelliwas
even
more
with
and
associated
and
freely
Europeans.
general enlightenment,
also a friend to the Europeans and waa
His son, George Washington, was
liked by them.
He held the positionof secondary king until his death
much

succeeded

in

1885, since which

During

the

time

the office has

reignof Mongkut

ceased

treaties

to

exist.
with

made

were

England

and

in 1855

States,France, Japan, and the other countries,


The
the
of
Siam
to foreign nations.
principleof extra
commerce
opening up
which
tried in their
territorialism was
to
are
established,according
foreigners
in the
himself
overexerted
in
died
own
1868, having
Mongkut
country.
1856, and

also with

cause

of science

sun.

He

and

the

1893

the

(' The

by

close of the

by France, owing to
French
province of

the French

intended

United

by organisinga grand expeditionto

succeeded

was

Towards

the

numbers
is the

government

his son,
nineteenth

present
century
disputesconcerning
sent

refer to tliose in the


mentioned

Phaya Takh

The

Annam.
two

witness

an

of
eclipse

the

ruler.

the

matter

the
the

peace

boundary

became

gunboats, which

history of Siam
above.]

of

so

forced

Siam

turbed
dis-

was

between

Siam

.serious that in

their w'ay up

by BisiiopPallegoix. The king

here

THE

CENTRAL

OF

STATES

BUFFER

ASIA

517

[I89a-1902A.D.]

Bangkok. A treaty was finallyconcluded in October of the


cast of the Mekong
all Siamese
territory
was
same
year, according to which
ceded to France, ami Siam
prohibitedfrom having any forts within a
was
France
that river.
from
to restore
was
distance of twenty-fivekilometres
of
had
when
the
the
been
of
Chan-ta-bun
the Siamese
provisions
treaty
port
the pretext that Siam
not
but she put off doing so on
was
keeping
fulfilled,
which was
order on her side the Mekong
naturallyhard to do without forts
whole
to the
and
furthermore
laid
claim
soldiers
province of Luang
or
A
convention
of
the
the
west
new
was
Mekong.
portion
Prabang, including
in
to
Chan-ta-bun
France
evacuate
was
signed in 1902, according to which
other
and
ritory
terfor the cession of the provincesof Meluprey and Bassac
return
the Menam

to

"

"

the extent
the

to

did not

meet

the whole

annex

kilometres.
of twenty thousand
This convention
square
of the colonial party in France, which
wants
to

approval

in

convention
This assured
rich basin

The

of Siam.

practicallyin

France

new

of

control

regard to Siam was


independence of

the

finallysigned at Paris, leaves


Mekong valley. An important
and England in 1896.
signed by France
the central portion of Siam, includingthe
treaty,

the

as

whole

of the Menam.

Besides the wats, or monastic


English influence is predominant in Siam.
kok
schools,in which the teaching is mainly elementary,in the capitalof Bangin which
there are five governmental schools for boys and two for girls,
the higher courses
conducted
are
entirelyin English,and boys of the nobility
The
crown
prince returned
are
frequentlysent to England to be educated.
In speaking of the
in 1902, after completing his studies at Oxford.
to Siam
in the Twentieth
king,Mr. Campbell,/ in his very interesting book, Siam
the
of
who
under
charm
his remarkable
"To
those
have
come
Century,says:
of his
and
difficult
estimate
it
both
to
is
invidious
give a just
personality,
and the time has probably not yet arrived for doing so.
character and actions,
But even
though, like his father,he may have failed to fulfilcompletely the
ised
promise of his boyhood and youth, nevertheless his reignhas been characterand enlightenment,and he is perhaps
of liberality
the whole by a spirit
on
of progressiverulers that the east
the small band
entitled to a place among
has produced.""
Indo-China

French
French
the China

Indo-China
Sea.

forms

It is situated

the southernmost
part of the Asiatic coast of
the Malay PenSiam
insula,
and China, near
between

Philippines. Its capital,Saigon, is a


from
Singapore,four days from Batavia, three
days from Manila and Hong-kong, six days from Shanghai, and only ten days
from
Yokohama, whereas thirtydays separate it from Marseilles. French
incentive
to enter
more
Indo-China, therefore,has geographicallymuch
than with those
into relations with the ports of the Far East justmentioned
of France, and without
be as foreign
the French
official occupation it would
and
Siam
to France
are
Malaysia.
as
the i.slesof the Sonde
distance of two days by boat

French
central

Indo-China

is

portion of the

kingdom

ends, the upper


is represented by Cochin
of
territory

chain of mountains
very

the

in the

long, narrow

the two
The

and

of

Annam,

of which

one

much

it constitutes the
broadened
out at

very
constitutes
Tongking, while

and Cambodia.
is traversed
Indo-China

the

lower

China

French

nearly parallelto

closelyin central

centre, where

and

Annam.

The

north to south by a
the sea of China, which it approaches
of the
country is without doubt one
from

SOME

518

STATES

MINOR

[1906 ^D.]

best

watered

The

districts in the worid.

Mekong, which rises in the upper


and empties into the China Sea at
formed from its alluvial deposits.

important

most

part of the

mountain

of its rivers is the


of

range

Yuiman

peninsulaof Cochin China, which it has


In a straightline its course
would measure
It is obstructed
than
thousand
kilometres.
two
by rocks at many
more
points,and only a limited portionof it is na\Mgable.
has the generalform
of an
Lake
The Great
elongated oval, narrowed at a
the lower third.
the
two-thirds
with
Its total
which
connects
point
upper
three

less than

surface is not

rough enough

sometimes

the

hundred

kilometres,but

square

navigationin small

to make

its waters

are

boats

perilous. During
when
its waters
the season
are
high it can be frequented by ships drawing
from
from
March
three to four metres, but during the dn,- season,
to September,
of the
only the small native boats can navigate it. During the season
the lakes are
covered
with
which get an enormous
low waters
fishing-boats
quantity of fish. These are salted,dried, and exported,not only to Cochin
but al.^o to different parts of China.
This fishingis carried on exChina
clusively
Annamites.
by
Early History
The Annamites
of to-day belong to the yellow race.
They have all its
its language,customs,
and political
ethnologicalcharacteristics,
organisation.
The
like that of China, is impregnated with a
historyof Annam.
moreover,
multitude
of legends which
obscure it to such a degree that its first periods
have been thrown
are
wholly veiled in mysterj'. Several races
togetherin
the territories of what
is now
Annam, and their deetls have been inextricably
confused in the accounts
preservedby native historians.
first peopled by
to
was
Everything seems
point to the fact that .\nnam
from
the
isles
of
Pacific
and
the
the
men
coming
belonging to
Malayan race.
Later
there was
main
of immigration,one
currents
current
a collision of two
formed
Burma
and
by people of the Arj-an race coming from India, across
Siam ; the other, by people of the yellow race
coming down from the valleys
of China.
The
India took
Arj-ans coming from
possessionof Cambodia,
Cochin China, and later of southern
and central Annam,
crowding back the
primitiveMalay populations into the mountains, where traces of them may
still be found.
In Cambodia
and Cochin
the I\hmer
China
they founded
the
wealth
of
attested
the
and
which
is
Empire,
by
superb ruins of
power
and
in
Annam
of
established
the
the
Angkor,
they
kingdom
Ciampas, the
of which
recall those of Cambodia.
monuments
of
Tlie people
the yellow
first in Tongking and
then in northern
race
coming from China founded
Annam
the Annamite
Empire, the first sovereignsof which are attributed
by local legends to the imperialfamily of China.
According to Annamite
legends, it seems
probable that the colonists
the primitiveinhabitants of the country
coming from China who settled among
mixed
with
them
instead
their
of brutally crowding them
that
out, and
nation
the tribes,till then
to group
principalrole was
i."olated,into one
less regularlyorganised. It is even
more
or
probable that this empire was
of
the
governed now
by representatives
yellow race, latelycome, and then
of
the
members
relates
communities.
In fact,Annamite
by
original
historj^
that in the year

having

sent

an

1100

the

B.C.

embassy

to

emperor

of the

country

China, the Chinese

to read the letter of credit with


what
they said.

which

they

were

had

to

of Giao-Chi
summon

pro\'idedand

(.\nnam)
interpreters

to

translate

THE

BUFFER

OF

STATES

CENTRAL

ASIA

519

[1850 A.D.]

traditions

The

of

show

Annam

the

than
struggleswith China tluringmore
fallingcompletely under the domination
beginningof the Christian era, and from

country

ten

of the

involved

as

centuries

before

in

our

incessant
then

era,

Celestial

that time

as

Empire towards
subjectto Chinese

as

the
ernors.
gov-

A series of rebellions,
sometimes
marks
repressed,sometimes
successful,
It is during this period that Chinese
the first centuries of the Christian era.
in Annam
literature and the teachings of Confucius
the
replaced definitely
it
the
which
Annamites.
to
was
phoneticwriting
peculiar
During
appears

this time

also the

people of

deltas and

all the

the

the
most

yellow race multiplied,and ended


fertile plains of Tongking and

by occupying
of northern

Annam. 9
Until 907

Annam
A.u.
was
governed by dynasties vassal to the Chinese
Empire, and from that time until the tenth century by Chinese governors.
chiefs revolted,and
At the beginning of that century the Annamese
after
rule,
long wars
finallyestablished,in the fifteenth century, an autonomous
still nominally under
Chinese
although they were
suzerainty. Cambodia
threw off the Chinese yoke in 625, and even
kept Siam in subjectionfor a
short period. After
the thirteenth
the
kingdom began to decline,
century
and in the seventeenth
and eighteenthcenturies its territory
was
very much
China.
It was
reduced by Siam
and Cochin
rescued from
the former only
to become

French

protectorate in the nmeteenth

century.

Foreign Relations
The intercourse of Annam
the sixteenth
century. The
in

1553,

but

until

the

middle

A
influence in the land.
the
in 1596, and at about

Dutch
afterwards

regions. The
1637, and

power

Tongking

of the Lehs.
in which

The

Lehs

into

commercial

French

abandoned

the

expelled by
1545 owing to

the

had

with

nations

western
a

mission

began in

in Cambodia

nineteenth
century Europeans had little
Dominican
Spanish
missionary landed in Annam
time
same
Portuguese tradingvessels visited these

English and

in

Cambodia

of the

entered

in the country, but soon


they were
1700, when
in

and

Portuguese established

ruled

with

attempted

to

Tongking in
gain a footing

attempt. The Dutch remained


Trinhs, a dynasty which came

the

over

relations

traders

impotency

Cochin

until

into

of the old

rulingdynasty
China and Tongking since 1428,

the Chinese

yoke had been thrown off.


year
in Cochin
In 1737
a
new
China, that of the Tai-songs,
dynasty arose
which destroyed the Lehs, the Trinhs, and the Naguyes. The sole survivor
of this last dynasty, Naguyen Anh, took
refuge with the French
bishop of
who
obtained
for
him
of
Louis
the
In
XVI.
1802
Adran,
support
Naguyen
nated
Anh, with the aid of the French, joinedTongking to his dominion, extermithe Tai-songs,and was
crowned
of Annam
under
the name
emperor
thus included
the provincesAnnam, TongGia-long. The empire of Annam
king,
and Cochin
China.
towards
Gia-long was well-disposed
Europeans, and
Minhprotectedthem throughout his reign,but under his .son and successor
be
to
they
began
persecuted."
niang
In 1S47, during the reign of Tieu Tri, occurred
the first conflict between
and France
Annam
the Gliiire and the

Rigault de

; five

Annamite

corvettes

Victorieuse,French
Due

had

threatened

frigatescommanded

destroyed in the

Genouilly,were
grief. During the reign of Tu

which

to

attack

by Lapierre ami

Tieu Tri died of


bay
[hissuccessor]the persecutionof misof Turan.

SOME

520

MINOK

STATES
[1851-189S A.D.]

sionaries became
more
Schacffer and Bonnard

violent; in

1851

and

in 1852

the French

missionaries

murdcretl

by his order,and France


protested.
of the Galinat,
As her protests were
not heeded, M. de Montigny, commander
In 1857 a Spanish bishop M. Diaz
destroyed one of the forts of Turan.
having been arrested and killed at Tongking, France and Spain united to
obtain reparationfor the violence done to their subjectsand to the Christians
On
of Annam.
August 31st, 1858, a body of Franco-Spaniards arrived at
the peninsula
took
on
possessionof the forts,established themselves
Turan,
the
to the harbour
the entrance
and
which
bounds
maintained
on
south,
there in spiteof the efforts of the Annamites
to drive them
themselves
out.ff
of
Cochin
the
in
the
three
China
1861
were
provinces
By
possessionof
upper
the French, and in 1862 a treaty was
signed with the king of Annam
nising
recogcontrol
of Saigon, Mytho, and
the French
Bienhoa; by 1867 France
had occupied three other provinces in southern Cochin China, and in 1874 a
signed abandoning all six provinces to France.
finally
treaty was
The French, whose
designsupon Tongking had been temporarilychecked
at
home,
war
began
again to push tlaeir influence by force of arms, and
by
various
with
few
reverses
a
although meeting
they finallymade
conquests,
send
them
which
ultimatum
to
to
an
encouraged
Annam,
demanding the
of the treaty of 1874, and the protectorate over
observance
Annam, including
Tongking. This was refused, and the French stormed Hu6, forcingthe king
of Tu Due
to sign a treaty recognisingthe French
the successor
torate
protecensued
the war
and China conbetween
France
cerning
(1884). There now
the protectorate over
Tongking, which resulted in the treaty of 1885
French
establishing
authorityover that province.
became
in 1863; nominally it is still
Cambodia
a
protectorate of France
absolute
with
in 1884
France
the
an
monarchy, but since the convention
French
is
As
in
Siam
there
at
a
one
practically
period,
province.
country
The
two kings in Cambodia.
first,
are
King Norodom, was crowned in 1860;
were

"

"

"

"

Prea Maha.
the second is Prince Somdach
the
convention
of
France
1884
After
entered on
an
aggressivepolicy of
and Tongking in civil war
and rebellion.
conquest which involved Annam
Bert
made
In 1886 Paul
was
governor-general, but died in the same
year
the evils of the militaryregime. It
as governorappointment of M. de Lanessan
general,order was restored to the disturbed provinces. In 1898 the political
and financial unity of Indo-China
established. o
was
definitely
in
its
form
The
was
organised by the decrees of
government
present
October
17th and November
3rd to 12th, 1887, and by those of April 21st,
and politically
Indo-China, financially
unified,is,
1891, and July 31st, 1898.
have
under
the
assisted
as
we
placed
authority of a governor-general,
seen,
by a superior council of Indo-China, which, reorganisedby the decree of
August 8th, 1898, is composed as follows: president,the governor-general;
the generalcommanding as head of the troops ; the rear-admiral commanding
the naval squadron of the Far East; the lieutenant-governor
of Cochin China;
the resident superiorsof Tongking, Annam,
and Cambodia;
a representative
at Laos; the chief
(appointed by the governor-general) of the government
of the controle financif^;the head of the judicialservice of Indo-China; the
and
excise of Indo-China; the presidentof
superintendent of the customs
of comthe colonial council of Indo-China; the presidentsof the chambers
merce
of Saigon, Hanoi, and Haijjhong: the presidentsof the united chambers
of commerce
and
and
agriculture of Annam
Cambodia; the presidentsof
chambers
of agriculture
induontial
natives,and the chief of the governor; two

without
was

not

having

been

until 1S91

able

to

that, with

counteract

the

THE
[189S-1903

BUFFER

general's

cabinet.

formed.

The
be

"must

It
on

The

council

superior
be

be

to

the

by

also

must

services

council

Annam

also

in

the

ministers

He

is answerable

in

Indo-China,
to

in the

521

be

to

the

minister

dependent

town

of

capital

of

to

is

Saigon

however,

does
one

of

not

the

of

the

the

has

been
which

budget,

the

superior

military

cil."
coun-

credits,

and

the

defence."

of

works,

He

governor-general.
The

control,

and,

in

There
of

reality,

is

presides
under

his

Indo-China.

coyilrole

colonies.

the

merce
com-

governments

throughout

power

colonies.

ministry

protected

The

and

agriculture,

financier

Its

returns

governor-general.

officially

the

necessarily
local

of

Annam.

his

the

of

"covmcil

sovereign
of

upon

communicated

by

of

exercises

council
the

works.

hands

under

are

therefore

session

distribution

assisted

comat"

the

receive

to

justice, public

customs,

Cambodia

He

public

to

is

at

the

on

devoted

directly
of

and

command.

council,

ASIA

of

annually

governor-general

"

The

CENTRAL

commission"

meets

consulted

the

of

placed

are

the

have

OF

"permanent

governor-general

general

of

accepted

credits

the

over

STATES

A.D.]

capital
sit

governments,

at

of

Indo-China.

Saigon.
as

Hanoi,

It

is

The

annually

Pnom-Penh,

superior
convoked
and

Hu^.''

SOME

BRIEF

MINOR

OF

REFERENCE-LIST

[The

STATES

letter

ALTHORITIES

is resen-ed

"

Chapter

for

I.

BY

Editorial

CHAPTERS

Matter]

Egypt

cJ. "Lvrcel, Histmre


de I'Egyptedepuis
and A. RAMnAtTD, Histoire Generale.
IiE. Lavtsse
Histoire
de
Jrangaise. ''A. de la Jonquiere,
conquete des Arabex, jusqu'd la dominatinn
' G.
/ W. MCller,
dtr
Poiiiische Geschichte
Kose"j, Gef:chichie der Tiirkei.
I'Empire Ottoman.
A E.
Neuesten
Zetl.
Zeit.
a M.
Luttke,
Pl.\ichut,
L'^gypteel V occupation
Agypten.i netie
article on
anglaise. ' H. T. Flathe, AUgemeine
W'eUgeschichte. ; D. M. Wau^ce,
"Eg"'pt"
"

la

"

"

"

"

"

"

in the

"

of the

volumes

new

EncyclopaediaBrilannica.

Chapter
*

E.

d London

Weber,
volumes
\olumcs

Lavisse

II.

Northern

Histoire

A.Rambaud,

Africa

Generale.

C. Schlosser,
c F.
TVeltgeschichU.
t Geoho
Turks."
History of the Ottoman
Weltge-ichichle. " P. Louis, article on "A!j;eria and .\lgiers"in the new
AUgemeine
A H. H. Johnston,
Tunisia"
of the Encyclopedia
Brilannica.
article on
in the new
H. Keene, article
of
volumes
* A.
of the Encyclopedia Brilannica.
Trif"oli in new
and

10th, 1901.

June

Times,

"

"E.

"

"

S. Cre.\sy,

"

"

"

"

"

"

Encyclopcedia Brilannica.
III.

Chapter
6 J.

Coup

D.uiMESTETER,

6 J.

E. Reclus,

"Nepal"

DE

Lanessan,

and
China"

in the

People of
in the

L
new

Nouvelle
new

of the

Siam.

"

volumes

/ J.

G.

D.

"

of

C.

"

J. M.

Siam
.K.

de

Register,1903.

Asia

Central

.^fghanistan. "* Article


The
Bowring,
dom
King.\.
in the Twentieth
e J. M.
Century.
IndoL.vnessaN, article on "French

J. Chav.vnne,

of the Encyclopcedia Brilannica.

622

Annual

The

Roe,

Encyclopcedia Brilannica.

Campbell,

Franfaise.

"

St.\.tes

Buffer

GeographicUniverselle.

volumes

Indo-Chine

I'histoire de Perse.

The

IV.

Chapter

on

d'otilsur

Persia

"

"

"

J.

"

HISTORY

THE

524

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN

that the middle plainfacingthe sea is shut in on three sides by mountainous


decked \\'ithrich fields of wheat and rye,
regions. In tliisextensive territory,
blossoms
and
the silkworm
the fragrant tea-plant,
where
spins his precious

magnificentgardens display the finest fruits and the most


in the southern
mental
landscapes the palm and other ornaand
rise
in
the
clear
the orange,
trees
chestnut,
fig,
pomegranate
heaven
have
that
and
where
nature
might
brought togetherevcrytliing
air,
there has lived since
and full of pleasures,
human
existence comfortable
make
of
from
the
the
in
absolute
seclusion
unthinkable
rest
world, a people of
ages,
is
and
their
national
Their civilisation
peculiar
type very
Mongolian descent.
ancient writers we
the most
expressed in mind and body. From
distinctly
its exten.sive cattle ranges,
hear praiseof the overflowingwealth of the land
its agricultural
products,its quantitiesof fine silk which formed one of the
of the coimtry.
resources
They describe the Seres of
principalcommercial
mountainous
"Silk-land"
the northwestern
(Serica) as a gentle,righteous,
life,possessinglarge and
temperate people,loving quiet and a comfortable
all
in
and
.so
scrupulouslyavoiding
wealthy cities,living complete seclusion,
association with other peoples that in their traffic with the Scythians,Partheir wares
in the
thians, and other neighbouring peoples,they laid down
communication.
and
there
in
received others
desert
exchange, without direct
stillcharacterise the Chinese to-day,affordingevidence
These are traits which
of their primordialunchanging character.
yond
The Chinese, the only people of Mongolian race
that has developed bethe iialf-wild condition of the nomadic
life,may be placed at the beginning
of history,because
they have from the earliest times hung like a dried
branch
the tree of civihsation,
influence upon
not
on
exerting the slightest
the growth of culture among
the rest of mankind.
China is a world by itself,
and
national fife,
but also in the natural and indus^
not
only in its human
ment
trial conditions of the country.
The uniformitywhich
with astonishnote
we
in the external form
and anatomical
of the people, in its
structure
is reflected
and institutions,in its industries and manner
of fife,
customs
throughout the land itself in its animal and vegetableforms, its climate,and
the cultivation of its soil. "In
this land," says Ritter, "a people,isolated
from the rest of the world like islanders,and egoistically
lost in wonderment
at itself,
developed in .singular
manner
a strong and
sharply outlined national
this type the individuahty of the personal unit was
to an
type. WitMn
degree
extraordinary
repressed
threads,where

flowers,where

beautiful

"

"

"

"

But

the condition

of the country
its situation,shut off by mountains,
miles long is not alone
the
Chinese
than
three
himdred
Wall, more
seas,
for
uniform
this
responsible
typicalcharacter ; the Mongolian descent and the
As the
inherent tenacity of the people worked
direction.
also in the same
"

and

"

Caucasian

race

is

from
distinguislunl

other

races,

even

in

bodily structure,

is
of form
and its variety of feature,so the Mongolian race
by its ver.satility
flifference perdistinguishedby uniformity of face ancl figure;and the same
sists
in the diverse mentality of each
Nevertheless, the Chinese mark
race.

the

boundary line
has

them

the utmost
boars

character

not

in

civilisation,
beyond
"Nature
progre.s.sed.

sources,

substance

all

the

and

be made
tiiat can
of
out
the stamp of the inevitable:

into its own


transform
of
the life
the Chinese

The

velopmen
Mongolian race in its dein
show
have
tried
to
history
Chinese
civilisation."
.Mongolian

which

it ha.s

foreign elements.

tremendous
No

people or its political


system.
be drawn
ancient historyof China, which
more
can
is obscure, untrustworthy, and
imperfect. The

conqueror

power to
altered

only from native


Chinese

lack

all

THE

PSYCHOLOGY

of historical values.

sense

To

the

as

lawful

the

impious interference with

an

CIVILISATION

525

tions
Chinaman, existinginstitutions and condiTo change them
laws.
would
be regarded

represent eternal,immutable
For this
nation.
to the Chinese

CHINESE

OP

does

of events

course

in the

find favour

life of the

them.

ing
Accordamong
is to preserve
the original
state
such customs
been
have
done
of thingsor to restore
with.
tory,
Hisas
may
away
therefore,records no development ; it is only the anthropologicaldepartment
of natural

the state, laws


the courses

reason

progress

not

task

conception,humanity's

science,and
eternal and

as

of the

seeks to represent, while


those with
immutable
as

planetsand

the

portraying the life of


which

of the

movements

and
the ancient days as humanity's ideal.
Only now
lifeless
and
is this
intervals,
rigid civilisation thrilled
influence into vibratory motion.
to

{ca.500

CONFUCIUS

astronomy

plains
ex-

They point

sun.

then, and for brief


extraneous
by some

B.C.)

The Chinese character as it shows itself in religion,


customs, and political
life is referred back to the great sage and lawgiver,Kong-fu-tse (Confucius).
The
old institutions,
which
introduced
under
teachings,and statutes
were
and other God-fearing rulers of the earliest times had
the pious king Yao
of the carelessness,
fallen into disuse because
weakness, and viciousness of
Evil

later emperors.

influences

had

created

and

confusion

discord

At that time
ancient happiness had been clouded.
Kong-fu-tse, a
in
had
who
entered
into
the earlier
had grown
deeply
poverty,
up

and

the
who

man

historyof

China, and had felt painfullythe degenerationof his time as compared with
the restorer
former
of the old laws and institutions.
He
excellence,became
that man
is by nature
and
started out with the principle
that
virtuous,
only
to make
a
necessary
of
conditions
ancient times

good examples
and

customs

are

whole
and

people good.
the

generationsas a mirror of virtuous


of the people in
and arranging the traditions
awaken
an
understanding of right and virtue.

of the earlier

of

of doctrines

system

controlled

extended

of

innovation.

taught and
nothing; I teach
itself from
which
I have

handed
it in

it

its

I but

comes.

lived from
550
and
with
rewarded

accepted from

all times

up

the

of living
ways
.soughtby collecting
writingsof the Kings to

and
life,
the

to

Thus

he became

the founder

all the activities of the

was

scatter, like the tiller of the soil,the seed

the earth."
upon
At
times
479
b.c.

received,unchanged,

driven into exile.


and

set

people and
life. He himself carefully
avoided all
spiritual
fathers
"My teaching,"he said, "is that which our foredown
and
to us ; I have added
taken
nothing
away
originalpurity; it is unchangeable as the heaven

Confucius
emperors

He

and

all intellectual and

appearance

which

that

actions

held

memorial

to

he was
honoured
by
honours, at others persecuted and
him
knowledge surrounded
everywhere
wisdom
and good sense.
His name
at

offices and

Discipleseager for
his lipsle.s.sonsof
in

the

His

greatest respect.
virtue

and

wi.sdom

His

was

memory

honoured

by

be

temples.
were
supernatural.
rai.sed to the highest order of nobility. The
family was
teachingspropounded
by him and spread and explained by numerous
especially
disciples,
by Meng-tse (ca. .360 n.c.) and Tshu-tse, the "prince of learning (ca. 1150
held

to

His

"

A.D.),soon

became

the

centre

of

important work of Kong-fu-tse was


state and popular religion
of which

Tiie most
intellectual life of China.
the promulgation and
restoration of the
the fabled king Fe-hi is regarded as the

the

THE

526

founder.

HISTORY

OF

religionis still the


Lao-tse, and Buddliism,which had
some
importance.
This

RELIGION

OFFICIAL

CHINA

dominant
entered

ACCORDING

TO

AND

JAPAN

one,

although

the

teaching of
India,attained

the country from

THE

OF

SYSTEM

CONFUCIUS

postulatea twofold originof all being,passive matter and


interdependentand of which neither can exist without
force (Yang) is symbolised by heaven, the creative,
masculine
{Yn) by the earth, the receptive
principle;and primitivematter
into relation with each other; primitiveforce
female principle.These come
acts on
primitivematter, impels and shapes it. The protluctof this union
Since the primitiveforce revealingitself in heaven
is real being,the world.
(Tien) is regarded as the higher power, wor.?hipof heaven with the sun and
the stars occupies the first place in the beliefs of the people. Heaven
with
its
its methodic
eternal
which
order
and
mirror
movement,
serve
as a
beauty,
soul in its moral
to the human
relations,is the real divinityof the Chinese
scriptures.In the second rank is the earth, upon which the life of nature
manifest.
Heaven
is the universal
becomes
force of life,
acting unconsciously;
The

Chinese

active force,which
are
Primitive
the other.

it is the soul of the


the attributes of man
and

"Heaven

world.

Consciousness

alone, the

third

imit

of self and
in the

individual

series of

choice

are

primitivebeings.

Shu-king, "are the father and mother of all


has the understanding to discriminate."
beings
among
Man
thus
intermediate
takes an
place between higher and lower, between
heaven
and earth ; and since the central point acts as the support and balancing
of
t
he
eternal
order
the
man's
univer.se,
weight
depends upon
holding fast
While man
to the centre.
by his moral strengthsteadilymaintains his selfand
won
as
an
industrious,order-producingfactor, in common
perfection,
and earth, takes part in the creation and preservation
of things,
with heaven
in its proper
everj'thingwill remain
equilibrium; but if man
departs from
his centre, if he loses moral
balance, then the equilibriumof the universe is
disturbed and disorderlypowers
break the eternal harmony.
Chinese
religionis therefore,according to its philosophicalcontents, a
without
natural religion
depth of thought. It derives its worth and
spiritual
its ethical significance
from
its
relation to the life of man.
The religious
only
of
the
is
unable
idea
of
Chinese
the
to
a spiritual
conception
personality,
grasp
of heaven
and of earth.
creator
Under
the generalconception
an
all-powerful
the blue plain of the sky,
of heaven, sun, moon,
and stars, together with
tian
are
worshipped as creative and world-producingforces; and when the Chrismissionaries,deceived by the name
Shang-Ti, "exalted ruler," and by
the divine attributes of omniscience, highestlove and wisdom, onmipotence,
and the like,sought to recognise in Tien a personalgod, a supreme
being,
and to fasten to this all the theistic ideas of Christianity,
became
they soon
of their error.
aware
According to the Chinese conception the world has no
the
of all things the blue firmament
beginning;
originalbeings, the source
things;

man

earth,"

says

alone

the

all

"

of

heaven,

and

matter,

through eternity.
reason

it

or

with
in

the

which

has created

permeates
the

later

The

making

itself manifest

notion

of

the

universe

it, is unknown

to

in

the

earth

"

have

existed

primal spiritualprinciple,a supreme


of nothingnessand
that preserves
out
the Chinese
teachers of religion.Only

make
its appearance
to unite
philosophersdocs an endeavour
higher conception this divided duality. Unable, however, to produce
idea of an unconditioned
spirit,
they developed the idea of fate, "such

THE

PSYCHOLOGY

up like a
behind
the
religions
as

looms

OF

pale form
coloured

indefinite and
lifeless;it is
chance.

of

The

formless

ideas of the

the mist

CIVILISATION

in the

Worship of Spirits

gods held by the Chinese

abstract,too lackingin appeal to

in order
direct manifestations
From
divine.
this
as
sprang

527

background of all heathen


But
the idea of fate is
figuresof real belief."
the dim conception of the activityof an inexplicable

TJie

too

CHINESE

the

those

visualise

to

the

The

senses.

belief

sages

were,

however,

needed external,
it worshipped
which
things
masses

in

"spirits,"particularlythat of
worship
was
prominent in the religiousrites
"patron
"The
the
intuitive
of
the
human
of
heart," says Giitzlaff,
people.
powers
The
"are exercised in the deification of ancestors."
primal, divine cause,
itself in the starry heavens, may
which most
itself
show
plainlymanifests
Thus
also in singlephenomena.
not
only the heavens and the earth are
and
worshipped, but also the spiritsof the stars, of the sun, of mountains
of good emperors
and
rivers,and above all the souls of dead men, especially
These
virtuous
ancestors.
are
as
regarded
watching over
patron powers
home
and family. To them
sacrifices and gifts
over
specialinterests in life,
the
spirits,"

are

of whom

offered.

This belief in spiritstherefore is associated


notion
with some
to the
as
of
soul
after
condition
the human
death.
Concerning this important point,
of Kong-fu-tse did
attain
not
however, the doctrine
clarity. Although,
with the souls of deceased
ous
virtuindeed, popular belief is mainly concerned
whom
himself
the
chief
occupies
Kong-fu-tse
amongst
place,
yet
persons,
the
The

conceptionof
reward

part of

of the

heaven

and

is absent

heavenly world
virtuous

after

death

earth

from

the Chinese

consists

in the

in their

beliefs.
religious
made
being again
a

of men.
For this reason
Chinese
mind.
no
"Lacking in
up
"
told
the
Chinese
not
able to weave
imagination,"we are
by Stuhr,
were
a
rich world of legend about
the lives of their gods and heroes,in which
to
unfold a wealth of ideas concerning the manifold
aspects of life. Except for

world

of

the ceremonial

deceased,

heroes

livingon
has

of the

been

dead,

built

in which

the

honour

religiousworship is mere
spiritsare of three orders,to which they
formal examination
by the emperors.

is rendered

Chinese

Moral
We

memory

in

have

Teaching

and

to

the

souls of the

worship." The patron


assigned by diploma after a

nature
are

Retribution

what
high importance the
of the
is the intermediate
one

doctrine

of

Kong-fu-tse assigns
primal beings;he is regarded as
the "blossom"
of nature.
Though his body, like other natural substances,
is only the product of an
"ever
circling
primitivematter," yet primitiveforce
is preponderant in him
and
manifests
itself in the spirit,
conscious of self.
of this predominant force man
carries within
Because
himself the fountain
of all knowledge, all morality,and all virtue,and
is therefore
the highest in
of man
the order of created beings. In the mind
the world presents itself in
active
orderliness
and
reasonableness.
Therefore
according to the
man,
is
of
in
nature
teaching Kong-fu-t.se, by
good; reason
living him imiielshim
and
in
to a voluntary choice of virtue
he is guided by
doubtful
piety;
cases
of
former
the teachings and
times.
Since, however, the notion,
examples
accordingto which virtuous actions were
representedas a necessityof nature
without
of will,was
merit,or freedom
strictlyapplied,to
contrary, when

to man.

He

seen

THE

528

HISTORY

CHINA

OF

AND

JAPAN

the destructive course


of this
knowledge as well as to experience,
of
and
its
admitted
source
cut short ; the possibility evil was
reasoning was
And
thus belief in freedom
placed in the material portion of man's nature.
saved
and jusof the will,a belief lying deep in popular consciousness,was
tified.
But the exerci.se of free will can
accomplish evil only ; it disturbs and
confuses the rational order and quietworking of the life of nature.
has no
doctrine
For the moral act Chinese religious
room
tion
; silent resignait.selfin
is
the
nature
the
divine
to
manifesting
highestduty. A
power
the
in
laws
of the Celestial
Chinaman
consists
to
the
life
for
virtuous
yielding
him
the
to
as
earthlyimage of the wellkingdom, for that kingdom appears
the
true mean," never
to exchange
He is to hold only to
ordered universe.
the "old man"
for a new
is to keep
one, and
himself from all excess.
ception
According to this conretribution
take place on
earth ;
must
sin is a disorderingof the universal
mony,
harevery
a
breaking through the laws of nature;
intuitive

"

of sin must

out

well

as

harm

come

for the

for the individual

universe,whereas

virtuous

as

men

If virtue
accompanied with good fortune.
clear and pure," says the Shu-king,"then is
"

are

is

in all that

fortunate

man

he is

if it is obscured
fortune
from
For
of

to

Good
but

man,

and

both,

ill

sent

are

Chinese

reason

moral

earthlylife.
nowhere

undertakes; but

unhappy.

dependent upon his virtue."


consists chiefly
religion
teachings and wise sayings for the

heaven,
this

bound

not

are

he

Of

retribution after life there is

word.

This

of sin and
direct sequence
lets also the natural evils,such

punishment
sickness,

as

famine, flood,earthquake, etc., appear


consequences
universe
due

of disturbance
to

therefore

as

the

in the order of the

the evil deeds of rulers and ples;


peothe state
is obliged to keep

watch
over
obedience
Emblem

SrAnixo

for

the

Sky

Demons

which

reason

is

assigned

the
morality just as it does over
civil
laws.
In
the
to
paid
common
interest it must
punish sin and reward virtue
in order to restore
the disturbed equilibrium.

The

"commands

and

people

carries within

everj'one
in China
to

of

himself.

Heaven,"

obey,

must

On

this

which

emperor

those

laws

are

account

much

of

value

tion
publicopinion. It is looked upon as the surest indicaheaven, and the proverb,Vox populi,vox Dei, has its
full significance. "What
the peoples hold worthy of reward
of punishor
ment,"
the
indicates
what
heaven
have
wishes
to
Shu-king,
says
punished or
is a close relationship
rewarded.
There
between
and
heaven
the people."
Since Chinese religion
teaches no immortality,it can
be held only as a comfortable
concession
to the desires of the people that, as was
stated above,
the intention

of

of

"

there

is held

for virtuous
of

out

persons,

heaven, and

Man

the prospect of a continuance


after death
the sons
and
especiallyto the emperors
as

as

reward

tives
representa-

that the souls of ancestors


said to act as protecting
are
There is nowhere
of the damnation
mention
of the
any
receives for his behaviour
divine justiceon earth.

for their
spirits

bad.

to them

kin.

THE

PSYCHOLOGY

OF

CHINESE

CIVILISATION

529

shows itself particularly


insipidand unpoeticnature of the Chinaman
the
his
of
in
and
forms
of his religious
life.
in the poverty of
worship
sterility
into the monotonous
No weekly holidays,no sacred feasts break
similarity
without
of the days. In restless activitythe Chinaman
spends his life,
ing
pausin his pursuitof industry and wealth, without
suspending for a moment
festival
the struggleand grind of practical
existence,to observe any religious
his material
business with a single
that might uplifthis soul,or to decorate
The
it might pour
Chinese people has no temples where
flower of idealism.
before a higher power,
in rapt prayer
where
forth its profounder feelings
or
its
submission
indicate
it
sacrificial
formal
acts
voluntary
might
by
; which
of art, the ideal beauties of an
it might adorn with works
imaginationfilled
The

with God.
It has
to

and

order

its great men.


life. All Chinamen
its religious

of recollection for

only halls
and

direct

equally able

to

the

execute

priestclass
are
equally entitled
ceremonies.
religious
insignificant
Only for
of religious
forms
worship are conducted by
no

the
discipline
the officials of the empire. For this reason,
too, the national sacrifices at the
that the blessing
of heaven
conducted
foiu- seasons
are
by the emperors,
may
The
Middle
earth.
the fruit-bearing
descend upon
Kingdom" is the Kingdom
for Chinese
of God."
Prayer, therefore, is mere
empty lip-service,
is
hear
sacrifice
to
h
as
passionless
only a shadow, a mere
divinity no ears
;
gestion
sugof the magnificentreligious
offeringsof antiquity. Even
prophecy
of signs,
which has always played an important role in
and the interpretation
vation
China, has been strippedof all higher dignity. It depends upon the obserand of the sky ; upon it are
and calculation of the phenomena of nature
based the good and the bad days. It is an important task of the government
known
with exactness
in a yearly officialcalendar all the phenomena
to make
and moon.
of the sun
all eclipses
of the heavens, especially
is
made
himself as chief
The
heaven
to
by the emperor
principaloffering
his
confidential
with it than
the
rather
of
to
oneness
realm,
proclaim
priest
In
natural
world."
addition
to this
the
into
draw
the
to
supernaturalover
in
in
the
also
unadorned
sacrifices
capital, an
nature-worshipthe emperor
in later
temple,to the spiritsof the ancestors of the royal family. When
all the sacrificialacts
times the journeysbecame
too difficult for the emperors
took placein this building.
the sake

of better

It has

"

"

"

CHINESE

SECTS

of the indifference of the Chinese towards


everything ideal and
and
and their passionenthusiasm
force
of
their want
less
religious
supernatural,
difficult for foreign
material
it
not
and
to reality
existence, was
resignation
of existingby the side of the national
forms of belief to gain the privilege
and a home
in the minds
of some
who longed for
and to find entrance
religion
Yet the religious
a loftierconceptionof life.
systems transplantedfrom other
In

view

countries,although they adapted

themselves

in time

to

the

Chinese

nature

general recognition.Their disciples


remained a sect, regarded with indifference and tolerated so long as they did
without
not seem
dangerous to the existingpolitical
system, but they were
The
doctrines which obtained
noticeable influence on the people as a whole.
the widest recognitionbore the impress of the religious
feeling of India;
in
the sacred book
and
laid
down
notably those of Tao, founded by Lao-t.se
Fo
and
the religious
by the Chinese.
Tao-te-king,
system of Buddha, called

and

could
peculiarities,

H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

never

secure

THE

530

OF

HISTORY

CHIXxi

AND

JAPAX

Buddhism

Buddhism,

in

among

into

sunk
outward

gained numerous
spiteof temporary persecution,
activityof

it had " lost the


classes; but in China
and
with foreignelements"
turbid mixture

the lower

of

in
significance

into
that

followers
life and

had

system of

mere

it furthered

the
only
the
that
the
for
Hutldhists,
cultivation of trees and plants,
reason
foregoing
the bloody sacrifices of animals, "worshipped the picturesand relics of the
ples,
temfounder of their religion
by offeringsof flowers and fragrance." Thus
surrounded
and burial placeswere
by gardens and ornamented
cloisters,
coloured variouslyshaped flowers."
with foreigntrees and a carpet of many
It

observances.

was

"

The
Lao-tse

endeavoured
void

to

unify Chinese
and

of consciousness

(Tao)
varietyof things as

Doctrine

Tao

dualism

purpose,

and

into
to

ence
singleprimal exist-

conceive

the

manifold

singleand supreme
principle.At the
togetherby
which
lies deep in
for
that
he
to
tried
time
satisfy
immortality
longing
same
and
the
the
the
wise
virtuous
human
out
to
the
heart, by holding
prospect of
the
the
As
final
of
and
of
return
to
only method
a
primal being.
livingon
the
he
did
wisdom
recommended,
as
holy penitents
attaining this consummate
of the flesh,the taming of all desires and passions,
of India, the mortification
Thus
would man
world of manifold phenomena.
out of the unreal
and flight
obtain
and would
the things of nature
master
become
even
over
over
power
is able to
of the "drink
of immortality" the "holy man"
death.
By means
rise to a
This mystic teaching in time gave
the might of death.
break even
that
and
in
belief
and
divination,magic
so
arts,
miracles,
widespread
magic
The
Tao
of spirits
sect
assumed
wide
sometimes
incantation
was
a
sway.
tolerated and even
honoured; several emperors,
indeed,
persecuted,sometimes
partook of the "drink of immortality."
Lao-tse
brought forth
taught, says Stuhr, that heaven and earth were
Chaos was
out of chaos.
preceded by a singlebeing,silent and immeasurable,
of the univer.se,
whose name
unchangeable and ever active. It is the mother
be designatedby the word Tao, reason
is unknov\Ti,but she may
or
reasonably
the
earth
is
is
of
the
existence
Man's
force.
earth,
an
an
image
image
acting
of
itself.
Moral
of
of heaven, heaven
an
an
reason
image
image
reason,
fection
perfrom
consists in freedom
give himself over
passions,that man
may
the more
uninterruptedlyto the contemplation of the harmony reigningin
held

"

There is no greater sin than unrestrained desire and no greater


the universe.
of the soul,which
of peace
and
than want
the torturing unrest
misfortune
of desire."
of the unrest rainedncss
Lao-tse, like the Brahare
consequences
of India, lived in solitude,and he taught the life of contemplation. The
mans
from
the Tao
beUef in miracles and
magic, which
.'system, reached
sprang
in the Shamanism
of the peoples of the Altai.
its climax
According to this
the
of the Shamans
to conjure up spirits,
to tame
doctrine it is in the power
elements, to produce health and disease,good and evil fortune: in short, to
evil spirits.
free man
from the shackles of natural forces and to counteract

THE

STATE

In the state are


All Chinese life finds its support and centre in the state.
is a creation
all intellectual acti\nties. The state for the Chinaman
of heaven, an essential factor in the harmony of the universe and therefore
united

OF

HISTORY

THE

532

CHmA

AND

JAPAN

before Christ, the custom


originatedof securingprivate slaves by
human
beings,whereby children, especially
purchase. Since then trade in
sold
their
own
by
frequently
parents, and poor people sell
a
re
girls,
young
centuries

into

themselves

however,

are

slavery,has flourished

protectedby

in

spite of

againstharshness

law

prohibitions.Slaves,
many
and ill-treatment.
Eunuchs

first criminals and the relatives of criminals


punished by mutilation;
that
of
the
class
eunuchs
formed.
This
later
was
it was
in
period
a
only
of the
class gained great influence,forming as it thd the guard of the harems
Its
aristocracy,and being constantly employed by the imperial court.
offices
exerted
and
the
"often
most
held
members
a
important government
fore,
baneful influence by trickeryand mahgnity. Already in the Shu-king, thereand eunuch
rule.
over
woman
there are voiced laments
at

were

It

was

natural

consequence

of the state were


and cruel
to
severe
subjected
mild
exliibits
a
legalsystem
and

the laws

of the great importance in which


the state
held that crimes againstthe government
were

while in other respects the Chinese


punislmients,
and parental character.
was
a
High treason
In China, moreover,
crime also againstheaven.
corporalpunishments, which
and the notables,are
less humihating
the high chgnitaries
inflicted on
are
because
the
of
other
in
would
be
sense
countries,
personalhonour
than they
does not exist.
in the emperor.
He
The whole Ufe of the state in China is concentrated
be obeyed Uke di%'ine
orders and laws must
of Heaven,"- whose
is the "Son
He
is honoured
and from whom
commandments
originatesall government.
who
is burned ; everj-one
his altars incense
approaches him
as
a god ; before
But the emperor
must
touch his forehead to the ground three times.
must
in
He
honours.
himself
of
these
must
make
excellent
worthy
qualities
by
all

things be guided by

he must

avoid

the

and

laws, customs,

and
all arbitrariness,

defer to

examples of ancient times;


publicopinion; and as supreme

"The
judge he is expected not only to punish crime but to reward virtue.
demand
prince must himself have virtue," says the Shu-king, "then he may
it in others ; for to ordain goodness which is lackingto oneself is contradictory
notions
A ^"icious and foolish ruler according to Chinese
and unnatural."
the "Middle
is not entitled to reign over
Ivingdom," since his faults and
to the whole
crimes necessarily
people. .\s the Son of Heaven,
pass over
in
his
moral actions: he should be
its
reflect
should
own
the emperor
light
Should he fail to
the
hidden
of
heaven.
o
f
\-isible
the
representation
power
meet

these claims, should

of heaven
to render

he

take

his

ovm

as
guide to his actions, then the
For this reason
him
obedience.

will instead

peopleare

no

of the eternal orders


longerin duty bound

the overthrow

and

destruction

of

\ices

is always brought about by the impious deeds and


d"Tiasties
of the emperor
Since might and authorityrest less in the person
is not undescent of the cro\sTi
in his office,so the hereditarjthan
of quarrels. In
but only advisable for the avoidance
quaUfiedlynecessan,-,
excluded from the
elected.
Women
times the emperors
the earUe'st
are
were

Clunese

of the rulers.

government.
Mandarins,

Supervisors,a""f

the

Army

cities,
Empire, with its innumerable
and
towns,
population,rests upon an organisation
and a hierarchy
carried out
a strict centralisation
without any community-lifeor any trace of self-government. The
of officials,
with their exactlybounded
subchvisions are under the management
pro\'inces
These are
of imperialofficials,
called,after a Portuguese word, Mandarins.
The

of the Chinese
its excessive
in the greatest detail with

administration

\Tllagesand

THE

grades and

in

ranked

PSYCHOLOGY

the

of

servants

isolated
strictly

are

Son

CHINESE

OF

of

from

constitute

Heaven

CIVILISATION
the
the

people,and

533

as

organs

adopt the ancient laws and


by thorough study they make
and
acts
judgments. Their

of which
held under the direct supervision of
are
many
insure
and
of
thoroughness
proficiency. The responsibility

examinations,
emperor,

mandarins, who

of

Since
mandarins

the emperor.
China is a

outrank

Military
employed both
duties of

veillance
sur-

great;

miUtary

colonies

mandarins.

troops

and

tia.
mili-

which

in

protect the boundaries, and to


regions. Military ser\'ice,

to

cultivate

citizen state, the civic


the

were
kept
agricultureand in the
served to spread the Chinese

war

dominion,

waste

however,

did suit the

never

Arms

are

burden

existed

has

censors

or

and

from

of

called

supervisors,men

nese.
peaceable ChiAnd

them.

over

the mandarins
old

corps

ko-tao, who

ephors, and

so

battle

courageous
of lamentation

the emperor

Besides

to

of

the Shu-king, instead


hymns, contains songs
the lot of the soldier.

is as

very

of hired

consists

army

like

the

the
their exact
ance
observlaws of the realm,even

control, is

the ancient

towards

there

the

writingsenforce

sacred

The

subjected to severe

are

and

and

They must
ordinances
of the "celestial kingdom," which
the guiding principle
of all their
their own,
as
studies are
strict
definitely prescribed,and
government.

whose

of
are

duty it

guardians of the law

of the realm, as
state," to insure a
government, in harmony with

the "conscience
conservative

the sacred

of the

ordinances

of heaven.

They

are

of the idea of the state, and


representatives
and
the emperor
hold a right of veto over

his counsellors.

They

are

honoured

by the

people as protectors of the law and feared


by officials. Not infrequentlythey have

Wife

of

Mandarin

interfered in affairs of the court, and have protestedagainst the crimes and
and with as little respect of
vices of the emperors
with the same
sternness
of
Israel.
the
did
the
against
as
prophets
kings
persons
for office. The
"not
birth,
qualifies
"Only intelUgencc,"says Wuttke,
ness
only such servants as bear within themselves the consciousin every
held
State
examinations
the everlastuigkingdom."
are
official cityin a hall dedicated to the memory
of Kong-fu-tse; they are under
the supervisionof the authorities and scholars.
The highest examinations
tion
conducted
himself in his palace. For the further educaare
by the emperor
of the officialsmonthly lectures are delivered on their duties and the laws.
the officers
Even
In the army
strict militarydiscipline
is observed.
a
was
receive blows
with the rod.
The signal for the gathering of the army
The
in
times
fires
the
tains.
ancient
even
momi
plaintive
songs
given by
on
of the soldiers in the Chinese
Song-Book, translated by Riickert,give evidence

emperor
of

may

have

of the national

dislike of

war.

THE

534

OF

HISTORY

EDUCATION',

The
with

income

for

fatherlycare

the

administration, which
instead of using them
as
institutions of
the construction
the

gooilof

by higlitolls anil
the people. In no

endeavours

hke

FAMILY

THE

AND

AGRICULTURE,

of tlie state, obtained

JAPAN

AND

CHINA

to

act

taxes, is spent

income

is the

way

guarclian-

interests of the people


conspicuously than in the

in the

more
tool,shown
in
magnificentmagazines and hospitals,
for
and
the
canals
in
the
apparatus
britlges,

its

in the
public utility,
of roads

and

of

The
inundation.
soUcitude
prevention
restricted to material
hfe ; schools, instruction
of

in

is

has

Education

direction.

government
music, the whole

indeed,

system,

is not

the

untler
for

tional
educa-

governmental

its purpose,
ever,
howof mental
powers

the development
not
ural
along Hues of independent thought,not the natnature, but merely
upbiiiklingof the umer
the imparting of ancestral knowledge. For this
instruction consists cliiefly
m
reason
memorising
the
the school-books
prescribedby
government,
and is particularly
concerned, after the essential
of knowledge have been acquired,with
rudiments
the inculcation of conventional
morality,of civic

virtue, obecUence
observance

of

of

parents

and

of the

the laws

universal
order

and

desires.

peror,
em-

Great

stress

is laid

echo

of the

the

soul to
evil

mvusic.

upon

the

state, and

It is considered
as
an
which
accustoms
harmony

quiet orderliness.

hfe of

towards

accord,and
moral

The

banishes
and

passionsand

civic laws

set

are

to

Besides the elementary


taught in song.
are
in
schools,which are not wanting even
institutions
the smallest
hamlets, there are many

music

and

for scientific

training. But

the

rigidmechanism

itself in all the activities of Chinese


life robs
these stucUes of those results which
thus restricted brings
mental
culture when
not

which

with
A

Ma:nd.a.rin

upon

hand

this

factor

characterised

earth

from

of existence.

has been directed towards


looks
its j'outh up necessarily
the Cliinese were
Therefore
at
gaze

by

an

ant-like

activityis not

The

China

emperor
in

numberless

excellent

moral

and

himself

steadiness

in the Chine.se national

presides over

it.

Few

lands

can

and

lar
popu-

compare

fields of grain and


The
extensive
rice, the
and
odoriferous
magnificent flowers, ornamental
shady arbours, the hill country laid out in terraces
the plainsof
arrangements for drainage and for irrigation,
horticulture.

gardens
climbing plants over

with

chief aim

of orderliness

life.

with

the

peoplewhose

industry.
activityand a never-tiring
in
skilful
It
consists
only
by thought.
spiritualisefl
i
n
in
mechanical
ture
Agriculdexterity, painstakingperseverances.
labour,
is looked upon
the oUlest and most
important occupation; it is the
as

all times
But

as

it.

the
labour

shows

with

and
blossoming tea and cotton, the rich orchards
groves, all bear witness
of
of
the
cultivation
the
soil.
the
to
Agricultureis the steady,
perfection
foundation
of
the
Chinese
state.
By its introduction and cultiunchangeable

THE

PSYCHOLOGY

OF

CHINESE

CIVILISATION

535

vation the

more
conquered neighbour lands were
firmlyunited to the empire
have
of war.
been possibleby methods
AVhat the conquerors
tried to do with the sword, China attauied more
permanently
and benevolentlywith the plough.
Besides the cultivation of grain and of tea, the production of silk is the
of great profit. Just as the
is
prideof the nation and the source
emperor
of
the
s
o
the patron
agriculture,
production of silk enjoys the particular

than would
of the West

of the cnijjrcss.

care

She

has

in her

room

silkworms

that

she feeds with

branches
gardens.
as
inqjcrial
silk-weaving,
and
skill
of
the
Chinese
is espepractical
gracefuldexterity
cially
achriirable. They surpassed all other nations in the fine weaving of
Their artistic carvingsin wood, ivory,and horn and their
various materials.
admiration
beautiful china have always won
as
staplesof trade. Silk paper
of wooden
and
for writing,gmipowder,
printingby means
type, wood-cuts,
known
Chinese
the
hundred
to
other
and many
things were
many
years
of
But
the
the
to
earlier than
spirit development and progress
Europeans.
with foreign inventions
contact
the incentive wluch
and
is lacking,and
For
afford.
this
the
Chinese
after
would
time
fell
reason
a
knowledge
civihsed
tries
in
all
those
branches
of
which
western
behind the
covm
industry
activities
approach art and are perfectedby mental activity. Mechanical
and
technical
from
manual
skill
have
been
the
dexterity
depending upon
A
such
times
the
at a high stage of perfection.
earliest
as
great commerce
favourable
positionof the country and its wealth in products of all kinds
would have encouraged was
prevented by China's poHcy of isolation. Only
certain
the
coast
at
were
places on
foreigntrading vessels allowed to land
load
with
the
and to
wares
heaped up there.
of the Chinese
mental
bent
and their unique conception of
The peculiar
into
view
existence come
geous
most
plainly,and, perhaps, in the most advantain
social
intercourse
and famil}'Ufe.
Since man,
light,
according to
and
has no worth or signifithe Chinese idea,is only a portion of the whole
cance
he can
count
on
as a free personality,
respect and recognitiononly when
and laws, when
he adapts his behaviour
to existingcustoms
he follows the
viduality
high road of the traditional and the conventional, when he permits his indifrom

leaves

In

the

in all other

of industry, the

be

to

himself

swallowed

up

in the universal.

The

individual

is to distinguish

in

notliing. No alteration is allowed in clothingor fashion,


which are prescribedby the state and have remained
unchanged for thousands
To leave imdone
that which is
of years.
MoraUty is only of the passivesort.
evil and of harm to the conmiunity is more
highly esteemed than the performance
of virtue.
Piety towards parents,obedience towards those in authority,
love for relatives and friends,
and politenessin daily intercourse,
reverence
are

the chief duties of the Cliinaman.


"

"

Marriage and the family as the centre of the life of society were worthily
in the family is the image
The union of man
and woman
developed in China.
of the union of creative primitiveforce with receptiveprimitivematter, of the
heavens with the earth, whence
the universe.
Marriage is as old as
sprang
the
,

state.

Fo-hi, who

after the

great flood erected

the system of the state,

raised woman
marriage. This conception,moreover,
the rest
in China from
the subordinate
positionin which she appeajs among
and subject
of the peoplesof ancient times.
Though owing obedience to man
of the family.
essential member
to him, yet she is held in great respect as an
with
were
Womanly virtue and self-sacrificing
frequently rewarded
fidelity
restricted
is
oriental
to
custom,
triumphal arches.
Still,
according
woman,
was

to

the founder

the

house

also of

and

shut

off

from

association

with

men,

and

little

care

is

THE

536

on

her

Chinaman

as

expended
the

HISTORY

OF

AND

CHINA

JAPAN

Marriage as a divine orilinance is regarded by


obligation. Only by marrying can he fulfil his destiny

education.
an

The bride
Polygamy Ls permitted but docs not frequentlyoccur.
her parents by the bridegroom with a bridal gift. The
is purchased from
in which
ing.
intermarriage is prohibitedare very far-reachgrades of relationship
The
holiest tie in family life is the love of children
for their parents,
which, therefore,is again antl again inculcated as the highestduty.
on

earth.

LE.\RNING,

Science
life.

The

and

knowledge
and

wise

make

the learned

are

LITERATURE,

ART

official and popular


up the soul of Chinese
the true statesmen, because
only they have

adjustedmachinery of the state and


facultyof comprehending the skilfully
of keeping it upon
its michangeable course.
Only they are able to protect
from
upheaval the heaven-born
organism of the national life. A peaceful
people needs no heroes, but only wise administrators.
for subsequent generationsthe old traditions,
wherein
In order to preserve
the Chinese in the grey dawn
all lawful
and enduring thingshave their origin,
time
dicated
of prehistoric
invented
certain signs and characters whereby they inthe

On
ideas and words.
the basis of the very ancient
Kua, a
is
have
which
said to
of hieroglyphic
originatedwith the mythical king
whereof every sign indicated
Fo-hi,they built up an idea or picture-writing,
certain

kind

particularconception,independent of the sound of the word and therefore


of combination, expansion,and symapplicableto every language. By means
bolical
representationof abstract conceptions,there developed from this
primitivehieroglyphicthe sign-writingin use to-day,made
up of strangely
formed
characters
is
characterised
artificial
This
or
certainty,
by such an unciphers.
and
of
that
learn to read
to
obscurity,
complexity
figures,
merely
it requiresdecades, and only the learned
guage.
know
thoroughly the written lana

Words
dominant

sound, but

total number
more

do not

than

of
half

signs that

are

four

may

actuallyin

knowledge of
shown by the

Chinese

"on

of its

account

out
grow
each word

of

combination

stands

as

be used is
use, and for

of letters or

out

of

common

The
complete,indivisible whole.
about fiftythousand ; of these not
ordinary written conrmiimication a

is enough. A similar stiffness and


clumsiness is
spoken language,which is no less difficult to understand;
rigidityit does not express the livingthought," but only

thousand

indicates.
Similar to the earliest

the Chinese language placessingle


speech of children,
It
beside one
another without
connection.
words,
one
syllable,
knows
no
organic,livingdevelopment of a root word through derived forms,
of variations of sounds
of affixes by means
of
or
nothing of the multiplicity
which other languages are able to express a wealth of relations.
The same
is sometimes
sometimes
unchanged word according to the connection
noun,
verb.
sometimes
There are no conjugationsor declensions;of the
adjective,
verb there is only the substantive
be exTense cannot
pressed
form, the mfinitive.
in the verb itself,
but only by adding another
word
which indicates
the time.
the meaning of a word as
Only intonation and positiondistinguish
verb,adjective,
numeral, or even as preposition." For this reason, too,
noun,
the
the Chinese use only short sentences, as every newly added
word makes
of understanding greater.
difficulty
Their whole language consists of less than five himdred
monosyllabicroot
raised
of various intonations and pronunciationsare
words, which by means
and forty-five
these
to fourteen hundred
used
words.
From
sounds
as
simple
almost

all of

"

PSYCHOLOGY

THE

of

combinations

again, then,
are

OF

of

indicated

sounds

pronouncedthe

same

has

often

way

The

arise.

particles.With

by means
exist great uncertainty
necessarily

must

CIVILISATION

CHINESE

so

and

different

small

537

grammatical relationships
a

number

ambiguity, since
meanings.

of words

the

With

same

those

there
word
words

number
of meanings expressedby each runs
up to thirtyor
endeavours
to remove
by repetition
ambiguity the Chinaman
of the same
ness
thought. In spiteof its awkwarda manifold
representation
of the language has been
retained unchanged. The
the oldest form
in

most

the

use

forty. This
and

that
little from
"This
system of

spoken to-day.
speech with its
writing," says

of

form
curious
Giitzlaff " is

the

on

hand

one

dividingwall againstthe
and on
of foreigners,

firm

hand

other
union

the

whereby

great

the

of

means

its

people with

together
possiblea single

makes

which

presumption
the

is held

dialects

various
and

differs but

the Kings

of

language

government."
The

is

of the Chinese

literature

of practical
shrewdness
well-regulatedcommon
sense, but is void of all imagination
spiration
or
depth of thought, all poetic in-

rich in lessons
and

warmth

or

The
is

made

and

books, collected

sacred

feeling.

of

work
important literary
of
the
Kings, the
up

most

ranged
ar-

by Kong-fu-tse[Confucius],
which

the

contain
of

people. They
the

three

according to
come

their
from

originalfathers
of

later

tions
tradiChinese

the
in

part of
which,
proper,
contents, have

consist

Kings

down

earliest

life of

the

the

; and

time
of

writings, also

of the
number

held

as

SiNESB
composed
by Kong-fu-tse himself or by his
favourite
pupils. The Kings are divided into three parts: the Y-king,
obscure
exegesis,and
perverted than elucidated by recent
an
book, more
and
moral
the authorship
concerned
with the phenomena of nature
reflections,
of the realm; the Shi-king,
of which
is ascribed to Fo-hi, the foimder
of morality
of old songs for the furtherance
the book
of odes, a selection
the Shihimself
and
of life,made
and the enrichment
:
by Kong-fu-tse
of
the
The
national
realm.
annals
of
the
Shi-king, which
king, or
songs
Some
of
mixed
and
contents.
authors, are
belong to various ages
very
moral
and
have for their purpose
the spread of religious
sentiments; they
and virtues,
the deterioration of old customs
lament in an
elegiacmanner
praisethe fortunate times of earlier generations,and express a longing for
their restoration;others sing with lyricrapture of the joys of love and the
and their
forth in praiseor criticism of the emperors
or burst
pleasuresof life,

sacred, and

which

were

538

THE

government.
feeling. The

In

fountain

most

HISTORY

OF

AND

CHINA

generalthere reignsin them a


important of the sacred books

of Chmese

national

life,and

JAPAN

is the

therefore

in

It

most

with

Yao

dignityto

the

and

moral

natural

Ski-king,the principal

high honour
by the
contains,in addition to
ancient
history, beginning

held

people.
the

morality and

delicate

maxims,

publicand

"

intended

entire

work

to
"

add

many

politicalreflections,

and

useful

lessons

for

privatelife. After the

the book
by Shiremained, in
hoang-ti,the work
spiteof its later restoration,
imperfect
and full of gaps.
Dating from
various periods,it contains only a
destruction

of

little

than

more

half of

the

old

work.

Among
accounted

the rest of the writings


sacred, and sometimes

the
of
name
designated by
Kings, the most
important are:
of customs,
the Li-hj, the book

ceremonies, and
and

the

eternal

four

tions;
conven-

works

piled
com-

by Kong-fu-tse himself and


his
immediate
disciples:Tohio,
"the
great lesson,"Tshung-thung,
the certain mean," and
Luen-yue
is contained
and HJ-tse,in which
"

Chinese

TRitiiPHAL

Arch

the

total

substance

of

the

ings
teach-

wnth which
the Chinese regard
Kong-fu-tse. In spiteof the reverence
the sacred writingsand
the explanations and ^commentaries,
composed by
Meng-tse and Tshu-tse,yet they are not considered by them as infallible;
of a supernaturalinspiration
the}'have no conception.
The scientific investigations
in part directed to universal
of the Chinaman
are
in
the
and
t
o
star-sown
heavens,
nature, especially
part to the real life of the
he does not aspire. The
the
state and the people. To matters
senses
beyond
of
di\Tne
existence
manifests
and
observation of nature
the sky, in which
itself,
and it is therefore a
is in his estimation
the only roacl to truth and reason,
sacred duty. The science of astronomy was
always pursued in China with
The
themselves
took it up.
mers
astronospecialpredilection.The emperors
resulted in
took the place of prophets and priests. This bent
soon
of the planetsand the movements
of heavenly bodies,
knowledge of the courses
in the calculation of the eclipses
of the sun
and moon,
the division and determination
of the cyclesof the years and of the moon,
of
and in the foundation
be
and
of
must
definite
well-ordered
The
calendar.
a
a
chronology
emperor
guided in governmental tran.=:actions by the constellations. The days when
disturb the order of the heavens are observed with all sorts of peculiar
eclipses
ceremonies
External nature, too, with her five elements
as days of mourning.
(water, fire,wood, metal, and soil),is the subject of scientific investigation
with magHence
the early acquaintance of the Chinese
and obser\-ation.
netism
efifectsof
and the compass,
with botany and the healing or harmful
the human
herbs and roots upon
body.
of

The

the most
numerous

famous
works

its external

OF

colours

paiuted in many
porcelaintower

are

for

HISTORY

THE

540

or

of Nanking
of this kind of
and

of stone

technical

CHINA

inlaid

AND

with

(built in

the

JAPAN

gleaming plates of porcelain.


fifteenth

century)

building." Sculpture,as may


and
of metal
ivory, is
porcelain,

execution,

but

without

artistic
any
much
care.

is

be

one
seen

of

by

remarkable

feeling;so,

Held in the
painting,on whicii tlie Chinese lavish
commoujilace,they slavishlyimitate icalityand thus
mirrored
make
their picturesmere
images of life." Simple objectsof nature,
and
the
like,are painted very neatlyand with great exactness
birds,tish,
flowers,
of
and splendour
ing
colour; on the other hand, their human
figuresare lackand their faces in expression. Moreover, their pictures
in movement
are
and chiaroscuro.
The science of music
is not much
without perspective
more
although tliishas at all times enjoyed the favour of the govdevelopetl,
liighly
ernment.
is produced by numl)erle.?s
Their
instruments
of
music, which
and without
manifold
shapes, ;uid clear, tUn tones, is noisy, monotonous,
introduced
only in recent times by the Jesuits;
inspiration.Notation was
had to be learned by heart.
before that all tmies
is without
the iimor life of man
In a country where
development, where
fraction
of
the
counts
the individual
universal, there is no soil in
only as a
How
could a people that tloes not strive
which
creative poetry can
grow.
for ideals,for which
commonplace realityholds ever3'thingthat belongs to
earthlyhappiness,find dehght in creations of the imagination? Epic poetry
to the Chinese, because
with its loftymoral ideas is imknowm
they have no
with
likingfor heroic deeds; because to them the magnificentbattle of man
of
because
the
fate appears
nature;
as
a sinful rebelhon
against
inevitabihty
the epic draws its materials;
they lack the world of rehgiousmyths, whence
the background of their history. No hero poem
because no heroic age forms
novels taken
literature;tales and court stories,
immediately
graces Chinese
and
dull reality,
from
representations
descriptionsof social life,wearisome
take the
and
long-drawn-out,without
high morality or poetic inspiration,
placeof epic poetry.
A people that does not
Just as little can
the drama
flourish in China.
know
real action or development cannot
produce action in the drama, "the
poetic image of the world's history." Dramatic
poetry, therefore,consists
for
of the people.
of
the
entertainment
and
amusement
only
stage pieces
real
and
transcribed
from
events
farces,written as
life,
Only
only hght plots
the
found
of the stage.
for
in
voluminous
the
fiction
audience,are
pastimes
in
than
is the art of epic poetry; the
less esteem
art is held
Dramatic
even
influence
the sentiment
on
theatres,although much
frequented,are without
too, it is with

bonds

and
of thi" ])rosaic

"

and

culture

of

the

nation.

Dramatic

poetry,

which

among

the

civilised

European peoplesis a temple of all that is great and ideal,is in China only the
unpoetic image of real life,entirelywithout moral impulse.
Lyric poetry, however, wliich does not represent action, but thought and
and noble sentiment, even
though
feeling,is not wanting in grace, loveliness,
of the Shi-king. In genit lacks depth and power.
Loveliest are the poems
eral
the didactic character is predominant in Chinese
lyricpoetry, and often
in frequent
the thought is associated with an image taken from nature, which
repetitionruns along beside the thought but is not united with it. Maxims
and rules of Hfe, in which
the practicalwisdon) of the Chinaman
dearly
so
of this
of the .substance
likes to clothe itself,
frequentlyform much
very
conduct, that of selflyrical-didactic
poetry. The highest aim of Chinese
ing
in the poetry, in which
control and moderation, shows itself even
strong feelcoolness and calm
is avoided as carefully
as is passionin real life. Hence

THE

and
in

orderliness

pleasures

the

wild

and
"The

with

that

of

tinsel

and

jingle

of

gift

gives
that

of

senses

the

which

keep

him,

of

Sina,"

Herder,

says

and

about

spun

deftly painted

the

sayings,

lacquer,

The

poetry.
Chinaman

lacquer,

cimning

CIVILISATION

matter-of-fact

from

too

from

too,

541

aU

regularity

great

intlulgence

an

enthusiasm,

gance,
extrava-

dreaming.

productive
with

the

animal.

pretty

CHINESE

their

hibernating

tinsel, this
of

restrain

hieroglyphics
a

of

which

country

over

OF

characteristic

chief

the

are

PSYCHOLOGY

the

hand

industry
greed

the
hues

cultivation
and

characters,

scholarship

la'vish

their

so

these

As

that
and

finds

nature

quick

silk ; its
love

of

their

of

their

the
to

artistic

them."''

crooked
minds

have

circulation

is

their

characters,
resembles

of

denied

displayed
talent

painted

mummy,

inner

immeasurably

cUnking

intelligence
to

embalmed

an

Sinese

seems

finesse, that
useful

"is

with

for

their

their

imitation

whereas
Utile
in

the

golden

syllables.

them,
in

and

this

like

gold

The

she
eyes,
thing
every-

CHAPTER

THE

II

HISTORY

To
You
An

May

insure

error

make
of

lead to

EARLY

end

good

must

CHINA

OF

good beginning

hair's

a
a

breadth

discrepancy of a thousand
Lu-tsuen.i
Hung

li.

D^rN'ASTIES

nations a comparatively
antiquity of the world is amongst western
thinkers could not have
discovery; but, although Chinese
based
their theories
to have
rate
at any
on
geologicalscience, they seem
than
have
taken
must
more
race
grasped the probability that the human
social
six thousand
to
a
organisation.
develop complicated
years
The
first tangible monarch
is Hwang-ti, who
reigned during the twentyHe
seventh
built roads, invented
ships,
century before the Christian era.
and organised the empire into administrative
departments.'' To his lady,
the silk produced
is ascribed
the honoiuof having first observed
Se-ling-she,
of having unravelled
their cocoons,
and of having worked
the
by the worms,
fine filaments
into a web
of cloth.
The
of Hwang-ti is also preserved
tomb
to this day in the province of Shensi.
With
the reign of Yaou
takes up the strain, and
(2356 b.c.) Confucius
will not
bear
criticism it yet furnishes us with some
though his narrative
The

immense

recent

historical data.
the theme

The

character

writer on
of every
the force of the
So strong was
size and
Yaou
pro.=:perity.
was
shared

period

with
that

him

the

of

Yaou

historyfrom

and

his

the time

successor

Shun

of Confucius

have

been

downwards.

examples they set that the nation increased in


.succeeded by Shun, who
for some
years had
the responsibilities
of government.
It was
during this
"Great"
Yu
of the
was
employed to drain off the waters
542

THE
[1818B.C.-226A.D.]
had
flood which

services he

HISTORY

visited the north


raised to

was

number

the

of

Kee
until one
vices of
all the worst
away

all traces

ment

of

on

the

the death

less

one

CHINA

As

of China.

throne

rulers,each
(1818 B.C.) ascended

OF

543

reward

for this and

of Shun.

qualifiedto

throne.

In

govern
this man

After

him

than

the

other
ceeded
suc-

last,

combined

were

people rose againsthim, and having swept


of him and his bloodj'house, they proclaimed the conmiencedynasty, to be called the Shang dynasty, and their leader.

new

the

Tang, they named

The

kings.

"he

first emperor
ruled
the

from

the modern

of the

new

line

(1766 b.c.).^ Of

hun

the

people gently,and abolished oppressions.


In his days the seven
years' drought occurred."
At the close of this dynasty, 1153
presided over
B.C., the tyrant Chow
the empire. The age of this individual agrees with that assigned in sacred
The
founders
history to Samson.
third
of the
dynasty are described
as
virtuous, patriotic,and brave.
this time, 1121 b.c, foreign
About
write

Chinese

ambassadors
Cochin

that

came,

China,

to

court;

ing
return-

on

they missed their way, when


them
the prime minister
furnished
with a "south-pointingchariot,"by
of which
their
means
they reached
Thus we
the needle

country.

own

polarityof

see

that

the

known
was
and applied to useful purposes
in
China at that earlyperiod. In the

twenty-firstyear of the emperor


Ling,of the third dynasty, 549 B.C.,
Confucius

born.

was

little

before

than

more

two

hundred

the Christian

China
era
fourth
became
to
subject a
dynasty,
The ruler of Tsin concalled Tsin.
ceived
years

the
a

from
time.
and

insane

idea

of establishing

which

should extend
dynasty
the beginning to the end of
With

burned

this view

he

collected

all the

records of [previous
alive four
buried

ages, and
and
sixty learned

hundred

Chine.se

Soldier

men,

of the world
menced
composteritybelieve that the dominion
The objectof obliterating
all remembrance
with himself.
of antiquity
by the subsequent discoveryof the books of Confucius,
was, however, defeated
and the intention
of perpetuating his rule was
of
frustrated by the demise
his
became
extinct.
his son, whereupon
dynasty
During the lifetnne of this
the famous
Chinese
monarch
Wall was
erected,in order to keep out the Tatars,

wishing

who

then

to

make

infested

the northern

throughout the empire for


Since the days of Tsin

the

frontier.

Almost

every

third

man

was

drafted

accomplishment of this undertaking.


of dynastieshas swayed the destinies
a succession
of China, among
the most
celebrated of which are Han, Tang, Sung, and Ming,
Tatar
with the two
and
dynastiesYuen
Tsing. The dynasty Han, lasting
from 205 B.C. to 226 a.d., is distinguished
and courage
for the militaryprowess
at that time displayed;hence the Chinese
stillfond
of
are
callingthemselves

544

THE

HISTORY

After

the

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[GUO-l"M A.D.]

downfall

of this

of

kings

six smaller

dynasties
Tang dynasty,
from
620
to 906
extensivelycultivated,am.! the literary
a.d., learning was
then
first
established.
Between
the ages of Tang and
examinations
were
which
five
smaller
dynasties intervened, during
period printingwas
Sung
invented
by one Fung-taou, 924 a.d., while the practiceof bintlingthe feet
of Han.

sons

followed, of

of

of the

China.

the Yellow

River

was

Polo,

the

During

the

about

Sung dynasty, 1275 a.d., Marco


had
the Mongolian Tatars
While

dug, and

was

commenced

have

to

appears

women

race

is recorded.

little remarkable

which

time.

same

the

Venetian

the close

At

traveller,visited

possessionof China
brought back to its former

the

grand canal
bed, by which

was
brought under cultivation and former inundations
the reign of the Ming dynasty, from
1368
to 1643
a.d.
prevented. Under
^^
settled themselves
at Macao.
A.D., the Portuguese visited China, and
of the Ming dynasty. In his reign
the last emperor
Tsung-ching was
the proportionof armies.
rebel bands
Out of this seething
began to assume
leaders showed
of insubordination
themselves conspicuously. These
two
mass
Le Tsze-ching and
were
Shang Ko-he.
They divided the empire between
and
Huthem, and agreed that Shang should take possessionof Szechuen
of Honan.
this
Bent on
kwang, and that Le should make himself master
mission Le besiegedKaifung-fu,the capitalof the province,and so long and
flesh was
closelydid he beleaguer it that in the consetiuent famine human
At length an
to raise the
imperialforce came
regularlysold in the market.
in the field,they cut through the dikes
siege;fearful of meeting Le's army

land

much

means

of the

Yellow

hundred
to

city.

being informed
disaster

this

flooded

the

whole

cluding
country, in-

rebels

The

of which
reached

concluded
the rebel Le

defeatinga
having set

the

the

Tatary, he

and

Sorrow," and

"China's

River,

escaped to the mountains, but upwards of two i


thousand
inhabitants
mined
perished in the flood (1642). Fu Le deterattack Peking. A treacherous
eunuch
opened the gates to him, on

the

committed

emperor

suicide.

general commanding

peace

the

with

The

the

on

and

Manchus,

When
the news
of
frontier of Manchu

invited

entered

Manohus

them

China,

to

and

possess
dis-

after

Tsze-ching.
towards
Peking. Le Tsze-ching,after
they marched
the imperialpalace,evacuatetl the city,but was
overtaken
routed.
completely

rebel army,
fire to

his force

was

THE

DYNASTY

MANCHU

The

introduced
had been
into the empire
object for which the Manchus
them
Chinese
to
wished
but they declared
retire,
having
accomplished,the
themselves
of Peking they
unwillingto leave it,and having taken po.sscssion
the
ninth
of Teen-ning emperor
of China, under
the title of
son
proclaimed
of Ta-tsing,
Great pure," for the dynasty
Shun-che, and adopted the name
or
the Tatar
(1644). Meanwhile
appeared at the walls. But there was
army
need for them
force.
The
thrown
and
to use
no
they took
gates were
open,
left it,
possessionof the city. As the Tatars entered the city the emperor
Thus
and finally
threw him.self into the Yang-tse Kiang and was
drowned.
ended the Ming dynasty, and the empire passed again under a foreignyoke.
been

"

All accounts
of

The
peace

branch

agree in stating that


of the family which
gave

accession
to the

to

the

throne

country.

The

of the

the Manchu
the

Kin

descendants
are
conquerors
of China.
to the north

dynasty

Shun-che
emperor
of the Ming

adherents

vigorouslybut unsuccessfullyagainst the

did not

dynasty

invaders.

at

first restore

defended
About

selves
them-

this time

THE

HISTOEY

OF

CHINA

545

[1B44-I830A.D.]

Koxinga [the
been
when

of

piratewho

had

won
and had then
political
power
Dutch
out of Formosa, established himmurdered],having
self
as
king antl held possession of the island until the reign of Kang-he,
he resignedin favour
of the Imperialgovernment.
Gradually opposition
son

driven

the

to

new

regune

with the

the

became

weaker

pig-tail the symbol of Tatar


laiiversally
adopted. Little is known

and

weaker,

and

sovereignty"became
of Shun-che, but he

"

the

shaved

more

and

head
more

have
science.
When
he was
gathered to his fathers (1661),
The
Kang-he, his son, reigned in his stead.
guage,
dictionaryof the Chinese lanunder
his
published
superintendence,proves hun to have Ijeen as

taken

great interest

ui

scholar

conquests show

his

him

to

Tibet

was

have

appears

to

been

famous
as
a general.
the empire, which
the Siberian
e.xtended from
frontier to Cochin
China, and from the China
Almost
the only national
Sea to Turkestan.
misfortune
that visited China
the throne was
while he sat upon
an
earthquake at Peking, in which four
hundred
thousand
people are said to have perished. Kang-he was succeeded

great
He

died

in

as

Under

1721.

by Yung-ching.

He

his

rule

died in 1735, and

Keen-lung
This monarch
maintained
marched
he

peace

added

to

Keen-lung,his

son,

and

reignedin

his stead.

Kea-king

despisedthe conciUatorymeasures
w'ith his neighbours. On
but

by which his father had


slight provocation he

into Hi, which he converted


into a Chinese province, and
Turkestan
added
the far-reachingterritories of
eastern
to
that the Mohannnedan
standard
first
During his reign it was
was
in Kansu.
But
the Mussulmans
unable
to stand
were
against the
an

army

afterwards

China.
raised

and did much


the
to promote
imperialtroops. Keen-hmg wrote incessantly,
of
literature
libraries'and republishingworks
of value.
caase
by collecting
His war
successful
of his military
againstthe Ghurkas was one of the most
into Nepal to
undertakings. His generalsmarched
men
seventy thousand
within sixty miles of the British frontiers,
ancl having subjugatedthe Ghurkas
of the Nepalese,and acquired an additional
hold
they received the submission
Tibet (1792). In 1795 Keen-lung abchcated in favour of his fifteenth son,
over
who adopted the title of Kea-king as the styleof his reign.
During the reign of Keen-lung the relations of the East India Company
with his government
had been the reverse
of satisfactory.The
British government
consequentlydetermined to send an embassy to the court of Peking,
and Lord
chosen
the occasion.
to represent George III on
Macartney was
But the concessions
he sought for liiscountrymen
not accorded
to him.
were
over
a
Kea-king'sreign,which extended
period of five-and-twentyyears,
The
condition
of the foreignmerchants
disturbed and
disastrous.
at
was
Canton had in no wise improved. The mandarins
were
as exactingand
unjust
as

ever,

and

in order

despatched a

to set matters

second

ambassador

on

better

footing the British government


of Lord
Amherst
to Peking

in the person

in 1816.

However, he declined to perform the kowtow, and was consequently


dismissed from the palace on the same
day on which he arrived. Kea-king
"
died in the year 1820, leavinga cUsturbed country and a disaffected people.

CONDITIONS

LEADING

TO

THE

TAIPING

REBELLION

It now
becomes
requisiteto glance at the condition of the people about
the period when
the Taifjingrebellion began to spread,and for this purpose
it will be sufficient to embrace
of the precedingtwenty years.
the events
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

THE

546

OF

HISTORY

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1S33-1843 A.D.]

of the Roman
Catholic missionaries from
in 1833 by one
a letter WTitten
in the province,
the
destitution
stated
is
it
general
that,so great was
Kiangd,
and
and
wives
their
children,
the people were
were
li\'ing
on
seUing
many
In the followingyear an earthquake in Honan
the bark of trees.
destroyed

In

villages.
ninety-five
the whole province of Szechuen, the
years 1839-40-41
of misery and anarchy. The
became
theatre
the
war
empire,

During the
in

the
Great Britain, which
which
circumstances

began

in

did

war

not

had

case

during the

that

\^-itnessed the commercial

1834

and

the home
there

It

considered

was

powerful force to. bring the


and to place her commerce
power,

The

result of

Chinese

this

war

of

years

reignof

other residents became

commissioner
government, and

by

Bookmakeh

long succession

the
in the year
IncUa Company ; but
their charter ceased, and the British

merchants

Korean

matters.

their

East

with
The

improve
originin the changes brought
about
by the expiry of the East India
Company's charter. Trade relations with
China
factory,
were
always comparatively satisprovided that no other element
introduced
into them, winch
the
was
was

1841,

led to this

tenil to

largest

resented
rep-

appointed by
from

this time

ensued
series of misunderstandings
a
and annoyances,
partlycaused by the

but principallythrough the i


opium traffic,
non-recognitionon the part of the Chinese
of the political
missioner.
positionheld by the comad\isable
by the British government to send
Chinese to a due comprehension of England's
upon

permanent

disastrous

most

was

to

basis.
the

Tatar

power.

The

of the struggle,
seeing at last the hopelessnature
government,
posed
proThe
to terms, and a treaty was
to come
signed in September, 1842.

treaty gave the Enghsh permissionto trade freelyat the five ports of Shanghai,
Ningpo, Fuhchow, Amoy, and Canton, ceded the island of Hong-Kong, and
indemnified
England for the expenses of the war with a sum
equalling$21,000,000. Nothing could have so much
opened the eyes of the Chinese to
the weakness

of their Manchu

rulers

as

this

war.

HUNG-SIU-TSUEN

Whatever

creeds, and
tsuen,
actions
was

for

was

be the opinions held vnth regard to the Taipings, their


may
their actions, there can
be no
doubt
but their leader, Hung-siusincere in his own
belief. The
only way of accounting for his

He
convictions.*^
by acknowledging him to be true to his own
He
did
fail
but
literatus.
not
to
a disappointed
qualify
times,
once,
manj'
cumstances
the civil service.
Hard
study, bitter disappointment, and strained cir-

is

combined

his constitution
and shake his reason.
to undermine
in
h
e
of
his
trances
one
a
Becoming cataleptic, saw
strange vision, which,
him
several
that
times, persuaded
being repeated
destinyhad great things in

for him.
Christian tracts
store

came

to

him.

While

under

bewildering influence of these visions some


hands, and, on reading them, sudden illumination
stories there of men
caught up to heaven, where

fell into his

He

found

the

THE

548

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

JAPAN

AND

[1853 A.D.]
to obstruct a large
gainedon
great waterway gave
power
sDk
wliich
formed
the chief staplesof the
part of the suppUes of tea and
the
had
to consider her attitude towards
export trade. England, therefore,
and the result of her reflection was
that,a month after the estabinsiu-gents,

China's

had

them

for Hung
at Nanking
"Heavenly King" (tien-wang) Sir
proceeded to that cityfrom Hong-Kong in H.B.M.S. Hermes.
George Bonham
Britain in
of Hong-Kong, representedGreat
His excellency,
who, as governor
At first
rebels.
of
the
leaders
received
with
the
cordiaUty by
China, was
hesitation
beliefs
moment's
while
there was
were
reUgious
compared, but
a

Ushment

was

(March, 1853)

now

monarch

of the

with

the

Taiping

Chinese

so

soon

as

the

Taipings had

ruler's court

"

title of

assured

"

C.istle

themselves

identical with

those

that

the essentials of their


tions
creed,rela-

their visitors'
made
English were
of

newly adopted
The
free of the
of amity were
established.
at once
whole city,were
assured that the Taipings desired nothing better than the
and were
treated with unvarying kindness during
intimate intercourse,
most
of
their
Her
Britannic majesty'sgovernment, speakthe five days
ing
sojourn.
declared to the Taiping
Sir George Bonham,
through its representative.
remain perfectlyneutral.
chief that England would
Beyond Nanking the Taipings made no substantial progress northward.
In the interests of their cause
at once
Peking.
they should have marched
upon
been
have
fall
of
could
the
the
Manchu
Had
done
scarcely
djTiasty
they
so,
averted.
Their leader proposed to himself the less formidable
though still
faith

were

THE
[1853

A.

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

549

D.)

ward
enterpriseof subduing that moiety of the empire which lies souththe Yangtse. Li, an
now
ex-charcoal-seller,
styled the "Loyal
thousand
King," was, however, placed at the head of a small body of seven
bank
the northern
of the Yangtse.
with general orders to operate on
men,
whose
deserves a place beside those of the
This intrepidcommander,
name
crossed
the
river in May, 1853, and deUberately
of
the
world,
captains
great
which
of
set his face towards
was
Peking. He accompUshed a march
one
achievements
Li's
record.
But
the most
on
effort
extraordinary
splendid
be said to have saved the Manchu
and the failure may
dynasty.
failed,
In the same
(1853) the Triads [a secret society]rose in rebeUion.
year
with the Taipings had been
Their originalimpulse to make
common
cause
checked
partly by a difference of pohticalaim, partly by a divergence of
established himself in
when
the "Heavenly King"
views.
But
religious
incited the Triads
action.
to renewed
ing
DesirNanking, his brilliant successes
of the Manchu
in the overthrow
to share
at all events
djmasty, they
and Shanghai, and, having captured the two cities,
attacked Amoy
tendered
With
their allegianceto the Taiping leader.
him, however, reUgion seems
The co-operationof the Triads must
been
to have
as
potent as ambition.
have strengthened him
materially,yet he decUned to accept it unless they,
such as he and his followers protheir side,agreed to accept Christianity
on
fessed.
driven
from
immediate
But
the Triads,failing
Amoy
support, were
and Shanghai. As to Amoy, nothing need be noted except that,after holding
evacuated
it (November, 1853), and
the Triads
the place for three months
the imperialist
forces,marching in,perpetrateda wholesale butchery.
immense
of

FOREIGN

INTERESTS

IN

SHANGHAI

Shanghai the Triads,unaided by the Taipings,found themselves presently


At that time there were
two
settlements
besiegedby a Manchu
army.
at Shanghai ; one
occupied chieflyby Anglo-Saxons, the other by the French,
the latter being in comparatively close proximity to the walled citywhere the
This
local division did not imply any
established themselves.
Triads had
The
nationalities.
French
have
between
the
various
discord
always
open
lines
in
the
Far
East.
At
t
o
shown
a disposition
develop along independent
and
of
secured
settlement
that
their
a special
instinct,
Shanghai they obeyed
China
to the aid of England in her struggleto open
own.
They had not come
the
"concession"
insisted
set
to foreigntrade,yet they
on
area
regardingas a
apart for their use in Shanghai, and this self-asserted title of ownership has
Between
the British
and
the
been seriouslychallenged by China.
never
little friction occurred
to their respective
Americans
as
pation,
some
rightsof occuin friendlyunion, and, in obedience
but they ultimatelysettled down
states
to England's policyof extending to all occidental
an
absolutelyequal
her
o
btained
share in every
or
won
by
diplomacy
by her arms, the
privilege
its
door
without
discrimination
settlement
at
Shanghai opened
Anglo-Saxon
of
and
The
centre
of race, and rapidlybecame
a great
commerce
progress.
in
land-fever
showed
itself
the
tion
determinain
which
was
English
only direction
and a cricket-ground. Consul Alcock, a gravely
to have
race-course
a
at the aggressivetactlessness of his nationals
shocked
sedate person,
was
at the newly opened port on
three-mile race-course
when
a
they demanded
the Yangtse. But his countrymen carried their point. On this race-course
the imperialist
forces encamped when
they invested Shanghai in 1853, seeking
At that time the sympathies of
the walled cityfrom the Triads.
to recover
At

HISTORY

THE

550

CHINA

OF

AND

JAPAN
[1853-1855

A.

D.]

with th(" insurgents. The


of Hong-Kong,
Anglo-Saxons were
governor
having just visited Nanking, luid brought back most attractive reports of the
of the Taiping.s. Moreover, foreignershad free access
friendlydemeanour
to
the walled cityoccupied by the Triads, and foreign missionaries
could preach
to large and
attentive
audiences
there.
forces
Hence, when the imperialist
when
the race-course,
in such
encamped on
they set up rifle-targets
a
and when
positionas to endanger the lives of foreigners,
they allowed their
own
anti-foreignfeelingto be occasionallytranslated into acts of violence on
the

the

part of intlividual

Americans

notified
that

failure

The

"

braves," the

the Cliinese

do not, at

few hours'

Is

good

and

be

by

of the

armed

THE

pursuance
the consuls

Environs

of

of

the

alities
aggrieved nation-

and

day.

Soochow-Fu

rushed,

as

it

seemed,

resistance.

It

adopted by

course

to

their destruction.
not

was

the

his

their

Manchu

government, though probably


removed
his troops from
progress
"

He

strategical
purpose.

could not muster


more
menace
few
merchant-soldiers
togetherwith, perhaps, a
However, the consuls manshalled their army

the

and

his camp
at once,
attack
the same

remove
an

British

erals
probably viewed this threat as a jest. Gennotice,move
encampments of several thousands

posted in

their

no
on

he must

followed

the

to

consuls

commander-in-chief

Chinese

of soldiers

The

general that

comply would

to

seemed

situation

intolerable.

become

to have

But

than

and

that to make
handful of mariners,

saw
a

the

civilian volunteers.

some

of three

hundred

Chinese

made

men,

tically
prac-

fight. A great issue depended


for
general. He chose the right course

the

the

to

cue

wrong

one

race-course

in the

and

interests

of human

placatedhis intrepid

assailants.

THE

CUSTOMS

SERVICE

only power that found itself advantaged at the close


seventeen
(September, 1853, to Febraarj-,1855) comprisedin
of
the Triads' tenure
Shanghai. Hers was a territorial gain which has never
her materially. But England and America
owed
to the trouble two
profited
as well as
results,one of which proved of incalculable benefit to China herself,
France

of

the

was

not

the

months

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

551

[1853-1854 A.D.]

nation tradingwith her,and without the other


autonomic
sentiment
the
lacked
which has contributed
A
scheme
of
tentative
being.
municipal govermnent
to every

1845, but

it

time

proved quite inadequate

in

1853, when

to

meet

the

Shanghai would have


materiallyto its wellhad

been

requirements

drafted
of

of thousands

in

the

disturbed
shelter

of Chinese refugeessought
The
foreign settlement.
system was
at the same
time, the small foreignconununity
imdertook the dutyof self-defence by forming a volmiteer
corps, which then and
occasions
contributed
the
much
to
ment.
on
subsequent
securityof the settlemany
But the signaloutcome
of the crisis was
the organisation of a customs
service under foreignsupervision. No one could have clearly
foreseen that the
tens

securitywithin the limits


therefore largelyextended, and,

and

of

the

Chinese

China's diplomaticagents, fiscal and


ultimatelybecome
advisers,scientific assistants,and publicadvocates ; that they would,

officialswould

customs

financial
in

be
.short,

far

to

more

her

than

development of functions was not


most
a
improbable conseciucnce
ranks.

From

the

of her

not

under

must

astuteness.

sounded

Jesuits

natural

of

that

the

number

arrangement

moment

had

outcome

been.
of the

and

That

remarkable
system, but rather

abilityof the men


of Europeans and

attracted
Americans

to

its

were

collect for her a principalpart


conceived
and proposed by foreign

her Manchu

foreignguardianship.

understand

them, they

an

to

rulers might consider themselves


did
themselves
Peking statesmen
something of the incalculable advantages thus conferred on
ual
have
been
temporarilyvisited by a sudden lapse of habithave
be
said
to
The
knell of the Taiping cause
truly
may

from

governments,

all the

of China

servants

under

revenues

when

moment

become

permitted to

taken

Thadino-ship

in 1854./

If the

THE

552

OF

HISTORY

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1854-1875 k.D.]

THE

The

decade

COLLAPSE

Asian
the

imperial sway.

Redress

height,the

being

refused

French

low-water

mark

followed

was

thousand

To

to

add

REBELLION

by

these

This

calamity, which

last

in the

for the

The

sole purpose
be just as

would

which

treaty having

interest

finished than
assistance.

to

turn,

been

need

and

No

seemed

further
that

see

France

of General

mention.

fortune

the worst

withm

of all,was
there

had gone
of trade
"

the

proceeded
at

with

war

lend

to

this

on

the

China

been

the Chinese

juncture are

the first of his victories

smiled

fled to

dictated

were

to some

Gordon

With

British and

emperor

foreign powers

therefore, had

and

time

the

to

they
foreignwar.

terms
equitableterms
people of China as to themselves.
imperialgovernment, it was their
to the forces of ana speedy end
archy

the

to

with

sooner,

.services

from

made

authority,and

Britain

Great
The

to

its

disorder.

and

known

advantageous

once

uphokl

to

might have

salvation

combined

of peace

of the

when

even

The

of
out

less acknowledged

or

itself in

north.

broke

of the whole

more

embroiled

of the country.
The
of establishing
fair and

realitythe

had

misfortunes, ami

expedition
operate
Mongolia, Peking was surrendered, and terms
the walls of the capital(October
24th, 1860).
in

revolt

years

government

to

poHticalfortunes
rebeUion

long-standinggrievances,a

sent

was

in the

Mohammedan

for two

Chinese

for

TAIPING

northwest

This

tribes,which

their

at

were

the

In

dynasty.
province of Kan-su.

central

THE

witnessed

1854-64

the Manchu
in the

OF

active

too

well

the tide

began
By degrees

imperialarms.

had for some


Taiping rebellion was crushed ; indeed,the movement
years
been collapsing
through internal decay, and with the fall of Nanking, in 1864,
it finallydisappeared. The
next
ten
a
(1864-74) witnessed
general
years
revival of the strengthof the empire.
the

THE

supreme

acceded

Su

Kwang

old, and

four years

long regency
Tung Chi when
principalwife
wife of the

had

on

the

the
to

OF

throne

in

attracted

be

vested

been

KWANG

of the

same

and

throne, a

to

solved
measure

He was
then
not
outside of China, as the

January, 1875.

in the two
determined

only nominally
his majoritj'
in
Hsien
Fung, and the
emperor

emperor,

SU

little notice

the latter attained

Tung Chi succumbed


dowager empresses
Su

to

his accession

continued

power

ACCESSION

dowager
in favour
1873

"

empress

who.""'
empresses
of the emperor

the empress
Tsu Tsi,

Tsu

An,

secondary

mother

of the emperor
The emperor
Tung Chi.
ominously brief and mysterious illness. The
the cjuestion
of the succession
by placingKwang
which
but also in
not only in itself arbitrar}-,
was

an

"

direct conflict with


rites of

one

of the most

incumbent
ancestor-worship,

sacred of Chinese
on

every

traditions.

Chinaman,

The

and, above

solenm

all,upon

of a younger
properlyperformed only "bya member
tion
generait is his duty to honour.
The emperor
Kwang Su, being
of Prince Chun, brother
Hsien
to the emperor
a son
Fung, and thus first cousin
the
to
Tung Chi, was not therefore qualified
to offer up the customary
emperor
sacrifices before the ancestral tablets of his predecessors.The accession of an
infant in the placeof Tung Chi achieved, however, for the time being what was
doubtless
the paramount
object of the policyof the two empresses,
namely,
the emperor,
be
can
than those whom

their undisturbed
a

woman

become

of

the

of the

in which
the junior empress
regency,
and
boundless
unquestionableal)ility
ambition, had
tenure

predominant partner.

Tsu

Tsi,

gradually

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

553

[1875-1877A.D.]

OF

MURDER

question that occupied


reignnearlyled to a war with
first

The
the
was

new

old

seeing the

of

desirous

provinces,which

had

for that

and

trade

been

purpose

MARGARY

MR.

the

attention

Great

relations

between

interruptedby
proposed to send
assented

The

of the government under


The
Indian government

Britain.

Burma

the
a

and

and

Yunnan

mission

the

west
south-

rebellion,reestablished,

across

the frontier

issued

Peking government
passports for the
member
of the China
and
sular
conpromising
Margary, a young
party.
ofT
the
which
under the
to
told
was
expedition,
service,was
accompany
Mr. Margary was
of Colonel Browne.
command
treacherouslymurdered
by
attack
made
the expeditionby
was
on
Chinese,and almost simultaneouslyan
uniform
with
armed forces wearing Chinese
(January,1875). Colonel Browne
abandoned.
back to Bhamo, and the expeditionwas
made
his way
difficulty
the Peking government for a thorough inquiryon
made
Demands
on
were
The
Chinese
that the
of British officers.
the spot in the presence
reply was
alike the work
of irresponsible
murder and the attack were
Enough
savages.
into China.

Mr.

A. R.

collected
evidence was
from
attack emanated

the Burma

on

side to

show

the

that the orders for the


if not from
of Yunnan,

provincialgovernment
shufflingand delay an imperial commission
an
inquiry. The trial proved an absolute Jarce.
and the only evidence
Eleven half-naked savages
were
produced as the culprits,
for the purpose.
The
such as had manifestlybeen manufactured
tendered was
from the burlesque.The trial,
British officialsprotestedand withdrew
however,
With
this it was
sentenced to death.
proceeded,and the eleven hillmen were
then
be
Thomas
satisfied.
Sir
of
would
British
the
Wade,
sense
justice
hoped
British minister at Peking,promptly declared that if this report were
published
his flag,
haul down
he would
at once
rightlydeeming that such a
or acted on
olTence.
insult
than
the
original
reparationwas a greater
threatened
to end
than once
Tedious
negotiationsfollowed,which more
the
of
basis
to
in a rupture, but finally
come
on
an
arrangement was
tees
guaranhigher quarters. After
despatched to hold
was

for

infinite

future, rather

the

than

for

the

The

arrangement
The
convention, dated September 13th, 1876.
of the settlement
terms
comprised: (1)a mission of apology from China to the
British court ; (2) the promulgation throughout the length and breadth of the
to travel
out the rightof foreigners
empire of an imperialproclamation, .setting
them
of
the
authorities
and
the
to
under
protect
obligation
; and (3)
passport,
besides
number
the payment of an indemnity. The convention
a
comprised
of clauses which, though meant
to improve commercial
relations,
were
severely
was

embodied

vengeance

in the Chefoo

The
communities.
criticised by the mercantile
the
Chinese government were
one
was
by which
within

the

past.

area

of the

most
stipulation

debarred

from

foreign concessions,thereby implying,it

objected to
levyinglikin
was
argued,

Ratification
of
rightto levy it ad libitum elsewhere.
by the British government, and additional articles
were
subsequentlysignedin London relative to the collection of likin on Indian
opium and other matters.

the

recognitionof

this article

was

the

refused

IMPERIAL

CONSOLIDATION

By degrees the emperor's authoritywas established from the confines of


stationed in
to Kashgar and
Yarkand, and Chinese garrisonswere
touch with the Russian outposts in the regionof the Pamus
(December, 1877).

Kan-su

THE

554

HISTORY

CHINA

OF

JAPAN

AND

[18T7-1881i.ixj

sia,
Kuldja, occupied by Rusonly the northeastern
in a position
under a promise made in 1871 to restore it when China was
order.
called upon to redeem.
This promise Russia was
She
to maintain
now
showed
desire to comply with the request. China despatched Chung-how,
no
in the
had been notoriouslyconcerned
Manchu
of the highest rank, who
a

province of

remained

There

but

A
Petersburg to negotiate a settlement.
the
of
by
whereTreaty
Livadia,
was
her
China recovered a considerable portion of the disputed territory,
on
of
rubles
the
cost
Russia
to
as
occupation.
5,000,000
paying
of indignationin China.
The treaty was, however, received with a storm
Li Hung Chang and Tso Tsung-tang took up the cry.
Chung-how was placed
Memorials
he returned.
arrest
under
poured in from all sides
soon
as
as
these was
Foremost
one
by
amongst
denouncing the treaty and its author.
Chang Chih-tung,then occupying a subordinate post in the Hanlin, and who
the most
afterwards
became
distinguishedof the viceroys. Its publication
into eminence.
Prince Chun, the emperor'sfather,
into
raised him at once
came
for
Li
advocate
this
at
an
Chang,
though
as
war.
Hung
juncture
prominence

Tientsin

of

massacre

to

St.

alarmed

of the first to raise the storm, became

had

been one
prospect of war,
he

1871,

signed(September, 1879), termed

document

for which

he well knew

China

was

unprepared.

at

the

near

visit from

General Gordon, and the sound, though probably unpalatable,advice which


direction.
It was
decided to send the Marquis
he gave, weighed in the same
the
become
minister
in London, to Russia to
time had
mean
Tseng, who in
mistakes,and produced
negotiatea new
treaty. He avoided his predecessor's
a

very materiallydifferent from the old, inasmuch


possessionof part of the Hi valley,was universally
ratified August 19th, 1881.

treaty which, though

as

it still left Russia

accepted. This

was

THE

The

Chinese

not

in

TEIBUTARY

government

STATES)

could

now

KOREA

AND

JAPAN

contemplate with

satisfaction

the

which had at any time


complete recovery of the whole extensive dominions
the imperialsway.
owned
The regionsdirectlyadministered
by the officers
of the emperor
extended
from
the borders of Siberia on
the north to Annam
and Burma
the south, and from the Pacific Ocean
the east to Kashgar
on
on
and
Yarkand
that did not
the west.
But even
on
complete the tale,for
still
which
outside these boundaries
there was
a fringeof tributarynations
ancient forms of allegiance,
and which more
or less acknowledged
of the central kingdom.
the dominion
Most of China's subsequent misfortunes
The
in connection
have been
with one
other of these tributarystates.
or
Burma, and
principaltributarynations then were
Korea, Luchiu, Annam,
several others, includingeven
land,
EngNepal. The dynastic records enumerate
Lord
Macartney's mission of 1793 having been gravely described as
The tie which bound
bringingtribute,but these were more
or less accidental.

kept up the

these states to their suzerain


of the loosest description. China accepted
was
their homage with calm
herself to be under no
but conceived
superiority,

reciprocalobligation.
Such

when
foreignnations
She did not
these tributarystates.
well as
of
suzerain
involved
as
position
responsibilities
all
be
attributed
the
vagariesof her
non-perceptionare to
the complicationsin which
Korea was
involved.
she became

the

was

attitude

first began to come


recognise that the
rights,and to this

diplomacy
the

and

first of the

into

which

contact

dependencies to

China

stillmaintained

with

come

into

notice.

In

1866

some

Roman

OF

HISTORY

THE

556

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1874-1885 A.B.)

from a base of their own, and it was


and Szechucn
hoped the Red
to Yunnan
the
furnish
such
at
route.
River
would
a
Tongking
time, however, was
them being
infested with bands of piratesand cutthroats,
conspicuousamong
took
undergovernment
an
organisationcalled the Black Flags. The Annamese
had
to restore
order, and France
promised help. Some
which
without
meanwhile
improvement,
France,
passed
having
any
years
had kept a small guard at Haiphong, sent reinforcements
(1882), nominally
to assist the Amiamese
troops in putting an end to disorder. The Annamese
declined
to receive them
as
friends,opposed their progress,
however,
officials,
of
form
the
took
and the expedition
a militaryoccupation.
China meanwhile
began to take alarm at the near ajproach of a strong
frontier. ^Vhen
the treaty of 1874, which
to her southern
miUtary power
communicated
to her,she seems
France
to have
was
trading
privileges,
gave
treated it with indifference.
Now, however, she began to protest, claiming
vassal state and luider her protection. France
took no
that Annam
a
was
notice of the protest; she found, however, that she had undertaken
a
very
the forces of disorder in Tongking. The
serious task in tryingto put down
and arms
from
Black
believed,being aided by money
Flags were, it was
her
and
time
went
more
more
being confronted
China, and as
troops were
on,
with regularChinese soldiers.
less success
or
during the winter and
Operations continued with more
Both
desirous of an
sides,however, were
spring of 1883-84.
arrangement,
and in May, 1884, a convention
was
signed between Li Hung Chang and a
cd hoc,whereby China agreed
Captain Fournier, who had been commissioned
her garrisonsand to open her frontiers to trade,France agreeing,
to withdraw
her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese
suzerainty,and guarantee the
on
The
from
attack by brigands.
to both
frontier
arrangement was satisfactory
series
of misunderstanchngs
completely frustrated by a
sides,but it was
which led to a renewal of hostiUties. The French fleet attacked and destroyed
built to guard the entrance
with impunity the forts wliich were
to the Min
After
River, and could offer no resistance to a force coming from the rear.
its reprisals
fleet left the mainland
and continued
this exploit the French
and taken,
the coast of Formosa.
Keolung, a treaty port, was bombarded
on
A similar att('ni|)t,
the
October 4th.
iiowever,on
neighbouringport of Tamsui

by the treaty

of
fleet tliereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade
led
results.
to no
was
prolonged into 1885, but
practical
By way of bringing pressure on the Chinese government, the French at
of war, in order to stop the suppUes going
rice contraband
this time declared

unsuccessful.
which
the island,

was

forward

point
had

the

The

capital by

been

failure of

Even

this,though raisingan interesting


the Chinese
practicaleffect. Meanwhile
of
successful
defence
and the
emboldened
the
Tamsui,
by
greatly
the French
such successes
to push home
as they had gained. Preparations

to

in international

sea.

law, had

no

the war.
The new-born
made
to continue
were
in
this
the situation.
forward
factor
time
count
to
native press
as a
began
of
and
forces
massed
the French
the frontier
on
Tongking,
Troops were
had
which
whelming
pushed their way as far as the border were
compelled by overof the enemy
their base in the delta of the
to fall back on
masses
on

great scale

from

Negotiations for peace, however, which


of Sir Robert
through the mecUation
progress
and
concluded
the French
1885),
(Aj)ril,
happily
river.

from

very

the Fournier

having

been

embarrassing situation.
convention

of

the year

quietlydropped.

had

been

for

some

this

time

in

juncture
cabinet was
thereby reUeved
The
terms
were
practicallythose of
demand
the
for an
indemnity
before,
Hart,

were

at

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

657

[1885-1890A.D.]

The

China,

the

Moral

whole,

Results

of

of

the

the

Struggle

struggle with greatly increased


first-class European power
and
Incorrect
conclusions
the military strength of
to
had held her own.
as
China were
consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese themselves
excusable
but by European and even
which was
British authorities,
who
better
informed.
China
have
been
lulled
into
to
false
was
a
ought
security
A new
the day of trial came.
which proved disastrous when
department was
at the head of which
created for the control of naval affairs,
was
placed Prince
who
since
the
downfall
of
father
of
the
Prince
Kung in 1884
Chun,
emperor,
and more
in
A tornaffairs.
had been taking a more
prominent part
public
in the spring of 1886, in the course
of which
he visited
made by Prince Chun
and Chifu, escorted by the fleet,
attracted much
Port Arthur
attention, as
time
that
the
throne
had emerged from palace
first
the
a princeso
near
being
seclusion and exchanged friendlyvisits with foreignadmirals and other representativ
on

prestige.She

had

out

came

tried conclusions

with

"

"

ANTI-FOREIGN

From

1885

Two

notice.

of

to

1894

the

AGITATIONS

political
historyof

incidents,however,
convention

between

must

Great

China

does not call for extended


recorded, the first being the conclusion
Britain and China, in which
the latter
be

to recogniseBritish sovereigntyin Burma, to delimit the frontier,


between
the two comitries.
Great
and to promote ovei-lanti trade intercourse
consented
the
of
the
the
other
continuance
to
hand,
Britain,on
customary

|j undertook

decennial

Burma,"
to

press

to be
tribute mission
despatched by the "highest authority in
the members, however, to be Burmese, and she also consented
not
which
the
Indian
mission
send
to
to
a
proposing
government was

Tibet and to which Cliina had agreed. The


impliedin the sending a tribute mission was
been acted on and is now
of fact it has never

recognitionof Chinese suzerainty


but in point
sharply criticised,
The
other
incident
forgotten.
of
Hamilton
Port
the
British
the temporary
fleet (May,
occupation
by
was
of Russian
intriguesin Korea, coupled with recent pro1885). Rumours
ceedings
it appear
desirable that Great Britain should
in Afghanistan,made
For this purpose
have a naval base farther north than Hong-Kong.
a small
of
of
islands
the
southern
the
at
point
peninsula Korea, forming the
group of
known
Port
harbour
Hamilton, was
as
occupied. Objections,however, were
raised by the Chinese government to their continued
occupation,and Great
her
withdraw
Britain expressed
on
willingnessto
receivingsufficient guarantees
A trilateral agreement
was
againsttheir cession to any other power.
herself to China to respect the
to, by which Russia bound
thereupon come
and Great
Britain thereupon agreed to evacuate
of Korean
territory,
integrity
which
Port Hamilton,
carried out in February, 1887.
was
marks
In 1890 occurred
event
which, though seemingly insignificant,
an
of
the
Admiial
a
Lang
resignation
turning-pointin Chinese history,viz.,
the commanrl
seemed
government

of the Chinese

of

strong

from

fleet. One

of the lessons which

the Chinese

the recognition
war
was
reallyofticient squadron had been got
of Admiral
Ting and liis British
togetherand put under the jointcommand
colleagueAdmiral
Lang. By tact and judgment the latter had so far avoided
directlyraising the question of who was
reallychief. Order and discipline
and officers were
well maintained, and both men
steadilyimproving
were
the

value

of

to have

learned

fleet. A

from

tlie French

THE

658

HISTORY

CHINA

OF

AND

JAPAN
[1890-lKM A.D.)

their

of

of Admiral
knowledge
profession.During
temporary
in
second
the
Chinese
command
claimed
the
right to
Tijig,however,
The
take charge a claim which Admiral
Lang naturallyresented.
question
decided against Admiral
referred to Li Hung Chang, who
upon
was
Lang, wherethe latter,feelingthat liis authority to maintain
disciphnewas
gone,
His resignationwas
threw up his commission.
accepted,and he left,never
From
this point the fleet on which
much
to return.
so
depended began to
What
the dismissal of Admiral
deteriorate.
to be
soon
Lang cost her was
of
the
Yalu.
fatal
battle
in
the
proved
of risingsand
rebellions were
Meanwhile
nmiours
prevalent. In 1891
of
violent
series
outbreaks,
there was
establishments
a
llany missionary'
anti-foreign
The
in the interior were
destroyed.
agitation,
however, gradually
condition.
There appeared even
died out and things reverted to the normal
railway development the leading officialsha\ing
a prospect of considerable
round
to the opinion that railwaysmight be beneficial,
at least
at last come
for strategic
purposes.

in the

absence

"

"

WITH

WAR

J.\P.U^

1894, a year wliich was


fraught with momentous
quences
conseit
inasnmch
witnessed
the
outbreak
of the Japanese war.
to China,
as
of Korea
In the spring the state
A series of
began to attract attention.
chronic rebellions had baffled the authorities,and help from China was
asked
We

pass

on

to

China

for.

responded ; Japan repliedby sending troops also, nominally to


legation. The rebeUion was stamped out, and then China proposed
sides should
withdraw.
that both
counter
a
Japan made
proposal that
both should join in imposing such
reforms
Korea
would
on
as
prevent a
of these internal dissensions.
This, in turn, China refused.
recurrence
Again
Japan retorted,den3Tng the allegedsuzerainty,and intimatingthat whether
Chona joined or not she proposed to prosecute her schemes
of reform, and
would keep her troops there until the necessary
guarantees had been obtained
for the securityof her trade.
At the same
time categorical
schemes
of civil
and mihtary reform were
laid before the Korean
and
the
government,
Japanese
force in Seoul was
largelyincreased.
By the beginning of July she ha*!
there.
The Chinese government
ten thousand
over
men
thereupon proceeded

guard

to

her

send

troops

more

short distance
The

but
under
when
China

was

and

the

was
fought at Asan
repulsed,but the Chinese

retreated

only

General

they

northward.

real stand

Tso

turned

Yeh, who

was

stationed

at

Asan,

of Seoul.

first battle

attack

night

south

reinforce General

to

offered
and

the Chinese
a

fled.

the victorious

stubborn
The

on

the 27th

July. The Japanese


positionduring the
of desultory skirmishes followed,
di^^sion
at Pieng-an. The
was

evacuated

series
made

till their leader

resistance

defeat became
Two

of

their

rout, and

was

killed,

left the road

to

the 17th of

Japanese.
da3'safterwards, on
open
September, the naval engagement of Yalu was fought. The Chinese fleet was
Five vessels
hopelesslyoutmanccuvred
by the Japanese and Tost hea\'ilj'.
sunk, burned, or driven a.shore. Night coming on, the Japanese drew
were
of the Chinese squadron was
allowed
to .seek shelter
off,and the remainder
in Port Arthur.
to put to sea again,and were
They did not venture
captured
of AVei-hai-wei
in Februarj' of the following
or
destroyed in the harbour
land the Japanese continued
On
their progress,
crossed the Yalu
year.
and
entered
Chinese
October
24th.
River,
territoryon
City after city fell
into their hands, and Newchwang, a treaty port, was
occupied on March 4th.
to

THE
[1894-1895

A.

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

559

D.]

Meanwhile

second

had landed on
the Liaotiingpeninsula,
Japanese army
naval
of
Port
Arthur
and captured
November
A
22nd.
stronghold
on
launched
third expedition was
against Wei-hai-wei, where the Ciiinese fleet
had now
sought refuge. On February 12th, 1895, the fortress and fleet were
Achuiral
surrendered.
Ting and the generalcommanding committed
suicide.
a

the

Tlie

Treaty of Shimoiwseki

European Intervention

Further resistance was


hopeless,and negotiationswere
opened for peace.
the Japanese refused as being unprovided
After two abortive missions, which
Li Hmig Chang was
sent
with sufficient powers,
and on
as
plenipotentiary,
of
the
Shimonoseki
The
terms
included
was
April17th, 1895,
Treaty
signed.
of Liaotung peninsula,then in actual
troops, the cession of the island of Formosa,

the cession

occupation by the Japanese


an
indenmity of H. taels
200,000,000 (about "30,000,000), and various commercial
privileges.
The
signatureof tliis treaty brought the European powers on the scene.
It had

been

for

some

time

the avowed

ambition

of Russia

outlet to her Siberian possessions


free port as an
considered by British statesmen
unreasonable.
not
as
of
the risingpower
to see
at all suit her purposes
"

gulfof Liaotung,and
of Korea.
to have

Even

an

to

obtain

ambition

an

wluch

icewas

It did

not, therefore,
Japan seated along the

by impUcation commanding the whole of the coast-line


Li Hung Chang is believed
proceedingto Shimonoseki,

before

received

from
Russia
that she would not allow any cession
assurances
in that region to become
of territory
operative. At any rate, in the interval
between
the signature and the ratification of the treaty, invitations were
addressed
with a view to its
to intervene
by Russia to the great powers

mocUfication

of the balance of power


the gromid of the clisturbance
and
on
which
the menace
to China
the occupation of Port Arthur
the
by
Japanese
would involve.
France and Germany accepted the invitation ; Great Britain
declined.
In the end
the three powers
brought such pressure to bear on

Japan that she gave up the whole of her continental acquisitions,


retaining
the other hand increased
The indemnity was
only the island of Formosa.
on
by H. taels 30,000,000.
For the time the integrityof China seemed
to be preserved,and
Russia,
France, and Germany could pose as her friends. Great Britain,who had
in the retrocession,was
taken no hand
looked on with coldness,and China
bore her a grudge because she had not at an early period stepped in
even
and put a stop to the war.
had had his honours
Li Hung Chang, who
stored,
rehim
Russia
for
extricated
from
to
was
having
personallygrateful
and cherished the generalgrudge againstEngland
awkward
a very
po.sition,
in an
unusual
degree,a state of mind of which Russia is beheved to have
full
taken
advantage during that statesman's sojourn at the Russian court
of the Chinese
at tiie czar's coronation.
as special
representative
emperor
indeed soon
Ample evidence was
forthcoming that Russia and France
had not been quitedisinterested in rescuingChine.se territory
from the Japanese
for
each
reward
of
claim
evidence
the
to
a
as
imperialgratitude.
began
grasp,
Russia obtained
the right to carry the Siberian
railway,which for the past
four or five years she had
been
witli
Cliine.se
on
across
pressing
eagerness,
from
Stretenesk
thus
to
ddtour,
long
a
Vladivostok,
avoithng
territory
besides gi\ang a grasp on
France
northern Manchuria.
vention
obtained, by a conin
the
of
frontier
dated June
rectification
Mekong
20th, 1895, a
Both
valleyand certain railway and mining rights in Kiangsi and Yunnan.
powers

obtained

concessions

of land at Hankow

for the purposes

of

settle-

HISTORY

THE

560

CHINA

OF

AND

JAPAN
[1886-1895 A.D.1

Russia

ment.

described

said to have negotiated also a secret


was
treaty, frequently
the "Cassini Convention," but more
probably signedby Li Hung

as

Chang

at

which

was

Moscow, givingher

the

to be refortified with

securing her hold, Russia


issued in Paris to enable

rightin

to pay

to Port Arthur,
contingencies
And
by way of further
loan of "15,000,000
four-per-cent.
the firstinstalment of the Japanese

assistance.

guaranteed
China

certain

Russian
a

off

indemnity.
MEKONG

The

convention

between

VALLEY

France

sharp conflict with Great


negotiations.China, having by the
China

DISPUTE

and

into

China

20th, 1895, brought


rise to important
gave
convention
of 1886 agreed to
of June

Britain,and
Burma

S^^j^%^iM^^^:^

South

Gate,

City

recogniseBritish sovereigntyover
to

delimitation

this last

of boundaries

stipulation
by

1st,1894), which

of

Ting-hai,

Burma, her quondam


at

the

proper

subsequent convention
the boundary line from

traced
Mekong river

China

feudatory,also agreed
Effect was
given to

time.
concluded
the Shan

in London

(March

the west
valley there were

states

on

In the Mekong
the east.
the
on
as
which
suzerainty had been
semi-independent native territories over
and
claimed in times gone by both by the kings of Ava
perors.
by the Chinese emlatter
Lun
and
the
These territories were
named
Meng
IviangHmig
lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the Mekong river,south
it issues from Chinese territory.The
of the point where
boundary line was
as

far

two

"

both these territories to China, but in consideration of


the fact that Great Britain was
surrenderingto China territoryover wliich
she might claim sovereigntyas succe.s.sor
to the kings of Ava, and in respect
it was
of which
of fact been recentlye.xercised,
sovereign rightshad in jjoint
stipulatedthat China should not alienate any portion of these territories

so

to

drawn

any

power

as

other

to

leave

power

without

contemplated,though

the
not

of Great
previous consent
was
named,
France, who by

Britain.
a

The

treaty with

THE

HISTOEY

OF

CHINA

561

A.D.]

in 1893, had pushed the boundary of her Annamese


sessions
posleft bank of the Mekong, and it was
the
desired to interpose
up
sort of buffer,so
to avoid
this particularterritory
confiict of
a
as
as
any
and difficult region.
French and British interests in this remote
frustrated by the convention
between
This object was
France and China
French
and
of
the
to
of 1895.
regardless
Yielding
undertaking she
pressure,
had entered into with Great Britain,China so drew the boundary hne as to

Siam, concluded
to

of Kiang Himg which


France
that portion of the territory
lay on
of
from
the
bank
China for
the left
Mekong. Compensation was demanded
time negotiations
entered into with
this breach of faith,and at the same
were
of
of
the
interests
the
the
better
two
for
countries in
France
determining
Siam
and the Chinese frontier. These
Siam and the territories Ijnngbetween
ain,
resulted in a jointdeclaration by the governments of France and Great Brit-

cede

to

dated

January 15th,1896, by

which

it

agreed,as regardsboundary,

was

the point of its confluence

with

the Nam

Huok
wards
norththe Chinese frontier should be the dividingline between
the
It was
or
spheres of influence of the two powers.
agreed also
possessions
obtained by either power
in Yunnan
Szethat any commercial
or
privileges
that the

as

Mekong
far

from

as

The
to the subjectsof the other.
chuen should be open
negotiationswith
China resulted in a further agreement, dated February 4th, 1897, whereby
in the Burma
made
considerable modifications in favour of Great Britain were
The net result of these various
boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.
conventions is that from the gulfof Tongking westwards,as far as the Mekong,
k.

the French Annamese


possessionsare coterminous with the southern frontier
the Mekong as far as the confines of Assam
the British
of China, and from
coterminous
with the southwestern
frontier. In the
Burmese
are
possessions
middle,where the possessionsmeet, the Mekong, from the frontier of China
down
to the northern boundary of Siam, is the dividingline.

PORT

KIAOCHOW,

ARTHUR,

WEI-HAI-WEI

While Russia and France


were
profitingby what they were
pleasedto
call the generosityof Cliina,Germany alone had so far received no reward
for her share in compellingthe retrocession of Liaotung; but in November,
in the
1897, she proceeded to help herself by seizingthe bay of Kiaochow
The
done
in
order
act
of
to
was
Shantung.
ostensibly
compel
province
satisfaction for
found that she

the

murder

of

German

but it soon
was
missionaries,
in
A
cession
event.
place
any
was
ultimatelymade
by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nineyears
Germany to have full territorial jurisdiction
during the continuance of the
build docks, and exercise all the
lease,with libertyto erect fortifications,
rightsof sovereignty.
In December
the Russian
fleet was
sent to winter in Port Arthur, and
first
described
at
this
its object was
as
a
was
though
temporary measure,
disclosed
made
in
the
Russian ama
bassador
by
speedily
January, 1898, by
request
was

determined

two
to

hold

the

"

in London, that two


British cruisers,then also anchored
at Port
"
be
in
order
should
\vithdrawn
avoid
friction
in
Russian
the
to
Arthur,
sphere of influence." They left shortlyafterwards,and their departure in
the circumstances
was
regarded as a blow to Great Britain's prestigein the
Far East.
In March the Russian government peremptorilydemanded
a lease
demand
which
and
the
of
Ta-lien-wan
of Port Arthur
a
adjoininganchorage
"

China

could not
H.

W.

"

resist without
VOL.

XXIV.

foreignsupport.

After

an

acrimonious

corrc-

OF

HISTORY

THE

562

CHIXA

AND

JAPAN
[1S98-1899 A.D.]

Great
Britain acquiesced in the
the Russian
government
spondence
of
Port
Arthur
lowed
folThe
Russian
was
inimetiiately
occupation
jaitaccompli.
northwards
line
of
from
that
build
concession
to
a
railway
point
by a
As a counterpoise
with the Siberian trunk hne in north Manchuria.
to connect

with

lease of

of Russian

growth

the

to

influence

by the Japanese troops in May,

"open

in the

north, Great Britain obtained


possessionof it on its evacuation

formally took

AVei-hai-wci,and

door"

1898.

"spheres

and

of

influence"

at last resolved
to
hesitation the Chinese government had
After much
keen
A
of
with
foreign capital.
railways
competition
permit the construction
of different
nationalities. Germany
syndicates
thereupon ensued between
settlement
certain prefhad insisted upon
erential
obtaining as part of the Kiaochow
of
the
and
Shantimg. France had
province
railway
mining rightsm

provinces of
previously obtained a similar recognition for the southern
that
she
indicated
considered
clearly
Kwangsi and Yimnan, and Russia
Great
field
of exploitation.
her particular
Manchuria
Britain, though
as
pelled
intimating her preferencefor the ''open door" policy,yet found herself comkno^\-n as
what became
towards
the general movement
the
and
claimed
the "spheres of influence"
Yangtse valley as her
policy,
somewhat
ing
negative method of obtainsphere. This she did by the
particular
of
the
that no part
the Chinese government
from
Yangtse
a declaration
to

fall in with

valleyshould be
A

alienated

formal

more

concerned,

to

foreignpower.

any

recognitionof

the

claim, as

far

as

railway enterprisewas

emboilied in an agreement
(April2Sth, 1899) between Great
to the Chinese
Russia, and communicated
government, whereby
agreed not to seek for any concessions within the
government

was

Britain and
the Russian

valley,including all the provinces bordering on the great river,


together with Chekiang and Honan, the British government entering into a
dominions
north of the Great
similar undertaking in regard to the Chinese
date excepted from
Wall.
(A supplementary'exchange of notes of the same

Yangtse

the Shan-hai-kwan-Newchwang
extension, which
the scope of this agreement
and
the Hong-Kong
had already been conceded
to
Shanghai Bank.) A
in respect of the province of Fuhkien
was
similar promise of non-alienation
that
to the Japanese government
made
(April,1898), which thus ear-marked
the Japanese sphere.
as
pro\'ince
thus to be in progress, the Italian governAs a generalpartitionseemed
ment
the
in

stepped in and applied for a lease of a coaling station at Sanmun, on


of Chekiang, together with
a
grant of railway and mining rights
in which
the request was
that province. The
mamier
put fonvard gave
coast

and
offence to the yamcn,
rise to much
feelingboth

recalled, but
of the
if such

his

blunt

fared

successor

has

not

was

been

refusal

Peking

Kiaochow
incident,sent
,'^hould be attempted

landing,however,
demand

in

no

and

better.

orders to
on

the

The

returned.

was

The

Rome.

incident

Italian minister

1899

and
United

part

men-of-war.
continued
were
negotiations

of

attempted, and though


pres.^ed.

the

Italian

No

the

further

Talienwan

Germany

was

China, apprehending a repetition


the local troops to resist a landing

Kiaochow
were
respectivelythrowm
foreigntrade, and, encouraged by the.se
States
initiated in September of the same
the
government
correspondence with the great European powers and Japan, with
In

Russia

gave

anil

to

open

by

measures,

year a
to
view

OF

HISTOKY

THE

564

CHINA

AXD

JAPAN
[1895-1898

Chinese

and

control

the

retain

hatl

Germany
and

Manchuria
worked

conclusion
their

in

been

methotls

to

lines

interested.

railways,had

generalof

The
masterful
hands.
surrender this control

own

the

Shantung,

struction
generallydisposed to railway conJapanese war, but hoped to be able to

been

of the

obligedthem

the powers

by

had

government
the

since

D.J

CONCESSIONS

RAILWAY

The

A.

in which

far

so

left to

were

be

of

Russia

concerned
financed and
as

In the

Yangtse valley,Sheng, the directornegotiatingwith several competing sjiidicates,

One of these was


a
playing one off againstthe other to force better terms.
endeavouring to obtain the trunk line
Franco-Belgiansjmdicate,which was
British company
to Peking. A
Hankow
from
was
tendering for the same
considered
work, and as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was
be given to the latter. At a critical
to expect it should
not unreasonable

however, the
moment,
forced the yamen
company.

The

British

minister

French
to

and

grant

Russian

had
only
yamen
that the contract

ministers
in favour

few

intervened, and

cally
practi-

of the

Franco-Belgian
days before explicitly
promised the
be ratified without
his having
not

contract

should

opportunity of seeingit.
and as a set-off to the Franco-Belgian
As a penalty for this,breach of faith,
line, the British minister
required the immediate
grant of all the railway
British syndicateswere
then negotiating,
concessions for which
and on terms
inferior to those granted to the Belgian line.
In this way
all the lines
not
in the lower Yangtse, as also the Shansi
secured.
lines,
were
Mining Companies'
for a trunk line from
A contract
Canton
to Hankow
was
negotiatedin the
latter part of the same
which
American
pleted
com(1898) by an
year
company,
the list for the time being.
an

There

indeed

can

MOVEMENT

REFORM

THE

be littledoubt

conflicts of which

that

the powers,

engrossed in the diplomatic


the
underrated
entirely
the
struggleagainst
sive
aggres-

the centre, had

Peking
reactionaryforces graduallymustering for a final
civilisation.
The
lamentable
of administrative
spiritof western
consequences
and
and
the
of
methods
corruption
incompetence,
superiority foreign
which had been amply illustrated by the Japanese war, had at firstproduced a
considerable
the more
impression not only upon
enlightened commercial
classes,but
in China.

even

upon

was

many

of the younger

members

of the official classes

The

dowager-empress, who, in spite of the emperor


Kwang Su
having nominally attained his majority, had retained practicalcontrol of
the supreme
until the conflict with Japan, had been held, not unjustly,
power
to

blame

young

for

emperor

subjectsto
the

was

shake
and

In

the

disasters of

adjured by
himself

himself

the

war,

some

free from

ancl

of the

even

most

the baneful

before

its conclusion

the

his

own
responsibleamong
of "petticoatgovernment,"

restraint

take the helm.

followingyears a reform movement,


undoubtedly genuine,though
opinionsdiffer as to the value of the popular support which it claimed, spread
throughoutthe central and southern
provinces of the empire. One of the
most
the relatively
which suddenly
was
significant
symptoms
large demand
for the translations
of foreignworks
and
similar publicationsin the
arose
Chinese language which philanthropic
time
for some
societies had been trj'ing

HISTORY

THE

OF

CHINA

565

[1898A.D.]

though hitherto with


popularise,
publishedin the treaty ports spread the
past

to

hundred

Fifteen

scant

Chinese

success.

ferment

of

new

newspapers

ideas far into

the

of

good family applied to enter the


of the provincialtowns
the Chinese
foreignuniversityat Peking, and in some
the opening of foreignschools.
Reform
eties,
socithemselves subscribed towards
in
which not infrequentlyenjoyed ofhcial countenance, sprang
up
many
found
adherents
of the large towns, and
numerous
amongst the younger
interior.

men

young

literati.
who had graduallyemancipated himself from
Early in 1898 the emperor,
several of the reform leaders to
the dowager-empress's control, summoned
their
advice with regard to the progressivemeasures
Peking, and requested
which should be introduced into the government of the empire. Chief amongst
these reformers
was
Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarlyattainments,
with novel
combined
teachings,earned for him from his followers the title
less active sympathisers-who had
or
of the "modern
sage." Of his more
of reform, the most
with
him
in
the
suffer
to
cause
prominent
subsequently
of
of
the
council
and
the
member
Yin-huan
a
grand
Tsung-liwas
Chang
had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's Jubilee in
Yamen, who
1897.
The
It
new

evident

became

soon

ideas

than

the

Reform

that there

emperor

was

himself.

Edicts

no

enthusiastic

more

Within

few

months

advocate

of the

the vermilion

which, had they


as
a
far-reaching
transformed
Japan thirtyyears previously. The fossilised
for the publicservice was
to be altogethersuperseded
system of examinations
the
better promotion of which
for
by a new schedule based on foreignlearning,
into schools for western
education ;
of temples were
to be converted
a number
a state
department was to be created for the translation and dissemination of
the

pencilgave

imperial sanction

been carried into


had
as that which

would
effect,

to

have

succession

amounted

to

of edicts

revolution

literature and science ; even


the scions of the
works of western
and travel
be
to
to
Manchu
foreign
study
were
compelled
languages
race
ruling
abroad; and last,but not least,all useless offices both in Peking and in the
A further edict was
to be abolished.
templation,
reported to be in conprovinceswere
the standard

doing
upon

the Chinese

graduallybecome
national

away

with

the

queue,

or

which, originally
imposed
pig-tail,
had
a badge of subjection,
as

by their Manchu
conquerors
characteristic and
the most

most

cherished

feature

of the

dress.

with similar enlightened


possesseda governing class imbued
in 1869
to sacrifice
patriotismto that which induced the Japanese daimios
the crude
of
national
the
interests
their feudal
in
even
regeneration,
rights
the
have
Yu-wei
series of imperialedicts drawn
proved
might
by
Kang
up
tened
bathad
of
which
But
the
of
China,
bureaucracy
era.
starting-point a new
for centuries on corruptionand ignorance,had no taste for self-sacrifice.
The priests,
whose
Other vested interests felt themselves
equally threatened.
believe
led
to
the
who
be
alienated
to
were
militarymandarins,
;
temples were
to foreigninstructors ; and, above
that the army
over
was
going to be handed
and bannermon, the eunuchs, and other hangers-on
all,the imperialclansmen
traditions of
bound
of the palace,whose existence was
up with all the worst
stood the
all equallyalarmed, and behind them
oriental misgovernment, were
latent
whole
force of popular superstitionand
an
unreasoning and blind
Had

China

conservatism.

OF

HISTORY

THE

566

CHINA

JAPAN

AND

[1898-1900 A.al

THE

The

her

dowager-empress saw

she had

boon

retired,had

movement,

that, in order

policy,the

to

put

an

end

of resistance

person

report

her

deported

general,to Peking
But

the

reformers

into

in order

had

neglectedto

in the hands
stillentirely

During

the

night of

with him

to confer

the

secure

on

to

became

the

ney

current

hampered his reform


dowager-empress and
given to this report

of the

colour was
the interior. Some
the
would
that
emperor
by an official announcement
and
had summoned
foreign-drilled
troops at Tientsin,

have

Palace, to whic

Summer

which

obstruction

seize the

to

The

centre

September, 1898,
the

to

the

time

of

intended

emperor

opportunity.

some

middle

in the

and

for

d'etat

COUP

hold
Yuan

the necessary

goodwillof

review

of the
Shih-kai,their

arrangements.

the army,

which

was

of the reactionaries.
the

20th

of

and
the soldiers,

the

was
September the palace of the emperor
who
forth
hencewas
Su,
followingday Kwang

on
occupiedby
virtuallya prisonerin the hands of the empress, was made to issue an
her regency.
edict restoring
by an
Kang Yu-wei, warned at the last moment
of the ino.st
from
the
succeeded in escaping,but many
urgent message
emperor,
arrested,and six of them were
promptly executed.
prominent reformers were
himself was
The
a few
days later that the emperor
Peking Gazette announced
and
been despairedof had not the
his -life might well have
dangerously ill,
the serious consequences
British minister representedin very emphatic terms
Drastic measures
if anything happened to him.
which
might ensue
were,
in the pro\ances
as well
however, adopted to stamp out the reform movement
edicts were
tions
reform
in the capital. The
cancelled,the reformers' associaas
those
did
not
and
who
their
care
dissolved,
were
suppressed,
newspapers
their
themselves
of
recantation
to save
were
miprisoned or
errors
by a hasty
the reaction
had already been accompanied by such
proscribed. In October
of anti-foreign
recrudescence
a
feelingthat the foreignministers at Peking
and to
of the legations,
had to bringup guards from the fleet for the protection
Kansu
the removal
from
the capitalof the tlisorderly
demand
soldierywhich
But the
subsequentlyplayed so sinister a part in the troubles of June, 1900.
in
these
incidents
measure
was
a
great
unpleasant impressionproduced by
Tsu Tsi gave on
removed
by the demonstrative
receptionwhich the empress
October
15th to the wives of the foreignrepresentativesan international act
"

of courtesy

unprecedentedin the

annals

Manchu
One

of the

most

of the Chinese

court.

Ascendency

features
significant

of the

coup

d'itat of 1898

was

the

decisive part played in it by the Manchus, whose


ascendency in the councils
stituted
subof the dowager-empress became
and more
marked,
llanchus were
more
Li
higher offices of the state, and even
he
the
was
Hung Chang's position
Though
only prominent
who had actively
Chinese statesman
supported the empress, he was temporarily
from
the capital,
under
removed
pretext of a specialmission to inspectthe
the
of
River
in
Yellow
course
Shantung. The reactionarytide continued to
rise throughout the year
materiallyto affect the
1899, but it did not appear
foreignrelations "i China.
On January 24th, 1900, the Peking Gazette publishedan
imperialedict
appointingas heir-presumptiveto the throne Pu Chiin, a son of Prince Tuan
(himselfson to Prince Tun and grandson to the emperor
Tao-kwang), which
for Chinamen

in many
was

of the

shaken.

THE
[1900
was

generallyregarded in

of

HISTORY

OP

CHINA

567

D.]

A.

the

Kwang

emperor

China

as

preliminarystep

Influential

Su.

to the

memorials

from

formal

deposition

Chinese

officials

would
to have
deterred
the empress
seem
deprecatingany such measure
from
followingup her originalintention,but the choice of two rabid antiforeign officials as tutors to Pu Chiin, together with the prestigeconferred
of the most
Prince
Tuan, one
reactionaryof the Manchu
princes,
upon
indication of the spiritwhich already prevailedin court
afforded a startling
circles.
MOVEMENT

BOXER

THE

earlier the brutal murder

A few weeks

of Mr. Brooks,

an
Englishmissionary,
which had been
popular movement
spreadingrapidlythroughout that province and the adjoiningone of Chih-li
if not under their direct patronof certain high officials,
with the connivance
age.
is obscure.
Its name
The
movement
is derived
originof the "Boxer"
of the Chinese
fist of righteous
literal translation
from
a
designation,"The
kindred
it
Like
the
Sword"
"Big
society, appears to have been
harmony."
in the firstinstance a secret association of malcontents
chieflydrawn from the

in

Shantung, had compelled attention

to a

lower classes.
to be the allotted span
The Tsing d5Tiastywas
reachingwhat would seem
the empress
Tsu Tsi and her Manchu
advisers
of Chinese dynasties. Whether
from
the beginning to avert the danger by deflecting
set themselves
had deliberately
have

been

with

oriental heedlessness

into anti-foreign
revolutionarymovement
they had allowed it to grow
until they were
powerlessto control it,they had unquestionably resolved to
at Peking had
take it under their protectionbefore the foreignrepresentatives
native
and
Christians
the threats
realised its gravity. The
outrages upon
The
Boxers
went
on
generally
increasing.
openly displayed
againstforeigners
the
device:
"Exterminate
the foreignersand
their banners
the
on
save
of the powers
imable to obtain any
were
dynasty," yet the representatives
nation
effective measures
a definite condemagainstthe so-called rebels,"or even

what

might

channels, or whether

"

of their methods.

Diplomacy

at

Bay

(January-April,1900) were spent in futile interviews with the


destroyed and
Tsung-li-Yamen. In May a nimiber of Christian villageswere
in the neighbourhood of the capital,
massacred
and Favier, the
native converts
months

Four

venerable

head

of the

the

Catholic

Roman

gravest within
missionaries,Mr. Robinson
as

his

missions

long memory.
and Mr. Norman,

in

On
were

China, described

the 2nd

of June

murdered

at

the

tion
situa-

English
Yung Ching,
two

with bands of Boxers,


Peking. The whole country was overrun
who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at different pointson
jackets
the Peking-Tientsinline.
Fortunately a mixed body of marines and bluethe
nationalities had reached
June
of various
for
Peking on
1st,
tection
proof the legations. The
whole city was
in a state of tunnoil.
Prince
Tuan
and the Manchus
generally,
togetherwith the Kansu
soldieryunder the
notorious
Tlie European
Tung-fu-hsiang,openly sided with the Boxers.
of native
residents
and
took refuge in the British
converts
large number
a
ened
where preparationswere
hastilymade on all sides in view of a threatlegation,
On
the Uth
attack.
the chancellor of the Japanese legationwas
dered
mursoldiers.
Chinese
by

fortymiles

from

OF

HISTORY

THE

568

AXD

CHIXA

JAPAN

(1900A.D.J
On the
houses
hundreds
for

days

night of

13th most

the

in the eastern

part of the

sion
mis-

and

The work of destruction


continued
Christians massacred.
by any Chinese authority,and on June 20th the German
Ketteler, was
murdered, and there is little doubt that the

of native
imchecked

minister, Baron

churches, and
foreignbuildings,
Tatar city were
pillagedand burned

of the

von

who
foreignrepresentatives,
with
w
ere
proceeding
regard
as negotiations
were
the pre%-ioas
day to leave Peking within twentyon
to a summons
sent to them
the
20th the Chine.se troops opened
of
the
afternoon
At 4 p.m. on
four hours.
and the eight weeks' siegebegan which will remain
the legations,
fire upon
of the most
in historjmemorable
splendidinstances of what the heroism
as one
achieve against.\siatic hordes.
of a"handful of Europeans can
and intelligence
had

fate

same

been

prepared

for all the other

expected to visit the yamen,

The

Action

of

the Powers

had been completelycut off since the 14th from all communication
naval
and
mihtar\forces
and
outside
were
being
with the
world,
On June 10th Admiral
to the gulf of Pechili.
hurried up by all the powers
Sej-mour hadalready left Tientsin v\ith a mixed force of two thousand British,
Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Itahans, Americans, and Japanese to
Meanwhile

Peking

with Peking. But his expedition


repairthe railway and restore communication
for
resistance.
Great anxiety prevailed
with unexpectedly severe
met
received
whereabouts
of
its
and
definite
its
were
to
no
fate,
tidings
some
days as
When
of Tientsin.
back to within a day's march
imtil it had fought its way
dred
26th the British contingentof nine hunTientsin again on June
it reached
killed
and
and
had
lost
hundred
alone
and fifteen men
twenty-four
one
hundred
and
killed
and
two
of a total casualtylistof sixty-two
wounded
out
eighteenwounded.
The

Chinese

had

in the

mean

time

made

determined

foreignsettlements at Tientsin,and communication


sea
being also threatened, the allied admirals had

attack

between
demanded

the
on

upon

cityand

the
the

the 16th the

The Chinese repUed


fire
with
to the ultimatum
by opening
great vigourduring the followingnight,
of
flotilla
British,French, German, Japanese,and Russian gunboats
whereupon a
of the Taku

surrender

bombarded
the 17th.

forts at the mouth

of the Pei-ho.

forts,which were
captured by landing partiesearlyon
and
situation at Tientsin,nevertheless,continued
precarious,
the

The
that the troops of the
tillthe arrival of considerable reinforcements
the offensive,taking the native city by
allied powers
able to assume
were
killed and
himdred
storm
seven
on
July 14th, at a cost, however, of over
international jealousy had
in this emergency
wounded.
Even
grievously
British
Three
were
forces.
the
concentration
of
brigades
delayed
necessary

it

was

not

ordered

up

from

India,
a

few

French

colonial

regiments were

sent

on

from

the
the Philippines,
a body
their
from
Port
sources
remilitary
Russians
Arthur, though
despatched a brigade
in
hostilities
of
outbreak
simultaneous
taxed
the
were
severely
by
and
in
made
Italyto
Germany, France,
Manchuria, and preparationswere

Saigon, the Americans

send out
thousand

fresh

of troops from

detached

contingents,the

German

force alone

numbering

over

twenty

men.

Xo power
action.
But the situation requiredimmediate
was
so favourably
situated to take such action as Japan, and the British government, who had
undertook
at her request
stronglyurged her to act speecUlyand energetically,
No definite objecwith regard to her intervention.
the other powers
to soimd

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

569

[1900A. D.]

tion was
raised,but the repliesof Germany and Russia barelydisguisedtheir
far as to offer Japan the assistance
ill-huniour. Great Britain herself went
so
financial difficultiesstood in the
of the British treasury, in case
but on
way,
the

same

day

on

wliich

Japanese government
it had
brigadeshad

this
had

proposalwas
decided

telegraphedto Tokio (July 6th) the


embark

to

forthwith

the

two

divisions

By the beginningof August one of the Indian


also reached Tientsin,togetherwith smaller reinforcements
sent
other
and
thanks
the
of
t
o
the
counsels
the
British
chiefly
energetic
by
powers,
commander. General Sir Alfred Gaselee,a relief column, numbering twenty
thousand men,
at last set out for Peking on August 4th,a British naval brigade
It arrived within striking
having started up river the previous afternoon.
of
the
The Russians tried to steal a
13th.
distance of Peking on the evening
checked
the allies during the night,but were
at the walls and
march
upon
suffered heavy losses. The Japanese attacked another point of the walls the
layed
denext
were
morning, but met with fierce opposition,whilst the Americans
The British contingent
by gettingentangled in the Russian line of advance.
fortunate,and, skilfully
was
more
guided to an unguarded water-gate,
which

alreadymobihsed.

the first to force their way


with
Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were
About
the
afternoon
2
the
British
to
loss
on
p.m.
legation.
through
trifling
raised.
of August 14th the long siegewas

General

The

Siege of the Legations

of communications
after the first interruption
For nearly six weeks
no
reached the outside world from Peking except a few belated messages,
urging the imperative
snmggled through the Chinese lines by native runners,

news

necessityof prompt relief. During the greater part of that period the foreign
fire,and the continuous
subjected to heavy rifle and artillery
quarter was
hordes
of
Chinese
well as Boxers,
as
regulars,
fightingat close quarters with the
of
The supply
both amthe scanty ranks of the defenders.
decimated
munition
and food was
slender.
But the heroism
displayed
by civilians and
of the legations
combatants
alike was
inexhaustible.
Some
were
professional
tion,
destroyed. In their anxiety to burn out the British legatotallyor partially
the Chinese did not hesitate to set fire to the adjoiningbuildingsof the
of
hanlin,the ancient seat of Cliinese classical learningand the storehouse
of
Prince
and
The
archives.
treasures
state
or
fu,
palace,
literary
priceless
Su, separatedonly by a canal from the British legation,formed the centre of
held with indomitable valour by a small
and was
the international position,
and
force
under
Colonel
Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines
Japanese
volimteers

French

of

other

legationon
by Germans
chiefly

The
Chinese.
held
the extreme
right and the section of the city wall
also pointsof vital importance which
and Americans
were
nationahties

and

number

of Christian

had

to bear the brunt of the Chinese attack.


ing
Little is known
to what
as
passed in the councils of the Chinese court durto believe that throughout that periodgrave
the siege. But there is reason
of opinionexisted amongst the highestofficials. The attack upon
divergencies

legationsappears to have received the sanction of the dowager-empress,


Manchu party, at
acting upon the advice of Prince Tuan and the extreme
of
June
council
held
the
18th-19th, upon receiptof
a grand
during
night
of
the
Taku
forts
the news
of the capture
by the international forces. The
himself,as well as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins,
emperor
acclaimed by the
but it was
stronglyprotestedagainstthe empress'sdecision,
the

I
THE

570

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1900 A.D.]

majorityof those present. Tlie moderate party was probably not in a


violent faction. Three
than act as a drag upon the more
positionto do more
of the tsimg-li-yainen
members
were
pubhcly executed for attempting to
of all foreigners
modify the terms of an imperialedict ordering the massacre
and most
of the Manchu
nobles and high officials,
throughout the provinces,
who have played an important part in Chinese
and the eunuchs of the palace,
heart and
throughout the dowager-empress'stenure of power, were
politics
But it was
noted by the defenders of the legations
that
soul with the Boxers.
in
in
half-hearted
Prince Ching'stroops seldom took part, or
the
a
only
way,
and
s
oldiers
conducted
the
which
was
by Tung-fu-hsiang's
chiefly
fighting,
which
the
Chinese
Boxer levies. The modern
possessedwas only
artillery
spasmodicallybrought into play. Nor cUd any of the attackingpartiesever
vast

show

the fearlessness and

displayedon
unexpectedly

which
the Cliinese had somewhat
determination
several occasions during the fighting
at and around

Tientsin.
of the defenders at the end of the firstfour weeks
the position
Nevertheless,
siegehad grown well-nighdesperate. Suddenly,justwhen thingswere
and a sort of
lookingblackest,on the 17th of July the Chinese ceased firing,
for the beleagueredEuropeans.
informal armistice secured a periodof respite
The capture of the native cityof Tientsin by the alhed forces had shaken the
w-ho had hitherto not only counself-confidence of the Chinese authorities,
tenanced
but themselves directed the hostihties. By a curioas coincidence,
it was
were
justat the time when the besiegers
relaxingtheir efforts that the
intense anxiety of the civilised world with regard to the fate of the besieged
of the fall of the
reached its culminatingpoint. Circumstantial
accounts
in Shanghai and
a
nd
of
circulated
the
their
inmates
massacre
were
legations
with
the
of the few mesto
tone
sages
telegraphed Europe, and coupled
despairing
had
in
June
Sir
which
been smuggled out of Peking
more
especially
made
nese
Robert Hart's message
of June 24th
and with the admissions
by ChiIt was
not till
these reportsfound generalcredence.
provincial
officials,
week
the following
that an authentic message
received through the Chinese
legationat Washington proved these fears to be premature.
entertained that the
Desultoryfightingcontinued,and grave fears were
approach of the reUef column would prove the signalfor a desperateattempt
The attempt
to rush the legations
before effectual assistance could reach them.
too
but
failed.
not
The
soon.
was
came
a
relief,
however,
made,
day
Of the small band of defenders,
which,includingciviUan volunteers,had never
mustered five hundred,sixty-five
had been killed and one hundred and thirtyEven
wounded.
Anmiunition
and
almost at an end.
one
provisionswere
northern
Roman
Catholic
the
situation
the
t
he
at
more
desperatewas
Pei-tang,
cathedral and mission house,where, vnth the help of a small body of French
and Italian marines,Favier had organisedan independentcentre of resistance
for his community of over
lutely
absothree thousand souls. Their rations were
exhausted when, on August 15th,a reliefparty was
despatchedto their
assistance from the legations.
The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting
was
appalling.
Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreignproperty in the Tatar city,
of the legations,
in the vicinity
and of Chinese as well as European buildings
the wealthiest part of the Chinese cityhad been laid in ashes.
The retribution
rible.
which overtook
Peking after its capture by the international forces was terOrder was, however,graduallyrestored,first in the Japanese and then
in the British and American
quarters,though several months elapsedbefore

of the

"

"

there

was

any

real revival

of native

confidence.

HISTORY

THE

572

CHIXA

OF

AND

JAPAN
[1900 I.D.]

there

for

left Canton

the

north,

imperialedict which,
The

of unrest,

serious symptoms

were

Chinese

there

in

is

court, after

especiallyafter Li Hung Chang had


obedience, as he allegedat the time, to an
to

reason
one

or

believe,he

two

invented

intermediate

for the occasion.

halts, had

retired to

sible
Singan-fu,one of the ancient capitalsof the empire, situated in the inaccesThe
of
Shen-si.
of
influence
the
headed
ultra-reactionaries,
province
Tuan
still
and
General
Prince
its
dominated
Tung-fu-hsiang,
by
councils,
from
time
stated to have
to time
although edicts,illusoryif genuine, were
of the leading officialsconcerned
been
issued for the punishment of some
in
and
credentials
the anti-foreign
sent to Prince Ching and
to Li
were
outrages,
weeks
events
at Shanghai,
Hung Chang, who, after waiting for some
upon
with the powers
had proceeded to Peking, authorisingthem
for the
to treat
of friendlyrelations.
re-establishment

THE

On

October

16th

ANGLO-GERM.tM

AGREEMEXT

the

Anglo-German agreement was


signed. Germany
actuated by the desire to forestall any isolated
chiefly
action on the part of Great Britain in the Yangtse valley. The German
ernment
govlater openly denied that the agreement appliedto Manmonths
churia,
a few
in spiteof the contrarj' opinionentertained
by the British government.
It has given Germany a claim to a footingin the Yangtse valleywhich
it is
difficult to reconcile with the policypropounded by British ministers
when
they publishedthe Yangtse "assurance," obtained in 1898 from the tsung-liof his statements
In one
to the Reichstag,the imperialchancellor
yamen.
referred
the Yangtse agreement," and
to the Anglo-German agreement
as
that designationhas ever
since been universally
adopted in Germany.

would

to have

seem

been

"

The

Negotiations

conferences held between


the foreignministers in the Chinese capital
constantlyto be supplemented by references to their governments and by
While for various
prolonged correspondencebetween the different cabinets.
and
the
States
inclined
United
China
to treat
Russia, Japan,
reasons
were
with
the
insisted
of
the
great indulgence,Germany
signalpunishment
upon
and
in
this
she
the
of
the
had
other
members
guiltyofficials,
support not only
of the TripleAlliance,who.se interests in China were
only of secondary importance,
The

had

but

also of Great

of the

It

Roman

Britain,and

Catholic

church

to

some

extent

in the eastern

even

of

France, the

tector
pro-

countries.

not until after months


of laborious negotiations
that an agreement
was
arrived
at with
to be
finally
regard to the generaltenor of the demands
embodied
in
a
were
formallymade upon the Chinese government.
joint
They
all
ministers
and
1900.
the
December
20th
note
21st,
on
signed by
foreign
The preamble announced
that the allied powers
consented to accede to China's
for
"irrevocable
conditions"
These were
therein stated.
on
petition
peace
follows:
for
the
Honourable
murder
of
Baron von
as
substantially
reparation
Ketteler and of M. Sugiyama was
be
in a specified
made
to
fonn, and expiatory
had been
in cemeteries
to be erected
where foreigntombs
monuments
were
to be
desecrated.
"The
their crimes"
most
was
severe
punishment befitting
inflicted on the personages
designatedby the decree of September 21st, and
also upon
others to be designatedlater by the foreignministers, and the official
examinations
to be suspended in the cities where
were
foreignershad been

was

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

573

[1900-1901A.D.]

mvirdered

An

ill-treated.

equitableindemnity, guaranteed by financial


and
paid to states, societies,
because
of their employment
but not includingChinese
Christians who
had suffered only on
by foreigners,
of their faith.
The
of arms
account
importationor manufacture
materiel
or
to be forbidden; permanent
to be maintained
was
legationguards were
at
while communication
to be fortified,
Pekmg, and the diplomaticquarter was
with the sea was
to be secured
by a foreignmilitaryoccupation of the strategic
and
the
demolition
of the Chinese
forts, includingthe Taku
by
points
forts,
Proclamations
between the capitaland the coast.
to be posted throughwere
out
China for two
to the members
of anti-foreign
years, threateningdeath
the
of
a
nd
the
societies,
rages
recording
punishment
ringleadersin the late outand provincial
officials were
to be declared
; and the \iceroys,governors,
dismissal and perpetual
on
pain of immediate
by imperialedict responsible,
for anti-foreign
outbreaks
to hold
office,
violations of treaty
or
disability
their jurisdictions.
China
within
to facilitate commercial
relations by
was
of
the
commercial
revision
treaties.
The
a
negotiating
tsung-li-yamenwas
for the receptionof foreign ministers
to be
reformed, and the ceremonial
should
demand.
modified as the powers
Compliance with these terms was
declared to be a condition precedent to the arrangement of a time limit to
the occupation of Pekmg and of the provincesby foreigntroops.
or

the

acceptableto

to be
was
powers,
Chinese
who
had
suffered
individuals,including

measures

Manchurian

The

Under

instructions

from

the

Convention

court, the

Chinese

affixed
plenipotentiaries

signatureson January 14th, 1901, to a protocol,by which China pledged


in principle,
herself to accept these terms
and the conference of ministers then
their

proceeded to
be

exacted.

discuss the definite form


No

attempt

in which

made

was

raise

to

compliance with
question of

the

them
the

to

was

dowager-

for the anti-foreign


Russia
had from
as
empress'sresponsibility
movement,
of what
the first set her face against the introduction
she euphemistically
with
"the dynasticquestion." But even
termed
regard to the punishment
of officialswhose
guiltwas beyond dispute,grave divergenciesarose between
The
death
the powers.
in the case
of
even
penalty was
ultmiatelywaived
and Tung-fu-hsiang,
but the notosuch conspicuousoffenders as Prince Tuan
rious
Yii Hsien and two others were
decapitatedby the Chinese,and three other
officials
ordered
to commit
others
were
suicide, whilst upon
metropolitan
of
and
sentences
banishment, imprisonment,
degradation were
passed, in
with a list drawn
accordance
up by the foreignrepresentatives.
officials responsible
for the
The question of the punLshment of provincial
of scores
of defenceless men,
and children was
massacre
unfortunately
women,

reserved

for

separate treatment,

impossibleto
minister

at

once

pledged himself
frankly told the
interest

in

preserv^e

and

taking issue with


as
formallyas the
British

as

it

semblance

came

up
of

for

discussion,it
the

came
be-

Russian

unanimity,
colleagues,
although he had originally
others to the principle. Count
Lamsdorff
his

ambassador

missionaries,and

when

the

even

the

Petersburg that Russia took no


in the provinces
foreigners massacred
at

St.

belonged mostly to that class,she declined to join in the action of the other
Fortunately the rest of the powers, includingeven
Japan, who, as
powers.
attitude
a non-Christian
state, might have been excused for adopting the same
as
Russia, preserved a united front, and though the satisfaction ultimately
obtained was
not
altogether adequate, the list of punishments proposed by
the British minister.Sir Ernest Satow, was
presentedto the Chinese plcnipo-

THE

574

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1901

tentiaries with

the

all the

signaturesof

foreignrepresentatives
except

real

The

explanation of

in view

engaged

with

its

at

Russia's

of the
China

height at

in
the

must

from

the

concert

of

be

respect of Manchuria.
end of June, 1900,

declared

had

cynical secession

sought in her anxiety to conciliate the


in which
she was
at the same
time
separate negotiations

important issue

this

on

Chinese

was

thnl
*)

Russian.

powers

i..l).U|

When
the

the Boxer

Chinese

againstRussia, and

movement

authorities
for

in Manchuria

war
a
a great
wantonly
the Russian
to have
civil and
administration,
panic seems
swept over
exercised
by the Russians
military,in the adjoiningprovinces. The reprisals
fierce.
The
at
massacre
Blagovestchensk,where five
were
proportionately
the
Amur
into
Chinese
thousand
were
flung
by the Cossacks, was
only one
incident in the reign of terror by which the Russians
sought to restore their
and their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was
soon
come,
overpower
and
Russian
forces overran
the whole
the
province,occupying even
treaty port of New-Chwang.
The
Russian
for the
repudiated all responsibility
government officially
issued
General
Gribski
and
others, foreshadowing,if not
proclamations
by
of Chinese
actually proclaiming,the annexation
territoryto the Russian
empire. But Russia was clearlybent on seizingthe opportunity for securing
hoUl upon
Manchuria.
In December, 1900, a preliminaryagreea permanent
ment
made
between
M.
was
Korostovctz,the Russian administrator-general,
and Tseng, the Tatar generalat Mukden, by which the civil and militaryatlministration
of the whole
province was virtuallyplaced under Russian cont
trol.
In February, 1901, negotiationswere
the Russian
opened between
government and the Chinese minister at St. Petersburg for the conclusion of
convention
of a still more
The
Russian
a formal
comprehensive character.
refused
to
disclose its terms, but the draft prepared by the Russian
government
foreignoffice was informallycommunicated
through Chinese channels to
the British and other friendly
governments.
In return
for the restoration
to China of a certain measure
of civil authority
in Manchuria, Russia was
to be confirmed
in the possessionof exclusive military,
and commercial
in all but name
civil,
rights,constituting
a protectorate,
also to acquire preferential
and she was
rightsover all the outlyingprovinces
of the Chinese
dominions
in Asia.
The
Empire bordering on the Russian
clauses relatingto Chinese Turkestan, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, and Mongolia
were
subsequently stated to have been dropped, but the convention
nevertheless provoked considerable oppositionboth in foreigncountries
and
the Chinese
On
themselves.
amongst
April 3rd the Russian
government
issued a circular note to the powers,
statingthat, as the generous intentions
of Russia had been misconstrued,she withdrew
the proposedconvention.

moment

of

wave

The

The

work

of the conference

Peace

Protocol

Peking, which

had

been

turbed
temporarilydisreached
by
a
complications,was
soon
stage
which
of an early evacuation
within
the range of discussion.
brought the po.ssibility
in
Count
Waldersee
invited
all
the
Early
von
April
manders
foreigncomhim
to meet
and discuss the feasibility
of a partialwithdrawal
of
The
of
rise
renewed
to
friction.
question
indemnities,however, gave
troops.
these

Each

drew

at

then

up its own

resumed, and

claim,and whilst Great Britain,the United States,


Japan displayedgreat moderation, other powers, especiallyGennany and
Italy,put in claims which were
strangelyout of proportion to the services

and

power

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

575

[1875-1894A.D.]

rendered
should

by

militaryand naval forces. It was


altogetheran indemnity of 450,000,000
their

at

last settled that China

taels.

Finally,the peace
which satisfied all the powers
well as the
as
up in a form
The
formal
Chinese court.
signaturewas, however, delayed at the last moment
concerning Prince Chun's penitentialmission to
by a fresh difficulty
pay

drawn

protocolwas

at last signed at Peking


September 7th the peace protocolwas
and
the
of Great Britain,
plenipotentiaries
representatives
by
the
United
States,Japan, Austria-Hungary, Italy,
Germany, France, Russia,
the Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain.9

On

Berlin.

Chinese

the two

CHINA-JAPAN

WAR

1894-95

OF

China and Japan. The causes


of the war
between
of the two
in Korea.
mfluence
to
assert
powers
old tradition in Japan, dating back to the legendary achievements
It was
an
of the emperor
JLngu, that Korea occupied a positionof quasi-vassalageto
the empire. In 1875 a Japanese force had landed on Kang-hwa Island,and
been obtained opening
at Chemulpo a treaty had
after a naval demonstration
In

1894

Fusan

broke

war

out

of the rival claims

out

arose

to

Japanese

in Korean

trade.

alTairs,and

part
Seoul, which

found

soon

From

this time

under

her

Japan began to play an active


in
a progressiveparty arose

influence

itself in conflict with

the ways

of the

mass

of the

In December,
by a mob.
In April,1885, a convention
was
1884, a fresh outbreak occurred at Seoul.
in Korea
for nine
signed at Tientsin which secured comparative tranquillity

people.

years.
At

July, 1882, the legationswere

In

burned

of May the Tong-Haks defeated the Korean


forces,and early
A small
the government appealed to China for militaryassistance.
and
Asan
the
at
sent
to
Chinese force was
once
Japan government
being
;
of Tientsin,promptly
of the convention
informed, according to the terms

the end

in June

on
leave,to return to Seoul.
was
War-ships
Chenmlpo, and Otori with an escort of marines reached Seoul
The
June
10th.
on
Japanese rapidly followed up tliisstep by the despatch
of about five thousand
troops under Major-General Oshima, who relieved the
A complicatedsituation thus arose.
Chinese
marines by the middle of June.
in
of
the
with
Korea
the
a view
by
government
request
present
troops were
controlled
the
armed
rebelHon.
The
to put down
capital,and
an
Japanese
if
An
reforms
force
determined
to carry
out
were
by
interesting
necessary.
Japan absolutelydeclined
diplomaticcorrespondenceled only to a deadlock.
"as a tributary state
of China," to hmit
her military
to recogniseKorea
forces in the peninsula,or to place any
restrictions upon
their movements;
but she proposed that the two
should
"unite their efforts for the
powers
missioners
speedy suppressionof the disturbance," and should subsequently send comThe
of reform.
to inaugurate jointlycertain specified
measures
but
the
considered
that
the
idea
be
measures
excellent,
tsung-li-yamen
may

ordered
were

its

sent

minister,Otori, who

to

"

herself would
not
of reform
be left to Korea
herself. Even
China
must
interfere with the internal administration
of Korea, and Japan, having from
have
the very first recognisedthe independence of Korea, cannot
the right
to

The

interfere."
much
and

to

of
"is lacking in .some
that the government of Korea
essential to responsibleindependence." Intimately
tsung-li-yamenw;us informed that ;is the Chinese govern-

considered

which
the elements
the
on
July 16th

"

Japanese foreignminister repliedthat "the imperialgovernment,


thus exshare
their regret, cannot
the hopeful vi(!ws"
pressed,

"

are

THE

576

HISTORY

OF

AND

CHINA

JAPAN
[18*4 A.D.)

complications,"Japan
appeared "disposed to precipitate

ment

claims

The

Korea.

over

in future

eventualitythat may
Peking government

for any
of all responsibility
inevitable imless the
now

claims

were

arise."

willingto

was

valueless; but

"relieved

was

War

was

abdicate

Chinese

troops

all
were

it was
not
already in the country by invitation,and in these circumstances
be abandoned.
to be expected that the shadowy suzeraintywould
forced by the Japanese minister,who delivered an
At Seoul the issue was
ultimatum
to the Korean
on
July 20th. On the 23rd the palace
government
and
from
the
pro-Chineseparty being removed
was
forciblyoccupied,
power,
of
hands
into
the
the
of
the government
while
the control
passed
Japanese. Meanhad

China

made

efforts

reinforce

to

the detachment

at

and
.fVsan,

had

river. The
outbreak
eight thousand
troops to the Yalu
of war
thu.s found the Japanese in mihtary possessionof Seoul and ready to
send largeforces to Korea, whilst the Chinese occupied Asan
(about fortymiles
and
churia
had a considerable
southward
of the capital),
body of troops in Manriver.
To
in addition
to those despatched to the Yalu
Japan the
and
essential for the secure
of the sea was
command
supply of her
transport
of
it
the
the
sixteenth
Without
of
the
war
experience
century would
troops.
could
utilise
overland
the other hand,
be repeated. China, on
routes
to
Korea; but difficulties and delays would necessarilybe entailed. To both
thus all-important.
the naval questionwas
powers
about

despatched

Kowshing

Incident

declared tillAugust 1st,by which time collisions had


War
not finally
was
occurred on sea and land.
On July 25th Major-General Oshima, with about
thousand
five hundred
and
started for Asan
found
the Chinese
two
men,
intrenched

29th, with
commander,

loss of about

Chinese

troops

enemies

at

between

Henceforth
the

sank

drowned,

were

Seoul

the

attacked
successfully
wounded; but Yeh, the

the

on

Chinese
ninety
the greater part of his force,and reached PhyongMeanwhile
the Japanese squadron was
proceeding

morning

vessel Naniwa

positionwas
killed and

escaped with

by a wide detour.
yang
On the
to Chemulpo.
Japanese

The

Sung-hwan.

at

of

the
and

July 25th an engagement


than a
Kou'shing,more
the

forces

intention

moving
Japanese had to

from

deal

occurred.
thousand

of the Chinese

the north

only

with

and

to

south

The
of the

crush
was

their
trated.
frus-

the forces north

of

capital.
It

of vital

importance to the Chinese to prevent the transport of


Chemulpo, whch was carried on with the greatest energy.
The
Chinese
in port, and
the Japanese made
fleet,however, remained
no
attempt to obtain and keep touch with it. During August and September
the Japanese were
busied in landing troops and
stores
at Chemulpo and
moved
Gensan, whilst the Chinese forces in Manchuria
slowly to the Yalu
river. By September 12th about fourteen thou.'^and Japanese had converged
made
Phyong-yang. A general attack was
on
September 15th, and
upon
the stronglyintrenched
The
wards
Chinese retreated northposition was captured.
the
river Yalu.
Korea
over
being thus cleared,the war entered upon
another
phase.
was

now

Japanese troops

to

Yalu
Two
contact

the

days

after the

in the Yalu.

Chinese

Battle

capture of Phyong-yang
The

dischargedtwo

action

was

decided

torpedoeswithout

the

hostile fleets

came

in

solelyby gun-fire,although
eflFect. The

result of the

THE

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

577

[1894-1895A.D.]

confer upon

the

of the sea, and to


Japanese the full command
land campaign without
them
to prosecute
hindrance.
The surviving
Chinese ships,with
the exception of one
which
went
aground near
and
Ta-lien-wan
was
destroyed,reached Port Arthur, and subsequently

action
enable

the

steamed
The
Yalu

to

was

Wei-hai-wei.

to

Japanese now
and
explored

determined
the country

Manchuria.
They crossed the
of reconnoitringparties. On
of Chin-chau
attacked and taken, and
was
to

invade

by

means

6th the important town


7th
the
coast
Ta-lien-wan, with its three modern
on
forts,was
occupied
in
the
the
fleet
without
resistance,
arriving
bay on the same
day. The
in possession of a good harbour, where
their siegetrain
now
Japanese were
from
miles
be
Here
the
Port Arthur.
could
Chinese possessed a
landed, ten
The attack
men.
stronglyfortified positionheld by about nine thousand
November
21st.
delivered on
The resistance was
was
contemptible,and
Port Arthur
was
captured.

November

WEI-HAI-WEI

in Manchuria
Meanwhile
the Chinese
assumed
the offensive.
General
and
but
attacked
defeated
December
the
on
19th,
Sung was
Japanese, who
four thousand
five hundred
had about
dred,
men
present, lost nearly four hun-

the Chinese
offeringa comparativelystubborn resistance. On January
at fourteen
17th the Liao-Yang force,estimated
thousand
strong, appeared
in front of Hai-cheng and opened an ineffective long-rangefire,dispersing
A similarlyfutile
the Japanese advanced
in disorder when
against them.
attack was
made
on
January 22nd, the Japanese loss being trifling.
The advance of the second army
northward
was
long delayedby difficulties
A brigadeof infantry
of transport,aggravated by the rigoursof the climate.

regimentof cavalryunder General Nogi attacked a Chinese force strongly


nication
posted at Kai-ping on January 10th. The positionwas carried,and commuwith the force occupying Hai-cheng was
at once
established.
The situation in Manchuria
being thus secured,the Japanese proceeded
to attack Wei-hai-wei,where lay the survivingvessels of the Pei-yang squadron.
On the night of February 4th the Chinese
squadron in harbour was
attacked by ten torpedo boats.
Two
boats were
lost,but the armour-clad
On the followingnight a second attack was
made
Ting-Yuen was sunk.
by
sunk.
On
four boats, and
the Wei-Yuen, Lai-Yuen, and
a
were
gimboat
of the eastern
sunk by the gims in one
February 9th the Ching-Yuen was
the
On
forts manned
.sailors.
Admiral
to
12th,
by Japanese
Ting wrote
lowing
Ito offering to surrender,and then took poison,other officers folAdmiral
his example.
Whilst the Wei-hai-wei
campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched
mission
arrived at Hiroshima
to Japan, which
on
a great peace
January 31st
with credentials which
tive."
were
pronounced by Count Ito to be "fatallydefecThe originaldraft made
by the United States minister at Peking had
been replacedby another
of Chinese
composition,and the idea of the tsungbeen
of the Japanese governto have
to ascertain the views
li-yamenseems
ment
without
The
themselves
committed.
Japanese declined to treat
being
and

in the.se circumstances, and


The

Chinese

Liao-Yang; and
advanced

on
n.

w.

the mission

concentrated

General

Katsura
with the

February 28th
"

VOL.

XXIV.

returned

to

China.

Ying-Kau, New-Chwang, and


at
Hai-cheng having been reinforceii,
and captured New-Chwang
third division,

in three groups

at

HISTOEY

THE

578

OF

AND

CHINA

JAPAN
[1895 A.D.]

on

March

4th.

Two

days

towards

moved
forces

later
which

Ying-kau,
and
New-Chwang
Ying-kau

at

tai, which

was

taken

March

on

Marshal
was

with

Yamagi
occupied on

March

combined

now

the

in

column

western

7th.

The

attacking

Japanese

Tien-chwang-

9th.

broken
and
dispersed,
proceeding to the occupation
forms
the
shores
of Peking, since
along the northern
melting of the ice which
land
and
would
to
of the gulf of Pechili
supply large forces at
permit them
and
hundred
miles
of the capital.
within
tiations
NegoShan-hai-kwan,
one
seventy
and
Li
Shimonotherefore
to
Chang
proceeded
opened,
Himg
were
full
The
included
the
terms
April 17th.
signed on
seki, where
a
treaty was
and
and
of
the
cession
of
the
and
Korea,"
complete independence
autonomy
southern
portion of the pro\ince of Shin-king (with a frontier extending from
The

there

Chinese

forces

nothing

was

to

in

being

Manchuria
the

prevent

thoroughly

from

Japanese

"

the

Yalu

river

Pescadores
Article

to

YI

four

Ying-kau),
Article

group.

additional

I\'

of

cities

and

Formosa

fixed
and

adjacent

indemnity

an

ports

were

of

islands, and

200,000,000

opened

to

of

taels.

Japanese

the

By
trade,

extended.
Wei-hai-wei
rivers
was
rights of na\igation on Chinese
were
ce.ssion of territory in
of performance.
The
occupied as a guarantee
of
the pro^'ince of Shin-king
subsequentlj' cancelled
by the joint action
was
and
Rassia, France,
Germany.
results
of
the
two:
first, the raising of
Politically the main,
war
were
naval
and
the
and, second,
to
mihtary
position of a great
Japan
power;
of
the plans of Russia
of the accomplishment
the hastening
by some
years

and
to

for

be

the

absorption

of Manchuria

and

the

Liao-Tung

peninsula.''

EARLY

OF

SUMMARY

580

Mongoloid migrations the mother

second

offshoot,
condition

po

of the

from

the

that

with

scant

indications

country had

marked

far excelled

second

band

change.

So

of the

the advent

Japanese underwent

HISTORY

JAPANESE

available,the

its

inal
orig-

of colonists the
far as can
be discerned

did

newcomers

not

force

at that earlyera,
even
predecessors. The latter,
inform
the
instincts
that
the whole
been
eclectic
have
to
guided
by
seem
the
because
of
the
new
readily
they
Japanese; they accepted
history
nised
recogBut the south-Asian
its merits.
immigrants, the Malayan adventurers,
borne
thither
when
they reached the southern island of the Japanese group

their

their civilisation upon

"

on

from

the

"Black
Philippines commenced

bosom

the

of

(Kuro-shiwo), which

Tide"

the

"

career

of

conquest

northward
sweeps
and
overthrew
the

Mongoloid colonies established on the main island. Such, at any rate, is the
Yet amongst the Japanese of
of events
suggested by tradition.
as
sequence
of the northern
the present day the supremacy
or
Mongoloid type appears
established.
the exfilanationis that
been
to have
Perhaps
immemorially
southerns
of
at first irresistible,
the
the
onset
proved
impetuous
although
had
with
the
tribes
coalesced
conquered, and in the
they
they ultimately
the
natural
selection
of
the
end
vanquished on their due
replaced
principle
these points,the Japathe
truth
to
be
Whatever
as
nese
plane of eminence.
may
\\Titt"n historydeals
with whom
tury
^historj^
dating from the seventh cenof the Christian era
were
a united
family of Mongoloids and Malays,
having for sole enemies the aboriginalAinu.
The
flat-faced,hea\^-jawed,
a
Ainu, as described by tradition,were
hirsute people,belonging to a very low order of humanity.
They burrowed
in apparelor
in the ground for shelter ; they recognisedno distinctions of sex
in skins, drank
blood,
of consanguinityin intercourse;they clad themselves
u
sed
of
stone
resentful
benefits
and
to
insensible
injuries,
perpetually
were
Their
civilised
ceased
resist
the
to
inmiigrants.
present
implements, and never
thousands
residingin the northern island of Ezo, whither
a few
representatives,
gradually driven, are timid, gentle,submissive folk,retaining few
they were
if any of the faculties essential to survival in a racial struggle,incapable of
vivid
and more
and presentinga more
progress, indifferent to improvement,
and ambitious
to the energetic,
Japanese.
contrast
intelligent,
These latter,on the contrary, whether
historyor tradition be consulted,
of the
stood on
a
high plane of civilisation already at the commencement
Christian era; high, that is to say, by comparison with any contemporary
nation except the Chinese.
They had iron swords and spears and iron-tipped
helmets
metal; used peaked
and
wore
breastplatesof the same
arrows;
and
ments
horse-trappingshaving ornastirrups
saddles, snaffle bits,Eviropean-like
dressed
silvered
of
with
sheets
iron covered
of repousse
giltor
copper ;
stuff confined at the waist by
tunic of woven
in a looselyfitting
themselves
in loose trousers
reachingnearly to the feet ; had for ornaments
a girdleand
of silver,copper,
bronze, or
necklaces of silver,or glassbeads ; finger-rings
iron, plated with preciousmetal ; buttons, metal armlets, bands or platesof
tiaras of gold.
fastened to the tunic; ear-ringsand
giltcopper which were
kind of
food
consisted of fi.sh,
Their
flesh, and cereals. They drank some
of
baked
utensils
They
Their
hou.sehold
fermented
were
pottery.
liquor.
not
did
idolatrj',
practise
believed in a future state; wor.';hipped
ancestors,
"

"

and

were

remarkably clean

in their habits.

"family" correctlydescribes the early colony of Japanese.


autocratic ruler,and the
rather a militarypatriarchthan
Its head was
an
followers as hereditary
his principal
divided among
ofl^ces were
administrative
rights. Thus there grew up gradually a largeoflficialaristocracy,consisting
The

term

THE

OF

HISTORY

A.D.]
[300-tX)0
first of individuals,then

CHINA

AND

JAPAN

581

of

of clans, with the inevitable


and finally
families,
their
and usurped the functions
asserted
result that certain
supremacy
That
of sovereignty, though never
failingto recogniseits nominal
source.
in every
of Japanese history;the theory of
the student
featui'e meets
page
is uniformly recognised,
but the exercise of soverthe sovereign's
eign
supremacy
hands
of
in
the
is
an
oligarchy.
power
clans

It

was

not

until

Japanese civilisation

third

began

century that

to be

bridgedby

the interval between


the advent

of

number

Chinese

and

of Chinese

the manners
and customs
effect upon
of the nation
did
three
until
hundred
Buddhism,
conspicuously
brought
years later,
cult of Shinto, and opened
people a noble creed to replacethe meagre

immigrants,
not

the

and

the

show

to the

unimagined mine of literature and art.


much
of its rapidly acquired vogue
in Japan to
Buddhism
certainly owed
the strenuous
patronage of occupants of the throne, especiallyemotional
but even
though imperiallyopposed it could scarcelyhave failed
empresses;
to win
converts, for it found the Japanese with a material civilisation conspicuoaslysuperiorto their rudimentary morality,and it offered to them a
which
to their a:;stheticinstincts.
wealth of refinement
appealed irresistibly
have
been
than
the contrast
that Shinto
could
more
striking
Nothing, indeed,
their
adherents
the
former
to
and Buddhism
cold,inornate,severe
:
presented
;
and magnificenttemples,its majesticimages,
the latter gloriousin its massive
its gorgeous
paraphernalia,its rich sacerdotal vestments, and the picturesque
the faith of civilised
as
solemnityof its services. Japan accepted Buddhism
for the sake of the converts
it had won
and the outAsia ; accepted it more
ward
conversion or the
attractions it possessedthan for the sake of her own
to the propaganbeauty of the foreignfaith's ethics. One great obstruction
of
creed should have been that it preached the supremacy
dism of the Indian
whatever
of
divinities
from
whom
the
and
took
the
no
cognisance
a new
god
In short,it asked the occupants of the Japanese
Japanese claimed descent.
their own
to annul
throne
to patronisea faith which -seemed
sovereigntitle.
Yet during nearly a century and a half this anomaly attracted no
practical
it did become
a
burning question,a clever Buddhist
attention, and when
of the Shinto panpriestaverted polemi'csby declaringthat all the members
theon
incarnations
of Buddha.
It is impossibleto reconcile these events
were
with the idea that any
theory about celestial lineagehad become a cardinal
tradition in Japan priorto the advent of Buddhism, and there is here another
for concluding that the political
warrant
developed
aspects of Shinto were
the
nation's
first historical annals
with
the
of
at
compilation
simultaneously
that
the close of the sixth century, and
they did not iimuediatelyassume
mount
paraimportance.
hundred
two
Already in the fourth century, that is to say, some
years
of Chinese and Korean
before the coming of Buddhism, there had been a wave
adjuncts of material
immigration into Japan, which brought with it many
such as the science of canal-cutting as well as of road-making,
civilisation,
of sericulture and silk-weaving. Buddhism
and improved methods
mented
supplethese in numerous
themselves
directions,and the Japanese showed
sale
perfectlyreceptive. They adopted everythinggood unhesitatingly.Wholeadministration
remodelled
The
Chinese
resulted.
lines;
was
on
changes
in accordance
with
social etiquettewere
the codes of official and
recast
built after Chinese
Chinese practice;cities were
plans; literature and art
took Chinese
were
shapes;
virtuallycreated by Chinese influence;costumes
of taste were
and Chinese standards
accepted as final. The term "a nation
have
would
of imitators"
applied to the Japanese of those early centuries
to

them,

at

the

same

time,

hitherto

SUMMARY

582

EARLY

OF

JAPANESE

HISTORY
[000-900 A.D.]

with greater justicethan it appliesto-day. But


Japanese did not imitate
and Rome.
China
more
closelythan all western
Europe iniitated Greece
must
Indeed, as between these two phases of historythe credit for originality
the

be

conceded

to

the

centuries,failed

to

whereas

Japanese; for
excel

its

stages of the

transmission

It

evolution.

through

the

Europe, during

critics have

was

so

Japanese

mind

ceased to be a
Death
colours.
the entrance
to actual beatitude.

added

greatlyand

cycles,surpassed their originalsso


their own
genius that modem

of

the

occidental

models, Japanese artists,in

passage

the

such

strong impress

in tracing
difficulty

Buddhism

foreignfaith
mere

many
of two

course

took

non-existence

itself. In its
many
and

bright
became

of the contemplative
charity. The endless chain of
shortened
link.
The conceptionof one
and effect was
to a single
cause
supreme
all-merciful being forced itself into prominence. The
gulf of social and
the patricianand the
distinctions that yawned so widely between
political
became
all
the
other
of
the
and
world,
subjective
unsightlinesses
plebeian,
cMela destined to disappearat the first touch of moral light.
the product not only of many
But these modifications of Buddhism
were
of
circimistances which, as they lie at the root of the nation's
centuries but also
history,must be studied.
had the
In the earhest times to which authentic annals extend, the cro\%ai
rightof eminent domain, and during the era of patriarchalgovernment large
of land were
bestowed
tracts
by the sovereignupon the great families who
the
offices.
administrative
duties
and held herecfitary
Among
discharged
from
took
for
heads of these famihes
place
sharp struggles pohticalsupremacy
after another
time to time, and one
they grasped the reahty of governing
whom
and the
leaving its shadow
only to the sovereign,between
power,
of
seclasion.
nation
sacred
Many abuses
they interposed an atmosphere
tilled the ground
such a system.
The lower orders, who
naturallydisfigured
or
engaged in manufacturing industry,fell to a status httle better than that
of serfs,
nearly all the products of their toil being appropriated to defray the
and
of the ethics of Confucianism
outlays of the oligarchy. By study, first,
this unsatisfactory
state of
Buddliism, and, secondly,of Chine.se civilisation,
affairs was
revolutiomsed,and in the middle of the seventh century, the last
of the usurping clans having been broken, Japan's earliest system of centralised
under
was
inaugurated. Its
an
actuallyruling emperor
government
did
extend
not
existence as a practicalfact
beyond a cycle,but that brief
that all lands
interval sufficed to work
large changes. One of these was
uted
then redistribresinned by the crowai, and were
throughout the country were
the principle
that every unit of the nation liad a natural title to the
on
usufruct of the soil. It was
excellent system, well thought out and wisely
an
felt the influence
organised,but having an exotic philosophy for basis,it soon
cumulative
of
of tendencies
operation,were
wliich,after a thoasand
years
civilisation. Ranks,
in a few decades by any new
not likelyto be eradicated
had to be considered in the new
allotment, and thus
hereditaryand official,
in
for
the foundations
laid
provincialdistricts. Soon,
were
again
largeestates
old
rival
strife reconmienced
between
clans,and ultimatelyone, the
too, the
Fujiwara,gained an ascendency which remained almost imchallengedduring

disciplewas

exchanged

for

career

The

with

even

to

found

the

ascetic

selfishness

of active

three centuries.

Nevertheless, the imperial capitallong continued


power

be

the

source

of

authority,provincialaffairs being administered by governors who


appointments from Kioto and retained them for a set term of
into existence,
had not yet come
At
that time social castes
only.
and

received
years

to

their

\
THE
A. D.]
[900-1600
except in the

HISTOKY

that all who

OF

CHINA

could

AND

JAPAN

583

their descent

from
the original
specialclass,wliile the bulk
cf the nation was
broadly divided into "nobles" and "ignobles,"the latter
form of servitude,
of persons pledgedto some
whether by voluntary
consisting
of a law-court;the former of persons
contract
not labouring
or
by sentence
such disadvantage. Events, however, now
tnder any
began to create a

the
oligarchs,

sense
sons

of the

trace

deities,belonged to

situation that defied the control of the central government.


It has been shown
that before the arrival of the Mongoloid and Malayan colonists the islands
of Siberian origin,
inhabited by men
the Ainu, who belonged to a lower
were
in the immediate
Such
of
these
lived
of
as
humanity.
vicinityof the
type

speedilydispossessed.But in proportion as tliey were


colony were
north
the aboriginesclung with greater tenacityto the soil,
farther
pushed
and since the central authorities lacked militarymachinery for conducting
to organise
campaigns in remote
parts of the country, it became necessary
of
reward
for
out
these
local soldiery. Further, by way
dri\dng
aborigines,
new

tax-free
taken from
them
conferred on their conquerors
were
as
basic elements
into existence
thus there sprang
the two
of a
territorial
their
the
authorityto
sword,
magnates owing
militaryfeudalism,
to that authority.
and territorial troops obedient
of inferior rank, so
Nor
these provincialmagnates men
were
originally
that their assumption of independent power
might have seemed anomalous.
They were
princesof the blood who, having laid aside their princelytitles,
for the purposes
of their new
functions.
received family names
Onlj'two of
all others.
these families need be mentioned, for they wholly overshadow
The
Taira can
scarcelybe classed
They are the Taira and the Minamoto.
It is true that they deposed the
with the founders of militaryfeudahsm.
in Kioto, and that they
Fujiwara clan from its three centuries of supremacy
facts stood on
But the same
strippedthe sovereignof all executive power.
and of their predecessors,
for
of the Fujiwara themselves
record in the case
novelties in the
strife of clans and usurpationof governingauthoritywere
no
lished
historyof Japan. The innovation made by the Taira was that they estabtheir ascendency by the sword, whereas
the Fujiwara had reUed on
of power,
And by the sword, after a brief tenure
the
influence alone.
court
Taira themselves
were
overthrown, giving place,in the twelfth century, to
with brief intervals,
exercised administrative
the Minamoto, who thenceforth,
of
until
the
middle
the
nineteenth
the
imperialcourt continuing
century,
sway
be
of
the
nominal
to
source
always
authority,
though strippedof all its reality.
titleto represent
It is also to be noted that the Taira did not devise any special
did they remove
their autocracy, nor
the seat of executive authorityto any
moto,
These things stand in the record of the Minagreat distance from Koto.
whose
and whose capital
chieftain was
called shngim (generalissimo),
was
first at Kamakura, some
three hundred
miles from Kioto,and ultimatelystill
farther north at Yedo (now Tokio). A feature that assisted decentralisation
of administrative power
the granting of tax-free estates,as noted above.
was
did
affect the central government's revenue,
The estates themselves
not much
had
since they were
taxes
not previouslybeen
generally in regionswhere
their
collected. But their indirect influence was
inasmuch
as
considerable,
able to offer land on terms
that attracted thither multitudes of
owners
were
the heavilytaxed peasants from other regions.
One
of feudalism was
the division of the nation into
important outcome
four classes: militarymen, agriculturists,
artisans,and tradesmen {shi-no-kofrom China there can
sho). That the idea of this classificationcame
originally
be no question,but its practical
applicationin Japan is clearlytraceable to

the lands

estates, and

SUMMARY

584

EARLY

OF

JAPANESE

HISTORY
[900-1600 A.D.]

the fact that such of the peasants as had specialphysicalquahtieswere


drafted
and
attached
thus gradually a stigma of inferiority
into the local soldiery,
to
less highlyendo\v("(l
those who, continuing to tillthe ground, were
inferentially
be asserted on behalf of the samurai, as the
No claim of racial superiority
can
called themselves.
a
They were
essentially
militarymen
part of the people
That the artisan ranked
of Japan, differentiated by accident,not by nature.
because
artists were
included
artisans,
higher than the trader was
among
of production have always seemed
the functions
able
honourand because
more
of barter.
in eastc^rn eyes than the functions
asserted
of
It may
be
perhaps
artisans
and
that
alike,
they all excelled in
Japanese samurai, agriculturists
freedom
from
sorchd
The samurai, settingout from
motives.
honesty and in
the simple principlethat life must
always be held at the service of a liege,
code of military ethics (bushido) having for bases
a
gradually elaborated
the sanctity of a promise and the superiorityof death to dishonour; a code
which
produced extraordinary displays of devotion, loyalty,and courage.
who

stood

The

farmer,

own

class the samurai

firmly to the

the social scale and

been
originally

faith

that

of

system

confidence

which

chicanery; but

of

any

he

or
organisingtrusts
honesty.

the

Japan,

seven

more

The

wars.

hand.

centuries

than

four

country

With

monotonous

could

except

does
that

an

knew

that from

pride in

himself anil the soldier.

his

reducing to
The

artisan

be fatal
to sordid instincts must
the
constructive
tradesman
arts.
Only
of credit and
the value
developed a

not
an

as

witnessed

became

who

drafted, took

concession

of the
successful exercise
high ideals. He understood

the
lacked
to

Of

on

the ethical interval between

minimum

held

next

had

have
coexisted with any large practice
for cementing combinainstrument
tions
have

appreciated the

uses

of

comprise the hfe of military feudalism

in

not

an

arena

iteration the

to

seem

almost
where
same

continuous
every

feature

man

succession

fought

of civil

for his

own

presenteditself,delegated
belied their proverliial

Circumstances
authorityrebellingagainst its source.
until the sixteenth century, when
to ileal with them
facultyof creatingmen
saved
triumvirate of great captains and statesmen
a
Japan from permanent
These
division into a number
of principalities.
illustrious leaders were
Oda
Nobunaga, Hashiba
Hideyoshi (commonly called the Taiko), and Tokugawa
of each supplemented that of the other, but neither
lyeyasu. The work
their quahtiesnor
their acliievements can be spoken of here.
lyeyasu founded
of
who
had
in
the Tokugawa
their
court
Yedo, whence,
dynasty
shogims
than two
centuries and a half,they ruled a nation that enjoyed
during more

unbroken

peace.
the most

inaugurationof
foreign intercourse in the sixteenth century, and the accompanying advent
of Christianity,
the sequelof which events
that Japan, segregatingherself
was
from the outer
illiberal
world, incurred the reproach of being an unprogressive,
facts
The
it
is
that
delusion.
as
now
disclosed,
History,
dispels
country.
them
the first arrival of foreignships the Japanese welcomed
that on
are
to restrict the comings and goings
heartily. Instead of betrayinga disposition
of Western
merce
comtraders,Japan quickly recognisedthe benefits of over-sea
free
and engaged in it with enthusiasm.
made
were
Portuguese .ships
visit
of
the
realm.
To
later
to
the Dutch
and the English,
visitors,
any part
similar
taxes
there any impositionof onerous
granted, nor
libertywas
was
duties.
or
Yet, eighty-sevenyears after this auspicious inauguration of
trade and intercourse,
Japan reversed her policy,adopted an exclusive attitude,
substituted distrust and aversion for the confidence and amity of her previous
One

of

important incidents of the

era

was

the

HISTORY

THE

[1600-1850

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN

585

D.]

A.

asserted

her

and

"\\"hat

factor

victims

last

the

at

the

win,

right
responsible

with

isolation

imperiousncss.
change?
Christianity.
was
the
the
of
Close
footsteps of the pioneers of trade
came
propagandists
upon
the
of
mediaeval
received
Europe.
They, too, were
Christianity
Christianity,
the mood
But
converts.
ultimately educated
by the
hospitably and they won
differed
from
the
mood
found
of these
conduct
propagandists
widely
they
on
If the
be
and
The
fact
has
to
their
closely noted.
Portuguese
coming.
their
Japanese
disciples, fell
together with
Spanish apostles of the Nazarene,

mood,

wrath

the

to

sought

be

is to

cause

of

for

this

of

the

their

in

unrelenting

remarkable

heart

whose

nation

had

they

in

intolerance,

own

their

to

come

merciless

own

than
foreign rivals, rather
to
Japanese.
They
taught
any
towards
and
she
the
intolerance
themselves,
displayed
subsequently
Japan
its display by their
imprudence.
own
they provoked
who
visited
these
should
it be forgotten that
Nor
representatives of Europe
in

bigotry,

their

in

Japan
higher

gain, and
accepted

been

tradesmen,

rough

deterred

great
in

was

entirely

develop

middle

of

Some

the

from

genius burst
along the
the

had
of

outlived

their

been

the

in

the

they

the

graces

of

science

Two

as

the

in

their

the

prestige
air.

But

methods,
civilisation

the

for

"

of

sake

by self-seeking
religion,

mercilesslj' fanatic
admirable
adjuncts
a

military fortification

truculent,

Chinese

previously
represented

of

way

rude,

were

of life.

eight centuries

arms

in

both

it

alone

the

of which

established

administration,
above
and

centuries
of

as

half.

international
often

into

of

lines

their

century

There

bright flame,
old

the

under
the

civilisation.
West

the

much

was

than

friction

great

and

world

their

neither

would

the

ly^yasu,
saviours,

Japan's

rather

improvement

that
so

by

revealed

of

which

Occident's

had

content
in

them

to

the

again.

sun-bathed

that

materialised

but

Living

the

were
Japanese
But
suddenly

itself

of

country

innovation.

the
rulers

them
intrigues to overthrow
power,
of
students
the
perceptions
vague
have

third

progress,

their
lay beyond
own
students
looking through
caught by Japanese
and
the
Dutch
Tokugawa
factor}' at Deshima;
of

been

window

of

her

eagerly.

nineteenth

glimpses

shores

two

nature

removed

inventive
to

for

peace

offer

habits, overbearing

their

most

mentioned

triumvirate

their

the

civilisation,
European
of
and
propagandists

the

Tokugawa

the

enjoyed
it

and

appropriated

Under

in

superficial inferiorities.

firearms

"

Japanese
the

mariners,

its

by

offered

in

open

excellences.

its manifest

of

of

nothing to
point of view

her

deficient
with

those

had

century

essentially dirty

men,

of

greedy

in

conservatism

or

From

civilisation.

debauched

had

sixteenth

the

and

intrigues

own

prejudice

innate

in

narrow

having
long

had
nor

Americans

the

quickly
aspirations
politicians
and
and
first by
forcing open
Japan's doors, secondly by
Europeans
come,
tories,
defeats
her
two
greatest feudaon
inflictingcrushing yet conspicuously
easy
the
nations
of
she
all doubt
that
showed
her
lay at the mercy
beyond
to be
she had
sought in mimicry.
ignored and that her only protection was
of

not

CHAPTER

OLD

IV

JAPAN

interesting
portionof Japanese historyis that of the rise and fall
of
in turn
the
warlike families which
seized the power
and
Ages
the crown.
overawed
Of these the Taira
clan stands pre-eminent, though
of its history is mixed
that of its rival, the Minamoto
much
clan.
up with
The two
first into notice in the tenth century, and quickly mcreased
in
came
influence and strength. It would appear,
indeed, that the court strove to play
off the one
of either
against the other, being moved
by fear that the power
too great.
might become
Thus, if one of the Taira rebelled,the Minamoto
him ; while, if any
authorised
members
of the
to subdue
were
by the emperor
latter clan proved unruly, the Taira were
obtain
too
an
only
glad to
imperial
commission
This gave
to proceed against them.
rise to incessant intrigueand
frequent bloodshed, ending at last,in the middle of the twelfth century, in
warfare.
Taira no Kiyomori was
the head
of his clan ; he
at that time
open
of miscrupulous character
anil unbounded
was
a
man
stantly
ambition, and conoffices at court for hhnself, his family,and his adherstrove
to secure
ents.
In 1156-59
the rival
severe
fightingtook place at the capitalbetween
clans, each side strivingto obtain possessionof the person of the sovereignin
order to give some
In 1159
colour of right to its actions.
ally
Kiyomori eventuand
sword
of
the
the
executioner
triumphed,
ruthlesslycompleted the
his
of
in
the
chiefs
the field. Nearly
whole of the Minamoto
measure
success
off
them
A boy
cut
were
being Yoshitomo, the head of the clan.
among
named
Yoritomo, the third son of Yoshitomo, was, however, spared through
the intercession of Kiyomori's stepmother; and Yoshitsun^, also Yoshitomo's
and
two
son
brothers, permitted to live.
by a concubine, was, with his mother
Yoritomo
and his half-brother Yoshitsun6
destined eventually to avenge
were
The

most

in the Middle

"

586

HISTORY

THE

588

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1325-1594

for the
the

supposed

main

line of the
this

Upon
years

murder

been

Minamoto

commenced

adherents

of Yoriiy^ himself, and


the

of

the

family thus
supremacy
Minamotos.

to

came

of

as

the

The

an

he

died

without

D.]

issue,

oiul.

IIojo family,who
heirs

A,

of

the

latter

had

for

having

different
members
of the
conferred
shogun was
upon
Th(" military
Fujiwara, who all resided at Kamakura.
administration,however, was invariablyin the hands of the Hojos, who acted
lasted from
1225 to 1333 through
as
regents of the shogun ; their supremacy
the
of
the Hojo family."
called
what
"seven
generations
are
commonly
The
of
this
event
principalimportance during
period was the repulseof the
in
the
1281.
Kublai
Khan, founder
Mongol invasion, which occurred
year
of the Yuen
dynasty in China, had for some
repeatedlysent to
years back
from
demand
submission
Japan, but this being refused about ten thousand
of his troops attacked
in 1274.
This
Tsusluma
and Oki
expedition was
anil
also
to
in 1279, were
m
despatched
repulsed,and some
Japan
1275,
envoys
decapitatedby the regent, Hojo no Tokimun6.
Exasperated at this defiance,
the Mongol chief collected a mighty armament,
which
was
despatched to
in
of
1281.
The
numbers
force
this
are
invading
Japan
by Japanese writers
thousand
estimated at no less than one hundred
Chinese, Mongol, and Korean
of
descended
the
coast
Kiusiu, where several engagetroops. They
upon
ments
storm
were
fought ; eventuallya severe
destroyed and dispersedthe
fleet,and the Japanese,"
taking advantage of this favourable opportunity,
but
vigorouslyattacked and completely annihilated the invaders, of whom
said to have escaped to tell the tale. It is not surprisingthat no
three are
further
Japan should have been made
by the Mongols.
attempt to conquer
the close of the Hojo supremacy,
the succession to the crown
In 1331, towards
was
disputed,and from that time until 1392 there existed two courts, known

failed,the
illustrious

as

the

office of

house

northern

of

and

the

(establishedat

southern
the

; in the

of

latter year,

however, the southern


the
Kioto) handed
over

town
Nara, near
dynasty
Go
regaliato the emperor
Komatsu, who from that time was recognisedas
the legitimatemikado.
that
During the period of anarchy and civil war
attacked
and destroyed,in 1333,
took place in this century, Kamakura
was
from
the Minamoto
clan.
by Nitta Yoshisada, head of a family descended
The rule of the Hojos was
thus terminated,and by 1338 the family had wellnigh disappeared.
During the confusion and disturbance createtl by the contest between the
of the fifteenth century, Japan
rival courts, and also throughout the whole
fire
and
sword
in
civil
devastated
of the most
terrible descrii"
was
wars
by
tion.
Several families endeavoured
in succession
to acquire the supremacy,
but none
able
it
The
to wield
were
long.
dynasty of shogun (the A.shikaga
and though the families of Nitta, Uyesugi, and others
line)proved bad rulers,
unable
to pacify the whole
came
prominently into notice, they were
empire.
In the earlypart of the sixteenth
century what was termed the "later Hojo"
in the Kuan-to, and for "four generations" established their
family arose
chief seat at the town
of Odawara, in the province of Sagami, immediately
hills. At this time, too, lived the famous
to the east of the Hakone
generals
and
Ota
Nobunaga
Toyotomi Hid^yoshi. The latter is perhaps best known
to Europeans as the Taiko
Hid^yoshi,or simply as Taiko-sama, my lord the
Taiko."
it
here
be remarked, is not a name
Taiko,
(as commonly supmay
posed),
but a title,and signifies
literally
"great lord." Another common
is to speak of Hid^yoshi as the shogun ; he never
held that office. The
error
sixteenth century also saw
the first persecutionsdirected againstthe native
had been introduced
Christians;the religion
by the Portuguesein 1549, when
"

OLD

JAPAN

589

[1586-1S68A.D.]
to Japan. In 1586 Ota Nobunaga was
Xavier first came
and
assassinated,
him
in the chief militarypower.
In 1590 the family of
the taiko succeeded
overthrown
the "later Hojo" was
taken.
by him, and the town of Odawara

Hideyoshithen
of the
at

bestowed

Kuan-to,

Yedo, which

at

was

died in 1594.
The Tokugawa

at

his generalTokugawa
upon
him
the same
time directing

that

dynasty

period a

town

lasted from

of very

ly^yasu

the eightprovinces
take up his residence
small importance. Hideyoshi
to

the

appointment of lyeyasu to the


resignationof the last shogun, Yoshinobu
shogun
in
This
calletl
1867.
Keiki)
dynasty comprised fifteen generations of
(usually
the family,and is undoubtedly the most
important throughout the whole of
consummate
a
politicianas well as a sucJapanese history. lyeyasu was
cessful
general,and to him the powerful territorial nobles (daimio) throughout
the whole
from motives
of personal
country speedilysubmitted, some
and others under compulsion after a crowning victoryobtained
interest,
over
them by the Tokugawa chief at Sekigahara,on the confines of the provinces
of Mino
This famous
and Omi, in 1600.
battle completely established the
and
his
of
rule
was
lyeyasu,
gladly accepted by the country as
supremacy
of
end
the
bloodshed
and anarchy from which
all classes
to
scenes
puttingan
had so severelysuffered for well-nightwo centuries back.
Under
this dynasty
became
of shogun Yedo
a large and
populous city,as the presence of their
of all kinds.
The
court gave
a
grand impetus to trade and manufactures
of the mikado
the old huge, or court
at Kioto
attendants
scended
were
nobles,deof the imperialline;they were,
from
cadet branches
as
a
rule, of
anything but ample means,
yet their rank and prestigereceived full recognition
from
all classes.
of the shogun at Yedo
The court
the conon
trary,
was,
who
noted for their territorial
were
more
mainly composed of men
for skill in warlike accomplishments
possessionsand influence than for ancient lineage,
in 1603

office of

rather than
from

the

territorial

until

in literature and

nobles

clan (calledhatamoto), and


hatamoto

the

art.

This court

of Yedo

(daimio),the petty nobilityof


lower

attendants, etc., known

as

the

was

formed

Tokugawa

gok"nin.

The

in number, and
less than eighty thousand
no
were
originally
and
in fact the soldiers composing the victorious
of
ennobled
lyeyasu
army
by him ; they resided continuously in Yedo, very rarelyeven
visitingtheir
fiefs.
The
the
other
forced
in
to attend
daimio, on
hand, were
country
In
Yedo only at certain stated Intervals,
different
varying considerably
cases,
and spent the rest of their time at their castle-towns
in the provinces
their wives and families remaining behind in Yedo, virtually
as
hostages for
the good behaviour of the heads of their respective
clans.
The feudal system
thus introduced
was
by lyeyasu, but he was too wary to force his yoke in a
the great nobles.
He
precipitatemanner
gathered around him his
upon
immediate
whom
the more
he conferred
own
adherents, upon
important
of
the
in
of
of
cordon
trust
to
a
positions
(notably
regard
garrisoning
minor
his
castle
It
around
at
own
however,
Yedo).
strongholds
was,
reserv^ed
for his grandson lyemitsu (1623-1650) to complete the system
thus inaugurated; by the latter the nobles were
treated solelyas feudal
and
for
their guidance and dinrvassals,
stringentregulations
many
very
A similar course
tion were
was
put into force.
adopted by the successors
of lyemitsu, and
this system prevailed imtil the fall of the Tokugawa
Under
their rule,however, Japan enjoyed the benefit of
dynasty in 1868.
almost uninterruptedpeace for more
hundrerl
and fiftyyears ; the
than two
burden imposed by them was
of the clan
only cast off after fifteen members
*"
had succeeded
to the chieftainship.
were

"

THE

590

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1375-1549

FOREIGN

The

of

first account

works

of Marco

court

of Kublai

againstJapan
"Zipangu,"
at

the distance

of

Manji.i

RELATIONS

ended

any European writer is found in the


for seventeen
years (1275-1292) at the

an

expeditionundertaken

by that ruler

in failure.""

Polo, "is an
says Marco
of about
fifteen hundred

island in the eastern ocean


situated
miles from
the mainland, or coast

It is of considerable size; its inhabitants have fair complexions,


Their rehgion is the wormade, and are civihsed in their manners.
ship

well

are

D.]

Japan given by

Polo, who remained


Khan, and describes
wliich

A.

independent of every foreignpower, and governed


kings. They have gold in the greatest abundance, its
only by their own
sources
being inexhaustible; but as the king does not allow of its beuig
exported,few merchants ^isit the country, nor is it frequentedby much shipping
They

of idols.

from

are

other parts.
of the

To

tliiscircumstance

we

are

to

attribute

the e.xtraor-

ricluiess

sovereign'spalace,according to what we are told by


to the place. The entire roof is covered
those who have access
with a plating
of gold,in the same
manner
as
we
cover
more
houses,or,
properly,churches,
The
with lead.
of
ceihngs of the halls are of the same
preciousmetal ; many
the apartments have small tables of pure gold,considerablythick; and the
So vast, indeed, are
the riches of
windows, also,have golden ornaments.
that
it
is
the palace
In this island
idea of them.
an
impossibleto convey
of a pink colour,round
there are pearls,also,in large quantities,
in shape,
and of great size, equal in value to white pearls,
or
even
exceeding them.
It is customary with one
part of the inhabitants to bury their dead, and with
them.
The former have a practiceof putting one
another part to burn
of
of the corpse.
these pearls into the mouth
There
also found
there a
are
of preciousstones." "^
number
guese
Europeans began to \Tsit the island in the sixteenth century. Portuvessels
first
in
and
in
1549
the
Jesuit
came
trading
1542,
missionary
and were
Xavier with two companions landed in Satsuma
at firstwell received
by the king,although afterwards a royal edict forbade the acceptance of the
new
doctrine,and Xavier went to Hirado, where he met with more
success,
probably because the marked
by the Portuguese there to the
respect shown
of much
priestconvinced the prince of that pro\-incethat Xavier was a man
As is pointed out
influence at home.
and Yamagata"
by Messrs. Murdoch
in their Historyof Japan :
"The
that in matters
of religionthe average
simple fact was
intelligent
the
class
indifferentist
Laodicean
was
an
a
Japanese among
a
or
upper
of these things. To him
GaUio who cared for none
a new
rehgion was of far
interest than a new
less consequence
would
have been to an Engor
sauce
of the time of Voltaire.
His attitude towards
Ushman
ingly
it,in fact,is exceedwell indicated by Nobunaga's reply to those who questioned him about
the advisabiUtyof admitting Christianity
into his dominions
lishment
that the estabof one
sect in a country counting some
more
thirty-oddsects already
dinary

"

"

could not

be

of any real consequence.


On the other hand, to any new
notion in the sphere of practical
utiUty and to the advantage
the country might draw from it,the Japanese mind
was
then, as it is now,
and
alert.
aUve
Hence
the
keenly
was
every Japanese princelet
eager to see
in
his
but
and
wished
he
him
them
to
harbours,
Portuguese ships
bring
guns

product

'

have

The

or

true

mtcnded

matter

new

distance
Chinese

is about

li,of which

five hundred
there

are

miles; but, possibly,by miles Marco


nearly

three

in

our

mile.

Polo

may

OLD

JAPAN

591

[1542-1549A.D.]

gunpowder,not
latter could

and

crosses

teach

JAPAN

Japan,

found

as

smaller

many
group,

by

AS

the

unless these
merchants, and not priests,
practicalconsequence.""

"

with

one

SEEN

BY

THE

PORTUGUESE

Portuguese,embraced
(or Kiusiu), the

Ximo

ones.

the

and

missals

liis subjectssomething of real

which

the

three

besides
largeislands,

southern

and western
of the
first
became
Portuguese
acquainted,is
strait from the much
largerisland of Nippon,
most

separatedat the north by a narrow


'
portion a right angle, within
forming with its western
smaller

much

and
be divided

island of Shikoku

is included.

These

which

islands

the

third

found

were

to

into

sixty-six
separate governments, or kingdoms, of which Nippon
Kiusiu
four
the numerous
contained fifty-three,
smaller
nine, and Shikoku
islands being reckoned
as
appurtenant to one or another of the three larger
These kingdoms, grouped into eight,or rather nine, largerdivisions,
and
ones.
of which, in all,there were
dred,
not less than six hunsubdivided into principalities
the Japanese tradition)been provinces
had originally
(at least such was
but
of a consolidated
empire ;
by degrees and by dint of civil wars, by which
the islands had been, and stillwere, very much
distracted,they had reached, at
the
of
the period
dence.
Portuguese discovery,a state of almost complete indepenIndeed, several of the kingdoms, like that of Figen, in the west part
into independent principalities.
of Kiusiu, had still further disintegrated
united
It still frequentlyhappened, however, that several provinceswere
the case
with five central provincesof
under one ruler ; and such was
especially
Nippon,includingthe great cities of Miako (Kioto),Ozaka, and Sakai,which five
provincesformed the patrimony of a prince,who bore the title of Kubo-Sama
This
tuguese
title the Porsama
meaning lord,and kubo general or commander.
almost precisely
rendered into emperor,
and it was
to
equivalent the
the
still
of
of
the Imperator
more
responding
Romans, though
exactly corsense
original
"

"

title Lord-General.
to Cromwell's
otherwise called,
This kubo-sama, or shogun, as he was
was
acknowledged
The
other
by all the other princesas in some
respect their superiorand head.
rulers of provincesbore the title of Sougo or
Jacata, which the Portuguese

rendered

domain, a
the rest
who

were

themselves, as their personal


these chiefs divided
territories,
certain great vassals, called Tono, Conisu, or Kounidaimio,

by the term
good half of

among
bound

to

king.

the whole

Reserving

militaryservice

to

of their

extent

in

proportion to the extent


reservinga portion for

of the lands

their

private
they held; which lands,
domain, these nobles distributed in their turn to other inferior lords, called
who
held of them
similar conditions of militaryservice,and who
.Joriki,
upon
had stillbeneath
them, upon the same
footing,a class of militaryvassals and
of the feudal
tenants, called Dosiu, and corresponding to the men-at-arms
had also been, and
The
actual cultivators of the lands
times of Europe.
as
after

which

"

still to

considerable

extent

was,

the

case

in feudal

Europe

"

were

in the

dition
con-

of serfs.

happened that, as in feudal Europe, so in Japan, great armies


might be very suddenly raised; and war being the chief employment of the
superiorclasses,and the only occupation,that of the priesthoodexcepted,
Thus

it

esteemed
and

honourable, the whole

country

was

in

state of turbulence

constant

commotion.
['A

name

apply the

name

island
used for the main
commonly, but incorrectly,
Nippon or Dai-Nippon to the entire empire.]

of

Japan.

The

Japanese

HISTORY

THE

592

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1542-1600 i..D.)

last,enjoyed the highly


swords.
ferior
of wearing two
One sword
was
worn
by certain inprized honour
officials; but merchants, traders,and artisans were
confounded, as to
The revenue
this matter, with the peasants, not being permitted to wear
any.
still
in
kokii
and
reckoned
of the princesand other proprietors
is,
or kokf
was,
of rice,each of three sacks, or bales,each bale containing(accordingto Titsingh) thirty-threeand one-third gantings the universal Japanese measure
for all articles,
liquidor dry and weighing from eighty-two to eighty-three
than
hundred
of our
somewhat
a
more
pounds. Ten thousand
katties,or
of
oned.
the
in
which
the
kokf make
revenues
a man-kokf,
great princesare reckThe distinction of rank was
observed, being even
ingrained
very strictly
their heels,according to the
into the language. Inferiors,being seated on
Japanese fashion,testified their respect for their superiorsby layingthe palms
All the

classes above

enumerated, except

the

"

"

"iyS^

Entrance

to

Shogun's

Toire, Tokio

bending their bodies so low that their foreheads


for some
seconds.
positionthey remained
ground,
The
the
This is called the kitu.
superiorresponded by laying
palms of his
less
hands
his
knees
and
or
low, accordingto
nodding or bowing, more
upon
of their hands
almost

the rank

the floor and

on

touched

in which

the

of the other

party.

or the capacityof taking


everythingthat requiredpowers of analysis,
but poor observers ; yet they
generalviews, the Portuguese missionaries were
could not but perceivein the dairi the survivingshadow, and, indeed, in the
than
earlier days of the missions, something more
shadow, of a still
a mere

As to

ancient form

more

had

both

been

The

dairi,vo,

of government,
united
or

the northeast
Nippon, but nearest
surrounded

by

under

mikado,
quarter
the

in which

one

as

he

was

of Miako

southern

wall, with

ditch

the civil and

ecclesiastical authority

head.

dence
designated,had for his resiof
far
from
the
centre
(a great city,not
otherwise

shore). This quarter was


and
rampart, by which

of vast
it

was

extent,

separated

the rest of the city. In the midst of this fortified place,in a vast palace,
from a distance by the height of its tower, the dairi dwelt,
easilydistinguished

from

OLD

JAPAN

693

[1542-1600 D.]
A.

with his empress


had adjoiningpalacesin
or chief wife ; his other eleven wives
outside
of which were
the dwellingsof his chamberlains
and
a circle around,
other officers.
from
All the revenue
drawn
the city of Miako
and its dependencieswas
the kubo-sama
to their support, to which
added a further sum
appropriated
his treasury. He himself treated the dairi with as much
ceremonious
British
the
and
minister
bestows
as
semi-worship
prime
the
re^spect
upon
He paid an annual visit to the court of the dairi in great state,
British queen.
but took care
and with all the carriageof an inferior,
to maintain
a garrison
its
sufficient
to
at Miako, or
neighbourhood,
repress any attempt on the part
of the dairi or his partisansto re-establish the old order of things an idea
to the Portuguese,seems
not yet
which, when the islands firstbecame known
from

"

been entirelyabandoned.
whole court of the dairi,and all the inhabitants of the quarter of
Miako in which he dwelt, consisted of persons who
plumed themselves upon
from Tensio Dai-Dsin,the
the idea of being, like the dairi himself,descended
in consequence
looked down, like the Indian
first of the demigods, and who
to have
The

all the rest of the nation


inferior race, distinguishing
as
an
upon
themselves as huge, and all the rest of the nation as gege.
These kuge, who
be
have
formed
class
to
once
a
conjectured
resembling the old Roman
may
all
which
indicated not only their
was
dress,by
patricians, wore a particular
of
that
the
members
character as
order, but, by
length of their sashes,the
rank which
particular
they held in it ; a distinction the more
since,
necessary,

Brahmans,

as

generallyhappens

were

in

state

of

with

these

poverty, and

aristocracies of

of
birth,many
obliged to support themselves

the members

by

various

handicrafts.
and of the ceremonials of it,
Of the magnificenceof the court of the dairi,
of course, on
missionaries reported many
the credit of
stories,
chiefiy,
It
the
allowed
said
that
dairi
breathe
to
the common
never
was
hearsaj'. was
foot
touch
that
he
the
to
his
the
air,nor
never
wore
ground ;
same
garment
twice,nor ate a second time from the same
dishes,which, after each meal,
the

for should
other person
carefullybroken
attempt to dine from
any
mflammation
of the throat.
he would infallibly
Nor could
perishby an
the dairi's cast-off garments, without his perwho attempted to wear
anyone
mission,
similar punishment. The
in
a
dairi, as we are told,was
escape
ancient times obliged to seat himself every morning on his throne,with the
his head, and there to hold himself immovable
for several hours like
crown
on
of the tranquillity
This mimobility,it was
a statue.
was
an
imagined,
augury
of the empire ; and if he happened to move
to turn his
ever
so
or
little, even
the
to
afflict
was
or
expected soon
pestilence
unhappy
eyes, war, famine, fire,
provincetowards which he had squinted. But as the country was thus kept
in a state of perpetualagitation,
the happy substitute
hit upon
of
was
finally
the throne without the dairi
fixed immobility
a more
placingthe crown
upon
being thus assured ; and, as Kampfer drilyobserves,one doubtless producing
much
the same
good effects.
At the time of the arrival of Xavier in Japan the throne of the dairi was
filledby Gonara, the hundred
and sixth,according to the Japanese chronicles,
in the order of succession ; while the throne of the kubo-sama
was
occupied
the next
his
Josi
by Josi Far, who was succeeded
Tir,the twentyyear by
son,
fourth of these officers,
accordingto the Japanese,since their assumption of
in
the
sovereignpower
person of Joritomo, 11S5 a.d.
One might have expected from the Portuguese missionaries a pretty exact
account
of the various creeds and sects of Japan, or, at least,
of the two leading
were

"

them

"

H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

2q

OF

HISTORY

THE

594

CHINA

JAPAN

AND

[1543-1600A.D.]

between
which the great bulk of the people were
divided; instead of
religions
under the
which they confound
perpetuallythe ministers of the two religions
between
of bonzes, taking very little pains to distinguish
two
name
common
false and pernicious. Their
both
of
which
as
equally
regarded
they
systems
fixed on the new
been principally
to have
religion,
attention,indeed, seems
that of Buddha, or Fo, of which the adherents were
by far the most numerous,
and the hierarchythe most
isation
compact and formidable, presenting,in its organand practices(with,however, on some
points a very different set of
a
similarity
singularcounterpart to the Catholic church
doctrines),a most
diabolical
of
tion
imitathe
a
which the missionaries could only explainby
theory
have
been
to
inclined
ascribe,
subsequent Catholic writers
; and which some
labours
of Armenian
ancient
and
the
to
grounds,
unsatisfactory
upon
very
ever,
Nestorian missionaries,
being extremely unwillingto admit what seems, howlittle attention has as yet been
very probable,if not, indeed, certain
that
this
to
some
leading ideas of the Catholic
interesting
inquiry
given
"

"

"

been

have

church

derived
know

penetrating,as we
well be supposed

may

Buddhist

from

they
not

to

have

missionaries,while

whose

sources,

did,to the

East, and convertingentire nations,


their influence

without

been

also

on

the

West.

Notwithstanding,however, the generalprevalence,at the time when Japan


of which there
first became
known
to Europeans, of the doctrine of Buddha
of distinct observances, not unlike the
to have been-quitea number
would seem
"

and

difTerent orders of monks


well

the memoirs

from

friars in the Catholic

of the Jesuit missionaries

church

from

as

more

"

it appears,

and

exact

as

sequent
sub-

observations made
by residents in the Dutch service,that there also
ancient religious
existed another and more
system, with which the person and
been
still
and
of
the
dairi
had
were
closelyidentified. This system
authority
of
of
the
Kami
the
known
a name
given not only to
as
was
rehgion Shinto, or
"

the first
or
gods, who compose
mythological personages,
who
terrestrial gods,
or
compose
Japanese dynasty, and to the five demigods,
the second
(two dynastieswhich, as in the similar mythology of the Egyptians
and incomprehensible
and Hindus, were
imagined to have extended through inunense
the
whole
but
also
the
of
including
era
Sjm-Mu),
preceding
ages
who traced their descent from the firstof the demigods, and
series of the dairi,
went,
who, though regardedduring their lives as mere
yet at their deaths undermen,
which
in
the
of
the
Roman
they
b
y
Ca;sars,a regularapotheosis,
as
case

the

were
same

celestial

seven

added

to the

nmnber

of the

signification,
namely,

Kami,

inhabitants

or

Sin

"

both

words
A

of heaven.

like

of which

had

the
also

apotheosiswas

their miracles,
had seemed
extended
to all who
to deserve it by their sanctity,
their great benefactions.
or
of the first dynasty, the seven
The Kami
superiorgods,being regardedas
above
the earth to concern
in what
is passingon it,
themselves
too elevated
the chief object of the worship of the adherents
the goddess Tensio
Dai-Dsin, already mentioned
and

the

supposed progenitorof

Of this Tensio

Dai-Dsin,

and

the

of her

dairi,and
heroic and

of
as

this
the

of the whole

miraculous

ancient

system

first of the

order of the

deeds,

was

demigods,

Kuge.

great many

quitted the ancient religion


the
the new
sects paid a sort of worship to
pretended mother of the
and
there was
not a considerable
city in the empire in which
Japanese nation,
of the
there was
not a temple to her honour.
On the other hand, the religion
Kami, by its doctrine of the apotheosisof all great saints and great heroes,
gods,so
a hospitablereceptionto all new
religions,
gave, like the old pagan
identhe rival demigod, Buddha, came
that even
as
to be regarded by many
fables were
to embrace

in circulation.

Even

those who

had

THE

596

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1542 irao A.n.]

been

to have

liorn and

venerated, and
are

to liave

died, and

already mentioned

as

wliich contains

the model

mia

after which

oxceeilingly

all the

others

built.

Though it is not at all easy to distinguishwhat, either of ceremony


or
doctrine,was peculiaror originalin the system of Shinto, yet in generalthat
been much
less aasterc
than the rival doctrine of Buddha,
to have
system seems
which
teaches that sorrow
is inseparable from
existence,the only escape
from
of Shinto were, on
it being in annihilation.
The adherents
the other
much
look
of
the
side
to
more
tUsposed
things, turning
hand,
bright
upon
their religiousfestivals into holidays,and regarding people in sorrow
and
(Ustress as unfit for the worship of the gods, whose
felicity
ought not to be
(Usturbed
of
by the sight of pain and misery. And this,perhaps, was
one
of Buddha, which
the causes
that enabled the religion
addresses itself more
the world is so full,
that predomito the sorrowing hearts of which
to obtain
nancy
the Portuguese missionaries found
of which
it in possession.
of the Buddhist
At the head
a
hierarchy was
high priestcalled Xako,
the same
resident at Miako, and having nmch
spiritual
prerogativewith the
of Rome,
of saints.
him
With
rested the
uicluding the canonisation
pope
of the tuiulies,
to
consecration
the
rather
to the
corresponding
bishops,or
all the Buddliist
abbots, of the CathoUc church
clergybeing,in the language
and
that is,to the monLs
of Rome,
and Uving together
regulars(similar,
friars),
"

in monasteries

of "which

the tundies

the heads.
These tundies,
were
to which
were
offices,
great revenues
of the temporal authorities,which
took care
of the Xako
and
the interference
the tundies
to Umit
strictlyto spiritual
There
this further resemblance
also to the regular orders of
matters.
was
of
the Romish
divided into a number
church, that the Buddliist clergywere
other
less
hostile
each
to
observances
than
the
Dominicans
the
to
hardly
Franciscans, or both to the Jesuits. But as the church and state were
kept
and as the bonzes possessed no
direct temporal
in Japan perfectlydistinct,
there was
no
appeal to the secular arm, no civil punishments for
power,
far
vows
jierpetually
binding,all being at liberty,
so
heresy, and no religious
the civil law was
concerned,to enter or leave the monasteries at pleasure.
as
There wore
also,besides the more
regularclergy,enthusiasts,or impostors,
who
Uverl
religious
vagabonds
by beggary and by pretending to flrive away
evil spirits,
to find things lost, to discover robbers, to determine
guiltor
of accused
innocence
to
to
the
future, to
parties, interpretdreams,
predict
and
other
similar
which
they jierformedcliiefly
feats,
cure
desperatemaladies,
not of a table,but of a child,into wliom
through the medium
they pretended
all their (jucstions.Such, in parmake
to
a
spiritenter, able to answer
ticular,
of
the Jarmnabos, or moimtain
order of the religion
were
an
priests,

however, could not enter upon


attached, except by the consent

their

Shinto.
the Japanese were,
ing
there was
not wantas
Yet, exceedinglysuperstitious
of
natural
tht-m
of
of
the
result
freedom
.sect
RationaUsts,
a
opinion,
among
who
regarded all these practicesand doctrines,and all the various creeds
and even
of the country, with
secret
incredulity,
contempt. These RationConfucius
their master
and teacher.
ahsts looked vij) to the Chinese
as
They
Buddlia
of
witii
treated the system
as
mere
hostility,
imposture and
open
of behig destitute of all religion,
falsehood, but in order to avoid the odium
conformed, at least so far as external observances were concerned,to the old

national
The
1639.

system of Shinto.''
Portuguese remained

in

banishment

due

Their

was

the
to

country until they


various

causes.

were

expelledin

Already in 1587 the

OLD

JAPAN

597

[1587-1639 D.]
A.

had

signed

order

banishing the missionaries,


which, however,
out
not
of whom
owing to the oppositionof the princes,some
was
the emperor
had
been converted, and
even
a
gracious reception to
gave
had
to inspect the Jesuit establishments
Father VaUgnani, who
in the
come
tliis time also the emperor's attention
East.
At about
was
occupied with
his death in 1598 that dependency of Cliina
invasion of Korea, but upon
an
serious blow to the Jesuits came
abandoned.
The most
from
was
definitely
of the Spanish at Manila
and
the reUgiousrivalryof
the commercial
ri\'alry
and
Dominican
friars. Spanish vessels first began to visit
the Franciscan
of
sixteenth
the
close
the
Japan near
century, and the traders resented the
of
trade
the
monopoly
enjoyed by
Portuguese. It was not difficult for them
of the emperor
mind
stillfurther to prejudicethe
against their rivals,and
in
of Japanese converts.
1597
with the execution
active persecutionbegan
the converted
mitil 1637, when
of a
The persecutioncontmued
inhabitants
whole district in the province of Hizen, numbering over
thirty thousand,
emperor

an

carried

in rebelfion and

arose

The

aU

were

massacred."

accused

Portuguese were

of

having encouraged tliisrevolt ; in consequence


tuguese,
only banishing all the Por-

ecUct was
of which
issued,in 1638, not
an
but forbiddingalso any Japanese to go
follows :
as
edict,as given by Kampfer, was

out

of the

country.

of Japan, shall presume


No Japanese ship or boat whatever, nor
any native
the crew
acts contrary to this shall die, and the ship with
and
the country: whoso
shall be sequestered till further order.

Japanese
a

reward

from

of

out

goods aboard

shall be put to death.


Whoever
discovers
a
priest
silver,and for every Christian in proportion.'
All persons
who
propagate the doctrine of the Catholics, or bear this scandalous
name,
shall be imprisoned in the ombra, or common
jailof the town.
whole
their mothers, nurses,
and whatever
The
of the Portuguese, with
race
belongs to
to Macao.
them, shall be banished
Whoever
to bring a letter from
abroad, or to return after he hath been banished,
presumes
for him shall be put to death.
shall die with all his family; also whoever
to intercede
presumes
No nobleman
nor
any soldier shall be suffered to purchase anything of a foreigner.
All

shall have

who

to go

That

return

of 400

abroad

shuets

to 500

of

back with a copy


of this edict,
sent
Portuguese ships of 1639 were
The
being suffered to discharge their cargoes.
corporation of the
which
on
city of Macao, greatly alarmed at the loss of a lucrative trafiic,
their prosperitymainly depended, sent deputies to soUcit some
modification
to cause
of this edict.
But the only reply made
these
was
by the emperor
the
of
their
number
to
^vith
attendants,
themselves,
sixty-one
deputies
sons,
perto be seized and
put to death, as violators of the very edict against
Thirteen
which
only, of the lowest
they had been sent to remonstrate.
of the fate
with
tliis
account
back
to
sent
Macao, August, 1640,
rank, were
The

\\'ithout

"^

of their company.

ENGLISH

AND

DUTCH

IN

JAPAN

English had found the way to Japan.


reached the harbour
de Liefde,which
the Dutch
The first ship to arrive was
of Bimgo in April,1600, having on board an
by name,
English pilot,Adams
and
at the
time
who
at Yedo
was
frecjuently
subsequently lived for some
valuable
accomits
has left interesting
and historically
of lyeyasu. He
court
to
that the Portuguese did all in their power
of what
It appears
he saw.
In

'

the

shuet

$2,500.

mean

time

of silver

the

weighs

Dutch

about

and

five ounces,

so

that

the

reward

offered

was

from

S2,000

to

OF

HISTORY

THE

598

CHINA

JAPAN

AND

[1600-1609 A.D.]

injure these

newcomers,

and

procure

Adams

says

tugal!
sixe days came
a Porpirats,
Jesuite,with other Portugals,who reportedof vs, that we were
of merciiandising. Which
in the way
not
report caused the govwere
that we
and common
people to thinke euiU of vs : In sucli luanner

of this treatment:

ernours

to
trj'irig

even

their death.

'

"After

wee

had

been

there fiue

or

which
is the execution
should be set upon
looked always when
we
crosses;
and more
Thus
other crimes.
dailymore
in this land for theeuery and some
us."
and
the
increased
the
against
the Portugalls
people
justices
interval efforts
Adams
time, durmg which
was
kept in prison for some
had
who
to
kill
these
to
come
the
made
people
to persuade
were
emperor
have
of
to
His own
sense
justice,however, seems
injureJapanese trade.

injuringpersons who had done him no harm, and Adams


had
remained
the
on
allowed to join his companions, who
set free and
was
he received
in return
for which
built two shipsfor the emperor,
ship. Adams
him by giving him
a Uving
the Japanese ruler tried to .satisfy
a pension,and
that
husbandmen
in
with
or
Hke unto
England,
eighty
ninety
a
lordship
ence
Adams
slaves."
servants
be as my
acquired a considerable influor
finally
in the country, held the rank of a Japanese samurai,owned
property, and
in Japan,
He
died
India
the
East
from
received a salary
Company.
EngUsh
ves.sel
the
In
the
Dutch
1609
to England.
without
having returned once
establi-sh
and obtained
arrived at Hirado
a
factory
Red Lion
permission to
in 1613 the English captain Saris succeedeil in establishing
at that place,and
place,leavingit in charge of Richard Cocks.
a factoryin the same
and English cUd not
The mutual
however, of the Hollanders
jealousies,
executed about
In 1623 the Dutch
at Ambojma
permit them to hve in peace.
of having
of
the
factors
the
East
India
on
dozen
charge
English
Company
a
This
Dutch
fort.
residents
seize
the
to
on
with
coming
Japanese
conspired
that
trade
with
their
in
led
the
abandon
to
of
Enghsh
quarrels Japan,
top
that time until the nineteenth century the Dutch
country altogether. From
had almost a monopoly of the Chinese trade. "
trade began in 1609, and in a short time it gained a very considerable
The Dutch
which
the
it increased,
the tratUng establishments
extent
as
; and
of
mosa,
ForDutch
graduallyobtained in India and Persia,and that on the island
with a supply of
them
to China, furnished
whence
they had access
rich silks,the great article of import into Japan. As the Portuguese trade
prevented him

from

"

land,
from Holtrade was
not
carried on
Macao, so the Dutch
Batavia.
The year preceding the shutting up of the Dutch
The previous
of any.
is stated to have been the most
in Deshima
profitable
that
of
but
sales
in
had
been
about
tons
gold ;
sixty
year the
Japan
average
of
of
value
had
and
the
to
Dutch
eighty tons of
imported
disposed
goods
Dutch
three
million
hundred
thousand
ton of gold
two
dollars,a
gold (that is,
hundred
fourteen
or
$40,000.) Among the exports were
being 100,000 florins,
was

carried
but

chests

of

on

from

from

silver,each

chest

containing 1,000 taels,or

near

$2,000,000 in

silver alone.

time, however, owing to the comparative exhaustion of the


comparative increase of gold, that metal became a leading,as,
article of export with the
been before a considerable,
to have
indeed,it seems
The gold kobang, the national coin of the Japanese, weighed at this
Dutch.
hundred
and seventy-fourgrains
time
forty-sev^enkanderins, that is, two
in fineness,conif
in
inferior
taining
the
superior
weight,
kobang was
troy. But,
the
hundred
of pure gold only two
and twenty-four grains,whereas
About

silver,or

this

the

['Quoted

by Murdoch

and

Yamagata.']

OLD

JAPAN

599

[1623-1671 A.D.]

eagle contains two hundred and thirty-twograins. It passed in Japan and


which
enabled them
was
purchased by the Dutch for six taels or less in silver,
of Coromandel, where
the coast
to dispose of it to good advantage on
the
much
relative value of gold was
higher. In the two years 1670-1671
more
hundred
thousand
than one
kobangs were
exported, at a profitof a milhon
to that time the Dutch
sent annually to Japan five or
florins;and down
six
In 1644
the export of copper
began, and went
shipsa year.
on
gradually
increasing. In 1671 an edict was issued prohibitingthe further export of
had already ceased
to the Dutch, who
silver; but this gave no concern
to
it.
Its
the
who
at
this
was
time
principal
operation
against
Chinese,
export
carried on a great trade to Japan.

TRADE

WITH

CHINA

relations of China and Japan our


early commercial
knowledge is
the
As
at
to
their
annals
an
Japanese
early
according
own
era,
very
it is probable,by Buddhist
(constructed,
priests)as early as 600 a.d., had
and
Buddhist
received from China
missionaries,
through them the language,
of
the
it
would
characters,
^science,
Chinese,
seem
graphic
probable that
etc.,
commercial
intercourse
have
must
these two
some
early existed between
If so, however, the threatened
nations.
Mongol invasion,towards the end
have been hkely to have interruptedit. The
of the thirteenth century, would
which
after the expulsionof the Mongols,
succeeded
native
Chinese
dynasty,
)
all
of
and
hostile to intercourse with them.
exceedinglyjealous
was
strangers
No foreigntrade was
allowed, and every Chinese who left his country incurred
of perpetual banishment.
It is true that the Chinese colonists,
a sentence
that had emigrated,perhaps on the invasion of the Mongols, and had settled
countries (as others did afterwards
in the neighbouring maritime
the invasion
on
stillcontrived
of the present Manchu
to
course
interdynasty),
keep up some
with China, while they carried on a vigorous trade with the adjacent
islands and countries ; but at the time of the Portuguese discoveryno such
trade would
to have existed with Japan.
seem
The
Manchu
the throne in 1644, was
much
less
dynasty, which mounted
and under their rule the Cliinese trade to Japan appears
hostile to foreigners,
This was
to have rapidlyincreased.
partlyby vessels direct from China, and
commercial
the
enterpriseof the Chinese fugitiveswho possessed
partlyby
in 1662
which
themiselves of Formosa, from
they drove out the Dutch, or
Of

the

limited.

who

had

settled elsewhere

on

the

islands
"when

and
and

coasts

with

of southeastern

what

Asia.

over," says Kampfer,


people,
goods they pleased. So extensive and advantageous a liberty
could not but be very
pleasingto them, and put them upon thoughts of a
in
order
to which, and for the free exercise of their religion,
establishment,
surer
at
built
three
they
temples
Nagasaki, according to the three cliief languages
of
them
the
each
(those
northern, middle, and southern provinces),
spoken by
China."
of
their
from
be
to
to be attended
sent
nation,
own
by priests
over
mentioned
as
Though the prohibitionof the export of silver,
ha\ing taken
did
affect
in
the
the
not
the
next
menced
Dutch,
place 1671,
Japanese comvery
year
"They came
junks, and

the Dutch

maas
no

system of

measures

which

within

quarter of

numbers

of

century reduced

since reit has ever


the very narrow
hmit at which
mained.
commerce
The first step was
to raise the value of the kobang to six tael eight
of it. The Dutch
of silver ; nor
this by any means
the worst
were
was
merchants.
The
allowed
sell
their
the
native
to
to
longer
goods
governto

THE

600

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1C71-1G85 A.D.]

less
appointed appraisers,who set a certain value on the goods, much
than the old prices,
valuation the Dutch
must
at which
sell,or else take the
goods away.
Anything which (he goods sold for to the .Japanesemerchants,
into the town
the appraisement, went
over
treasury of Nagasaki. These appraisemen
lower and lower every year, tillat last the Dutch, threatening,
grew
if thingswent
in this way,
the trade altogether,
to abandon
on
petitionedthe
be
I'estored
their
ancient
After
three years,
to
to
waiting
privileges.
emperor
The
but at the
abolished,
answer.
a
were
they got
appraisements
gracious
in
the
which
order
issued
amount
same
was
time,
1G85, an
sudilenly
limiting
ment

the Dutch

taels,or
and

sell in any

might

in Dutcii

one

to ten

money

the value of three luuulred


thousand
of
half
four
huntlred
tons
a
gold,equal to
All the goods of any one
year'simportation

dollars.
thousand
had
remaining after that amount

twenty

been

SowA-0

sale.

annual

the

At

twenty-fivethousand

time

same

to

year

and

realized

Nagasaki

ToRu,
the

annual

so

matters

piculs; and

tillthe next

lay over

to

were

export of copper
stood

limited to

was

the time

at

of

Kampfer's

visit.

The
"

we

trade

Chinese

quote again

had

from

meanwhile

Kiimpfer
"

gone

"as

to

on

make

spect Japanese extremely jealous of them.


there arrived

junk with
than

ten

not

at

increasing"to that degree"


the suspiciousand circuniIn

the

in each

1683
and 1684
years
hundred
junks, every

Nagasaki,
year, at least two
fiftypeople on board, making

less than

thousand

Chinese

visitors."

In China, the women,


Chinese thither.
No
man
kept in perfectseclusion.

Nor

was

it trade

for each

more

year

alone that drew

the

except those of servile condition,are


sees

even

the

woman

he

is to

marry

forbidden
his wife; and courtesanshipis strictly
actuallybecome
and
in
have
is
different
and pimished. Tiie case, as we
Japan,
widely
seen,
and
Chinese
attracted
to
"purely
numerous
Nagasaki
were
wealthy
young
to spend some
for their pleasure,"as Kampfer observes,"and
part of their
beneficial
that town"
with
which
to
Japanese wenches,
proved very
money
view
mercantile
of
the
!
matter
truly a very
till she

"

has

OLD
[1684-1793

A.

JAPAN

601

D.]

of Chinese visitors excite jealousy,


only did this increasingnumber
the
aroused
still more
but what
that the
suspicion of the Japanese was
of China
with
Jesuits,having gained the favour of the then reigningmonarch
the liberty of preaching and
propagating their religionin all parts of the
tracts and
books, which the Jesuit fathers had found the means
empire,some
characters,were
to printin China, in Chinese
brought over to Japan among
which
made
the Japanese apprehenother Chinese books, and sold privately,
sive
which
the CathoUc
had been exterminated
that by this means
religion,
the loss of so many
with so much
trouble and
thousand
might be
persons,
the
revived again in the country." And
that
they even
suspected
importers
at least favourers
of the Catholic
of these books, if not actual converts, were
"

Not

doctrine.
These

time with the


produce, in 1684, at the same
edict by wliich
the Dutch, an
the Chinese
restrictions placed upon
were
hmited to an annual
importation double the value of that allowed the Dutch,
of junks
namely, 600,000 taels,equivalent to $840,000, the annual number
number
not
to exceed
was
assignedto each provseventy, of which a specific
ince
and colony,and each to bring not more
than thirtypersons.
Chinese
at the .same
books were,
time, subjected to a censorship,two censors
being
for
the other for historical and scientific works,
theological,
appointed, one
their approval.
to be imported without
none
in
followed
the
This was
the
1688, by another order,by which
up,
year
Chinese were, like the Dutch, shut up in a sort of prison,for wliich,like the
The
site chosen for this
Dutch, they were
compelled to pay a heavy rent.
a garden, pleasantlysituated,
just outside of the town, on the side
spot was
It was
covered
with several rows
of small
of the harbour
oppositeDeshima.
with
roof,and the whole was surrounded
houses, each row having a common
from
which
and
the
exit
wellditch
was
a
only
through
a
strong paUsade,
guarded double gates. Even here the Chinese had no permanent residence,
like the Dutch.
They arrived in detachments, twenty junks in spring,thirty
in summer,
and after selling
their goods,went
and twenty in autumn;
away,
leavingthe house empty.
and the Chinese, the Loochoo
Besides the trade with the Dutch
islands
also permitted to carry on a particulartrade with the province of Satwere
the prince of which
ereign.
they acknowledged as in some
respects their sovsuma,
limited to the annual
The import and sale of their goods was
amount
of 125,000 taels,
largeramount
was
though in Kampfer's time a much
gled
smugin, largequantitiesof Cliinese goods being thus introduced.
combined

reasons

FIRST

The
had

northeastern
was

Asia.
the

towards
that

CONTACT

WITH

RUSSIA

foreign nation to take an interest in Japan was


brought into these regions by her explorationsand

next

been

to

an

Her

end

American

of

Rus.sia,who

conquests in
first attempt to establish
intercourse with Japan
wards
the eighteenth century, and it was
not
long afterThe
efforts of
flag appeared in Japanese waters.

and their struggles


to be politethough
Japanese to keep out the foreigners
inhospitableare truly pathetic."
hail
of Okliotsk
of a Japanese vessel shipwrecked in the sea
The
crew
in
and
been saved by the Russians, about
taken
to
Siberia,
Irkutsk,
1782,
where
At length the governor
of Siberia was
directed,
they lived for ten years.
by the empress Catherine II,to send home these Japanese,and with them an
the

OF

HISTORY

THE

602

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1793-1797 A.D.]

Lieutenant

from
himself.
selected
Laxmann,
her, but
as
envoj', not
in the autumn
of 1792, landed on the
sailed from Okhotsk
for this purpose,
he
northern
of Yezo, and
coast
passed the winter there. The next summer
from

entered
From

the harbour
that

of
he

town

Hakodate,

travelled

the northern

on

by

land

to

the

coast

of the strait of

city of Matsumai,

Sangar.
days'

three

Japanese settlement on the island, the


which,
conmmnicating with Yedo, delivered to him a
"That
the
effect:
to
although it was ordained by the laws
following
paper
of Japan that any foreigners
landinganywhere on the coast, except at Nagasaki,
should
be seized and condenmed
to perpetualimprisonment, yet, considering
the ignorance of the Russians, and their having brought back
the
shipwrecked Japanese, they might be permitted to depart, on condition of
never
approaching,under any pretence, any part of the coast except Nagasaki.
"As
much
to the Japanese brought back, the government
was
obligedto
the Russians, who, however, were
take them away
at libertyto leave them
or
again,as they pleased,it being the law of Japan that such persons ceased to
be Japanese,and became
the subjectsof that government
into whose
hands
had
them.
With
cast
to
commercial
destiny
negotiations,those
respect
could only take placeat Nagasaki, and a paper was
sent authorising
a Russian
vessel to enter
that port for that purpose
but
the
Christian worship was
as
;
allowed
iii Japan, any, persons
admitted
into Nagasaki must
not
carefully
it."
Laxmaim
treated
with great courtesy, though kept
abstain from
w-as
in a sort of confinement; he was
supported, with his crew, by the Japanese
with
authorities while he remained, and
dismissed
was
presents and an
of
f
or
which
would
be
received.
no
supply
provisions,
ample
payment
Here
the matter
rested for several years ; but into a school for teaching
II established
at Irkutsk, the capitalof eastern
navigation,which Catherine
she
introduced
of
Siberia,
a
professorship the Japanese language, the professors
taken
from
the Japanese shipwrecked from
time
to
being
among
time on the coast of Siberia.
the Dutch
to Japan
Meanwhile, even
conmierce
had
restrictions.
Whether
from
the prevalenceof the
new
undergone some
tion
frog-in-a-wellpolicy,or from apprehensions,as it was said,of the exhausof the copper
in 1790
limited to a single ship
mines, the Dutch
were
their expendituresto this diminished
armually,while, to accommodate
trade,
the hitherto yearlyembassy to Yedo
in
four
to be sent
was
only once
years,
and his officers were
stillrequiredas
though armual presents lo the emperor
journey

to

authorities

the

west,

of

and

the

chief

after

"

"

before.

AMERIC.\N

SHIPS

IN

J.\P.\NESE

The

WATERS

occupation of Holland by the French armies not only exposed Dutch


of her eastern
several
capture by the English; it cost Holland
obstacles in the way
of the Japanese trade.
colonies,and thus placed new
doubt
It was
to diminish
the danger of capture by the British that, in the
no
the
1797,
ship despatched from Batavia sailed under the .\merican flag,
year
and
carried American
while
the commander,
one
Captain Stewart,
papers,
in
from
Madras
ican,
though
realityan Englishman
or
Bengal, passed for an Amerand his ship as the Eliza, of New
York.
That
the crew
of this vessel
and
not
Dutch, was
spoke English,
inmiediatelynoticed by the interpreters
at Nagasaki, and
the Japanese officials;
produced a great sensation among
but at last,after vast difficulty,
that though
made
to understand
they were
the crew
the English,"but of another
not
spoke English,they were
nation,
essential point,that they had nothing to do with
and, what was a still more
vessels

to

"

THE

604

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1811 A.D.]

met

with

Soon

(July 13th).
interpreter,
having

four
after,Golovnin, with two officers,
the
southern
of
end
landed at a bay on

men,

and

Kuiiashiri,
and
the twentieth
a garrison,
Kurile, where the Japanese had a settlement
they were
taken,
they were invited into the fort,and made prisoners.Thence
at the
partlyby watt'r and partly by land, to Hakodate, a Japanese town
This journey occupied four weeks, in which,
southern
extremity of Yezo.
hundred
miles.
by Golovnin's calculation,they travelled between six and seven
of
their
The
it
hundred
and
stated
at
two
fifty-five
leagues. The
Japanese
islanil.
the
of
the
followed was
coast
east
route
Every two miles or
along
all
of
extensive
from
which
fisheries were
there
so
was
a
populous village,
the
business
of
the
inhabitants.
The
fish were
carried on, evidently
great
best
of
the
The
salmon species,
were
caught in great nets, hundreds at once.
animal
The
but every
kind of marine
eaten.
was
gatheringof sea-weeds for
food (of the kind called by the Russians
siderable
sea-cabbage)also constituted a conof industry. In the northern
branch
villagesthe inhabitants were
native
Kuriles, with a few Japanese officers. Within
a hundred
principally
the villages
and twenty or thirtymiles of Hakodate
inhabited entirely
were
much
than those farther north,
by Japanese,and were
largerand handsomer
and
and
their
orchards,
having gardens
distinguished
by
scrupulousneatness ;
but even
the Kurile
inhabitants
of Yezo
far superiorin civilisation and
were
northern
islands belongingto Russia.
comforts to those of the more
first seized by the
When
with
bound
cords,
Japanese the Russians were
about the thickness of a finger,
all
and others still smaller.
some
They were
tied exactlyalike (accordingto the prescribedmethod
for binding those arrested
criminal
of knots
number
on
charges),the cords for each having the same
and nooses, and all at equal distances.
There were
round
their
breasts
loops
and necks ; their elbows were
almost
drawn
behind their backs,
into contact
and
their hands
these fasteningsprowere
firmly bound
together. From
ceeded
of
the
end
which
held by a Japanese, who, on the
a long cord,
was
in
the elbows come
slightest
attempt to escape, had only to pull it to make
about the neck as almost
contact,with great pain,and so to tightenthe noose
to produce strangulation. Their legswere
also tied togetherabove the ankles
and above the knees.
Thus tied,they were
conveyed all the way to Hakodate,
having the choice,for the land part of the route, either to be carried in a rude
sort of palanquin formed
of planks,on which
obligedto lie flat,or
they were
to walk, which
for which purpose
less
and
they generallypreferredas
irksome,
the cords about the ankles were
above
the knees loosened.
removed, and those
The cords were
drawn
so
tightas to be very painful,and even after a while to
clined
incut into the flesh ; yet, though in all other
respects the Japanese seemed
the comfort
to consult
of the prisoners,
they would not, for the first six
turned out
or seven
days, be induced to loosen them, of which the chief reason
to be their apprehensionlest the prisonersmight conmiit
suicide
that being
the Japanese resource
under
such extremities.
Their escort consisted of from one
hundred
and fifty
to two hundred
men.
Two
from
the
Japanese guides
changed at each new
neighbouring villages,
led the way,
three
Then
district,
came
bearing handsomely carved staves.
then
Golo\Tiin
other
with a soldier on one
soldiers,
Captain
side,and on the
a

Kurile

"

an

attendant

against which

with

twig

his bound

to drive off

hands

the gnats, which


from

were

troublesome, and

hind
Bedefending himself.
officer holding the ends of the ropes by which
the prisonerwas
came
an
bound, then a party of Kuriles bearing his kango, followed by another relief
manner.
party. The other captivesfollowed,one by one, escorted in the same
three
and
of
servants
number
and
Kurile
came
a
Finally
soldiers,
Japanese

prevented him

OLD

JAPAN

605

[1811 A.D.]

tablet
carryingprovisionsand baggage. Each of the escort had a wooden
inscribed his duties and which prisoner
which were
on
suspended from his girdle,
officer had a correspondinglist
stationed with ; and the commanding
he was
fare with the escort
The
three meals
of the whole.
prisonershad the same
thick gruel,two
piecesof pickledradish
a day, generallyof rice boiled to a
of radishes or various wild roots and herbs, a kind of
for seasoning,
soup made
they had stewed
macaroni, and a piece of broiled or boiled fish. Sometimes
"

Their general drink was


inegg.
very
saki.
sometimes
Their
conductors
and
frequently
sugar,
stopped at the villagesto rest, or to drink tea, and smoke tobacco,and they
hour
after dinner.
also rested for an
They halted for the night an hour or
in
before sunset, usually
a
villagewith a small garrison. They were
two
front
of the house of the officer in command, and
the
always conducted first to
each

and

mushrooms,

hard-boiled

difTerent tea, without

the officer came


out to inspect
with mats, when
house (which generally,when
then taken
to a neat
them.
they
They were
gether
first entered, was
placed tohung round with stripedcotton cloth),and were
in one
apartment, the ends of their ropes being fastened to iron hooks
Their boots and stockings were
pulledoff,and their feet bathed
in the walls.
with salt in it. For bedding they had the Japanese mattresses
in warm
water
seated

were

quiltswith

"

After

covered

benches

on

thick

first six

the

folded double.
loosened,and they got
days their bonds were
the
took
greatest care of their health,
Japanese

wadding
or

seven

"

comfortably. The
the shallowest
their feet, carrying them
to wet
across
not
allowing them
a
as
protection
furnishingthem with quiltedJapanese gowns
streams, and
againstthe rain.
which
received by a great crowd, among
At Hakodate
were
they were
horses
with rich caparisons.
silk dresses
mounted
with
on
several persons
on

more

sides of the

"Both

road,"

says Golovnin, "were


decorum.
utmost

crowded

with

spectators,yet

marked
their
particularly
everyone
of
hatred
malicious
observed
and
look,
or
a
sign
never
once
countenances,
any
to insult us by mockery or
showed
the least disposition
towards us, and none
the same
He
had observed
derision."
thing in the villagesthrough which
had
the
received,as they did afterwards,
prisoners
they had passed, where
and
from
individuals,many
touching instances of commiseration
numerous
sympathy.
confined in a prison,a high wooden
enclosure,or
At Hakodate
they were

behaved

fence, surrounded

with

by

an

the

earthen

wall

somewhat

lower

(and

on

their first approach

stripedcloth),i inside of which was a long,bam-like


of small apartments, scarcely
this buildingwere
a number
building. Within
the
of thick spars, and exactly like cages, in which
formed
six feet square,
the
and
other
shut
the
occupied
by
spaces being
prisonerswere
passages
up,
the
than
Their
food
much
journey (probablyJapanese
on
worse
was
guards.2
and grated radish, a handful of
water
prisonfare),boiled rice,soup of warm
bers
finelychopped young onions with boiled beans, and one or two pickledcucumInstead of the radish-soup,
puddings of bean-meal and rancid
or radishes.
served.
sometimes
fish-oil were
Very rarelythey had half a fish,with soy.
bad tea.
Their think was
warm
water, and occasionally
to

'

The

fort

round

huns

painted

it

on

hung

on

witli

them,

with

the ship, was


from
when
first seen
where
taken prisoners,
they were
eloths had embrasures
These
opncealed the walls.
striped cloths, which
siderable
be perceived at a conbut in so rough a manner
that the deception could

the island

distance.
'

at

The

descriptionof

Naga-saki.

this

prison correspondsvery

well to

Kampfer's descriptionof

the

one

THE

606

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1811 A.B.]

Their

about

means

Chvostov, and

produced.
Chvostov

The
were

of

with

the

Japanese had been, at first,


of the
a little Russian, and
a Kurile, one
probably about
another interpreter
much
presented himself ; but
as
Japanese. At Hakodate
of fifty,
he, a man
naturallystupid,and knowing nothing of any European
little
Russian, did not prove much better.
a
language except
conducted
The second
through the streets, by a guard of
day they were
soldiers (the prisonerseach with a rope round his waist held by a Japanese),
surrounded
to a fort or castle,which
was
by palisadesand an earthen wall.
in
the
of
which
Within
centre
brass cannon
was
a
was
a
on
court-yard,
a
From
this
court-yard Golovnin, and after him
badly constructed carriage.
conducted
each of the others,was
through a wide gate, which was immediately
half had
of small
shut behind
them, into a large hall,of which
a
pavement
stones; the other half had a floor,or platform, raised three feet from the
The
hall was
ground, and covered with curiouslywrought mats.
fiftyor
feet
of
feet
and
divided
movable
breadth,
long,
eighteen
equal
high,
by
sixty
There
two
were
or
neatly painted, from other adjoining rooms.
screens,
instead
of
three apertures for windows, with
scure,
glass,admitting an obpaper
the floor,in the middle
of the
sat on
gloomy light. The governor
him.
On his left (the Japanese
elevated platform,with two .secretaries behind
the next
in conmiand
his right, another
officer;
place of honour) was
; on
each side of these, other officers of inferior rank.
on
They all sat, in the
Japanese fashion,with their legsfolded under them, two paces apart, clothed
in black dresses, their short swords
in their girdles,
and their longer ones
lying at their left. The new
interpretersat on the edge of the raised floor,
of it. On
the walls hung irons
and an inferior officer at each of the comers
for securing prisoners,ropes, and
various
instruments
of punishment.
The
in
front
of
the
raised
the
officers
in
Russian
stood
floor,
a line,the
prisoners
Kurile
the
sailors behind.
The
seated
stones.
imdenvent
was
on
a
They
rigorous and particularexamination, all their answers
being vsTitten
very
down.
The questions related to their birthplaces;their families (and when
it appeared that they came
from
it happened that they
different towns, how
served on board the same
ship); the burden and force of their vessel ; their
rank; their object; their route since leaving St. Petersburg,which
own
they
were
required to trace on a chart, etc., etc.
other things, the governor
that Laxmann
remarked
(who had
Among
his
with
visited Japan in 1792) wore
and
covered
hair
flour;
a
long tail,
whereas
the prisoners (powder and queues
having gone out of fashion in the
interval) had their hair cut short and unpowderecl ; and he asked if some
When
told that in Russia
change of religionhad not taken place in Russia.
there was
connection
between
no
religionand the way of wearing the hair,
the Japanese laughed, but expressed great surprisethat there should not be
law on
the subject.
some
express
Eighteen days after, they had a second examination, on which occasion
the Japanese
delivered to
wanted
a letter,of which
was
an
interpretation,
It had been
their
shore
from
their
them.
with
sent
on
ship along
baggage,
for reinforcements, and
to return
to Okhotsk
expressing a determination
This
of Japan till the prisonerswere
to quit the coast
rescued.
examination
renever
continued
for
made
two
was
inquirieswere
days, in which many
only

communicating
knew
who
prisoners,

the

Russian

without

Japanese evidently did

papers

he

had

tried
pri-soners
authority from
not

left behind
to

believe thcm."i

make

the

out

Russian

him,

one

that the

of which

was

proceedingsof

government

but

the

OLD

JAPAN

607

[1811-1813 D.]
A.

RESCUE

RUSSIANS

OF

to effect the release of the captured Russians,and


made
were
in
the Diana
under
returned
the command
of Captain
followingsummer
with
Rikord.
Failing in all attempts to communicate
on
shore,
anyone
Rikord took a Japanese merchant, Kachi by name,
back to Russia with him
of hostage. He returned again to Kunashiri,and the Russians were
a sort
as
released
after having been
confined
two
A paper
over
finally
was
years.
to their government, explicitly
with them
sent
statingJapanese pohcy with
of which
the main substance
follows : ^
was
as
regard to foreigners,

Efforts

the

FROM

NOTIFICATION

THE

THE

GINMIYAKS,

COMMANDERS

CHIEF

NEXT

TO

THE

BUNCO

OF

MATSUMAI

vessel
arrived
at Matsumai, and
eleven
years
years
ago a Russian
ago
both
these occasions
Nagasaki.
Though the laws of our
on
country were
not
have
been
minutely explained,yet we are of opinion that we
clearlyunderstood
on
your
our
languages and writing. However, as we have
part, owing to the great dissimilaritybetween
detained
to give you
When
an
explanation of these matters.
now
you, it will be easy
you
to the commanders
of the coasts
of Kamchatka,
return
to Russia, communicate
Okhotsk, and
of our
of the Japanese
bungo, which will acquaint them with the nature
others, the declaration
laws with
gressions
respect to the arrival of foreign ships,and prevent a repetitionof similar transon
part.
your

Twenty-two

another

to

came

the Christian
religionis strictlyprohibited,and European vessels are not
This law does not extend
to Russian
except Nagasaki.
any Japanese harbour
This
it has not
been
wished
vessels only.
to communicate
with
enforced, because
we
year
but all that
henceforth
will be driven
back
present themselves
countrj'men;
by
may
your
Bear
in mind
this declaration, and you
caimon-balls.
cannot
complain if at any future period
In

country

our

suffered

to enter

misfortune

of your
disregard of it.
European
residing in Japan shall attempt to
teach
our
punishment, and shall not be
people the Christian faith,he shall undergo a severe
As j"ou, however, have
not
restored
to his native
country."
attempted to do so, you will
home.
Think
well on
this.
accordingly be permitted to return
with foreignlands, for we
wish
know
Our
to carry
want
no
commerce
on
no
countrj'men
of necessary
that
to
foreigners are
permited to trade to Nagasaki, even
things. Though
whom
have
for a long period maintained
with
harbour
we
relations,
only those are admitted
for the sake of gain, but for other important objects. From
and
do not trade with them
we
to us, you
have
hitherto
made
which
the repeated solicitations
evidently imagine that
you
in thinking so.
the customs
of our
are
country resemble those of your own
; but you
very
wrong
about
connection.
In future, therefore, it will be better to say no more
a commercial

experience

should

you

Among

there

us

exists

this

in consequence
"If any

law:

the efforts of Kachi had been indefatigable.At


with the suspicionand reserve
his own
countrymen

In all this business


he

treated

was

to
a

long

him,

time

and

by

all,even
he

was

his

even

from
Japanese, who come
permitted to visit Golovnin.

native
not

and

friends

relations

could

not

foreigncountry.
A guard was
set
him

see

in

except

first
tended
ex-

For
over

the

imperial soldier. In fact, according to the Japanese laws,


presence
from
a
foreign country, he ought to have been
as
a
just returned
person
his friends.
of HakoThe governor
date,
all
with
at
allowed no
correspondence
about
said
him
for
him
from
word
not
his
letter
to
a
only son,
having a
of

an

letter from
Golovnin
a
it,but having sent for him to convey
threw
his
son's
and
down
the
while
walking up
Diana,
room,
taken
of
his
of
waste
out
him, as if it had been a piece
paper
with

it

the other

and then turned his back


letter,

up.^
'

In

on

board

the

letter towards
sleeve

to give him

tally
acciden-

time

to

pick

Japan, a.s elsewhere, etiquette requires

pretences,

Japanese

and
have

on
a

many

occasions

particularterm

an

affected

things
good many
ignorance of what

(Tieboen)to express

this way

of

to

be

done

under

everj-body knows.
doing things.

feigned
The

HISTORY

THE

608

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1813-1837 A.D.J

abduction

Kachi's

had

throwii

his

family into

A celebrated

gi-eatdistress.

he ever
would
questionwhether
with two of
Kachi will return
the ensuing simimer,
return, had answered,
This
his companions; the remaining two have perished in a foreign land."
commmiicated
to Golovnin, who
laughed at it ; but when, on
answer
was
Kachi's return, it appeared that two of his Japanese attendants had actually
greatly edified,and highly indignant at
died, the Japanese believers were
of luck than forein maintaining that there was
sight
Golovnin's persistence
more
in
in the prophecy. Kachi's
her
made
to
a vow
a
wife,
grief,
go on
pilgrimagethrough the whole of Japan ; and Kachi assured Captain Rikord
from
her
that scarcely had she returned
pilgrmiage when she received his
letter from Kunashiri
announcing his return.
Kachi
had a bosom
friend, who, on learninghis fate, divided his large

priest,or spirit-medium,at Hakodate,

the

to

"

the poor, and


took up his residence in the mountains, as a
property among
As appeared on various
hermit.
occasions,Kachi was a strict disciplinarian,
and very punctilious. He had
duct,
miscona
daughter, whom, owing to some
he had
discarded.
She was
dead to him, .so he said; and to Rikord,
to

whom

he

had

told

the story, and

had

who

taken

interest

an

in the

girl,

be inconsistent with his honour.


insisted that a reconciliation would
his
hermit
friend
that
in
of self-sacrificehe was
show
the
not to
Yet, to
way
he
be outdone,
made
to the great effort of callinghis daughter
up his mind
His friend would, he said,when
this commuinto life,and forgivingher.
nication

he had

was

made

to

him,

imderstand

at once

it.

During Kachi's absence his mercantile affairs had prospered,and before


Rikord's departure he brought on board the Dwna, with all the evidence of
paternal pride,his son, who seemed, indeed, to be a promising youth. He
was

very
to

crew,

liberal in his distribution


all of whom
he gave one
to remember

taking especialcare

ASIERICAN

The
French

of silk and
or

cotton

more,

watlded

to the
the best ones,

dresses

his favourites

to

the cook.**

INTERCOTJRSE

WITH

J.\P.\N

interruptedby the
ship which made
wars,
visit from
BataAna
in
the annual
to the Dutch
factory
Japan. No vessels
from
between
the years
at all came
Batavia
1809 and 1813, and again from
the Dutch
1814
intercourse
to 1817
discontinued.
was
Finallyin 1817 two
from
arrived
that
the
Batavia with the news
ships
colony had been restored
and
in the next
to the Dutch,
year an English boat tried to establish trading
sailingof the Dutch

relations,but
the

and

on

without

several

success.

ships was,
occasions

In

as

it

1837

we

was

an

have

an

seen,

American

American

firm

at

Macao

fitted

board three Japanese who


to sail for Japan, having on
brig Morrison
had been shipwrecked on
had
the American
shore of the Pacific and who
been sent from there to England and thence to Macao, and also four Japanese
who
had been wrecked
the Philippines. The
on
Japanese met them with a
show of hostility
and they were
The Japanese on board
not allowed
to land.
the Morrison
were
especially
disappointed."
The
fellows suffered severelyat this unexpected extinction
of their
poor
of
their
families. They expres.=;ed
revisiting
prospect
great indignationat
conduct
their
the
of
countrymen, and two of them shaved their heads entirely,
in token, as it was
understood,of haNong renounced their native soil. As it
deemed
not
was
expedient to go to Nagasaki, where the Japane-seon board
expressed their determination not to land,the Morrison returned to Macao.
out

OLD
S53
[1843-1

In

A.

JAPAN

609

D.]

1843, probably in

of this visit of the Morrison,the Japanese


consequence
authorities promulgated an edict,of wliich the followingis a translation,
as
given by the Dutch at Deshima, who were
requestedto communicate
to 'the
other European nations
for that purpose:

the firstattempt

"

of the

made

ever

to

employ

their agency

must
not be brought back
Shipwrecked persons
Japanese
to their country
Chinese
these shipwrecked
or
ships, for, in case
except on board of Dutch
shall be
persons
brought back in the shipsof other nations, they will not be received.
Consideringthe express
to Japanese
subjects, to explore or make
examinations
of the coasts
prohibition,even
or
for greater reason, is extended
islands of the empire, this prohibition,
to foreigners.
nation

in China, of the progress


The British opium war
of which
well informed, if it increased
the desire of the English to
Japan, did not, by any means, diminish the Japanese dread of
In

all

spite of

the

Japanese
to
gain access
"^
foreigners.
Japanese edicts,however, foreignersstill tried to gain

were

into their island. In 1848 the American


admittance
conmiodore
Biddle
instructed to ascertain if Japan would
her ports to foreigntrade.
open
received the followinganswer
translated by the Dutch
as
interpreter:
According to the Japanese laws, the Japanese may

was

He

trade except with the Dutch


and
treaty with Japan or trade with her,
with any other nation.
is not allowed
the same
as
Concerning strange lands all thingsare fixed
here in the bay; therefore,you must
at Nagasaki, but not
and not
depart as quick as possible,
to Japan.
come
any more
It will not

Chinese.

be

allowed

that

America

make

not

The next year the Preble was


despatched from Canton under Commander
certain American
sailors who
were
Glynn, to bring away
reported to have
been shipwrecked in Japan. The Preble accomplishedits nussion in so far as
allowed to land.
obtainingthe sailors was concerned,but no Americans were
successive
These
failed
to
American
repulses,however,
discourage
attempts
to estabUsh a footingin the exclusive island,
o

COMMODORE

settlement

The
and

of

the idea of steam

PERRY

the
California,

new

communication

across

EXPEDITION

trade
the

opened

thence

Pacific,for which

with

China,

the coal of

needed, combined, with the extension of the whale fisheryin


to the
Japanese seas, to increase the desire in America for access
of
Japan. Shortly after the visit of the Preble the American
ports
ment
governresolved to send an envoy
thither,backed
by such a naval force as
him
would insure
a respectful
hearing the cases of Biddle and Glynn seeming
to prove that the humouring policycould not be relied upon, and that the only
with the Japanese was
to deal successfully
resolution not to
to show
a
way
be

Japan might
the northern

"

take No

for

an

answer.

Accordingly,Mr. Webster, as secretaryof state, prepared a letter from the


presidentto the emperor of Japan ; also a letter of instructions to the American
naval

commander

in the China

seas, to whom

it

resolved to intrust the


was
duty
strengthened by additional ships.
of
the.se
The sailing,
however,
ships was
delayed till after Mr. Webster's
death ; and in the mean
time Commodore
C Perry was
Matthew
selected as
the head of the expedition. A new
dressed
dated November
5th, 1852, adletter,
from
the state department to the secretary of the navy, thus defined
its objects:
of envoy,

H.

W."

and

VOL.

whose

XXIV.

force

to

be

was

HISTORY

THE

610

OF

CHIXA

AXD

JAPAN
[18.53-1853A.D.]

"

1. To

effect some

permanent
property wrecked on

and

seamen

arrangement for the protectionof American


driven into their ports by
these islands,
or

stress of weather.

of their ports,
2. The permissionto .\merican vessels to enter one
or
more
of disasters,
in order to obtain suppliesof proAusions,
water, fuel,etc. ; or, in case
It is very desirable
to prosecute their voyage.
to refit so as to enable them
to have
permission to establish a depot for coal, ii not on one of the
at least on
some
small,iminhabited one, of which it is said
island.*,
principal
"

\-icinity.
of their ports for
permission to our vessels to enter one or more
sale
barter."
of
their
of
or
the purpose
disposing
cargoes by
to be of a pacific
The mission was
character,as the presidenthad no power
of force was
evidentlyrelied upon as more
Ukely
to declare war
; yet the show
than anything else to weigh with the Japanese. The Dutch
government, it
to do all they could to prowas
stated,had instructed their agents at Deshima
mote
believe Jancigny,*
of the expedition. Indeed, if we
the success
may
obtained during a residence at BataA-ia in 1844who speaks from information
of
Holland
the
had,
as
long ago as that time,addressed a letter to the
king
45,
liim
The letter
abandon
the policyof exclusion.
of
to
Japan, urging
emperor
exclusive
wish
obtain
to
of instructions disavowed
pri\dleges;
but, as a
any
said
about
other
nations.
be
of
to
matter
pohcy, nothing -was
this letter splendidlyengrossed and
with
Furnished
the.se orders, and
of
enclosed in a gold box of the value
dollars,and pro\ided also
a thousand
^\-itha varietyof presents.Commodore
Perry, towards the end of 1852, sailed
from
the United
States in the steam-frigate
Mississippi,and, after touching
and the Cape of Good Hope, arrived at Hong-Kong in April,1853,
at Madeira
of the vessels of the squadwhence
he proceeded to Shanghai. The dispersion
ron,
in
of
from
ing
obtainthe
United
arrival
others
in
the
States,
difficulty
delay
in China, in consideration
merchants
coal,"and the claim of the American
of a naval force,
of existingchil commotions, to the protectingpresence
and making
Loochoo
after
But
at
caused some
at length,
touching
delays.
Islands,Pern,-,with the steam-frigateSusquehanna, now
a visit to the Bonin
the Mississippi,and the sloops-of-war
the flagship,
PIymo^^thand Saratoga,
had been
made
Cape Idsu about daybreak on the 8th of July. Many rumours
the coast of China of extensive warhke
preparationsby the Japanese,
current
on
aided by the Dutch, and the squadron was
fuUy prepared for a hostile
reception. Perry had made up his mind, instead of attempting to conciliate
ances,
by jielding,to stand upon his dignityto the utmost, to allow no petty annoyinstead of soUcitingas a favour,tne courtesies
and to demand
as a right,

there
"

due

are

several in their

3. The

from

one

another.
constitutingthe pro\Tnce

ci\-ilisednation

The

promontory
along it, to be

to

of Idzu
their

appeared,as
summits

the vessel
with

scarred

a
high mountains,
group
and their sides mostly wooded, though here and there a cultivated spot
slides,
the ships reached Cape Sagami, which separates the
could be seen.
By noon
in
The shores of this point rose
the outer
inner from
bay of Yedo.
abrupt
to the water-side.
feet high,with green dells running down
bluffs two hundred
ran

of

in the distance.
and mountains
fields,
fifteen Japanese boats, which put off from
Cape Sagami to interceptthem, the vessels stood up through the narrowest
than five to eight miles wide, but expanding afterpart of tne bay, not more

Farther

off

were

groves

Lea^'ingbehind

'

not

and

cultivated

twelve

some

or

placemuch

the

The

British

.May 6th, 1853), did


their goodwill
.Admiralty showed

by

sailingdirections

for the

eastern

Japan,

Pern-,
p. 197.
reliance
on

to

judpe by his letters (December

ths aid of
furnishingthe latest charts and

Dutch.

14th, 1852

seas.

OF

HISTORY

THE

612

AND

CHINA

JAPAN
[1853 A.D.)

officers

The

bareheaded.

gildedsymbol

in front.

bells

heard

and

Koyama

were

wore

During

sounding

the

beautifullylacquered hats, with a


blazed
along the coast,
The
hours.
next
morning (Saturday)

night watch-fires

the

at the town, came


Yezaimon, first in conmiand
the letter to
off
from
to
receiving
beg
attempt

another
he proposed to send
do

Hght and

for

Yedo

to

permission,and

was

on

board,

and

the emperor.
allowed
three

made

Finally
days to

it in.

sur\-eyingpartiesfrom the ships ran up the bay a distance of


of water.
four miles, findingeverj^here from
thirtyto forty fathoms
They
the
within
which
round the bight
sounded
shipslay,keepmg about a cable's
Yezaimon
representedthat
length from the shore, and findingfive fathoms.
this survey
was
againstthe Japanese laws, but was told that if forbidden by
On approachcommanded
the laws of Jap;m, it was
ing
by the laws of .\merica.
there were
the forts,of which
five,two apparently of recent construction,
Meanwhile

they
guns

in

usual, a
of the

These

Japanese seemed

From

came

out

; but

as

the boats

drew

near,

feeble, mounting only fourteen


again.
very
than
the whole, none
nine-pounders. Of soldiers,about four
larger
of
them
with spears.
There was
anned
also, as
were
seen,
many
the
show
of
whole, the warlike means
but, on
canvas
screens;
great

retired

hundred

matchlocks,

with

the soldiers,armed

the

town

to

forts

were

contemptible.
the

end

of the

promontory,

distance

of

mile

and

small craft lay in


At least a hundred
\'illages.
feet high,were
five hundred
dotted with
The hills behind, some
the harbour.
when
the
air
and
In
the
and
other
trees.
clear.
was
evening,
morning
pines
The
of
in the west, sixty miles distant.
Fusi might be seen
Mount
presence
trade.
disturb
the
to
did
not
the American
or
Sixty
coasting
seem
ships
of boats
and
fishing-smacks,daily
seventy large junks, besides hundreds
passed up and down the bay, to and from Yedo.
On Monday, the 11th, the same
surveying party proceeded up the bay
ten
constantly met
miles, followed
some
by the Mississippi. They were
boats, the officers on board which urged them by signs to
by government
everjTV'here
they took no notice. Deep soundings were
return, but of which
A deep bay was
found on the western
of soft mud.
obtained, with a bottom
In the evening Yezaimon
shore, with good and safe anchoring groimd.
returned on board, well pleased,apparently,to be able to give information
of good news
from Yedo, but rather troubled at the exploraof the probability
tions
he had his inter%-iews,
the
boats.
The
with whom
by
flag-lieutenant,
describes him
well-informed, a fine,large
as
a gentleman, clever,polished,
about thirty-four,
of most
excellent countenance, taking his wine freely,
man,
and a boon companion."
would
The next
day (the 12th) he brought information that the emperor
be given
would
send down
a
high officer to receive the letter. No answer
through the Dutch or Chinese.
immediately, but one would be forwarded
treated as an
insult. As, however, if
This latter propositionthe commodore
for protractinghis
be
found
for an
he waited
excuses
might easily
answer,
him
last
in
inconvenient
and
at
out, he agreed
an
wearying
manner,
stay
it.
The following
receive
time for its preparation,
and to return
to
to allow
with
the
commissioners
Thursday (the 14th) was appointed for the interview
to take
was
place two miles south
appointed to receive the letter,which
ing
the left side of a narrow
of the town, at a picturesquespot on
valleyextendinland from the head of the bight. Its retired situation,and the facility
of a militaryforce,were
it afforded for the display
probably the motives of

half,was

an

unbroken

"

its selection.

line of

OLD
[1853

A.

At

613

D.]

the

appointed for

hour

the spot,

long

lines of

the

head

of the

round

JAPAN

the

canvas

bight,and

the

meeting, as

walls

were

filesof soldiers with

in front

the centre
Near
brilliant banners.
Ln the
with broad scarlet pennons,

two steamers
approached
stretchingcrescent-wise,quite

seen

of the

crescent

of which

rear

were

could be

multitude

of

nine

tall

seen

the roof of the

standards,

On
the right,a line of fifty
or
prepared for the interview.
sixty boats
each
with
red
the
drawn
its
t
o
at
stern.
a
beach,
flag
was
parallel
up,
files of the Japanese soldiers stood about
The foremost
a hundred
yards
loose and stragglingorder.
from
the beach, in somewhat
The greater part
house

and
of

the

behind

were

in the

troops
a

background

body

five thousand.

at

crowd

of

There

screens.

canvas

On

were

number

of horses

to

be

seen,

The

of

cavaliy.
Japanese stated the number
the slopeof the hill,
the village,
lected
colnear
was

spectators,of whom

many

were

women.

the steamers
dropped their anchors they were
approached by
boats
two
containingtheir former visitors,the first and second officers of the
with
town, with the interpreters,
very richlydressed in silk brocade, bordered
As

soon

as

of ceremony.
The
steamers
lay with
shore, ready for action in case of treachery. Fifteen
launches and cutters were
and twenty
got ready, from which three hundred
and
landed
poraneous
extemofficers,
marines,
musicians, were
on
an
seamen,
persons,

velvet, and

having

their broadsides

to

on

their garments

the

Last of all
Japanese had formed of bags of sand.
due formality,when
the whole
body, preceded
marched
to the house of reception,
by the Japanese officers and interpreters,
letter,the box which held it wrapped in
carryingwith them the president's
also that containingthe letter of credence.
scarlet cloth, as was
In front of
old brass four-pounders,
two
the houses pre]mred for the interview were
ently
apparautl on each side a company
of soldiers,
those on one side armed
S|)aiiisli,
with matchlocks, those on the other with old Tower
muskets, with flint locks
and bayonets.
The receptionbuildingwas
for the
a temporary structure,evidentlyput up
The
first apartment, about
feet
occasion.
of
The
canvas.
forty
square, was
with
with
floor was
of
red
felt
cotton
covered
white
cloth,
a pathway
leading
red felt.
to a raised inner apartment, wholly carpeted with the same
across
This
entirelyopen, was
hung with fine
apartment, of which the front was
cloth,stamped with the imperialsymbols in white on a ground of violet. On
of arm-chairs
for the conunodore
and his staff. On
the rightwas
the
a row
and
appointed to receive the letters,
oppositeside sat the two commissioners
who
announced
the princesof Idzu and Iwami.
were
as
by the interpreters
about
The former
w
ith
face.
a
was
a man
fifty,
very pleasingand intelligent
with
The latter was
older by fifteen years or so, wrinkled
and
of
looks
age,
less prepossessing. Both
much
were
splendidlydressed, in heavy robes of silk
with threads of gold and silver. As the commodore
tissue,
elaboratelyornamented
both
and bowed
entcretl,
rose
gravely,but immediately resumed their
silent and passiveas statues.
seats and remained
At the end of the room
was
a largescarlet-lacquered
box, standingon gilded
and one of the interpreters
time
feet,beside which Yezaimon
knelt,at the same
ready for the receptionof the letters. They
signifyingthat all thingswere
were
brought in,and the boxes containing them being opened so a.s to display
the writing and the golden seals,
they were
placed upon the scarlet box, and
with
them
translations
in
and
well as an
Dutch
along
English
('hinese,
as
The
Iwami
handed
of
then
the
who gave it to
to
transcript.
prince
interpreter,
the commodore, an ofi^cial receiptin Japanese,to which
the interpreteradded
which
translated literally
into English was
a Dutch
as follows:
translation,

jettywhich

the commodore

landed

the

with

THE

614

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1853 A.D.]

The

letter of the

States of North
president of the United
America, and copy, are herebv
received
and delivered
that business
to the emperor.
Many times it has been commmiicated
lie transacted
but in Nagasalii. Now,
here in Urakawa,
relating to foreign countries cannot
that the admiral, in his quality of ambassador
of the president,would be
it has been observed
insulted
by it; the justice of this has been acknowledged; consequently the above-mentioned
letter is hereby received, in opposition to the Japanese law.
the place is not
Because
designed to treat of anything from foreigners,so neither can
take place. The
letter being received, you will leave here.
conference
entertainment
nor

The

commodore

remarked, when

this

receiptwas

delivered

to

him, that

he should retm-n
"With
again,probably in April or May, for an answer.
the ships?" asked
the hiterpreter."Yes, and probably with more,"
said on
either side. As the commodore
the reply. Nothing more
was
the commissioners

ended, without a singleword


The Japanese officers of

remained

and

rose

uttered

on

standing,and

all
was

parted,
de-

the interview

so

their part.

the town, with the Japanese interpreters,


panied
accomthe American
party back to the Susquehanna, whose machinery'they
off the town, they were
with
interest.
much
When
examined
set ashore;
how
but the steamers, to show
hghtly the injunctionto leave was regarded,
proceeded up the bay and anchored a short distance above the point reached
who
by the Mississippi. In spiteof the soUcitude of the Japanese officers,
came
again on board, the whole bight between the promontory of Urakawa
and another north of it was
carefully
surveyed. At the head a river was found.
The

shores

studded
with \illages,
whose inhabitants offered to the surveying
and
cold
from
their gardens. To the placewhere
water,
peaches
party
the steamers
was
lay the name
anchorage."
given of "American
The

were

day (Friday,the 15th) the Mississippiproceeded on an excursion


further up, and reached, as was
supposed, within eight or
shore were
ten nules of the capital. On
the western
two
seen
large towns.
On
the extremity of a cape in front,some
four miles distant,stood a tall
white tower
four miles beyond was
hke a hghthouse. Three
of
or
a crowd
be
of
the
of
the
southern
to
suburb
shipping,supposed
anchorage
Sinagawa,
At the point where
Yedo.
the steamer
put about she had twenty fathoms
of water.
On Saturday, the 16th, the vessels moved
to a new
anchorage,
five or six miles down
the bay and
much
the shore, and here the
nearer
renewed.
The same
surveying operationswere
day an interchangeof presents
ten

next

miles

took place with Yezaimon, who, however, was


induced
to accept those
offered to him only by the positiverefusal of his own,
condiexcept on that tion.
Thus
he
arms
pressed,he finallytook them, except some
articles,
In the afternoon
received.
he
said, w-hich the Japanese neither gave nor
"

came
on

four

again,in

excellent

thousand

in return.

The

eggs
next

his conduct

probably ha^ing been approved


lightwicker coops, and three or
in boxes, for wliich a box of garden-seedswas
accept""d
the vessels
day, the 17th, and the tenth since their arrival,
for Loochoo, the bay being covered with boats to witness
humour,

shore, bringing a quantity

of

fowls

in

weighed and stood


their departure.
Commodore
Perry spent the remainder of the year on the coast of China,
keeping one vessel,however, at Loochoo, and prosecutingthe survey of the
Bonin
Islands.
Shortly after his \isit the shogim died, and an attempt
made
to take advantage of that circumstance
was
to delay or prevent the
of the American
A
return
forwarded
to BataAia
by
communication,
sliips.
the Dutch
the
ship that left Nagasaki in November, and communicated
by
Dutch
governor-generalat Bata\ia to the commodore, representedthat the
sequent
mourning for the deceased sovereign,and other arrangements connecessary
liis death, as well as the necessityof consultingall the princes,
on

OLD

JAPAN

615

[185S-1854A.D.]
to the president's
and suggested the
necessarily
delay the answer
letter,
of
should
the squadron come
back at so unseadanger
confusion,or "broil,"
sonable

must

moment.

Undeterred, however, by this representation,


the 12th of February,
on
1854, Commodore
Perry reappeared in the bay of Yedo, with three steam
four sloops of war, and two store-ships,
frigates,
and, the steamers
taking the
vessels
sailing

tow, they all moved

the American

anchorage. About
place to negotiate,the Japanese
to go back
to Kamakura,
importuning the commodore
twenty miles below
Urakawa, or, at least,to the latter place,wliile he msisted upon
going to
Yedo.
As he dechned
to yield,and
caused the chaimel
to be sounded
out
within four miles of Yedo, they proposed, as the place of meeting, the village
of Yokohama,
containing about ten thousand
people, and situated on the
shore just opposite the anchorage of the sliips. To this the commodore
in Une, with broadsides
agreed, and the ships drew in and moored
bearing
the shore, and covering an extent of five miles.
upon
"On
the 8th of March," says a letter dated on board the Vandalia, and
pubUshed in the New York Journal of Commerce, the day appointed for the
first meetmg,
about nine hmidred
and
to
officers,
marines, aimed
seamen,
the teeth,landed,and, with drums
and
colours
drawn
beating
were
flying,
up
the beach, ready to receive the commodore.
As soon
he stepped on
on
as
shore the bands
struck up, salutes were
fired,the marines presented arms,
he marched
the fines
and, followed by a long escort of officers,
up between
and entered the house erected by the Japanese expresslyfor the occasion.
of Japanese soldiers crowded
Thousands
the shore and the neighbouringelevations,
and interest.
lookingon with a good deal of curiosity
The house was
nothing but a plainframe builcfing,
hastilyput up, containing
and several smaller,for the conhall
the audience
one
large room"
venience
floor was
of attendants,etc.
The
covered
with mats, and
very
adorned
the sides. Long tables and benches covered
pretty painted screens
with red woollen stuff,placed parallelto each other,three handsome
braziers
filled with
burning charcoal on the floor between
them, and a few violetthe ceifing,
coloured crape hangings suspended from
completed the furniture
weeks

two

were

to

up

spent here in fixingupon

"

"

"

of the

room.

As

we

Japanese commissioners

entered

we

soon

came

our

in, and
both,

table; while behind us


(their usual position,for they do not

at

the other

took

use

seats

at

of the tables.

one

placed themselves
seated

on

the floor

chairs),was

officers forming the train of the commissioners.


"
carried on in the Dutch
The business was

opposite to
on

crowd

The
us,

their knees'
of

Japanese

language,through interpreters,
speak very well,anrl two or three who speak
their knees, between
the commissioners
and
the
of
seated
side
It
the commodore.
Our interpreter
the
latter.
was
by
intolerable
observed
curious to see the
was
by them, quite humificeremony
repubfican. A question proposed had to pass first
ating to a democratic
and then through several officers ascending in rank,
through the interpreters,
before it could reach
the commissioners, everyone
bowing his forehead to
his superior. Refreshments
the floor before he addressed
served in
were
elegantlylacquered dishes; first of all,tea, which, as in China,is the constant
beverage; then different kinds of candy and sponge cake (they are excellent
and a palatableliquor
confectioners,and very fond of sugar) ; lastly,
oranges
A
called
saki.
distilled from
fike
this was
not
rice,
flimsy banquet
very
incUviduals
such
and
the
to
more
as
we
were
disapagreeable
hungry
we,
of whom
they have several who
fittle
on
a
English. The^ were

'

Rather

on

their

heels.

HISTORY

THE

616

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1854 A.B.)

we
had, previouslyto coming
for,the Japanese usingonly chopsticks,
pointed,
ashore, taken the precaution,as we shrewdly thought, to provide ourselves
with
knives
and forks.
Lnagine, then, our chagrin when findingnothing

substantial
in

custom
"

which

upon

in

wrapped

and

paper

Japan.

conunissioners

The

What
left on our
to employ them.
was
plateswas
given to us to carry away, according to the usual

intelligent-looking
men, richlydressed in gay silk
in shape ladies' short
resembling
garments
upper
and
swords
two
stockings,
pashcd through
elegant

were

petticoatpantaloons,and
Dark-coloured

gowns.

Straw sandals are worn,


but are
girdle,finished the costume.
do
house.
the
off
not cover
They
head, the
enteringa
always slipped
upon
which
is
and
the
back
and
side
shaved,
hair,being
top and front part of
brought up, is tied so as to form a tail three or four inches long,that extends
the bald pate, terminatingabout
forward
half-May between the apex
upon
it not for the
It is a very comfortable
and
the forehead.
fashion,and, were
in
be
would
used
of
a
one.
it,
cleanly
dressing
quantity
very
grease
the same
"Two
week
audiences
was
were
a
held, at which
programme
"
ing
Becomthat
fared
related
we
more
luxuriously.
above, except
performed as
of
better acquainted wath our
taste, they feasted us with a broth made
and
At
hard-boiled
boiled
one
fish,
oysters.
.shrimps,
eggs,
very good raw
a

twisted

silk

of the inter\'iews

They
a

hour.

consisted

locomotive, tender, and

beautiful

size,which
an

delivered.
of cloths,
etc., and
agricultural
implements, firearnis,

(March 13th), the presents from

put in motion

we

on

our

government

were

one-fourth
the ordmary
passenger-car,
circular track at the rate of twenty miles

also erected on
mile of magnetic telegraphwas
The Japanese were
interested in it than
more

shore

and

put

anything else,
manifested
wonder.
So
of
but never
are
capable
they
concealingand
any
examine
that
would
the
t
heir
feelings,
they
controlling
guns, machinery, etc.,
of the steamers
without
the slightest
astonishment.
They are a
expres.sing
nmch
and hospitable,
than the Chinese
race
polite,
finer-looking
intelligent,
but proud, licentious,
unforgiving,and revengeful."
The
death
of a marine
afforded an opportunity,at the first meeting with
the commissioners, of demanding a burying-place. It was
proposed to send
the body to Nagasaki ; but as the commodore
would not listen to that,a spot
was
assignednear one of their temples,and in view of the ships,where the
body was buried, with all the forms of the English church service,after which
the Japanese surrounded
the grave
A
with a neat
enclosure of bamboo.
formal
in the letters delivered
letter of reply to the propositionscontained
the
visit repeated the story of a change of succession and
at the former
in
of
The
of
to
the
relation
delays.
justice,however,
necessity
demands
but
conceded ;
shipwrecked seamen,
wood, water, provisions,and coal was
five years were
asked before opening a new
harbour, the Americans, in the
mean
time, to resort to Nagasaki.
Of Nagasaki,however, the conunodore
would not hear,nor of any restrictions
like those imposed on the Dutch
and Chinese at that port. He demanded
in Nippon, one
As to
in Yezo, and a third in Loochoo.
three harbours, one
and
the last two, the Japanese pleaded that they were
distant
countries,
very
the
the
the
which
to
last,upon
only partiallysubject
especially
emperor,
did not insist. In Nippon he asked for Urakawa, and for Matr
commodore
in Yezo, but acceded
sumai
and Hakodate,
to the Japanese offer of Shimoda
examine
the
The
first
sent
former.
commissioners
were
a
having
ship to
exceedingly tenacious, even
points of phraseology,but gave evidence
upon
in

operation.

"

'

The

number

of American

officers

present

at

these

interviews

was

from

twenty to fifty.

OLD

JAPAN

617

[1854 A. D.)

good faith,and the commodore


absolutelyessential. The extent

actingin

of

entire

did not seem


to American

conceaea

of the

everythingwhich
libertyto be allowed

of the greatest difhculties.


ment
Shortlybefore the treaty was concluded the commodore
gave an entertainabout
to the Japanese officials,
board the Powhatan
ou
seventy in all.
visitors

conformity

In

their

to

They did
cookery, and
which
they became

American

influence of
vigorouslyembraced
in the

the

was
struggle,
copies of

Three

delivered

were

the

"

inferior officers.
to

tables were
two
spread, one in the cabin
captainsof the fleet,another on deck for the
full justice,"
says the letter-writer alreadyquoted,
were
exceedinglyfond of champagne, under the

customs,

and

for the commissioners


"

one

was

and familiar that one


of them
merry
until his epauletsbegan to suffer

very

who,

good-naturedlydisposedto endure it."


treaty, in Japanese, signed by the commissioners,
commodore, for which he exchanged three copies in

very
the

the

to

so

commodore,

and
Chinese
translations.
This
English, signed by himself, with Dutch
the
method
commissioners, who allegedthat no Japawas
adopted to satisfy
nese
written
document
guage.
to any
could lawfullyput his name
m
a foreignlan-

The

treaty was

as

follows

and the Empire of Japan, desiring to establish firm,lasting,


States of .America
the two
clear and
nations, have resolved to fix,in a manner
friendship between
of peace
and amity, the rules which
shall
of a treaty or general convention
positive,by means
of their respective countries; for which
in the intercourse
most
in future be mutually observed
States
has conferred
full powers
his comdesirable
on
missioner,
object, the president of the United
of the United
States to Japan; and
Calbraith
Matthew
Perry, special ambassador
to his commissioners, Hayashithe august sovereign of Japan has given similar full powers
Daigaku-no-kami,
Ido, prince of Tsushima, Izawa, prince of Minasaka, and Udono, member
United

"The

and

sincere

board

of the
"And

of

"

agreed

shall be

There

I.

"Article

the

amity, between

cordial

having

after

commissioners,

premises, have

the

considered

revenue.

said

the

the

to

perfect, permanent,

and

America

on

United

States

without
people,respectfully(respectively),
II.

"Article

their

said full powers,

and

duly

of

universal
the

exception of persons

or

and

peace,

part, and

one

sincere and

between

their

places.

of Idzu, and the port of Hakodate,


in the principality
granted by the Japanese as ports for the reception of
supplied with wood, water, provisions,and coal, and other

port of Shimoda,

The

"

exchanged

followingarticles:

principalityof Matsumai,
American
ships,where they can
in the

are

be

The
time for opening
require, as far as the Japanese have them.
the first-named
port is to be opened
port is immediately on signing this treat j'; the last-named
day in the ensuing Japanese year.
immediately after the same
A tariff of pricesshall be given by the Japanese officers of the things which
they
Note.
in gold and silver coin.
furnish, payment for which shall be made
can
the coast
WTecked
on
III.
Whenever
or
"Article
ships of the United States are thrown
to Shimoda
or
Hakodate,
of Japan, the Japanese vessels wiU assist them, and carry their crews
articles their necessities

may

"

"

"

hand

and

them

shipwrecked
the

and

rescue

of either
be free

as

appointed

countrymen

to

receive

them.

Whatever

articles

the

incurred
in
preserved shall likewise be restored; and the expenses
the shores
thus be thrown
and Japanese who
upon
support of Americans
may

nation

have

may

not

are

IV.

"Article

their

to

over

men

to

Those

"

be

refunded.

shipwrecked persons,

countries, and

in other

not

and

other

of the

citizens

to confinement,
subjected

but

United

States, shall
to just

shall be amenable

laws.
and
other
citizens of the United
States, temporarily
men,
as
Hakodate, shall not be subject to such restrictions and confinement
to go where
they please
the Dutch
and Chinese
at Nagasaki; but shall be free at Shimoda
are
of Shimoda,
within
the limits of seven
Japanese miles (or ri) from a small island in the harbour
be free to go
the accompanyingchart, hereto appended; and shall,in like manner,
marked
on
States
where
they please at Hakodate, within limits to be defined after the visit of the United
squadron to that place.
which
shall
be any
other
VI.
If there
sort of goods wanted, or any business
Article
between
the parties in order to settle
require to be arranged, there shall be careful deliberation
"Article

V.

Shipwrecked

"

and

living at Shimoda

"

"

such

matters.

"Article

VII.

"

It is

agreed

shall be permitted to
them
such
articles of goods under

that

exchange

ships of

the

gold and

regulationsas

shall

United
silver
be

States

coin, and

resorting to the ports open


articles

of

temporarily established

goods,

to
for other

by

Japanese

the

OF

HISTOKY

THE

618

CHINA

JAPAN

AND

[1864 A.D.1

stipulated,however, that the ships of the United States


whatever
articles they are
shall be permitted to carry away
unwilling to exchange.
VIII.
"Article
Wood, water, provisions,coal, and goods rcxjuircd shall only be procured
through the agency of Japanese officers appointed for that purpose, and in no other
government

for that

It is

purpose.

"

manner.

future day, the government


IX.
It is agreed that if,at any
of Japan shall
privilegesand advantages which are not herein granted
any other nation or nations
and advantages shall
and the citizens thereof, that these same
to the I'niled States
pri\-ileges
States and to the citizens thereof without
be granted likewise to the United
any consultation
"Article

"

to

grant

delay.

or

X.

"Article

of the

Ships

"

in

Japan but Shinioda

or

agents

and

United

States
unless

Hakodate,

shall be

in distress

permitted
forced

or

other
to resort to no
stress of weather.

ports

by

shall be appointed by the government


States consuls
of the United
the
from
Shimoda, at any time after the expiration of eighteen months
such
deem
of the signing of this treaty; provided that either of the two
governments
XI.

Article

"

date

to

^Thero

"

reside

arrangement
"Article

in

necessary.
The
XII.

present

"

convention, having been

observed
faithfully

obligatory,and

by

the United

concluded

and

duly signed,shall

and Japan, and by the


of America
and
it is to be ratified and approved by the
citizens and subjects of each
respective power;
of the Senate
resident of the United
States, by and with the advice and consent
thereof, and
sovereign of Japan, and the ratification shall be exchanged within eighteen
y the august
be

States

of the signature thereof, or sooner


if practicable.
of the United
States of America
whereof, we, the respective plenipotentiaries
the empire of Japan, aforesaid, have signed and sealed these presents.
Lord
Jesus Christ
this thirty-first
Done
at Kanagawa,'
day of March, in the year of our

months

from

"In
and
"

the date

faith

thousand

one

third

eight hundred

and

and
fifty-four,

of

the

Kayei

seventh

year,

third

month, and

day."

The

of presents were
sent on
signingof the treaty a number
the commodore, and other officers of the squadron."i
board for the president,
In speaking of Perry'ssuccess,
W. E. Griffis says :
first
The gloryof Commodore
is not that he mvented
or
Perry'ssuccess
and
the 'sole author, originator,
father of the Japan
thought of or was
for the thought was
in many
minds,
expedition.' Such language is nonsense,
and ci\'ilians,
from Roberts
to Glynn and Aulick ; but it was
both of naval men
Perry'spersistencythat first conquered for himself a fleet,his thorough-going
of procedurein everj' detail,
and his powerfulpersonality
method
and invincible
in
and
with
the
that
won
a quick
tenacity dealing
Japanese,
permanent success
A thorough man
of war
he was
without a droj)of blood.
from his youth up ;
yet he proved himself a nobler hero, in that he restrained himself and his
lieutenants from the use of force,while yet not givingplace for a moment
to
of the Tokugawa period."
the frivolities of Japanese Yakuuui

day

after the

"^

"

'

'

'

""

JAPANESE

OF

ACCOUNT

PERRY

COMING

the 3rd of the 6th month


of the Kayei era (1853), Commodore
Perry,
of the United States of America, entered the bay of Uraga with
of two men-of-war
and two merchant
squadron consisting
ships,and sought
On

ambassador
a

to

the seventeenth

feelinghad
century, anti-foreign

the Chinese

the

and

and

Dutch

had

been

allowed

other European nations,owing to


Uttle if any concern
about Japan.

to

been
carry

various
But

from

century the spiritof aggrandisement made


and

fluence
powerful inearly part of
intense that only
trade at Nagasaki,

conmiercial relations with Japan. His vi.sitexerci-sed a


the domestic
affairs of the country. Ever since the
on

open

western

states

their territories and


'

The

treaty

began
conunerce.

is dated

at

to

vie with
Nine

Kanagawa,

one

years

so
on

selves
themgave
of
the
teenth
ninebeginning

circumstances,
the

itself felt in the Occident,


in attempts

another

to

extend

before the arrival of the American

probably because

it

was

the nearest

town.

OF

HISTORY

THE

620

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1854 A.D.]

VIEW

JAPANESE

OF

THE

SIGXIFIC.VN'CE

FERRY's

OF

TREATY

diplomat succeed in ^Testingfrom the reluctant nation


did Perry, America, Arj'ancivilisation,
science,
and Christianity
triumph. Perry's or let me say rather America's
coming
it
w
hen
Had
been
httle
the
most
a
was
providentially
earlier,
opportune.
mind
had
been
w
hen
Uttle
whole
the
not
or
prepared, a
later,
Japanese
country
was
plunged in intestine turmoil,there is no saying what might have been
America's
success
or
Japan'.sfate. Or had any other power than America
Britain
for instance,Great
or France, whose
strong policyin China had instilled
the North
dread and doubt into our people,
m
or, say, Russia,who.se movement
than America, in whom
than suspicious had any other power
more
was
was
concerned, though
no
guile(at least so far as her deahngs ui the East were
what she did in Mexico
not
to Japan even
was
then), the
entirelyunknowii
of Japanese historymight have been very different from what it has
course
Thus

did the sailor

surety of friendship. Thus

"

"

"

"

been.
Still more
than the pomt of time was
pro\'idential
Perry'schoice of the
site of landing. Here
he miconsciouslydisplayed truest
sagacity. It was

Perry's conviction that


character,but merely of
as

into

the

better
entered

the

he must

penetrate into the very

"

Ms

with

enemy

court

he

knowledge
the gulf of
and
As

then
he

"

isolation of

Japan wavS
pohcy ; hence,to
upholders and the tools

the officials

deal with

the

accidental

confer

must

of the

with
of

system
and

Ozaka
then

civil

our

knocked

result of national

"

seat

of this

evil,namely,

highest officials." If Pern,' had had


duarchy, he would very likelyhave
for admission,
at the imperialgate of Kioto

would

wars

into the

not

do away
with it,he " must
of this exclasion system

the New
sufficed to make
the
at
portalsof the

have

not

of Yodo

knocked

and

came
bay
Japan.
shogun, imcracked, though not wathout creaking,they opened on their rusty
hinges. Thus two ends were
gained by one effort : the country was opened
to foreign trade,and, at the same
time, the abolition of feudalism and the
shogimate was hastened.
Immediately after Perry's squadron had left the Japanese waters, the
rulers of the country, whether
actuated
and comi)rehension
l)y clear foresight
which attends
tliat
mental
confusion
of the moment,
whether
or
impelledby
sudden awakening from slumber, and apprehensionof the next moment,
were
aroused to immediate activity. Schools were
opened for the studj'of foreign
shot up, where
languages; academies
youths could receive instruction in
drilled; foundries and smithies
militaryand naval tactics; raw recruits were

into existence,and belfries


sprang
To this last the bonzes objected;

prayer,
Armada

for, they asked


of Kublai

"

Did

Ivhan?"

JAPANESE

molested

were

they

not

would

the

to

furnish metal

rather
of

prayers

fightwith
the devout

for arsenals.

the weapon

of

destroy the

"/

ACCOUNT

Subsequently,ambassadors

came

OF

PERRY

from

SUCCESSORS

Russia, France, and

England, and

those
as
virtuallythe same
Tokugawa government gave
the American
out that they had concluded
treaty merely in order to gain time
and
for warlike
preparations;but in truth they had been taken by surprise,
calamities
natural
in addition
had
face
to financial embarrassments
to
they
conventions

of Conmiodore

were

concluded

with

them

in terms

Perry'streaty. Meanwhile,

the

OLD
[1854-1857
oi

A.

coming,
October

621

c]

character.

disastrous

most

JAPAN

In

the year

of Commodore

visited

violent

earthquakes
Chugoku, Skikokui,and
the second
of the followhigyear
of the Ansei
year
shock of all took place in Yedo.
Immense
numbers
"

severest

and lower classes as well


of the upper
followed by
and the eartlujuakewas
lost their lives.

to have

In

"

dwellmgs

barons were
overthrown,
100,000 persons are said

fire in which

the

(1855)

era

of the

of the

followingyear, Mr. Harris came


duly
by
States,and proposed that relations
government
should
be established between
of friend.ship
Japan and America, at the same
his own
for
time asking on
audience
with the shogmi. The
an
part
Rojiu
had
Masaatu
taken
Hotta
(Bitchuno-kami)
now
charge of foreignaffairs in
placeof Abe, and after considerable hesitation he allowed Mr. Harris to repair
decided not to give a favourable
to the shogun's palace,but the government
to the American
for
answer
proposal without the sanction of the emperor,
ministrat
hitherto, despite the great importance of foreignaffairs,the Tokugawa adhad been allowed to take any steps it pleased with reference to
without
them
of
consulting the sovereign. But despite the large measure
it
the
Yedo
able
to
was
no
enjoyed by
longer
effectually
government
power
Hence it resolved to consult the imperialwishes, on
control the feudal barons.
the one
hand, while taking counsel of the feudal chiefs on the other. Such a
and
of procedure was
vacillating
dependent method
entirelyopposed to the
the
since
the
Tokugawa ever
days of lyeyasu, and it thus
policypursued by
fell out that they were
of their measures
subsequently attacked on account
course
by both the court and the people,so that in this question of foreigninteris to be sought the proximate cause
of their downfall./
The
significanceof the step which Harris took in leaving the confines of
of the United

the

accredited

to visit the

Shimoda

July

of the feudal

as

Perry's second
Kinshu, and in

of that

Yedo

court

in 1857

is best

of these addressed

One

time.

of the American
"The
present audience
countries, and
therefore, be attended
must,

shown

in the officialnotification

to officials reads

ambassador
to with

be

wil]

precedentfor all foreign

the

As intercourse
with
greatest care.
the repeal of old regulations and restrictions,the matter
is attended

foreign countries necessitates


and
tlie possible evils cannot
be foreseen; you
with difficulty,
therefore
must
neglect nothing,
the greatest care, as the tycoon's order
to all things with
but attend
requires."

Twenty days later (September),another


govermnent
"When

not

be

guards
at

the

short

Each

necessary

there.

time

the

American

ambassador

householder
to

set

Travellers
stations

officers in attendance

the

out

officials to avoid

In

may

or

guard-houses,

on

the

all noise

his interview
on

the

three

Yedo, it will

; the

temporary

not

be

boards

necessary
be
may

to

left

is to keep his portionof the road swept clean.


It will likewise
ornamental
firemen's
baskets
before
the houses, nor
to place
be allowed
Guards
should
to pass along as usual.
be placed
any disorder, if required to do so by the
be removed
of the way.
As to
out
Beggars must
to
designated spots along the road, but they are not allowed
to

suppress

ambassador.

stand
at
sightseers,they may
crowd
of
together at the upper story windows
of persons
horseback
on
possible,all encounters

by

visits

(residences of princes) along the road

Yashikis

small

from

appears

in

repairthe
as
they are.

paternalnotice

and

with

confusion

the

on

tenement
are

to be

the

way,"

houses

and

avoided.

like
Great

places.
care

As

must

much
be

as

taken

etc., etc.

of foreignaffairs,
Harris dwelt pargovernor
ticularly
Monroe
Doctrine of this country, obliquely

the
points: first,

condemning the F'rench


America's
immunity from

and

the

English policy in China and making clear


of the Opiimi War;
secondly, the religious
freedom in his country, divestingthe governor
of any fear in the direction of
the usefulness of mutual
trade.
religious
aggression; lastly,
the blood

HISTORY

THE

623

CHINA

OF

AND

JAPAN
[1857

his

By
so

that

much

the

of

secretary
be

cannot

definition,

court

Harris

trying
is

an

no

is

If,

representative

deserves

that

the

of

name

sent

man

the

on

of
in

his

stay

the

nation,

If

praised.

honest

diplomat.

to

"an

moral

its best

for

the

of

the

of

Christian

birth,

Wotton's

to

to

the

conduct
new

Harris

commonwealth,"

great

D.]

leave
to

His

according
minister

American

to

authorities

throes

A.

shogunate,

about

was

prolonged.
the

in

ambassador,"

an

he

Japanese
be

just

principles
sense.?

the

might

lie abroad

contrary,

the

by

Japan,

the

of

confidence

entire
in

addressed

was

moments

highly

too
"

letter

the

residence

of

years

asking

state

the

through

after

formal

gained

Harris

talent

when,

country,

was

and

tact

an

oriental

republic,

CHAPTER

NEW

THE

nation's

part

JAPAN

IN

CHANGES

EARLY

THE

followed,and by
and England were
extended,
1858, as we have seen, the treaties with America
the ports of Nagasaki,
with the Dutch
and French, by which
and others made
opened to foreign trade. This
Hakodate, and Yokohama
(Kanagawa) were
followed in 1867 by a no less
revolution in the foreignrelations of Japan was
the power
of the shoin
which
the
internal
revolution
affairs,
by
important
and
restored
overthrown
the
mikado
to
authority.'^
gunate was
with the
in connection
to the Japanese nation
When
reference is made
the
nobles
and the
that
it
be
observed
of
must
radical changes
only
1867,
the
section
of
other
samurai
tion
populam
words, a
(militaryclass)are indicated
The
bulk of the people
representingabout one-sixteenth of the whole.
out^
remained
classes
the mercantile
the agricultural,
the industrial,and
not
side the sphere of politics,
sharing the anti-foreignprejudice,nor taking
in the great questions of the time.
serious interest
Foreigners often
any
the
fierce
the
between
noted
with
contrast
displayed
antipathy
surprise
and
the
the
samurai
the
towards
them
hospitable
genial,
on
one
hand,
by
History teaches
people on the other.
receptiongiven to them by the common
former
the
of
a mood
the natural disposition the Japanese,
that the latter was
the comparativelynarrow
educated
by specialexperiences. Further, even
The

having

way

opened by

been

treaty,others

one

soon

"

"

"

statement
was

that

the work

the
of the

restoration
nobles

and

of the
the

administrative

samurai

must

power

be taken

to

with

the

emperor

limitations.

idea of any
entertained
necessityfor change.
no
in the vise of Tokugawa authority,or paralysedl)y
of the lives provided for them
by the machinations

majority of the nobles


either held fast
They were
the

sensuous

seductions

of their retainers,who
own

hands, leaving

held

its shadow

the administrative
authority of the fiefs in their
the
It was, in fact,among
lords.
their
to
only
623

HISTORY

THE

624

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1867-1869

retainers

that

longingsfor

new

order

of

things were

generated.

Some

A,

D.]

of

of progress
band
of students and
a small
disciples
the
Dutch
window
at Deshima,
narrow
deep thinkers who, looking through
zon
had caught a glimmering perceptionof the realities that lay beyond the horiof their country'sprejuilices.But the influence of such liberals was
paratively
commoral
remarkable
Though they showed
insignificant.
courage
the age did not furnish any strong object-lessons
and tenacityof purpose,
to
for change
The factor chieflymakmg
enforce
their propaganda of progress.
the samurai's
by the teachingsof Chinese philwas
osophy,
loyal instinct,reinforced
the
Shinto
the
revival
of
prise,
cult,by the promptings of national enterby
and'by the suggestionsof foreignintercourse.
Throughout the whole period of Tokugawa rule there had been a strong,
towards
the political
if somewhat
fitful,leaning of the national mind
philosophy
He and Yang Wangand Jlencius,as expounded by Choo
of Confucius
by his
ming.
lyeyasu himself had given the first impetus to this disposition
of
the
of
literature.
Without
of
true
perception
any
spirit the
patronage
of
the
he
ordered
that
"old
Chinese
learning"should
sages'teachings,
primers
Thus
the Zen
doctrines
of Buddhism, which
be procured and studied.
tributed
conmuch
to the development of the heroic antl the sentimental, and
so
of military feudalism, gradually
therefore
favourable
to the stability
were
place to a theory that the only legitimate ruler was heaven-appointed,
gave
that the good of the people should be the first object of administration,
and
that to fail in achieving that object was
to forfeit the title of administrator.
A
ment
century later another Tokugawa shogmi (Tsunayoshi) fostered a movefatal
the
of
revival
feudalism
he
the
to
;
encouraged
equally
pemianencj^

these

of

men

the

sincere

were

Shinto

cult

which

inculcates

"

teaches

that

the

divine

exercise

of

origin of the mikado, and

structively
con-

administrative

authority by a
although the current of thought
subjectis a usurpation.
inspiredby the Chinese philosophy and the Japanese cult was opposed to the
dual government of Yedo and Kioto, the system might have long survived this
theoretical disapprovalhad
nothing occurred to furnish signalproof of its
the
defects.
But
crisis
caused by the advent of foreignships,and
practical
the
forceful
of
renewal
foreignintercourse, afforded a convincingproof of
by
the shogunate'sincapacityto protect the state's supposed interests,and to
had
enforce the traditional policy of isolation which
to be considered
come
and
the
of
Thus
it
essential to the empire'sintegrity
to
sanctity the throne.
that
mind
be alleged
the nation's
was
already educated for the change
may
of foreigners
which the advent
precipitated.
every
It is possiblethat

CHAR.\CTER

OF

THE

REVOLUTION

in its prime purposes,


the revolution
though essentially
imperialistic
be
the fall of the shogunate,and ultimatelyof feudalism,may
and
the
of
those
who
with regard to
called democratic
planned
personnel
for the most
directed it. They were,
part, samurai, without either official
rank or social standing. That
is a point essential to a clear understandingof
the issue.
be said to have planned and carried out the
men
Fifty-five
may
But

which

involved

overthrow

of the

Yedo

administration,and only

five of them

were

territorial

laboured under the traditional


Eight,belongingto the court nobility,
of
their
the
and
class,
disadvantage
remaining forty-two,the hearts
poverty ;
and
of the movement,
hands
be
described
ambitious
as
youths, who
may
in
make
for
themselves
the
first
and
for
their
to
a career
country
sought
place,
nobles.

NEW

JAPAN

625

[1867-1869A. D.]

The

in the second.

another

average

also

element

an

"

age of the whole


element
for which

did not exceed thirty.There was


any student of Japanese history

been prepared: the Satsuma


samurai
aimed not merely at overthrowing
the Tokugawa, but also at obtaining the shogunate for their own
be unjust to say that all the leaders of the great
chief. Possiblyit would
that idea.
But some
of them
southern clan harboured
certainlydid,and not
the projectdid their union with Choshiu,
until they had consented to abandon
the other great southern clan, become
possible a miion without which the

might

have

"

could

revolution

scarcelyhave

been

This
ambition
of the
it
because
bore
remarkable
specialmention,
be
laid the foundation
of constitutional
fruit;it may
ment
governin Japan.
of the distrust engendered by such
For, in consequence
the authors
of the restoration agreed that when
the emperor
aspirations,
the reins of power
he should
assumed
pledge himself by oath to convene
a
deliberative assembly,and to appoint to administrative
of intellect
posts men
and erudition wherever
they might be found.

clansmen

Satsuma

accomplished.

deserves
said to have

THE

ANTI-FEUDAL

IDEA

the outset the necessityof abolishingfeudalism did not present itself


Their sole idea was
the unification of
clearlyto the leaders of the revolution.
the nation.
But when
the practical
to consider closely
side of the
they came
problem, they understood how far it would lead them.
Evidently that one
less heterogeneous
or
homogeneous system of law should replacethe more
essential,and such a substitution
systems operativein the various fiefs was
At

that

be deprived of their local autonomy


the feudatories must
and,
of
control
of
their
local
finances.
That was
incidentally,
a stupendous change.
Hitlierto each
feudal chief had collected the revenues
of his fief and
had

meant

employed them at will,subjectto the sole condition of maintaininga body of


He had been, and was
autocrat
still,
an
troops proportionateto his income.
the other hand, the active authors
within the limits of his territory.On
of the revolution
band of men
ritorial
were
a small
mainly without prestigeor terIt was
influence.
impossiblethat they should dictate any measure
sensiblyimpairingthe local and fiscal autonomy of the feudatories. No power
existed at the time.
All the great political
capableof enforcingsuch a measure
in
had
hitherto
been
wars
changes
Japan
preceded
by
culminating in the
accession of some
in this case
clan
whereas
to
there
authority,
strong
supreme
the
had been a displacement without
been
substitution
had
a
Tokugawa
"

overthrown
and
It was, moreover,

no

new

certain

constitute

itself executor

the

clans
found

other

administrators

to

that
of

vehement

had

been

set

up in their stead.
of any
clan to
one

an
attempt on the part
have
would
the sovereign'smandates
In
resistance.
short, the leaders

stirred
of

the

out
pledged to a new
theory of government, withfor
into
effect
of
it
means
or
abolishing
machinery
carrying
any
any
the old practice. An ingeniousexit from this curious dilemma
devised
was
the
feudal
chiefs
of
induced
Choshiu,
by the young reformers.
Satsuma,
They
render
Tosa, and Hizen, the four most powerful clans in the south, publiclyto surtheir fiefs to the emperor,
praying his majesty to reorganize them
of Shimazu,
and to bring them
all under
In the case
the same
system of law.
stanil to their credit
chief of Satsuma, and Yodo, chief of Tosa, this act must
and
had been a reality,
the exercise of power
sacrifice. To them
as
a noble
the effort of surrenderingit must
have been correspondinglycostly. But
revolution

H.

W.

"

VOL.

themselves

XXIV.

CHINA

OF

HISTORY

THE

626

JAPAN

AND

[1869 A.D.]

suggestionsof their

and Hizen
principal
obeyed
the chiefs of Choshiu
The same
of the probable cost of obedience.
if any, sense
vassals with little,
phasise
remark
appliesto all the other feudatories,with exceptionsso rare as to emthe manageto abandon
the rule.
ment
They had long been accustomed
of their affairs to their leading clansmen, and they allowed themselves
the

to

the

follow

guidance

same

this crisis.

at

seventy-sixfeudatories,only

and

of the four southern

to

whole

OF

of the

been

incident has

clans,when

various

that the samurai


to the interests
with fidelity

they

sought by

advised

of their feudal

of

of

the

four

which

clans

southern

course

example

themselves

the

headed

supposmg
sistent
inconso

influenced

chiefs,were

that

they
pensonal ambition, imagining
Some
the new
under
hope of
regime.
opportunities
great
certainly realised,in the case
fairlybe assumed, and was
samurai

the

REFORMERS

THE

explanationof this remarkable

motives

hundred

two

imitate

fiefs.

MOTIVES

An

of the

Out

hesitated

seventeen

that
of

movement.

by
might find
kind

the

rnay

leading
But

it is

entertained.
The
expectationscan have been generally
indicated
the
certain
be
true
to
one:
a
seems
course,
simplest explanation
by the action of the four southern clans,was conceived to be in accord with
have been to shrink
the spiritof the restoration,and not to adopt it would
of
to the throne
the
sacrifice
dictated
from
loyalty
principle
by
a
publicly
in
the
of
had
which
sanctity
acquired supreme
eyes of the men
principle
a
the
initial
about
been
have
There
uncertainty
some
that era.
step,
might
taken
that was
but so soon
by the southern clans their example acquired
as
crises the Japanese samurai
compellingforce. History shows that in political
of almost
romantic
certain
deference
to
canons
is generallyready to pay
of
the year
in
the
air
morality. There was a fever of loyaltyand of patriotism
1869.
Anyone hesitating,for obviously selfish reasons, to adopt a precedent
clans would have
such as that offered by the procedure of the great southern
to forfeit the rightof callinghimself
a samurai.
seemed
understood
movement
now
But
although the leaders of this remarkable

plain that

no

such

"

that
new

they

must

administrative

contrive the
edifice on

total

abolition

foundations

of

of

feudalism

and

build

up

monarchy, they
goal which stilllay

constitutional

appreciated the necessityof advancing slowly towards a


Thus
the first steps taken after
beyond the range of their followers' vision.
to the positionof
to appoint the feudatories
of the fiefs were
the surrender
which
had
the
districts
in
previouslyruled ; to confirm
over
they
governors
and
official jiositions;
to put
their
incomes
in
the
samurai
of
the
possession
an

end

to

the

distinction

between

court

nobles

and

consistingof the leaders

territorial nobles, and to


Each

of the restoration.

Kioto
a cabinet
of emolument;
of the fief l)y way
received one-tenth of the income
governor
the
administrative
the pay of the officials and the samurai, as well as
and the residue,
of the district,
was
defrayed from the same
source,
expenses
into the treasury of the central government.
if any, was
to be pas.sed

organise in
new

of this system from


a monarchical
point of view soon became
to the
of either the purse or the sword
It did not give the power
of
the
leaders
be
and
had
to
reform,
A
radical
further
taken,
sovereign.
step
had
of procedure which
seeing nothing better than to continue the method
strative
thus
far proved so successful,contrived, first,that several of the adminitheir local
districts should send in petitionsseeking to surrender
The

evident.

defects

f
OF

HISTORY

THE

628

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1873-1874i.D.)

of adversity. It is to be noted, however,


him
to displayin the presence
with
the
that as yet
regard to the samurai were
government's measures
swords
and
commuted
their pensions
Men
their
laid
aside
not compulsory.
at their

own

option.
ESS.WS

FIRST

IN

REPRESENTATIVE

GOVERNMENT

the leaders of
Meanwhile
differences of opinionbegan to develop among
of
without
themselves.
or
experience publicaffairs,
Young men
progress
po.sts,found the duty suddenly
specialeducation to fit thoiii for responsible
them
not
devolved
on
only of devisingatlministrative and fiscal systems
to
applicable a nation hitherto divided into a congeriesof semiuniversally
but also of shaping the country's demeanour
independent principahties,
intercourse and alien civilisation. So long
towards novel problems of foreign
the shogunatefused them into a homogeneous
as the heat of their assault upon
But when
they had to build a
togethersucce.s.sfully.
party they worked
inevitable that their
edifice on the ruins of a still\avid past, it was
brand-new
opinionsshould vary as to the nature of the materials to be employed. In
of the capitalincidents of Japan's modem
this divergenceof \-iews many
has
been stated already that the declaration
historyhad their origin. It
which
invited to make
the young
was
on
assuming the reins of govemperor
ernment
included

pointingto
promiseconstructively

representative
polity,

and that the promise was


suggestedby mutual jealousyof the plannersof
tions.
the restoration rather than by any sincere desire for parliamentaryinstituwished
in this respect,
zealous reformers certainly
to follow,
Some
occidental nations; but a great majorityof the
the example of the foremost
of the time thought only of a system which, by endowing all the
statesmen
clans with a share of administrative authority,would
prevent the undue
It need scarcelybe repeatedthat the
preponderanceof any one of them.
A "national assembly" was
militaryclass alone entered into this account.
the views of the samurai.
Two
regardedsolelyas an instrument for eliciting
in the years immediatelyfollowing
such assemblies actuallymet
the restoration.
But
than debating clubs. No
legislative
they were
nothing more
and
intrusted
their
tion.
to
was
them,
opinionsreceived httle officialattenpower
allowed
of
ence.
existAfter the second fiasco they were
to
out
tacitly
pass
show
that
to
indeed,
Everything,
representative
government might
goes
have
outside the range of practical
long remained
pohticshad not its uses
derived \'icariousvalue from special
complications.

THE

KORE.\N

QUESTION

AND

ITS

EFFECTS

The story
Chief among
those compHcations was
the Korean question.''
Japan'srelations with Korea dates from very earlytimes. The celebrated
Jingo is said to have made an expeditioninto the peninsulain
empress
of
the third century. In the Nipon o dai itsi ran
annals of the emperor
or
Kwo
is
the
of
told
follows:
"Sin
as
Jingo (201-269)
story
Japan,
gou,
gou
the great granddaughter of the dairi Kai Kwa, and
wife of Tsiou ai, was
At the death of the emperor,
this princess
daughter of Iki naga sou Koune.
of

""

with the Take


outsi-no Soukoune, to conceal the
she
marcjied accordinglyagainstthe Oso, whom
reduced to submission,
after having punished the mutinous.

resolved,in agreement
death of her husband,

conqueredand

and

JAPAN

NEW
[1873-1874

A.

629

D.]

supernaturalpresentiment she wished to make war


all the army
assembled
the sea
was
ra
[Korea]. When
upon
her
mioo
zin
show
the way
her
to
and to
preceded
constantly
god Foumi yori
wonderful
observed.
On this occasion
aid her.
things were
Having
many
Wa
ni-no so, the empress
attacked by a great
was
set sail with her fleet from
to the surface of the sea to .support
tempest, whereupon several largefish came
thus that she landed
the shipsuntil the tempest should have passed. It was
Then

people of Sin

the

in Sin

of

account

on

ra.

with terror,exclaimed

king of Sin ra, overcome


(in the text, supernatural)
army
' '

The

liLs hands

he caused

upon

and, precededby

wliite

to

of

be

Japan

tied Uke

he went
flag,

to

too

am

'

Behold the invincible


feeble to resist.' There:

'

in token of submission,
a prisoner's
acknowledge liimself a slave of Japan,

send
ambassadors
did this empress
Twice
with
tribute.
pay
of China of the dynasty of GW
the emperor
(Wei),and she often
and
She is mentioned
received ambassadors
presents from that monarch.
and
died at the age
authors.
She
several
Chinese
reignedsixty-nineyears
by

promising

to

presents to

of

hundred."
celebrated

one

by the Japanese took place in the


Accordmg to 0-o-gawutsi,a Japanese general who took part in
year 1597.
of the country
the expeditionand who kept a journalof the war, three-fourths
and
several of its oldest cities destroyed,although the Koreans
overrun
was
aided by the Chinese.
0-o-gawutsit describes the.departureof the troops
were
Another

for this invasion

follows

as

commander-in-chief]sailed

aki [the

"Fide

of Korea

invasion

in the

imperialship from

the

the fort,towards the fore posts of the army.


taken into the ships at the bridge of TojoAt the time of the departure all the wives

is beneath

which
bridgeTojo-tosi,

great and little princeswere


tosi and at the bridge of Shadow.
and children,the well-born as well as
where the shipslay,thinkingthat now

The

to the shore
people,came
for
well.
time
saying fareappointed
the arms
them
and hip-pieces
showed
The men
took them into the sliips,
of the coats of mail, said it will be on the same
road,and wept and cried. As
all sorts
the
under
men
the shipswere
gradually,
getting
gave the women
way
off.
The
the
dowm
then let them
and quickly pushed
of instructions,
ships
to their homes
on

not

all sides and

the

as

evanescent

waitingfor it to

be the

common

was

the

their eyes, then returned


partingfrom the body which is so limited
It also happened that some,
a drop of dew.
into the river U-dzi,
threw
themselves
way,

vessels for some


thinkingof the eternal

followed

women

the

as
same

distance

with

longing of the high-born daughter Sa-jo of Matsura


empire of olden time, of which tradition tells us,
and drown
than to wet the sleeve in the waves
by the
how could it be more
at the start was
shore ? Wliile this attendance
witnessed,floods of tears were
and

shed."

The

drowned.

were

ship of the Chinese

for the

"

overrun
by Japanese
century, when the peninsulawas
itate
to facilof
habit
embassy
sentUng a present-bearing
a
the
fall
of
But
after
the
of each
Japanese shogun.

the sixteenth

From

troops,its rulers made


the

Tokugawa

accession

shogunate the Korean

desisted

court

from

this custom,

declared

a
country embracing
urally
NatJapanese embassy.
much
friction
roused
such
conduct
deep umbrage in Japan. Already
Of the fifty-five
the leaders of national reform.
had been developed among
united
efforts had compassed the fall of the shogmiate, five stood
whose
men
and Sanjo, court
Iwakura
their colleagues.They were
conspicuous above
nobles;Saigo and Okubo, samurai of Satsuma, and Kido, a samurai of Cho-

its determination
western

to

have

and
civilisation,

no

refused

further
even

relations with

to

receive

HISTORY

THE

630

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1873-1874 ^D.]

whose youtlialone
of great gifts,
of the
disquaUfied them for prominence Ito, the constructive statesman
of the time, though
Meiji era, who inspirednearly all the important measures
lacked a
he did not openly figureas their originator;Inouye, who
never
shiu.

In

the second

rank

came

men

many
"

resource

or

swerved

of lo3'alty;
Okuma, a
Rousseau
the
intellect;
\'igorous
Itagaki,

from

and
subtle,versatile,
of others

the

created

dictates

the

pohtician of
of

his era,
wliich

with

extraordinarycircumstances

a score
by
the captains,the rest
were
the}'had to deal. But the five first mentioned
the
four
sincere
reformers
not
lieutenants.
five,
were
free,
Among
only
from
bent upon
ests
of course,
selfish motives, but truthfully
promoting the interThe fifth,Saigo Takamori, was
of their country before all other aims.
in whom
under
ambition
boundless
a
man
lay concealed
quahties of the
from
noblest and most
trace of
enduring type. His absolute freedom
every
of the simplest;the
sordidness gave currency
to a belief that liis aims
were
of the samurai ; his massive
satisfied the liighest
canons
story of his career
and
physique, commanding presence,
aspect impressed and attracted
sunny
those
of
who
had
no
even
opportunity
admiring his fife of self-sacrificing
effort or appreciatingthe remarkable
mihtary talent he possessed. In the
first part of his career,
the object of his ambition
Satsuma
was
; in the latter
of
the Tokugawa shogunate presented itself to
part, Saigo. The overthrow
him
of the Satsuma
clan, and when
originally
as
a prelude to the supremacy

and

"

the

abohtion

of

feudahsm

defeated

that

Satsmna

purpose,

assumed

in

his

he clearlyrecognisedhis own
guise of Saigo. Whether
projector
eyes
was
unconsciouslyswayed by it,there is no doubt that he looked to become
of state affairs. To that end the preservation
in the administration
supreme
of the mihtary class was
of the samurai
essential. By the swords
alone
in
carved
On
the
could a new
be
other
out.
hand, Saigo's
imperiiim
imperio
an
colleaguesin the ministry saw
clearlynot only that the samurai
were

the

unwarrantable

burden

on

after the fall of feudalism

the nation, but also that their continued


existence
be a menace
would
well as an
to pubhc peace
as

anomaly. Therefore they took the steps alreadydescribed,and followed them


by the enaction of a conscriptionlaw, making every adult male hable for
mihtary service \\athout regard to his social standing.
\Miile the pain of this blow was
still fresh the question of Korea's contumacious
conduct
and violent
presented itself. It produced an immediate
disruptionin the ranks of the littleband of reformers.
Saigo saw in a foreign
sole
of
his
ambition
the
chance
war
b)' lawful means.
remaining
achieraig
Other members
of the cabinet beheved
that the nation would be disgracedif
it tamely endured
Korea's insults. Thus several influential voices swelled the
for
clamour
The peace party prevailed,
net,
and
four members
of the cabiwar.
incluthngSaigo,resigned. This mixture was destined to have far-reaching
of revolt.
One of the seceders inunediatelyraisetl the standard
consequences.
the devices employed by him
adherents
to win
an
Among
was
attempt to
fan into flame the dying embers
The governof the anti-foreignsentiment.
ment
crushed the insurrection easily. Another
seceder was
Itagaki Taisuke.
believed in representativeinstitutions,
the establisliment
and
advocated
of a national assembly consisting
half of officials and half of popular nominees.
and
His views, premature
at the moment,
visionary,obtained no currency
but in later years became
of
the shibboleth
a great pohticalparty.
He

Saigo, the

most

prominent

of the

seceders,seems

that moment
that he must
abandon
his aims or
retired to his native province of Satsuma, and
his great

reputation,and

the devoted

to

concluded

have

achieve

them

apphed

his whole

loyaltyof

number

by

force.

from

He

resources,

of able followers

NEW
[1873-1877
to

A.

JAPAN

631

D.]

organisingand equipping

strong body of samurai.


of the

for him

by the conservatism
Satsuma, who, though not

celebrated

Matters

itated
facil-

were

Shimazu

Sabiiro,former
chief of
had
been
opposed to foreignintercourse,
of the time, and
revolted by the wholesale iconoclasm
by the indiscriminate
in favour of foreign. Satsuma
thus became
rejectionof Japanese customs
a
wluch
of conservative
centre
influences,among
Saigo and liisconstantlyaugmenting
band
of samurai
found a congenialenvironment.
During four years
the central government

between

this breach

wider.

The

former

and

the southern

steadilyorganisedits

clan grew

trained
conscripts,

^vith

them

stantly
con-

in

wholly
equipped
foreignarms.
adopted the rifle and the drill of Europe, but clung to the sword
in exercises for developing physicalpower.
and engaged ceaselessly
them

foreign tactics,and

EXPEDITION

TO

The latter
of the samurai

FORMOS-iV

them a military
Many thingshappened in that four years'interval,
among
of
which
led
the
to
with China.
to
Japan
war
Formosa,
expedition
verge
of tliis complication was
the barbarous
ostensible cause
The
of
treatment
Riukiu
Formosan
from
the
Chinese
aborigines. Upon
by
castaways
ment
governproperly devolved the duty of punishing its subjects,the Formosans;
but as the Chinese
government showed no inclination to dischargethe duty,
hands.
She would
have done so,
never
Japan took the law into her own
The
however, had she not hoped to placatethereby the Satsimia samurai.
of the Satsuma
Riukiu
and
islands had been for centuries an appanage
fief,
not
the government, in undertaking to protect the islanders,
only showed
consideration

for

the

discontented

clan, but

for

From

also acceded

to

the

samurai's

militarypoint of view the expedition


an
campaign.
be
But
Uttle
to
successful.
glory was
gained by shootingdown the semiwas
of
and
whatever
the expedition
inhabitants
Formosa,
potentialities
savage
marred
with
domestic
to
regard
poUtics were
by the
might have possessed
bad grace shown
in
carryingit out and by the feebleness of its international
issue. For the Tokio
government, by seeking at the eleventh hour to stay
the enterprise,
and
to dissociate itself from
the departure of the ships,seemed
to Peking with instructions to contrive
by subsequently sending an ambassador
lost credit with the samurai
whom
it had hoped to
a peacefulsolution,
gratify.
wish

over-sea

TREATY

WITH

KOREA

expedition,that is to say, at the


completed
rupture with Japan by firingon
in
the peacefuloperationof coastwar-vessel
the boats of a Japanese
engaged
remained
surveying. No choice now
expedition
except to despatch an armed
In this matter
herself an
Japan showed
against the truculent kingdom.
been
such as had
self
practisedagainst herapt pupil of occidental methods
She
assembled
force
of
and
in former
an
imposing
war.ship.s
years.
of
she
but
instead
the
to
extremities,
proceeding
scjuademployed
transports,
Korea
to intimidate
which
was
so
by no means
ron
strong as it seemed
and
three
into signing a treaty of amity and
opening
ports to
commerce,
That
the
of
Korea's
with
relations
trade.
was
beginning
friendly
foreign
took
for
the
fact
and
credit
the outer
world,
that, thus
Japan naturally
she
had
become
for
instrument
an
extending the
early in her new
career,
year after the return
of
close
1875, the Koreans

"

of

the

Formosa

their

"

OF

HISTOKY

THE

632

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1873-1877

But

past.
a

intercourse opposed so strenuouslyby


the dissatisfaction of the conservaincident only accentuated
tive
and they held
treaties of conunerce,
They did not want

the

samurai.
national humiliation
with

terms

that

China

the

country

should

they regarded

which

little state

acknowledged

A.

D.]

herself in the

of universal
principle

have
as

negotiated on
tributary,and

it

equal
which

its suzerain.

as

(1876) adopted by the government: a


and
edict ordering the compulsory
swords,
an
wearing
received by the nobles and the
of the pensions and allowances
conunutation
selves
A few scores
of samurai, equipping themsamurai.
Armed
protests ensued.
of
old
fell
the garrisonof a
with the hauberks
and weapons
tunes,
upon
Two

extreme

measures

were

against the

veto

castle,killed or wounded
mountain, died by
two

other

now

of

hands.

own

places,and finallythe

Satsuma

SATSU1L\

This
the

was

an

insurrection

paltry outbreaks

hundred, and

three

some

their

very

samurai

then, retiringto

example
in

rose

found

an

cent
adja-

imitators

in

arms

under

Saigo.

and

motives

from

INSURRECTION

different in dimensions

preceded it. During four years the preparations


equipped with
unremitting. They were
riflesand cannon
some
thirtythousand, being thus nearlyas
; they numbered
the government's standing army
all of the military
numerous
as
; they were
tactics and in the use of
class,and in addition to high trainingin western
of precision,
modern
arms
they knew how to wield that formidable weapon,
the Japanese sword, of which
their opponents were
for the most
rant.
part ignoof the revolt was
The real purpose
for
the governing power
to secure
A bitter struggleensued.
Satsuma.
Beginnmg on January 29th, 1877, it
was
brought to a close on September 24th of the same
year by the death,
voluntary or in battle, of all the rebel leaders.
During that period the
of men
sand,
number
engaged on the government's side had been sixty-sixthouthe side of the rebels forty thousand, out of which
and the number
on
total the killed and wounded
thousand, or thirty-three
aggregated thirty-five
of
the
the
whole.
Had
cent,
defeated,
government's troops been finally
per
of the

there
the

can

that

Satsuma

be

and

army
found
herself

no

men

doubt
navy

had
had

Their

that

would

been

and
tiirect
the samurai's exclusive title to man
have
have been re-established,and Japan would

permanently saddled wth a militaryclass,heavily burdening


her finances,seriouslyimpeding her progress
constitutional governtowards
ment,
and
perpetuating all the abuses incidental to a policy in which the
of the sword rests entirelyin the hands of one
section of the people.
power

STEPS

Concurrently with
equip the country

these

events

OF

PROGRESS

the

government

diligentlyendeavoured

occidental civilisation.
that the master-minds
had planned
of the era, who
It is easy to understand
the
the
lead
in
all paths of
take
and carried out
to
restoration,continued
Their
intellectual
entitled them
to act as guides; they
superiority
progress.
to

had
to

of

with

all the

paraphernaliaof

enjoyed exceptionalopportunitiesof acquiringenlightenment by \'isits


Europe and America, and the Japanese people had not yet lost the habit
looking to officialdom for everj' initiative. But the spectaclethus presented
without disquieting
to foreignonlookers was
not altogether
suggestions.

NEW
(1873-1877A.D.]
The government's reforms

seemed

JAPAN

633

outstripthe nation's readiness for them,


and confusion.
artificiality
Englishmen
employed to superintend the buildingof railways,the erection of telewere
graphs,
the construction
of lighthouses,
and the organisationof a
To
navy.
the work
mtrusted
of recastingthe laws and
Frenchmen
was
the
training
and

results

the

wore

air of

an

some

strategy and tactics.


the improvement
service,
postal
in

army

Americans.

supervisedby

were

of

commercial

to

Educational
of

affairs,the

and
agriculture,

The

teaching of

code,the elaboration

of

organisation

the work
medical

of

of colonisation

science,the

pilation
com-

of local government,

system

ultimatelythe trainingof military officers were


assigned to Germans.
in sculpture and
For
it
painting Italians were
engaged. Was
that so many
novelties should be successfully
assimilated,or that the
possible
nation should adapt itself to systems planned by a motley band
of aliens
knew
These questions did not
who
nothing of its character and customs?
trouble the Japanese nearly so much
as
they troubled strangers. The truth
the great sacrifices
not
is that conservatism
was
reallyrequired to make
all
the
the only
innovations
of
the era
suggested by appearances.
Among
could
fashion
of
not
that
aside
will
the
at
a Japanese
was
new
one
lay
dressing
his hair.
He abandoned
the queue
irrevocably. But for the rest he lived a
dual life. During hours of duty he wore
decorated
a fine uniform, shaped and
he stepped out of office or off parade he
in foreignstyle. But
so
soon
as
reverted
houses
comfortable
and picturesquecostume.
Handsome
to his own
built and
furnished
models.
But each had
were
an
according to western
and
doors
where
annex
alcoves,verandas, matted
tinued
confloors,
sliding
paper
to do traditional duty. A remarkable
spiritof liberalism and a fine
eclectic instinct were
needed for the part they acted,but they did no radical
violence to their own
creeds, and conventions.
traditions,
and

instruction

DEVELOPMENT

OF

REPRESENTATIVE

GOVERNMENT

the

tenor
Satsuma
of Japan's
rebellion,
nothing disturbed the even
the
of
of
her
an
on
some
politics
attempt
part
people to
except
No
force the growth of parliamentary government.
one
reading Japanese
historycarefullycan fail to infer that representativeinstitutions are in the
From
cratic.
an
early era the sovereign ceased to be autogenius of the nation.
All the highest offices of state became
of
tain
hereditarypossessions cergreat families,and as generationfollowed generation,each unit of this
of a clan.
attained the dimensions
oligarchyof households
By-and-by the
headed
exigenciesof the time gave birth to a militaryaristocracy,
by a generalissimo
(shogun),into whose hands the administrative authoritypassed.

After

domestic

effort

united

the

on

the administrative

part

power

of all the clans to overthrow


from

the

shogun

could

this

have

system and

only

one

wrest

come,
logicalout-

exercise of the recovered power


by those who had been
it.
That
the
was
meaning of the oath taken by
recovering
made
to
the
w
hen
the
at
restoration,
youthful sovereignwas
emperor
all things determined
be sought, and
that "wise
counsels should
by
the combined

instrumental
the
say

in

public discussion."
Into
view.
tradesmen
"

idea of

But

their
did

have

Thus,

as

been

framers

enter
a

claim

to them

at

of the

the "common

consideration

not

advancing

would

the

all,nor

to
an

already related,the

had

the

be considered.

oath

had

the

samurai

alone

in

people" farmers, mechanics,


people themselves any
"

common

voice

in the

administration

embarrassing rather than a pleasingprivilege.


first deliberative assembly was
composed of

CHINA

OF

HISTOKY

THE

634

JAPAN

AND

[1873-1877 A.D.]

without

and samurai
legislative
debating
only. A mere
any
Possibly the
permanently dissolved after two sessions.
authority,it was
problem of a parliament might have been long postponed after that fiasco,
in Itagaki Taisuke
(afterwardsCount
had it not found an ardent advocate
ment,
Itagaki). A Tosa samurai, conspicuous as a leader of the restoration moveof
advocates
the
to
measures
recourse
strong
Itagaki was
among
against Korea in 1873, antl his failure to carry his point,supplemented by a
have
belief that a large section of public opinion would
supported him had
there been any machinery for appealing to it,gave fresh impetus to his faith
of the Korean
in constitutional government.
Leaving the cabinet on account
of
of
in
favour
nucleus
the
he
became
a
parliamentary
agitation
question,
enrolled not only tliscontented samurai,
were
system, and under his banner
club

nobles

but

of the

also many

of the

observation

direct

from

who, returning

men,

young

working

of

tional
constitu-

systems in Europe or
tain
America, and failingto obofficial posts in Japan,
attributed
their failure to
"

v^'.'iSpiji

'J3^^5^C?$.V^'^^^

form of their
oligarchical
in
country's polity. Thus
the

-''

between

interval

the

and

1873

there were
of
disturbance

1877

centres

in

Japan:

one

where

Saigo

two

in

Satsuma,

_^

'.''^'

.J
""Vk.7-5^

j"^-iCA_\
____j;__-^,.

'

."'.l!i

ioc^

Bell

Temple

at

other

leader,
leader, the
under
The

V.

couUl

not

have

But

common.

anything
the

agitatorsdid not neglect


make
capitalout of

Tosa

Tokio

Tosa,

in
m

Itagaki's guidance.

two

in
and

as

___

'^-T~
^^^^tV

"""
"'""
-

"^^^^^=::=S^^^^Xl^f:^^^\
Pagoda

figured

to

caused

the embarrassment

rebellion.

by the Satsuma

height,they addressed to the government


to restrain
administration with oppressivemeaisures
of the
with usurpation of power
to the exclusion
since
the
of
downwards
instead
upwards,
levelling
at

its

to

the

of commoners,
of the
standard
and

assembly
the people were

the

whereas

to the rank

This

samurai.

commoners

the

While

strugglewas
memorial, charging the

the voice
nation
samurai

of

had

should

have

asked

for

memorial

publicopinion,
large,and with

at

representative

admitted

popular rights. But since the document


have
uneducated, it is plain that there cannot

talked of

idea of giving them

share

reduced
educated

been
been

been

any

that
serious

in the administration.

for a
did not believe that the time had come
even
The
in
statesmen
ceived
consuch as the Tosa liberals advocated.
measure
power
and
that the nation
must
be educated
up to constitutional standards,
official model.
that the finst step should be to provide an
Accordingly, in
made
for periodically
assembly of
convening an
1874, arrangements were
But

the

government

prefecturalgovernors,
between

the

mutually exchange
progress

in order
central
ideas

within

as

that

they might

authorities
to

the

the

and

safest

and

the limits of their

act

as

of

channels

cation
communi-

provincialpopulation,and

most

effective

methods

jurisdictions.This

was

of

couraging
en-

int"nded

the governors,
But
institutions.
being
be the embryo of representative
of
the
character
bear
in
the
did
not
officialsappointed by
cabinet,
any sense
reflected
the
it
be
said
that
public
even
they
popular nominees, nor could
to

HISTORY

THE

636

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1878-1881 A.D.]

LIBERAL

THE

Itagaki and
the cliqueof clansmen
to overthrow
monopolised the prizesof
power,
This

of such

what

not

was

aim

an

He

the
(liberals),

the

had

that

who

men

officialdom.

been

in the

wanted.

Their

was
purpose
reins of administrative

Towards

the

consummation
his agitation.

helped little. Itagakiredoubled

in office and

been

never

had

PARTIES

who, holding the

local assemblies

sincerelybelieved

who

his followers

into
organised his fellow-thinkers
in
first political
Japan, to
party

several
gra\'itated
many

PROGRESSIST

AND

an

in office and
desired

association

whose

ranks
resented

to be ; and

called

there
the

jiyuto

very

soon

loss of it;

still greater

ber
num-

of
principles

political
liberty,but had not
the possibility
of immediateh'
adapting such principlesto
yet considered
of thingsthat an association
It was
in the nature
of this kind,
Japan's case.
professingsuch doctrines,should present a picturesqueaspect to the pubUc,
should
and that its collisions with the authorities
Ln%'ite popular sympathy.
the government,
Nor
collisions infrequent. For
were
arguing that if the
nation
it ready for
not
mstitutions, neither was
was
ready for representative
of speech or of publicmeeting, legislated
full freedom
with that
consistently
certain
the
of
control
and
intrusted
to
the press
over
police
theory,
powers
and the platform.
Three
splitoccurred in the ranks of the ruling
years later (1881J another
seceded from the
Okuma)
Shigenobu (aften\-ardsCount
oligarchy. Okuma
of able men
followed by a number
who
had owed
administration, and was
their appointments to his patronage, or who, during his tenure
of office as
of finance,had passed under the influence of his powerfulpersonality.
minister
of Japan, Okuma
If Itagaki be called the Rousseau
be regarded as the
may
Peel.
To remarkable
financial abilityand a lucid, vigorous judgment, he
added the facultyof placinghimself on the crest of any wave
which a genuine
swell.
had
aura
He, too, inscribed on his baimer of revolt
begim to
popularis
"Constitutional
against the oligarchythe motto
government," and it might
have been expected that his followers would
joinhands with those of Itagaki,
since the avowed
of both was
identical. They did nothing of
political
purpose
the kind.
Okmna
gressists"
Proorganisedan independent party, callingthemselves
who
stood
aloof
from
the
liberals
not
but
(Shimpoto),
only
even
This fact is eloquent. It shows
assumed
attitude hostile to them.
that
an
first
about
but
not
about
Japan's
political
partieswere
grouped
principles,
"

Hence

persons.
constant

tendency
that

evolution
Just

as

though

in
true

each

the ultimate

inentable

an

to

break

render

so

Japan.

He

cast

shape

must

up

into

caves

looks

for

be the

same.

his

and

amongst
coteries.

their elements

These

are

and a
charthe acteristics

foreignstudent the story of political


of platfonn and finds none.
be a progressist,
and a true progressist
a liberal,
so,
of
faith
in
mould
of
different
a
profession
phrases,

perplexingto

liberal must
may

lack of cohesion

differences

a.'vsassination had been followed, in 1878, by an edict announcing


Okubo's
of local assemblies.
the establishment
Okuma's
secession in 1881 was
followed
that
edict
would
national
convened
be
in 1891.
a
by an
announcing
assembly
The

political
parties,having now
virtuallyattained their object,might
expected to desist from further agitation. But they had another
task to perform that of disseminatinganti-official prejudicesamong
the
and
future electors. They worked
diligently,
they had an undisputed field,
for no one
to champion the government's cause.
was
put forward
in power
the statesmen
Meanwhile
resolutelypursued their path of progressive
codified
reform.
the
civil
and penal laws, remodellingthem
They
have

been

"

NEW

JAPAN

637

[1881-1890 A.D.]

of affairs within the


they brought a vast number
scope of
the
rescued
finances
from
minute
and
confusion
restored
regulations;they
them
condition ; they recast the whole framework
to a sound
of local government;
of
they organised a great national bank, and established a network
institutions
subordinate
throughout the comitry; they pushed the work of
enlisted privateenterprise
in its cause
railway construction,and successfully
;
and
extended
the
services;
postal
telegraphic
they steadily
they economised
publicexpendituresso that the State's income always exceeded its outlays;
of a strong mercantile
marine; they instituted a
they laid the foundations
undertook
of
postal savings banks; they
large schemes of harbour
system
and
and
road-making; they planned
improvement
put into operation an
of riparian improvement;
civil service
extensive
they made
programme
of
appointments depend on competitive examination; they sent numbers
students to Europe and America
to complete their studies; and
by tactful,
into the empire's
tone
perseveringdiplomacy they graduallyintroduced a new
better administered.
relations with foreignpowers.
Japan's affairs were never
on

bases ;

western

THE

CONSTITUTION

1890

OP

In 1890 the constitution was


promulgated. Imposing ceremonies marked
All the nation's notables were
sunmioned
to the palaceto witness
the event.
ter;
the deliveryof the important document
by the sovereignto the prime minissalvos of artillery
were
kept holiday. Marquis '
visited

had
of

the Occident

parliamentary

fired;the

cities

and the people


were
illuminated,
framing of the constitution. He
of investigating
the development
purpose
their
studying
practicalworking. His
the

directed

Ito
for

the

institutions

and

ship
nearly every great work of constructive statesmanand
of
his legislative
perhaps the crown
history of new
Japan,
the Japanese people
the draftingof the constitution,
to which
career
was
pointproudly as the only charter of the kind voluntarilygiven by a sovereign
such concessions were
to his subjects. In other countries
always the outcome
In Japan the emperor
vested
of long strugglesbetween
ruler and ruled.
freelydithem
himself
of a portion of his prerogativesand transferred
to the
people. That view of the case, as may be seen from the story told above, is
it is true.
of
The framers
but in a generalsense
not untinged with romance,
mum
did not err on
the side of liberality.They fixed the minithe constitution
and the property qualiat twenty-five,
candidates
fication
age for electors and
of 15 yen (30 shillings)
of direct taxes
at a payment
to the amount
annually. The result was that only 460,000 persons ^ were enfranchised out of
of 42 millions.
A bicameral
a nation
adopted for the diet; the
system was
and in part nomihouse
in
in
hereditary,
elective,
part
being
part
upper
is connected

name

with

in the

'

the

titlo of

ancient

very often
introduced

nobilityin Japan

aristocracy. In former
tliese were
prefixed to a
\mtil

In

dons

necessarilythat

indicate
tillcs did

in the

iKime

the

interval
territorial chiefs and

188.5.

not

times

not

exist.
of

m.mner

There

'

Since

the

failures owing

to

promuliiation of the constitution


disairrecnient between

the two

But

from

the

Ito (afterwards marquis),


marquises,
namely, princes,

bill has been


of peers
radical tendencies

reform

actual

passed, after several


having shown

itself in

of repof the house


resentative
In the system introduced
this bill the property qualificationfor electors was
of franchiseofnational
to payment
taxes
amounting to 10 yen annually, the number

this matter,

as

in all

others, strongly

opposed[rt the

\"y

reduced

houses, the house

belongs to
ranks, and

titles were
not
fall of feudalism
be titularlydistinguishedfrom

title.

scparaliiip;the latter date

nobles could not


court
in 188.') the emperor,
actinfj on the advice of
instituted five orders of nobility (apart from
princes of the blood),
translations.
counts, viscounts, and barons.
The.se, of course,
are
in 1871, tlie former
But
commoners.

its possessor
official
were

HISTORY

THE

638

OF

CHIXA

AND

JAPAX
[1800-1898A. D.]

by the sovereign; ^ the

consistingof three hundred elected members.


Freedom
of conscience,of speech, and of publicmeeting, inviolability
of domicile and correspondence,securityfrom arrest
or
punishment, except
of judicial
appointments, and all the other
by due process of law, permanence
of civil libertywere
essential elements
guaranteed. In the diet full legislative
its
without
could
vested
consent
be
tax
was
no
authority
imposed,
;
be paid out except the
increased,or remitted; nor could any public money
the sovereignreserved
the right to fix at will.
salaries of officials,
which
In
vested
the
of
and
the emperor
were
prerogatives declaringwar
making peace,
of approving and
of concluding treaties,
of appointingand dismissingofficials,
promulgating laws, of issuingurgency ordinances to take the temporary place
of laws,and of conferringtitlesof nobility.
nated

lower

FUSION

The

OF

phase (1898) was


adopted the

next

organisationwhich

THE

TWO

PARTIES

of

fusion

name

the

partiesinto one large


Party (Kensei-to). By

two

Constitutional

removed.
Not
parliamentary cabinets were
a largemajority in the lower
house,
only did the constitutionalists command
of men
but they also possesseda sufficiency
who, although lackingministerial
experience,might stilladvance a reasonable title to be intrusted with portfolios.
vited
Immediately the emperor,
acting on the advice of Marquis Ito, inOkuma
It was
and Itagakito form a cabinet.
counts
a trial.
essentially
in practicethe justiceof
The party politicians
were
required to demonstrate
the claim
in
had
been
so
they
long asserting theory. They had worked in
for the destructive purpose
clan
combination
of pullingdown
the so-called
show
work
in
whether
combination
to
statesmen"; they had now
they could
for the constructive
of administration.
Their heads, counts
Okuma
purposes
and Itagaki,accepted the imperial mandate, and the nation
watched
the
these new
result. There was
need to wait long. In less than six months
no
links snapped under
the tension of old enmities, and the coalition splitup
into its original
elements.
It had added
word to the language
once
more
a novel
and
demonstrated
that
the
fever"
"office-hunting
(riynkan-netsu)
of power
sweets
which
the clan statesmen
had been so vehemently accused
The issue of
of covetingpossessedeven
greater attractions for their accusers.
the experiment was
such a palpable fiasco that it effectually
rehabilitated the
cian statesmen, and
finallyproved, what had indeed been long evident to
the assistance of those statesmen
no
ical
politevery close observer, that without
party could hold office successfully.
it became
Thenceforth
alike to
the unique aim of liberals and progressists
towards
whom
joinhands permanently with the men
they had once displayed
such implacable hostility.Marquis Ito, the leader of the Meiji statesmen,
the

this union

chief obstacles

to

"

"

"

holders

any

being tlius raised to 800,000, approximately; secret balloting was


adopted; no property
need he have
for election, neither
qualificationwas
required in the case of a candidate
connection
with the locality
which
he sought to represent; the limits of electoral districts
extended

were

house

was
'

so

increased

a.s

to
to

embrace

whole

and
prefectures,

of members

the number

of the

lower

.363.

Princes

and
are
marquises sit by right of their titles;counts, ^"^scounts, and barons
member
by their respective orders; each prefecturereturns
est
one
representing the highof
The
house
nominates
of learning or
men
taxpayers, and the emperor
public merit.
contains
319 members.
A salaryof 2,000 yen ("200) annually is paid to the members
peers now
three
of the diet; each
house
has a president,nominated
by the sovereign from among

elected

names

selected

by

the

house.

He

receives

4,000

by the house independently of imperialnomination,

yen

and

year.

receives

The

vice-presidentis elected

3,000 yen annually.

NEW

JAPAN

639

[1898-1900A.D.]

for it was
specialsolicitations,
plainthat he would bring to any political
accession
of strength,alike in his own
and
party an overwhelming
person
of friends and disciples
certain to follow him.
in the number
But Marquis Ito
into any existingparty, or to adopt the principle
declined to be absorbed
of
He
would
consent
to form
a
new
b
ut
parliamentary cabinets.
association,
consist of men
it must
sufficiently
disciplinedto obey him implicitly,
and
from
their
to
docile
his
hand.
The
liberals
sufficiently
accept
programme
They actuallydissolved their party (August, 1900)
agreed to these terms.
in the ranks
of a new
and enrolled themselves
organisation,which did not
itself
its
Rikken
call
a party,
designationbeing
even
Seiyu-kai(associationof
and which
had for the cardinal plank in its platfriends of the constitution),
form
of ministerial
A singularpage
to the diet.
a declaration
irresponsibility
thus added
to the story of Japanese political
development ; for not merely
was
received

the banner
of the statesmen
for twenty
whom
years
overthrow, but they also erased from their professionof
essential article,
parliamentarycabinets,and, by resigningthat article

did the liberals enlist under

they

had

faith its

fought

to

created for the first time an oppositionwith a solid and


progressists,
intelligible
platform. The whole incident vividly illustrated the fact that
the bases of political
combinations
in Japan,
not
were
principles,
persons,
attraction
alone
cohesion
the
Rikken
Ito's
to
Seiyu-kai.
Marquis
gave
to

the

Financial questionshave occupiedan important placein the story of Japan's


In order to obtain a clear idea of them it is necessary
to make
modern
career.
extended
a somewhat
retrospect. Under the feudal system the land throughout
the empire was
regarded as state property, and parcelledout into 276 fiefs,
which
feudatories.
and
These held the
small,
were
assignedto as many
great
in trust,

land

being empowered
for

to

derive

from

revenue

and

administrative

for

it for the
the

support

of

of
their households,
purposes,
numbers
but
not
whose
armed
were
forces,
nominally,
accurately,regulated
varied greatly
in proportion to the wealth of the fief. The basis of taxation
in different districts,
but, at the time of the restoration in 1867, the generally

maintenance

that four-tenths of the gross produce should go to


recognisedprinciplewas
In practicethis rule was
the feudatory,six-tenths to the farmer.
applied to
for other
kinds of produce being levied
the rice crop only, the assessments
and partly in manufactured
goods at rates often of the most
partlyin money
and artisans and tradesmen
also
Forced
labour
nature.
was
exacted,
arbitrary
less
levies
of
to
magnitude as official
were
subjected pecuniary
greater or

When
necessity arose.
the central treasury was
purposes

the

in 1867
emperor
for
employed
mental
governbegin to flow into the coffers of the

reverted

administration

empty,

and

in the fiefs did not

the
at

funds

once

to

the

hitherto

They continued to be devoted to the support of the feudatories,to


of local administration,
the payment of the samurai, and to defrayingthe expenses
small
whatever
fraction
the central
might
receivingonly
treasury
remain
after these various outlays.
state.

The
saw

no

little band
exit from

of

men

who

the dilemma

had

assumed

except

an

the

direction of national

issue of paper money.


known
been
to the

This

affairs
was

not

people since the


a novelty
Japan. Paper money
in
the
which
of
and
now
middle of the seventeenth
are
writing
we
era
century,
fiefs.
the
i
n
270
varieties
of notes were
less than 1 ,694
Many
circulating
no
and nearly
of these notes
had almost
ceased to have any purchasing power,
all were
regarded by the people as evidences of officialgreetland unscrupuin

had

THE

640

HISTOEY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1867-1885 i-D.)

The

lousness.
have been

first duty of

centralised,progressiveadministration

should

The

leaders of the time apprepolitical


ciated
that duty, but,
themselves
proceeding to dischargeit,saw
device which
in the
to adopt the very
compelled by stress of circumstances
hands of the feudal chiefs had produced such deplorableresults. It was
an
irksome
necessity,and the new
sought to relieve its conscience
government
and presers^e its moral prestigeby prctemling that the objectof the issue was
would
and that the notes
be lent to
to encourage
wealth-earningenterprise,
the fiefs for the purpose
and industry. The people
of promoting commerce
fell to a
notes
appraised these euphemisms at their true worth, and the new
Then
discount of fiftyper cent.
ensued a brief but sharp strugglebetween
The
rulers and ruled.
times
somegovernment resorted to arbitraiymeasures,
of great severity,to force its notes
into circulation at par with silver.
Nothing is more
astonishingthan the fact that the government's financial
credit graduallyacquiretl
strength,so that within five years, though the issues
of paper money
aggregatednearly60 million yen, it circulated freelythroughout
to

the

reform

currency.
instead of

the whole
commanded
time a
at one
empire at par with silver,and even
The
of
the
small premium.
million
25
to
fiefs,
amounting
paper
money
yen,
had been exchanged for treasury notes.
The buildingof railwayshad been
of an
commenced.
The foundations
and a na\'y had been laid. A
army
postal system, a telegraphsystem, a prison system, a policesystem, and an
educational
of roads, the improvement
system had befen organised. The construction
of

harbours,

undertaken.
had
had

the

lightingand buoying

mercantile

been

inaugurated on

been

started

marine

had

of the coast, had

been vigorously
created.
Public works
Many industrial enterprises

been

considerable scale.
a
official auspicesas object-lessons
for the people,and
in aid of similar projectshad been lent to private persons.
Thus
largesums
the government,
to
livingfar beyond its income, had unavoidable
recourse
under

further issues of fiduciary


of the latter
paper, and in proportionas the volume
the actual currency
exceeded
its
value
of
the
time,
requirements
depreciated
until in 1881, fourteen
million

150

yen

had

only 8 millions,and

amounting

to

silver coins

of the

Up

to that

to the face value of


years after the restoration,notes
been
into
circulation
the
put
;
treasurj'possessedspecie

same

IS paper

yen

could

be

purchased with

ten

denomination.

(1881) fitful efforts had been made to strengthenthe specie


by throwing quantitiesof gold and .silver upon the market
time
to time, and
23 million yen
had been devoted
large sums
totalling
to the promotion of industries whose
products,it was hoped, would go
year

value of fiat paper


from

to

But

"

"

swell the list of exports, anil thus draw


metallic money
these
d
evices
were
now
superficial
finallyabandoned,

to

the

and

country.

the government

of the fiduciarycurapplieditself steadfastlyto reducing the volume


rency
the one
hand and accumulating a speciereserve
the other.
The
on
on
the
outcome
of
middle
the
of
volmne
was
that, by
1885,
fiduciarynotes had
been reduced to 119 million yen, their depreciationhad
fallen to three per

cent., and

the

metallic

reserve

of the

treasury had

The

then
resumption of specie payments was
yen.
in the autumn
of that year, an accomplished fact.

THE

N.\TION.\L

increased

to

45

million

announced, and became,

DEBT

It is advisable at this point to examine


the
incurred by Japan since the unification of the
surrendered
to the sovereign,
it was
decided to

question of the national debt


the fiefs were
empire. When
feudal nobles
for
the
pro\ide

NEW
[1885-1900

A.

in

source

need

we

yen

public bonds,

of lump
interest on

the

sums

in

commutation,

or

which should constitute


The result of this transaction,into the details of wliich
that bonds having a total face value of 191i million
enter, was

to

not

issued, and

were

This

made.

were

641

general by the payment

them
of income.

by handing
a

AX

D]

the samurai

and

JAP

ready-money payments aggregating 2H


million yen
the foundation
of Japan's national
debt.
Indeed,

was

pubhc bonds may be said to represent the bulk of the state's Habilities
had
during the first twenty-fiveyears of the Meiji period. The government
the debts of the fiefs,
also to take over
amounting to 41 milhon yen, of which
millions were
2H
paid with interest-bearing
bonds, the remainder with ready
If
the
above
to
figureswe add two foreignloans aggregatingIG^
money.
milhon
yen (completelyrepaid by the year 1897), a loan of 15 million yen
of the only serious rebelHon
incurred on account
that marked
the passage
from
the old to the new
revolt of 1877, loans of .33
regime the Satsuma
milhon yen for publicworks, 13 million yen for naval construction,and 14^
these

"

in connection

milhons

being

yen,

the whole

of her

years

new

above

The

era

sufficiently
explain the habilities incurred by the
the
be
called
first epoch of ber modern
financial
may
secontl
the
epoch, dating from the war with China
pass to
direct e.xpenthturcs
of the war
account
on
aggregated 200

statements

what

during
history. We now
country

in 1894-95.

with the fiat currency,


have a total of 305 million
we
national debt of Japan during the first twenty-eight
under
imperialadministration.

The

milhon yen, of which


total 135 milhons were
added to the national debt, the
remainder
beingdefrayed with accumulations of surplusrevenue, with a part
of the indemnity received from China, and with voluntary contributions from
patrioticsubjects. As the immediate
sequel of the war, the government
of armament
elaborated a large programme
expansion and public works
the whole programme
of
million yen.
504
this
To meet
an
invoking
outlay
"

Chinese

largefigure,the
furnished

assets

300

indemnity,surplusesof

millions; and

it

was

annual

decided

that

revenue,

the

and

other

remaining

204

should be obtained by domestic loans,the programme


to be carried
In
completely into operation with trifling
exceptions by the year 1905.
however,it was found impo.ssible
without
at home
to obtain money
practice,
therefore had recourse
to
paying a high rate of interest. The government
market
in 1899, raisinga loan of 10 milhon
the London
at
pounds sterling
four per cent., and .selling
bonds
the "100
at 90.
The
of taxation
burden
is small, especially
of
compared with the career
milhons

"

vigorous progress
yen

was

upon
in 1900

raised

which

the

country has

embarkeil.

by direct taxes; that is to say,


(.sixshillings)
per hear! of population.

three yen
On the other
Thus
there was
was

"

absorbed

hand,
a

for

the

Only

million

extraordinaryand

yen.

terminable

the

For

the

The

OF

moment

million yen.
this surplus

forming part
enterprises

described above, but in a


pod-heliumprogramme
might look forward to findingitselfwith a substantial
rightside.
TR.\DE

million

somethingless than

ordinaryexpenditureaggregated 149

surplus of 43

120

of

short time the country


annual balance on the

JAPAN

chief staplesof the early trade were


tea and silk. It happened that,
.silk
before
became
available for export, the production of
just
Japan's raw
and
that article in France
Italyhad been largelycurtailed owing to a novel
disease of the silkworm.
Thus, when Uie firstbales of Japanese silk appoareil
H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

mSTOEY

THE

C42

OF

AND

CHINA

JAPAN
[1863-1899

and

London,
highestrank,
in

when
keen

it

found

was

demand

sprang

to

possess

to

that in 1863, the fourth year

so

up,

qualitiesentitlingit

A.

D.]

the
after

inaugurationof the trade, no less than 2\ million pounds were


sliipped.
Japanese green tea, also, differingradicallyin flavour and bouquet from
the black tea of Cliina,appealed cjuicklyto American
lion
taste, so that 6 milThe
the Pacific in 1863.
sent
across
pounds of it were
corresponding
14 milHon
figures for these two staplesin ISDO were
pounds and 46 milhon
This
is
remarkable
pounds respectively.
development
typicalof the general
of
in
times.
trade
modern
history Japan'sforeign
the

That

commerce

which

should

have
eighteen years
There
invitingattention.
special. The generalcause

did

little more

than

double

in the next

nearly quadrupled
two
principalcauses:

are

was

one

itself in
fourteen

the first
is a fact
general the other

that several j^ears necessarily


elapsed before
the
nation's
material
condition

began to respond perceptiblyto


the improvements effected by the
of
Meiji government in matters
port
administration,
taxation,and transfaciUties.

Fiscal

burdens

had

been reduced
and securityof Ufe
and property obtained, but railway
bour
builcUng and
road-making, har-

construction,the advantages
of posts,telegraphs,
exchanges,and
banks, and the development of a
mercantile marine, did not exercise
sensible influence

the nation's
on
18S4
until
18S5.
or
prosperity
From
that time the country entered

period of steadilygrowing prosperity,


and from that time private
Women
Jap.utese
DRrvKixG
Tea
be said to have
enterprisemay
of
finallystarted upon
a
career
independent activity. The specialcause
wliich,from 1885, contributed to a
marked growth of trade was
the resumption of specie payments.
Up to
that time the treasury'sfiat notes
had
suffered such markecl
fluctuations of
became
specievalue that sound or successful commerce
very (htficult. Against
the importing merchant
the currency
trouble worked
with double potency.
Not only did the gold wdth which he purchased goods appreciateconstantly
of the silver for wMch
in terms
he sold them, but the silver itself appreciated
and
in
of
the fiat notes
terms
sharply
rapidly
paid by Japanese consumers.
Not till this element
of perniciousdisturbance
removed
did the trade
was
and grow
recover
a healthy tone
so
lustilyas to tread closelyon the heels of
the foreigncommerce
of China, with her 300 milUon
inhabitants,and longa

established

international

relations.

Japan's trade with the outer world


enterpriseof the foreignmiddleman.

built up chiefly
by the energy and
acted the part of an almost ideal
of cheap capital,his experience,his
agent. As an exporter, his command
knowledge of foreignmarkets, and his connections enabled him to secure
sales such as must
have been beyond reach of the Japanese working independently.
their
he
for
native
cash
Moreover,
paid to
consumers
ready
shoulders
staples,taking upon his own
As an
he
importer,
enjoyed, in centres

was

He

all the risks of


of

findingmarkets

supply, credit which

the

abroad.

Japanese

HISTORY

THE

644

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1888-1900 A.D.]

was

few
she

The
in 1898 it had increased to 110 millions.
facture
manuyen;
of
of lucifer matches
is another industry
entirelyrecent growth. A
she needed, but by 1899
years ago Japan used to import all the matches
able not only to supply her own
was
wants, but also to send abroad 6
6 million

worth.
AA'ithout carrying these statistics to wearisome
length,
yen
of manufacturing industry which
it will suffice to note that,in six branches
be saiil to have been called into active existence by the opening of the
may
milhon

namely,

countrj'
"

and

silk and

braid

straw

"

fabrics,cotton

cotton

Japan's exports

in

1888

yarns,

matches, fancy

aggregated

onh-

quarter

the correspondingfigurefor 1899 was


G8 millions.
yen, whereas
that Japan has a great
results on record,it is impossibleto doubt

With

million
such

ting,
mat-

facturing
manu-

obstacle, defective
Progress is checked by one manifest
integrity.Concerning everj' industry whose products have fomid a place
in the catalogueof modern
Japan's exports, the same
story has to be told:
teration
just as reallysubstantial development seemed to be visible,fraudulent aduland
careless
interfered
credit
gust
disto
or
technique
destroy
dishonestly
The Japanese deny that the whole responsibility
the foreignconsumer.
The treaty-port middleman,
for these disastrous moral laches rests with them.
that
be suppUed to him.
high-quality
goods cannot
they say, buys so thriftily
but
it
is
The
be partially
That excuse
valid,
certainlynot exhaustive.
may
\'italimportance of estabUsMng and maintaining the reputationof an article
with rivals of old-established
offered newly in markets where it has to compete
As to organisingcapacity,
excellence is not yet fullyappreciatedin Japan.
the possessionof wliich by the Japanese has been strenuoaslydoubted
by
there are proofsmore
than one
foreigncritic,
weighty than any theories.
more
In the cotton-spinning
industry,for example, the Japanese are brought into
mills emplojing cheap
markets
with Indian
direct competition in their own
native labour, organised and managed by Englishmen, and ha%'ingthe raw
The victoryrests with the Japanese, from wliich it
material at their doors.
fairlybe inferred that their organisationis not speciallydefective or
may
be lost
their method
not
costly. Yet there is one con.sideration that must
Japan
sightof : it is the inexperienceof the Japanese,their lack of standards.
made
of
is dressmg herself in a material civiUsation that was
to the measure
alien nations, and curious misfits are
me%atably developed in the process.
and
of their nax-y shows
that not capacity but
The
condition of their army
lack.
These
services
modem
is
what
the
two
are
altogether
Japanese
practice
There
in
the
of
her
to
creations.
was
nothing
history Japan
suggest
tence
compeYet the excellence of her militaryorganfor managing such machines.
isation
in her campaign against China
in 1894-95,
was
fullydemonstrated
In the former
she had to undertake
and again in the Peking expecUtionof 19(X).
difficult task that falls to the lot of a beUigerent,the task of
the most
and twenty thoutwo
sending over-sea
corps d'armee (aggregatinga hundred
in widely separated
.sand men), and
maintaining them for several months
future.

fields

"

one

in

peninsula,and
appear

to

breakdown

eastern

and

central

subsequently

in

embarrass

her.
There
of the commissariat

or

Manchuria,

the

other

in

The

Shan-timg province.
was
no
sign of confusion

transport arrangements:

the

Liao-tung

effort

or
no

did

not

perplexity; no
failure of the

ambulance
or
hospitalservice. Everj'thingworked smoothly, and
that Japan had not only elaborated
were
compelled to recogni.se

the
a

pubUc

very

cient
effi-

piece of mihtary mechanism, but had also developed abiUty to employ


inference
the best advantage. The
was
same
suggestedby her navy.
Although during two and a half centuries her people had been debarred by
from navigatingthe high seas, the twenty-fifth
arbitrarylegislation
year after

it to

NEW

JAPAN

645

[1S94-1904 A.D.)

the state in possession of a squadron


repealof these crippUng laws saw
of war, officered and manned
semceable
of thirty-three
sliips
solelyby Japanese,
constantlymanoeuvring in distant waters without accident,and evidently
possessingall the quahties of a fine fightingforce. In the war
with China
its capacity by destroyingor capturing,without
showed
tins navy
the loss
of the enemy's fleet,whereas
of a singleship,the whole
the latter's superiority
in armour
and armament
ought to have produced a very different issue.
On
the other
hand, a visit to Japanese factories often shows
machinery
treated carelessly,
that they unpede rather than
employees so numerous
expecUte business,and a generallack of the precision,
and earnestness
regularity,
that characterise successful industrial enterprisesin Europe and
America.
in one
Achievement
direction and comparative failure in another,although
the factors making for success
similar in each, mdicate not incapacityin
are
the latter case, but defects of standard
and
experience. The vast majority
of the Japanese have no
adequate conception of what is meant
by a liighly
made
organised industrial or commercial
the
enterprise.They have never
of
of
the
breathed
practicalacquaintance
anything
kind,nor even
a
pure
business atmosphere. For elaboratingtheir militaryand naval systems they
had close access
to foreignmodels, every
detail of which could be carefully
scrutinised,and they availed themselves
freelyof the assistance of foreign
and
French, German, and British. But in the field of manufacture
experts
trade their inspectionof foreignmodels is necessarily
and they are
superficial,
without
the co-operationof foreignexperts.
of capital. The capitalactuallyengaged
is want
Japan's great chfficulty
in pubUc and privateenterprises
is 60 million pounds sterhng in round
bers,
numand 79 millions more
On
the
are
pledged though not yet paid up.
of circulatingmedia
is only 25 millions,
other hand, the volume
of which
22
millions consist of convertiljle notes; the depositsin the banks
amount
and
total 33 millions,
their capitalsaggregate 49i milhons.
In such circumstances
the rate of interest is necessarily
high it averages about twelve per
remain
veloped.
undecent,
throughout the empire and many
profitable
enterprises
Recourse
to cheap foreigncapitalwould
be the natural solution of
the difficulty.But so long as her currency
tated
was
on
a silver basis Japan hesiin
and
would
lend
to contract
not
debts,
gold
European capitalists
of silver. After she had
the
standard
her
situation
terms
adopted
gold
favourable.
appeared more
Europe and America, however, had still not
and
in the mean
while a
acquired confidence in her finances or her integrity,
for
field
of industrial enterprises.
foreigncapitalvainly oiTered in the
great opening
Recent returns
issued by sixty-eight
joint-stock
companies show that
they paid an average annual dividend of sixteen and a half per cent., and it is
but that stillbetter results could be attained were
not
to be doubted
foreign
business
experienceand cheap capitalavailable.
the

"

"

"

STATUS

OF

FOREIGNERS

expedient,and certainlyit is wise, that the


iting
subjectsand citizens of occidental Christian states, wlien visitingor inhabbe exempted from
oriental countries which
not
Christian,should
are
the penalties
and procedureprescribedby the criinhial law of the latter; that
within the territories of such
they should continue, in short, to enjoy, even
countries, the privilegeof being arraigned before tribunals of tlieir own
In civil cases
and tried by judges of their own
a division of
race.
nationality
It has

always

been

considered

HISTORY

THE

640

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[185S-lSr2A.D.]

is arranged,the questionbeing always adjudicatedby a tribunal


jurisdiction
but in criminal cases
is wholly
of the defendant's
nationality,
jurisdiction
In piu-suance
of that principle
reserved.
the varioas
having treaties
powers
with

oriental

nations

estabhsh

consular

witliin the

courts

lat tor's

borders,

the

is called "extra-territorial,"
exercised by these courts
jurisdiction
exercised
the jurisdiction
to distinguish it from
bunals.
by native or territorial triThe
of
in
to
matter
applied
Japan's case, :;s a
system was
course,
in
It had been similarly
1858.
in
the
sixteenth
the
applied
days of
century,
her first foreignintercourse, and ju.st
of
it
had
then
been
the Dutch
as
a cau.se
traders' imprisonment within
the narrow
hmits of the island of Desliima
at
of the
Nagasaki, so in the nineteenth century it necessitated the confinement
foreignresidents in .settlements grouped

and

around

the

the

have

of

consular

the.se residents

that

free

from

competent

proWncial

to

access

districts far remote


The

their

of
plainestprinciples

forbade

prudence
shoukl

sites

for

courts;

to

bunals
the only tricontrol
them.

in Yedo
Japane.se
negotiators
objection to the embodiment

no

this system in the treaties.


of the features most
one
and

had

restored

the
the

to

America

with

occidental

so

than

emperor

been

the

the

an

bassy
em-

Europe and
object of inducing
to

governments

treaties,in
tariff

it was

administration

despatched

was

consular

of

But

vehemently
men
by the conservative statesin Kioto, and no
politicians

condemned

sooner

raised

revise

to

the

of

abolishing
and
juriscUction
changing the
to enable
as
Japan to obtain
sense

from
duties.
ca'^toms
largerrevenue
It had
This emba.ssy sailed in 1871.
raise
the
to
question,
a
specificright
for the treaties contained
a provision
declaringthem to be subjectto revision
a

Japaxe.se

GlIiL

in

that

year.

the

embassy
had
not
jurisdiction

As

failed.

of

matter

course

conditions

The

consular
undergone any change
originally
necessitating
of Japan's laws
the
the character
Neither
nor
justifyingits abolition.
such
to warrant
methods
of her judicialprocedure were
as
foreign governments
in intrustingto her care
the lives and propertiesof their subjects
and

be

citizens. It must
themselves
were

confes.scd,on

who

.seemed

would

also be

not

found

It
of

that

have wronged him,


tlie judge. In any circumstances

to

hand, that the consular


happened, sometimes, that
the law against a foreigner

the other

beyond reproach.
Japanese subjectdesiringto invoke the aid

courts

the

defendant

the dual

in

functions

the

case

of consul

official without
anomaly, for
dischargedby the same
in the initiatorystages of
him
his role of consul compelle"l
to act as advocate
complicationsabout which in the positionof judge he might ultimately be
be an
to suppose,
error
required to deliver an impartialverdict. It would
in Japan was
of consular jurisdiction
by
disfigured
however, that the course

and

judge

could

not

be

NEW

JAPAN

647

[1872-1897 A.D.]

abuses.

On

the whole

the system worked

and if it hurt
satisfactorily,
compUcations into
which
they would have bhmdered
inevitablyhad they been intrusted with a
which they were
not prepared to exercise satisfactorily.
jurisdiction
from
the first that no
effort should
be
Nevertheless,they determined
the fundamental
spared to quahfy for the exercise of a rightwliich is among
the right of judicialautonomy.
attributes of every
With
sovereign state
to elaborate codes of criminal
the aid of foreignexperts they set themselves
and civil law, excerpting the best features of European jurisprudence,and
adapting them to the conditions and usages of Japan. They also remodelled
many

patrioticJapanese,it also saved

them

from

mnumerable

"

their law

courts, and

judiciarycompetent
with partialsuccess

took
to

steps, slower

administer

the

new

but

not

codes.

less earnest, to educate


a
twelve years devoted

After

her request
works, Japan in 1883 renewed
that all foreigners
jurisdiction.She asked
distinction of nationaUty, should
be subject to
within her borders,without
her laws and judiciableby her law courts, as foreignersfound
within
the
its
borders of every sovereignstate in the Occident were
to
laws
and
subject
judiciableby its tribunals of justice,and she supplemented her application
by promising that its favourable receptionshould be followed by complete
opening of the country and the removal of all restrictions liitherto imposed
on
foreigntrade, travel,and residence in her realm.
A portly volume
might be filled with the details of the negotiationsthat
followed Japan's proposal. Never
before had an oriental state sought such
and there was
reluctance
the part of western
extreme
on
recognition,
powers
to try the unprecedented experiment of intrustingthe lives and
property of
their subjectsand
citizens to the keeping of a "pagan" people. Even
the
be sketched
it
abounds
with
outlines of the story cannot
here, though
matic
diploand
credit to
curiosities,
though several of its incidents do as much
of occidental
Japan's patienceand tact as its issue does to the justiceand liberality
of
the
There is,however, one
governments.
historythat calls for
page
brief notice,since it suppliesa key to much
which
otherwise
would
plicable.
be inexlaws and
the conThe respect entertained by a nation for its own
fidence
in direct proportionto the efforts
it reposes in their administrators
are
and the education
it has expended upon
the development of the former
of the
Tatter. Foreignersresidingin Japan naturallyclung to consular
jurisdiction
value.
as
a
They saw, indeed, that such a system
privilegeof inestimable
could not be permanently imposed on a country where the conditions
ing
justifyit had nominally disappeared. But
they saw, also, that the legaland
judicialreforms effected by Japan had been crowded into an extraordinarily
brief period,and that, as tyros experimenting with alien systems, the Japanese
A struggle thus ensued
between
errors.
might be betrayed into many
side and
a
foreign distrust on the one
Japanese aspirationson the other
struggleoften developing painfulphases. The strugglelasted eleven years,
for

the

abolition

to

these great

of consular

"

in this brief statement.


its gist is contained
The
foreignresident,whose
their evolution
measured
the
affection for his own
was
by
struggle
systems
instincts
forbade
him
take;
to
had cost, and whose
practical
anything on trust
but

where
a

concerned,would have stood out


property was
pcr.son and
conservative
and
cautious
justly
figurehad not his attitude

security of

wholesomely

been disfigured
by local journalistswho, in order
to be betrayed into the constant
themselves
allowed
of

justifyhis conservatism,

role of

acter
blackening the char-

of her acts
suggesting harshly prejudicedinterpretations
Throughout this strugglethe government and citizens of the

Japan,

and motives.
United States

to

and

always showed

conspicuoussympathy with Japanese aspirations,

HISTORY

THE

C48

AXD

CHINA

OF

JAPAN
[1898-1899

no

A.

D.]

the

exceptionsso rare as
and fairly,
discussed the problem liberally
publicists
in
resident
the foreigncommunities
Japan, they had

also be recorded

it should

and

rule,foreigntourists and
perhaps because, unlike

to establish

that, with

direct interest in its solution.

diplomaticnegotiationand publicdiscussion,
the justiceof Japan's demands, and it was
fulfilment of certain conditions,
agreed that from July, 1899, subjectto the pre\'ious
over
jurisdiction
every
person, of
Japanese tribunals should assume
within
the confines of Japan, and the whole
whatever
country
nationality,
and
the
"settlements"
to
abolished,
should be thrown
being
foreigners,
open
all limitations upon
trade,travel,and residence removed throughout the length
Great Britain took the lead in thus releasingJapan
of the realm.
and breadth
from her with special
The initiative came
the fetters of the okl system.
from
had
been
irksome
all
its
and
for
the
unposed on
consequences
system
grace,
with
Britain
in the van.
of
Great
combination
powers
Japan originallyby a
At last,after long
European governments

years of
conceded

As

the United

of historical sequence
treaty providingfor consular
matter

dictated

States

jurisdiction.But

from

the terms

of the

very earlyperiod
all Umitations
to remove
Washington government showed its willingness
headed
whereas
Great
of Japan's sovereignty,
Britain,whose preEurope,
by
ponderatin
stantial
refused to make
interests entitled her to lead, resolutely
any subconservatism
In
concession.
Japanese eyes, therefore, British
in the
and
the
British
residents
serious
since
the
seemed
to be
one
obstacle,
first

the

their

ventilate

to

organs

newspaper

proverbialindifference

to

and
nationalities,

all other

far outnumbered

settlements

the

suavities

and

they alone had

since

exliibited all

grievances,and

of

courtesies

Briton's

speech and method


certainlyfortunate

in disarming resentment, it was


for so much
popularityof her people in the Far East tha:t Great Britain saw her
to set a liberal example.
requiredto bring
Nearly five years were
finally

that

count

for the
way

the

occidental

other
be

should

powers

stated,however,

and

line with
Great Britain
to make
neither reluctance

into
that

America.

the necessary

It
cessions
con-

tion
sympathy with Japan caused the delay. The explananegotiatorssought to improve either the terms or the
ments
terminology of the treaties already concluded, and that the tariff arrangefor the different countries
requiredelaborate discussion.
it became
evident that the old system was
So soon
hopelesslydoomed,
as
asserted
the
American
and
business
of
the sound
man
common-sense
European
bow
it
be
that
intended
fully
cheerlet
residents
to
itself. The
seen
foreign
they
and that no obstacles would be willingly
to the inevitable,
placedby them
their side,took some
in the path of Japanese jurisdiction.The Japanese,on
declared
that it was
in unequivocal terms
strikingsteps. An imperialrescript
and
abolish
distinctions
between
natives
and
all
desire
to
the sovereign's
policy
treaties
the
of
the
and
that
out
friendlypurpose
by fullycarrying
foreigners,
the character of the nation,
best consult his wishes, maintain
his people would
and promote its prestige.
nor

want

is that

each

of

set

of

FREEDOM

No

did the diet

sooner

'

codes

The

main,

of law

of consular

must

indeed

the

have

been

jurisdiction.

THE

PRESS

duced
introin 1891 than a bill was
its sittings
freedom
of speech. Already (1887)

remo\'ingall restrictions upon


government had voluntarilymade
for

the

commence

OF

great step

was
only notable condition
in operation for a period of

that
at

in advance

the

least

whole
one

year

by divesting

of the
before

new

Japanese

the abolition

NEW

JAPAN

649

[1887-1904A.D.]

imprison or fine editors by executive order. But it reserved


and against that
suppressingor suspending a newspaper,
reservation a majority of the lower house voted, session after session,only to
shared the government's opinion that to
the bill rejectedby the peers, who
see
of
would
license.
measure
Not
liberty
larger
a
certainlyencourage
grant
this oppositionovercome.
A new
until 1897 was
law, passed by both houses,
took from
the executive all power
and confirmed
by the emperor,
over
nals,
jourof
lese
and
in
remains
of the former
cases
majeste,
nothing now
except
arbitrarysystem. The result has falsified all sinister forebodings. A mueh
moderate
tone
pervades the writingsof the press since restrictions were
more
and
829 journalsand
although there are now
periodicals
entirelyremoved,
the
with
total
annual
circulation of 463,000,a
publishedthroughout
empire,
times would
have provoked official
000 copies,intemperance such as in former
unknown
interference
is practically
to-day.
The
and
by extreme
writing in Japan is marred
quality of journalistic
itself of the right to
of
the power

There

pedanticclassicism.

has

not

yet

assignedthe

been

real escape

any

from

the

mels
tram-

of

scholarshipto whatever author


of
the
the
Chinese
drew most
resources
language. A pernicious
largelyupon
the
The
in
this
is
court.
set
by
imperial
sovereign,whether
example
respect
addresses the bulk of his subjects.
he speaks by rescriptor by edict, never
His words
taken
from
classical as to be intelligible
sources
so
are
only to the
of
the
affect
similar
a
highly educated minority. Several
style.
newspapers
culation.
to their erudition,and
preferclassicism to cirThey sacrifice their audience
of

which

tradition

Their

columns

are

crown

sealed book

to

the

whole

of the

lower

middle

rational
population. Others, taking a more
and intelligibility,
view of the purposes
of journalism,aim with success
at simplicity
circle of readers,but also are
and thus not only reach an extended
hastening incidentallythe advent of a great reform, the assimilation of the
written
and
spoken languages, which will probably prelude that still greater
desideratum, abolition of the ideographicscript. Apart from this pedantic
aptitude the
defect,the best Japanese editors have caught with remarkable
used
rious
few
to compile labospiritof modern
journalism. But a
years ago they

classes and

was
inspiration

of the

entire

in which

essays,
the

the

to

source

was

female

construction

the

from

drawn

under

hidden

was

occidental
a

of Chinese

veneer

write terse,succinct,closelyreasoned

involved, the ideas were


text-books, and the alien

seldom
articles,

trivial,
character

aphorisms. To-day they


diffuse,often witty,and

Yet, with a few


generallyfree from extravagance of thought or diction.
remunerative.
not
is
the
of
Very low rates
exceptions,
profession journalism
for
of subscription,
almost
and
are
advertising,
prohibitoryhigh charges
blame.
chieflyto

WARS

FOREIGN

Since
been

first,in 1874,

spoken

of.

vicarious

derived

and

and

Japan,

The

final terms

of half

Japan has been engaged in four over-sea


This has already
expedition to Formosa.
of view, but it
from
military
a
ixiint
insignificant

the abolition of feudalism

The

wars.

It

was

interest
the

from

an

its effect

were

the

upon

question of the

upon
of arrangement

her troops from


million dollars

expedition.

was

relations

ownership

of the

of

that, in consideration
China

Formosa,
(about "100,000)

should
on

indemnify

account

betweeii
Riukiu

her

of the

China

islands.

drawing
Japan's withto

the ext^'nt

expenses

of the

CHINA

OF

HISTORY

THE

650

AND

JAPAN
[1874

1883

A.

D.]

of her belief that the Riukiii islands


Had
Japan
any confirmation
furnished
it. Thus, in 1876, she
have
belonged to her, this incident would
did not hesitate to extend her newly organisedsystem of prefectural
government
"Okinawa
thenceforth became
Prefecture," the former
to Riukiu, which
ruler of the islands being pensioneil,
according to the syst"^infollowed in the

needed

hnChina entered an oljjection


feudal chiefs in Japan proper.
of
been
the
Riukiu
had
that
claimed
She
a
tributary
always
mediately.
doubtless perfectlysincere in the contention.
Middle Kingdom, and she was
Each
Japan put hers into
; but whereas
empire asserted its claims positively
in that
herself
remonstrances.
to
confined
China
Things remained
practice,
the
ability
advisthe
General
when
East, suggested
Grant, visiting
state until 1880,
of the

case

tiaries
compromise. A conference met in Peking, and the plenipotenagreed that the islands should be divided, Japan taking the northern
the eve
of signaturethe Chinese
But
China
the southern.
potentiar
plenion
drew
back, pleadingthat he had no authorityto conclude an agreement
without
previouslyreferringit to certain other dignitaries.Japan,
of

group,

the discussion and


from
she had been flouted,withdrew
reduced
in
to
them
share
C
hina's
a grievance.
being
islands,

sensible that
the

KOREAN

THE

From

time

immemorial

QUESTION

policy towards the petty states on her


buffers for softeningthe shock of foreign

China's

frontiers had been to utilise them


contact, while contriving, at the
inconvenient
should involve
no

retained

as

time,

same

that

with

relations

her

them

The
to herself.
aggressive
responsibilities
standing
underbe
checked
to
world
outside
of
the
an
unproclaimecl
were
by
impulses
of the
that the territories of these states partook of the inviolability
the
their
must
while
never
side,
expect their
Middle Kingdom itself,
states,on
This
of
their
acts.
the
arrangement, depending
suzerain to bear
consequences
retained its validityin the atmosphere of
largelyon sentiment and prestige,
occidental
oriental seclusion,but quickly failed to endure the test of modern
withdrawn, one by
were
Tongking, Annam, Siam, and Burma
practicality.
ancl from the fiction of dependence on China and
of
buffers
the
circle
from
one,
independencetowards all other countries. But with regard to Korea, China
The
tenacious.
possessionof the peninsulaby a foreignpower
proved more
the maritime
to the Chinese
route
threatened
capitaland given
would have
fore
ThereChina.
ruled
of
the
which
the
cradle
to
dynasty
Manchuria,
easy access

Peking
the

endeavoured

statesmen

But

little kingdom.

they

sanctioned

the indirect methods

to

never

by

preserve

could

the

theni.selves

persuade

tradition.

Instead

relations

old-time

of

with

modify
boldlydeclaringthe
to

keep up the
of ultimate
sovereignty. Thus, in
dependency and intermediate
romance
the first
suffered to conclude with Japan a treaty of which
was
1876, Korea
rightsas Japan,"
article declared her
an
independent state enjoying the same
with the United States (1882),Great Britain (1883),
and subsequentlyto make

peninsulaa dependency

of the Middle

Kingdom, they sought

to

"

and other
admitted.

powers,

treaties

in

which

her

independence

constructively

was

exercise the
China, however,
resident
Chinese
A
thus
was
placed
conventionally recognised.
independence
domestic
Korea's
interference
in
of
covert
in Seul, and a system
steady though
lous
and
inauguratecl. The chief sufferer from these anomaforeign affairs was
all
in
with
tions
complicaconditions was
Korea,
Japan. In all her dealings
that

did

arose

out

of her

not

intend

that

Korea

should

comparatively large trade with

the

peninsula,in

THE

G52

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
[1894 A.D.]

being given by the Chinese governcoast, notice of the measure


ment
the
a
t
to
Japanese representative Peking, according to treaty. During
the interval imniechatelypreceding these events
Japan had been rendered
of
China's
arbitraryand unfriendlyinterference in the peninacutelysensible
sula.
Twice
the efforts of the Japanese government
redress for
to obtain
southwest

issued by the Korean


authorities had
prohibitions
of the Chinese
in Seul; and once
representative
addressed
from Tokio
ultimatum
to the Korean
an
government, as the secjuel
had
the
elicited
from
of long and vexatious
delay,
viceroy Li in Tientsin an
Still
insolent threat of Chinese armed
more
opposition.
strikingly
provocative
China's
of national indignationwas
procedure with regard to the murder of
Kim
Ok-kyiin,the leader of progress in Korea, who had been for some
years
a
refugee in Japan. Inveigledfrom Japan to China by fellow countrymen
shot in a Japanese hotel in Shangsent from Seul to assassinate liim,Ivim was
aiul ruinous

unlawful
been

l)y the

thwarted

traile

action

Gatew.w

of

Shiba

Temple,

Tokio

China, instead of punishing the murderer, conveyed him, together


of his victim,in a war-shipof her own
to Korea, the assassin to be
surrecti
publiclyhonoured, the body to be savagelynuitilated. When, therefore,the in-

hai ; and
with

the corpse

of 1894

intervention,the

in Korea
Tokio

induced

government

securityand
to the
finally

of civihsation

of

disturbance,offered

constant

checked

barbarous

in the

the Bin

solicit China's armed

that,in the interests of Japan's


be taken to put an end
Orient, steps must

corruptionand

the

familyagain to

concluded

misrule

incessant

which

invitations

rendered
to

Korea

scene

foreign aggression,

independence. Japan
country'scapacityto maintain its own
rightsor interests in the peninsulasuperiorto
She was
always ready to work hantl in hand
the
Middle
with
Kingdom in inauguratingand carryingout a system of reform.
But
there was
the remotest
not
probabilitythat China, whose face had been
contemptuously set against all the progressivemeasures
adopted by Japan
during the precedingtwenty-fiveyears, would joinin forcingupon a neighbouring
her
kingdom the very reforms she herself despised antl abhorred, were
invited
It
channels
was
through
ordinary diplomatic
only.
co-operation
which
would not only furni.sh clear proof of
to contrive a situation
necessary
independently
Japan's resolution,but also enable her to pursue her programme
fore
unobtainable.
She thereof Chinese
indorsement, should the latter be finally
of
China's notice
met
a despatch of troops with a correspondingnotice of
and

for herself any


those possessedthere by China.

did

not

claim

NEW
[1894

A.

JAPAN

653

D.)

July, 1894, found a Chinese force assembled at


a Japanese
occupying positionsin the neighbourhood of
motive
for sending troops was
nominally to quellthe Tonghak
domination
in the peninsula,and
insurrection,but reallyto reaffirm her own
and
her own,
and
Ya-shan
China's
Seul.
to reseat

the month

of

force

in the administrative

saddle

men

under

whose

guidance the country

to secure
losingall capacity for independence. Japan's motive was
a
positionsuch as would enable her to insist upon the radicallycurative treatment
of Korea's
malady. Up to this point the two empires were
strictly
within their conventional
rights. Each was entitled by treaty to send troops
to the peninsula,provided that notice was
given to the other. But China, in
described
Korea
her
as
giving notice,
tributarystate," thus thrustinginto
of
discussion
which
the forefront
the
contention
a
Japan, from conciliatory
have
motives, would
kept out of sight. Once formally advanced, however,
the claim had to be challenged. In the treaty of amity and commerce
cluded
contracting
Japan and Korea, the two high conmany
years previouslybetween
national
declared to possess the same
status.
partieswere
explicitly
edged
Japan could not agree that a power which for two decades she had acknowland treated as her equal should
be openly classed as a tributaryof the
Middle
took no
She protested,but the Cliinese statesmen
notice
Kingdom.
of her protest. They continued
to apply the disputed appellationto Korea,
and
they further asserted their assumption of sovereigntyin the peninsulaby
of troops sent by Japan, as well as to the
seeking to set limits to the number
sphere of their employment. Japan then proposed that the two empires
should
unite their efforts for the suppressionof the disturbances in Korea, and
for the subsequent improvement of that kingdom's administration,
the latter
be
commission
of
of
the
to
a
pursued
despatch
joint
by
investigation.
purpose
That
was
an
important stage in the dispute. It rested then with China
all danger of war
to avert
by joininghands with Japan for the regenerationof
in
nation
whose
a
prosperityand independence the two empires were
equally
interested.
But she refused everything. Ready at all times to interfere by
force of arms
between
the Korean
faction,
political
people and the dominant
dechned
interfere
in
for the promotion of reform.
she
to
Ready at
any way
all times to crush the httle kingdom into submission
alising
to a corrupt and demorshe refused to aid in rescuingit from the suffering
and
administration,
of such an
enervation
entailed by the sway
oligarchy. She even
expressed
pendence,
insolent surprisethat Japan, while assertingKorea's indesuperciliously
an
should
of
its
tion.
administrathe
idea
peremptorilyreforming
suggest
the Peking statesmen
In short, for Chinese purposes
openly declared
of
Korea
and
denied
the
Middle
a
tributary
Ivingdom,
Japan's assertion of
that it must
be held
its independence ; but for Japanese purposes
insisted
they
and
abide
assertion
of
its
her
pendence.
indethat Japan must
strictlyby
independent,
was

"

"The

the

Japanese troops

future

reform

to

without

order, and

peace,

declined

cabinet

Tokio

to

come

such

now

"some

declared

their

resolve

not

understanding that would

to

withdraw

guarantee

the

of Korea," and
since China
still
good government
an
understanding,Japan unflertook the work of

single-handed.

The Chinese representative


in Seul threw the whole weight of his influence
of these reforms.
into the scale againstthe success
Still,
nothing immediately
occurred

to drive

the two

empires into

open

warfare.

The-dotermining

cause

troops, as already
belligerentoperation.
lion.
for the purpose
of quellingtlic Tonghak rebeloriginally
But the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the troop.-^,
not
their services were
Nevertheless
not required or employed.
they were

of rupture

was

stated,had

been

in itself a
sent

China's

HISTORY

THE

654

OF

CIIIXA

AXD

JAPAN
[1S94 A.D.]

her declared reason


for doing so
kept them in the peninsula,
force. Thus, throughout the subsequent
being the presence of a Japanese military
negotiationsthe Chinese forces lay in an intrenched camp at Ya-shan,
The
while the Japanese occupied Seul.
trend of events
chd not import any
character of direct mutual hostUityto these littlearmies.
But when it became
evident that all hope of friendlyco-operationbetween
the two empires must
be abandoned, and
when
her
Japan, single-handed,had embarked
upon
scheme of regeneratingKorea, not only did the continued presence of a Chinese
but any attempt
militaryforce in the peninsula assume
specialsignificance,
reinforcements
China's
send
could
to
be
in
construed
on
one
sense
part
only,
namely, as an unequivocal declaration of resolve to oppose Japan's proceedings
forcements
by force of arms.
Seeing,then, that China was preparing to send reinthe Peking government
of the construction
she
Japan warned
must
placeupon any act of the kind. Nevertheless China not only despatched
at Ya-shan, but also sent an army
troops by sea to strengthenthe camp
land
overwithdrawTi.

Cliina

Korea's northern
frontier. It was
at this stage that an
act of war
Three
Chinese
men-of-war, convoying a transport with twelve
encountered
and fired on three Japanese cruisers. One of the
men,
another
taken
that she had to be beached
was
so shattered
shipswas
;

across

occurred.
hundred
Chinese
and

open

abandoned

; the

third

escaped in a dilapidatedconilition,and the transport,


Tliis happenetl on July 25th, and an
refusingto surrender,was sunk.
declaration of war
made
was
by each empire six days later.

EVENTS

OF

THE

WAR

itself was
The war
of triumphs for Japan. Four days after
a succession
the firstnaval encounter' she sent from Seul a column
of troops, who
attacked
intrenched
the Chinese
and routed them without difficult)-.
at Ya-shan
Many
of the fugitives
effected their escape to Phj'ong-yang,a to^vn on the Taidong

river, offeringexcellent faciUties- for defence,and


the
and

place where
Korean

assembled

troops

at

the

fetorically
as
interesting

of invasion had been defeated


army
close of the sixteenth
There
century.

Japanese

by Chinese
the Chinese

force of 17,000 men,


full preparationsfor a decisive
and made
a
They had ample leisure. A period of forty days elapsed before the
Japanese columns, one moving due north from Seul, the other strikingwest
from Yuen-san, converged upon
Phyong-yang, and that interval was utilised
the
Chinese
throw
to
by
Krupp guns, and otherwise
up parapets, mount
their
with repeatingrifles,
armed
strengthen
position. Moreover, they were
the Japanese had only single-shooters,
whereas
and the ground offered little
for an attackingforce.
In such circumstances,
the advantages possessed
cover
defence
by the
ought to have been well-nighinsuperable; yet a (lay's fighting
sufficed to carry all the positions,
the assailants' casualties amounting to less
than seven
hundred, and the defenders losing six tiiousand in killed and
It was
wounded.
and it proved to be the preludeof another
a brilliant victory,
for on
at sea;
the 17th of September, the very
equallyconspicuous success
day after the battle at Phyong-yang, a great naval fighttook place near the
mouth
of the Yalu river,which forms the northern bountlaryof Korea.
teen
FourChinese war-ships and six torpedo-boatswere
home
to
returning
ports
after convo"'inga fleet of transportsto the Yalu, when
they encountered eleven
the Chinese had
Hitherto
cruisingin the Yellow Sea.
Japanese men-of-war
avoided
contest
at sea.
Their fleet was
the stronger, since it
a
sedulously
included two armoured
line-of-battle ships of over
thousand
distons
seven
contest.

NEW

JAPAN

655

[1S94-18'J5A.D.]

placement, whereas
cruisers of only four

the

biggest vessels

thousand

tons.

the
In the hands
on

Japanese
of

an

side

admiral

were

belted

appreciating

naval
force would
certainlyhave been led
conmiunications,for a successful blow struck there
have put an end to the Korean
mast
strated
campaign. History had alreadydemonthat fact,for on two occasions in former ages attempts made
by Japan
the peninsula were
rendered
abortive by the superiormaritime
to conquer
and Cliinese.
On land her soldiers proved invincible,
strengthof the Koreans
she
had
to abandon
but her sea-route
the enterprise.The
being severed,
read
failed
to
Iiistory.They employed their war-vessels
Cliinese,however,
and
when
for that purpose,
hid them in port.
not using them
as convoys
only,
Everything goes to show that they would have avoided the battle off the Yalu
had choice been possible,
though when forced to fightthey fought bravely.
Four
of their shipswere
sunk, and the remainder
escaped to Wei-hai-wei,the
pedo-boats
vigour of the Japanese pursuitbeing greatlyimpaired by the presence of torin the retreating
squadron.
The Yalu victoryopened the over-sea
route to China.
Japan could now
strike at Ta-lien-wan, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei,naval stations on
the
and
where
the
tions,
Liaotung
Shan-tung peninsulas,
powerful permanent fortificabuilt after plans preparedby European experts and armed
with the best
modern
were
regarded as almost impregnable. They fell before the
weapons,
assaults of the Japanese troops as easilyas the comparatively rude fortifications
The only resistance of a stubborn
at Phyong-yang had fallen.
character
made
was
by the Chinese fleet at Wei-hai-wei ; but after the whole squadron
had been destroyed or captured as they attempted to escape,
of torpedo-craft
and after three of the largest
vessels had been sunk at their moorings by Japanese
and
and
shot
the remaining four ships and five
one
torpedoes,
by
shell,
gunboats surrendered, and their brave commander. Admiral Ting, committed
suicide.
This ended the war.
It had lasted seven
and a half months, during
which
time Japan put into the field five columns, aggregatingabout 120,000

the value

of

sea

power,

China's

againstJapan's maritime

of all

arms.

Chinese
government sent Li Hung Chang, viceroy of Petchili and
grand secretary of state, and Li Ching-fong to discuss terms of peace
with Japan, the latter being representedby Marquis Ito and Count
Mutsu,
affairs
minister
minister
for
and
A
foreign
prime
respectively. treaty was
the
17th
of
Shimonoseki
at
on
signed
April,1895, and subsequently ratified
the
of
the
two
by
sovereigns
empires. It declared the absolute independence
of Korea
the
ceded
to
Japan
lying south of a line drawn
part of Manchuria
;
from the mouth
of the river Anping to the mouth
of the Liao, via Feng-hwan,
dores
and the PescaHai-cheng, and Ying-kow, as well as the islands of Formosa
to pay
an
indemnity of 200,000,000 taels ; provided for
; pledged China
the occupation of Wei-hai-wei
by Japan pending payment of the indemnity;
the opening of four new
additional
commercial
secured some
as
privileges,
in manufacturing
to engage
placesto foreign trade and the right of foreigners
in China, and provided for the conclusion of a treaty of commerce
enterprises
the two
and amity between
empires, based on the lines of China's treaties
The

senior

with

occidental

powers.
FOREIGN

No

sooner

did

this

agreement

INTERFERENCE

receive

ratification at

the

hands

of

the

sovereignsof Japan and China, than three of the great European jiowers
Russia,Germany, and France
stepped forward, and presented a jointnote
"

"

HISTORY

THE

656

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN

the

territories

[1895-1900
to

the Tokio

government,

mainland

the

that

recommending

of China

should

ceded

to

A.

D.]

Japan

be

permanently occupied, as such a


The
lastingpeace of the Orient.
in the usual terms
of diplomaticcourtesy, but
recommendation
couched
was
were
prepared to enforce their advice
everythingindicated that its signatories
Japan found herself compelled to comply. Exhausted
by an appeal to arms.
her
by the Chinese
campaign, which had drained her treasury, consmned
and
her
of
warlike
for
at
material,
sea
kept
squadrons
supplies
constantly
such
she
hatl
residue
of
coalition.
Her
to
no
a
months,
strength oppose
eight
resolve was
The
day that saw the publicationof the ratified
quickly taken.
in which
the mikado, avowing
treaty saw also the issue of an imperialrescript
of
and
devotion
the
his unalterable
to
cause
recognisingthat the
peace,
offered
the
counsel
sentiment,
by
European states was prompted by the same
"yielded to the dictates of magnanimity, and accepted the advice of the
shocked
three ])owcrs." The
by this incident. They could
Japanese were
the motives
understand
influencingRussia and France, for it was evidently
should
desire to exclude
warlike
natural
that
the former
and progressive
people like the Japanese from territories contiguous to her borders, and it

on

proceeding would

also natural

was

be

that

detrimental

to

in the

France

West.
of
and
Manchuria,
by
ship

not

the

East

should

remain

true

to

her alliance

Germany, wholly uninterested in the owTierfriend of Ja{)an,seemed


to have
professiona warm
of
her
in
the
latter
of
the
fruits
for
the
sake
joined
robbing
victorysimply
title
Russia's
It
of establishing
known
to
not
some
was
shadowy
goodwill.
of Germany entertained profound appreuntil a later period that the emperor
hensions
about
an
irruptionof oriental hordes into the Occident, and held it
a sacred
duty to prevent Japan from gaining a positionwhich might enable
immense
of the countless
millions
her to construct
out
an
militarymachine
nation.
When
of the Chinese
his majesty's mood
to be understood,
came
much
of the resentment
provoked by his seemingly reckless unfriendliness in
affair was
softened by the mirth
which his chimera
excited.
the Manchurian
with

Russia

in the

But

CHINESE

CRISIS

OF

1900

in the Meiji era had its originin causes


Japan's third expeditionover-sea
of
It will suffice to say here that in the
belong to the history China.
and anti-dynastic
second half of 1900 an anti-foreign
rebellion,breaking out
in Shan-tung, spread to the neighbouring metropolitan province of Petchili
of extreme
and resulted in a situation
of
perilfor the foreigncommunities
Tientsin
and Peking. It was
unpossiblefor any European power, or for the
United States of America, to organisesufficiently
of relief.
prompt measures
of
Thus
the eyes of the world
turned
the
to
to Japan, whose
scene
proximity
intervention
for
her.
But
rendered
disturbance
Japan
comparatively easy
with what
hesitated.
Knowing now
suspicionand distrust the development
and
of her resources
the growth of her militarystrength were
regarded by
that she had been admitted
to the comity
some
European peoples,and aware
which

nations

of western
to

grasp
solecism
America

on

sufferance,she shrank,

the
display,and
on

one

hand, from

seeming

the other, from


the
on
opportunity for armed
of obtrusiveness
in the societyof strangers.
Not
until Europe and
it quite plain that they needed
made
and desired her aid did she
at

an

Her
division (twenty-one thousand
men) to Petchili.
troops acted
in
for
the
relief
of
the
which had
Peking,
subsequent
expedition
part
under very tryingconditions.
to be approached in midsummer
Fighting side

send
a

fine

NEW

JAPAN

667

[1900-1904 D.]
A.

and under the eyes of comEuropean and American


soldiers,
petent
the Japanese acquittedthemselves
in such
militarycritics,
a manner
to establish a high military
as
reputation. Further, after the relief of Peking
that step, as well as their una moiety of their forces,and
they withdrew
equivocal
in the subsequent negotiations,
co-operationwith western
powers
helped to show the injusticeof the suspicionswith which they had been
regarded.
The final stage in the recognition
of Japan as one
of the great powers
was
in
when
offensive
and defensive treaty of
an
accomplished
February, 1902,
her and
Great
alliance was
Britain, on terms which were
signed between
the
From
world
the British and Japanese
at
that
moment
to
published
large.

by

side with

united

were

powers

to maintain

the status quo

RUSSO-JAPANESE

in the Far East.''

WAR

Korea with
was
Japan's fourth war was with Russia,and again the cause
element
of Manchuria.
We
the added
have seen
how Russia, supported by
China
in 1894, stepped
France and Germany, after the Japanese victoryover

prevent Japan's gaining possessionof

in to

Port

Arthur

of the Liaowhen
Russia
reason
was
plainlyseen
1898,
tung peninsula.
obtained from China the cession of Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan
(Dalny) for a
period of twenty-fiveyears, with the further permissionto extend her Manthis up by the occupaWhen
churian railway to Port Arthur.
she followed
tion
of Manchuria
in 1900 and by persistent
efforts to gain control in Korea,

The

for this

and

in

realised that vigorousaction was


Russia had obtained pernecessary.
mission
in 1896, and again in 1903,
the Yalu
to cut timber on
and Tumen
and in 1903 she claimed the rightto build railwaysand lay out telegraphlines
In August of that year
in Korea.
Japan entered upon negotiationswith
in dispute,but no
Russia aiming at an amicable
adjustment of the matters
her minister
and
withdrew
reached,
on
P'ebruary6th Japan
agreement was

Japan

Petersburg. The next day both governments issued statements


severingdiplomaticconnections,and on February 8th Japan opened the war
by a sudden attack upon the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, findingit unprepared
and sinkingthree ships. The formal declaration of war
not made
was
until February 10th.
erously
In regard to the contention raised by Russia that Japan was
actingtreachin attacking before the formal
Mr. Lawrence,c
declaration of war,
of treachery
"The
accusation
an
authorityon international law, observes:
ligerents
law
that
the
international
rests entirely
imposes upon belassumption
upon
of
before
formal
declaration
the duty of making to one another
war
a
groundless. Nearly
commencing hostilities. Never was
assumption more
from

every

St.

of the

war

last two

centuries

has

been

commenced

without

tion.
declara-

being guiltyof a violation of international law, she


beyond it by giving her adversary ample notice of what he

Instead
.

of

[Japan] went
had been strained for a
the two
might expect. Relations between
powers
long time. There would have been no treachery in a sudden attack. But
at St.
the note delivered on February 6th by the Japanese representative
is
which
off
stantly
conbroke
intercourse
act
not
an
Petersburg
only
diplomatic
take
must
followed by immediate
that
stated
but
also
Japan
war
such measures
as she thought fitfor her own
safety."
succession of victories
The war
unbroken
in its earlystages was
almost
an
at Port
for the Japanese. Vice-Admiral
Togo followed up his first success
"

"

H.

W.

"

VOL.

XXIV.

THE

658

HISTORY

OF

CHINA

AXD

JAPAN
[1904

Arthur

by

ships,and

another
the

on

A.

n.]

attack

the next day, seriouslyinjuringfour more


Russian
day Admiral Oriu at Chemulpo destroyed two more

same

Februaiy 24th Togo made his first attempt (which was


subsequently renewed) to shut up the Russian fleet at Port Arthur by sinking
the Madivostok
ships at the mouth of the harbour ; at the end of the month
and destroyed
of
the
frozen
harbour
in
its
succeeded
out
making
squadron
way
and two
small steamships,
Maru
the Japanese transport Kinshiu
returningimmediately afterwards to Vladivostok.
In the mean
time operationson land had begun. The first Japanese army
land
in
Korea
February ISth, and subsequentlyoccupied Phyongbegan to
"thenceit pushed on towards Wi-ju, meeting
without opposition. From
yang
"theRussians
March
of the war
in the first land engagement
at Cheng-ju on
vessels.

Russian

28th, which

On

withdrawal

resulted in the Russian

from

Korean

soil.

The

first

campaign took place on the Yalu river.


General Kuroki
had been concentratingthere for several
and
the
days,
fightingbegan on April 26th, culminatingin a decisive Japanese
A-ictorj^
May 1st. This gave the Japanese a firm footing in Manchuria,
on

serious engagement
The Japanese under

and

Kuroki

the

of

continued

to

under

land

advance

into

the

interior.

On

Maj' 5th the second

the Liao-tung peninon


Oku, began
sula
Japanese army,
graph
and the next
the
day occupied Pu-lan-tien,severmg
railway and teleOn
communication
with Port Arthur.
May 26th occurred the second
in which
the Japanese after sixteen hours' fightingcaptured
great land battle,
and

Kinchau

General

the Nanshan

to land

Hills,and

two

days later the Japanese occupied

The

investment
reheve it,but

followed.
General Stakelberg was
of Port Arthur
defeated
to
sent
was
by Oku at Tehssu (Vofangow). The
after a brief engagement,
Russians retired to Kai-ping,which they abandoned
and took up a positionat Tashichiao.
In an
at this place the Japanese were
again successful and
engagement

DalnJ^

possessionof Ying-kow and New-Chwang; on July 31st and August


of Hai-cheng, where
out
they had made
Japanese drove the Russians
their next stand.
One by one
the Japanese took possessionof the passes on
the way
General
to Liauyang, and
Kuropatkin's gradual concentration of
it apparent
troops about that place and his elaborate fortifications made

obtained
1st the

that

decided

stand

would

be made

there.

During all this time Port Arthur had been the


On May 26th Admiral
Togo proclaimed a blockade

centre

from

of great interest.
side,and
sea

the

had closed in to
Oku
after the battle of Telissu (June 14th-16th) General
within five miles of the city,and all comniimications
^\'ithit and the outside
at once
cut off. Its speedy fallwas
were
prophesiedby the Japanese,and at

spite of deadly
bombardments
and the capture of successive outposts by the Japanese, it
naval mishaps were
had not fallen up to the middle of September. Russian
The
continued by the appalUng disaster to the Petropavlvskon April 13th.
serious loss to the Japanese fleet occurred
most
on
May loth in the blowing

vario'is times

definite dates

were

set

for that

event, but

in

struck a mine about ten miles southeast of Port


up of the Hatsuse, which
Arthur.
There was
at once
a loud
outcry in the press that Russia had been
mines
outside
of
far
her
planting
legitimatefieldand hence endangering neutral

ably
shipping. It appeared later,however, that the mine in question had probAdmiral
loose and drifted to this point. The telegram from
become
Togo to headquarters announcing the catastropheexpresses its importance:
To-day is the most unfortunate day of our na\'"'. I have to report another
disaster. The Hatsiise,the Shikishima, the Yashiyna, the Kasagi, and the
to-day
11 .\.m.
Tatsida were
keeping watch outside Port Arthur at about
"

NEW

JAPAN

659

[1904 A.D.]

when

the Hatsuse

injured. The
being mad*

struck

by the enemy's mine and had its steering-gear


telegraphedfor a tugboat. When
preparationswere

was

Hatsuse

to

the Shikishima

the request, the sad message


received from
was
Hatsuse, being struck by a second mine, had sunk.

with

comply

that the

making this report, I


taking all possiblemeasures

In

can

only say that I


for limitingthe

am

filledwith

deep regret.

am

of the disasters."

extent

23rd
fleet under Admiral
On June
the Port Arthur
Vitoft made
a
sortie,
returned
battle
with
without
Admiral
an
risking
Togo, who was
open
On August 10th the squadron, having been under
waiting outside.
severe

but

Japanese land forces,again sailed for the open


correspondent,"^
writing under the date of August
of August 10th resembled, up to a
15th, says of this battle: "The events
At dawn
the Japanese ships on the horicertain point,those of June 23rd.
zon
numbered
eleven cruisers and seventeen
torpedo-boats,but before the
difficult operation of passing all the Russian
ships through the entrance
in time, was
channel
Togo, warned
was
completed. Admiral
ready, at his
he must
have both anticipatedand
usual rendezvous, for the battle which
About
11 a.m.
the Russians put to sea, and, steeringsouth, encoundesired.
tered
the enemy
twenty-fivemiles southeast of Port Arthur.

fire for three days from


Times
The London
sea.

the

the battle that ensued

"Of

in the historyof armoured


the detailed account
headed
were
away

blue water
the first serious fleet action on
the
navies
we
only know
leading features,and
"

"

will be awaited
to

^-ith the utmost

eastward, according to

Admiral

interest.

The

Russians

Togo, and from

1 p.m.

that is to say, for at least seven


hours
the battle continued without
intermission.
"It was
the Japanese army
that shook
this somewhat
overripe fruit

tillsunset

"

"

into the

lap of Admiral Togo. Just as the stunning blow of the first attack
the direct effect of the masculine
decision of
on
squadron was
in
the Japanese government
this
last
of
the naval
act
to take overt
action, so
Arthur
if so we
drama
reckon
it
the
at Port
plays a leading
may
army
and distinguishedpart. No navy
have done better than that of Japan
can
fortress.
during this dogged watch of six months off the shores of the doomed
the

Russian

"

Yet

never

and

but

at

for

any
this

time

"

has it

so

much

indispensableweapon

as

scratched

of national

the walls of Port Arthur,


strategy, a sufficient and

highly trained field army, the full fruits of naval victorywould undoubtedly
and
have been gathered. Diplomacy, army,
thus stand out as
never
navy
artificial
divisions
of
a
merely
singledominating purpose, and before this
the main
lesson
lesson for us of this war
taught by the close,cordial,and
effective co-operationof these three servants
of the national will, all else
sinks into comparative insignificance."
time (on August
At almost the same
and
in
the straits of Korea
14th) the Vladivostok
was
squadron appeared
Russian
who succeeded
in sinking one
Kamimura,
engaged by Vice-Admiral
ship (the Ruric) and in drivingback the two others severelydisabled.
The
of no
second aim of the Japanese, and one
less importance to them
than the capture of Port Arthur, was
the defeat of General
Kuropatkin's
around
Liauhave
forced
to
concentrate
which,
as
we
was
being
seen,
army,
The
the
final
for
the
was
Japanese
against
ready
operation
yang.
army
and
Russians
of
most
25th.
The
battle
the
guinary
sanon
August
was
one
longest
in the world's history. The Japanese forces were
under the command
Nodzu
of Field-Marshal
the centre,
Oku
General
led
General
the
Oyama ;
left.
"

"

tlie right. The


in a semicircle
General Kuroki
Russian
lines extended
the Tai-tse river to Anshanshan.
The Japanese fought with the same
apparent disregardfor life which has characterised them in every battle,and

and

from

THE

660

IIISTOllY

CHINA

OF

JAPAN

AND

[1904

after

regiment
swept

regiment

by

away

by
him

lives

his

lost.

highest

In

predicted.

the

fear

will

ardently
the

It

West,

and

thus

desire

we

the
are

'

bringing

conflict,

regard

triumph

of

destined

danger

which

threatens

to

what

wish

the
its

Russia

the

is

best

czar's

position

in

empire
as

an

Lawrence,
the

great
But

arms.

the

connecting

the

mind

of

instead

well

to

in

important

of

"^

power,

cannot

and
the

yet
"

says

bulwark

be

Those

against it,

those

who

believe
East

between

each

the

to

arraying

its efforts

number

retreat

who

link

The

the

deserve

position
end

miles

holding

in

Mukden.

as

be

ment
move-

twelve

Kuropatkin's
The

as

peacefully

island

estimates

chfRcult

most

become

together

them

will

to

A.D.]

to

flanking

succeeded

retreat

General

great.

from

and

interpreting

by

various

are

achievement.
masterly
from
Mr.
again
quote

closing,

mortal

existence.""

was

there

very

himself

yellow peril

Japanese

and

certainly

was

praise.
'

days, and

nine

their

Yentai,

near

Kuropatkin

accomplished

only

defences,

attempted

appearing

General

however.

Russian

Kuroki

and

river

Russians

extricating

who

that

for

It

in

skill

the

the

against

General

fire.

Tai-tse

Here,

while

bay

at

fighting lasted
of

the

Liauyang.

above

was

galling

crossing

hurled

to

if not

other,

them

roll

back

its national

in
a

Ji(gfc'n'"'''Biiiiii#''''tir''''''n'''"ffl''i'i.Ji"HiMite""^
iff'""n"i'"niini)iii(niiiju^jui"^tfj'itj[m^^^a.

APPENDIX

DOCUMENTS

RELATING

JAPANESE

TO

HISTORY

CONSTITUTION

[The
or

of

book
the

under

day,

constitution

OF

of

Prince

SHOTOKU

PRINCE

Shotoku

is found

of

Japanese chronicles, in Book XXII, which


The
ki-ya kime.
Empress Toyo-mike-kashi
the twelfth year of her reign, the third month
"

"

that

is,about

604

Nibongi
gives the reign

in the
entry
and

is found

the

fourth

a.d.]

The
heir to the throne
[Prince Shotoku] issued for the first time a
articles.
regulation[or constitution]in seventeen
The
first article reads : Unity and harmony are valuable.
Obedience
is a
All
have
their
there
most
interests;
indispensablequality.
people
separate
also few wise men
them.
Hence
at times
are
they do not obey their
among
and
with
and
have
fathers,
disputes
neighbouring villages. On the
princes
in
other hand, when
and
inferiors
are
harmony and are unanimous
superiors
their
words
and
is there
in
opinions, things progress of themselves,and what
which

could
under
such circumstances
?
not succeed
Article II. Honour
diligentlythe three treasures.

The

three treasures

are

the law, and the priesthood. They are


the last refuge of the four
of all lands.
What
the underlying principle
of being and
generation,

Buddha,
forms

what

people,ought not
thoroughly bad; they
How
can
they be better

to
can

honour
be

led than

these

instructed

laws

and

by resortingto
061

Few

are

made

to

the three

the

people who are


(the laws).

observe

treasures

APPENDIX

662

Article III. Whenever


ye receive
it with
The prince should be
care.
The

the earth.

heaven

observe
imperialcommand
ye must
regarded as the heaven, the subject as
an

the earth

bears; (when that is so) the fouiand the ten thousand


without
move
spirits
hindrance
(from one
placeto another). If (however) the earth should be
it would
the prince
above
the heaven
Hence
only lead to destruction.
should proclaim (the law) and the subjectsreceive it ; the superiorshould rule
seasons

their

pursue

covers,

regularcourse,

and the inferior obey. Consequently when


observe
should respectfully
it. If ye do not

receive an
observe it ye
ye

imperialorder ye
are
preparingyour

ruin.

own

Article IV. Ministers and officials must


make
morality the basis of their
of the people must
Their principlefor the government
actions.
rest on
morality. If the superiorsare not moral the inferiors will not keep order.
moral
If the inferiors are
not
they will of necessityburden themselves with
and crime.
if the prince and his subjectsare
Hence
in possestransgression
sion
If the people are moral the
of morality,the peace will not be disturbed.
state

is

governed by
V.

Article

Renounce

in
(impartially)
a

among

itself.
lusts

disputed cases.
people on one day.

and

throw

away

thousand
If there are
so
A

thy wishes. Judge clearly


for dispute
things give cause
in
one
da)% how many
many

of years? If judges make


number
it a custom
to demand
a material
advantage and to give judgnrent after accepting a bribe,the suit will result
for the richer party, just as if one
threw a stone into the water, and the suit
The
threw water
for the poorer party will be as if one
againsta stone.
poor

more

in

where (to seek protection).


the good is an excellent
punish the bad and to encourage
do not conceal the good deeds of others, and if thou
rule of antiquity. Hence
it. As for flatterers and liars,they are
must
seest evil thou
a sharp
expose
tool with which
with which to destroy
to ruin the state and
a pointed sword
the people. And
again, when flatterers meet superiorsthey usuallyspeak of
but with inferiors they love to talk of the faults of
the faults of the inferiors,
superiors. People of that class have no loyalty towards the prince and no
humane
feelingfor the people; they are the root of great confusion.
Article VII. Everyone has his own
field of activity. Do your best that
miss
it.
When
wise
their official duties,voices of
not
men
pursue
ye may
arise.
evil-minded
When,
however,
praise
people hold an office,evil and
of
Few
the
order
the
are
are
anarchy
day.
they who are wise by nature and
but
reflection
wise.
become
a man
by diligent
by birth,
Every question,
may
will
find
when
the proper
its
solution
whether
important or unimportant,
right
their
Whether
devote
time
is
critical or peaceful,it
to it.
care
a
persons
will pursue a peacefulcourse
of itselfif a wise man
arises.
In this way the state
and
the land is without
has endless duration
the wise kings
danger. Hence
of old first created offices and then looked for men
(to fill them) ; but they
did not look for offices (in order to put people into them).
All ministers
and
officials should
Article VIII.
come
early to court and
be postponed. The
withdraw
Public business cannot
at a late hour.
day
in its whole
those
Hence
length is still too short to settle business matters.
late do not come
in time enough to settle pressingmatters;
who come
to court
the
remain
and if they go away
affairs
unfinished.
early
Article IX. Faithfulness
is the root of righteousness. Be true in everything.
Good
and evil, success
and failure depend on
AMien
faithfulness.
ruled
each
other everythinggoes well,but if they
the rulers and the
true to
are
faithless everythingends in failure.
are

people does

not

Article VI.

know

To

DOCUMENTS

RELATING

TO

JAPANESE

HISTORY

663

Article X. Cast off your anger, put aside your wrath, do not become
angry
with peopleof different opinionsfrom yourselves.Everyone has his own
mind
;
others hold
singlemind has its own
impulses and inclinations. What
every
I consider wrong,
and what
I hold to be right,
to be right,
they consider
wrong.

Yet

wise and
foolish
necessarily
they are not necessarily
both ordinary people. Who
is
what
and
can
easilyjudge
right
wrong
all equallywise and foolish,
we
are
just like a circle which has no end.
not

are

we

"

we

are

when

Hence
is
should
at
be
anxious
because
there
faults ui
us
we
are
anyone
angry
if we
alone
have something which
should nevertheless
we
us;
possess, we
conduct ourselves in the same
as others.
way
when

Article

XI.

merit and fault. Rewards, like


Distinguishclearlybetween
be delivered
impartially. At present, however, recompense
is not
punishment to the transgressor,
given to the deserving nor
(hence) those officialswho have to do with such matters should give care to
of rewards
and punishments.
the allotment
Article XII.
mikotomochi
The Kuni
no
(a kind of prefect)and the Kuni
not tax the people for their individual advantage. There
miyatsuko must
no
should not be two
princes in one state and the people should not have two
of land and every
inch
individual of the people have
masters.
their
Every
their
and
all
the
officials
the
How
lord,
are
king as
king'ssubjects.
they
may
therefore tax the people as if they were
their lords ?

punishments,

must

Article XIII.
All those who
fulfil their
intrusted with offices must
are
When
functions in the same
they are ill or absent on an embassy, and
way.
attend
to their officialduties,
hence cannot
the day when
on
they can attend to

them again they must


look after them
publicbusiness by the pretence of your

Do not hinder the cause


of
usual.
lack of knowledge.
Article XIV.
Do
be envious, ye officials. If we
inclined to be
not
are
There
is no
end
envious of others,others will follow us with jealouseyes.
If
in
feel
from
others
excel
to the calamities which
come
us
insight,
we
envy.
and
consumed
talents
to
when
their
we
are
are
displeasure;
superior
ours,
with envy.
Although ye can find a clever man
years, ye
every five hundred

hardly find

can

land unless

reallywise

find clever

we

in

man

and

wise

as

thousand

How

years.

can

we

rule the

men

privateaffairs and to devote himself


acts only in
public matters, that is the duty of a subject. For if anyone
But if he is suspicioushe is
self-interest he usually is suspiciousof others.
When
disunion prevailshe obstructs
necessarilynot in harmony with others.
When
the feelingof ill-will arises,
business
his
affairs.
private
public
by
said
it was
the regularorder is violated and the laws are transgressed. Hence
Article

XV.

To

turn

his back

his

on

to

in

the

first article that

intended

by

Article

the

superiors and

XVI.

make

To

use

of olden time.
Hence call
principle
when
they are unoccupied.

when

During that
trees

were

Article

but
does

afraid

ye
were

must
not

not

that is a good
people at the righttime
the people for service during the winter
on
"

From

the

spring

to

autumn,

however,

is

for.

be

call

cultivated ?
XVII.
.ludginents should

carefullywith

need
of

many

others.

for consultation

making a mistake,
clear understanding of the matter.

are

is also

not

consult
not

That

cultivated and the mulberry trees cared


should we
What
the people for service.
on
if the mulberry
farmed, and what should we wear

fields must

the

time

if the fields

eat

agree.

of the

months,
the time

should

inferiors

spiritof this article.

must

not
In
;

only
ye

Then

alone,
one
person
then one
it is easy;
in important cases, and where
ye

be

rendered

by

trivial matter

to a
and come
with many
"
result.
will
reasonable
something

consult

APPENDIX

664

II

COMMERCIAL

NEGOTIATED

TREATY

BY

MR.

HARRIS

the result of most


patienttoil on the part of Mr. Harris,
in the course
concluded
treaties
of a few years
basis
for
similar
and gave a
and
all
The
other
nations.
with Great
Britain,France, Russia, Holland,
follows :
main pointsin tliistreaty were
as
This

treaty was

TREATY

OF

AND

AMNESTY

COMMERCE

(Signed at Yedo, July 29th, 1858)


exchanged
[Ratifications

at

Washington, May 22nd, 1860]

and friendship. Diplomatic agent and


Article I. Peace
consul-general.
Consuls to
of
residence in Japan; travel beyond treaty hmits.
Privileges
reside at open ports. Reciprocalprivileges
to hke officials of Japan.
of the United States in differences between
Article II. Mediation
Japan and

European

powers.

vessels

the

on

Assistance

high seas,

and

by

by

United

United

States ships of war


to Japanese
States consuls in foreignports.

ports to be opened (Kanagawa and Nagasaki),July


American
4th, 1859; Niigata,January 1st,1860; Hejogo, January 1st,1863.
Article III. Additional

reside therein.
citizens may
Rules
and
regulationsas to their residence.
Provisions as to residence of Americans
Osaka.
in Yedo
and
Regulations
of trade.
These
provisionsto be made
pubUc by Japanese government.
Munitions
of war;
whom
to
only to be sold; rice and wheat not to be
exported from Japan ; surplus thereof not to be sold to residents,and for
Americans
ships'crews, etc.
Copper surplus to be sold at auction.
may
employ Japanese.
Article IV. Duties to be paid accordingto tariff. Proceedingswhere there
is a difference as to the value of duties.
Supphes for United States navy.
for
Opium prohibited; penalty
smuggling. Imports on which duties are paid
be
transportedwithout further tax. No higher duties than are fixed
may
by this treaty.
Article V. Foreign coins to be current
in Japan ; may
be used in pa5Tnents ;
to be exchanged for Japanese coins,etc.
be
Coins, except copper, may
exported ; vmcoined foreigngold and silver may be exported.
Article VI. Jurisdiction over
offences ; Americans
sular
againstJapanese in concourts ; Japanese againstAmericans
local
authorities.
Consular courts
by
to Japanese creditors.
Forfeiture and penaltiesfor violation of treaty.
open
Neither government
to be responsible
for debts of its subjectsor citizens.
Article VII. Limits of rightto travel (ten ri in any direction)from
open
criminals (e.g., convicted of felony)shall lose rightof
ports. That American
residence in Japan. Such persons to have reasonable time to settle
permanent
their affairs,
to be determined
consul.
by American
Article VIII. ReUgious freedom.
Religiousanimosity not to be excited.
Article IX. Japanese authorities,
on
request of consul,will arrest deserters
and fugitives
from justice. Will receive prisonersin jail. Consul to pay just
compensation.

APPENDIX

666

the organisation of the different


determines
The
emperor
fixes
the
salaries of all civil and military
he
the administration
;
the same.
and appoints and dismisses
provided
Exceptions specially
officers,
with
for in the present constitution or in other laws shall be in accordance
Article

X.

brandiesof

respectiveprovisionsbearing thereon.

the

has

The emperor
Article XL
Article XII. The emperor

of the army
Article

and

navy.

XIII.

The

treaties.
Article XIV.
The

The

conditions

Article XV.

of the army
and navy.
command
the supreme
the organisationand peace standing

determines

emperor

declares

makes

peace,

concludes

and

proclaims the law of siege.


operationof the law of siegeshall be determined by law.
confers titles of nobiUty,rank, orders,and other
emperor
emperor

and

The

of honour.

marks

orders
The
Article XVI.
emperor
and rehabilitation.
The
institution of
Article XVII.
with

war,

the

the

supreme

shall take

regency

imperialhouse

regent shall exercise the

The
in his

provisionsof

amnesty, pardon, commutation

of punishments,

place in conformity

law.
powers

which

belong to

the emperor

name.

Chapter

II.

"

^The

Rights

and

conditions
Article XVIII.
The
necessary
shall be determined
by law.
Article XIX.
Japanese subjectsshall all

Duties
for

of

being

Subjects

Japanese subject

for civil and


equally be eligible
military appointments, and any other public offices,subject only to the
conditions prescribedand laws and ordinances.
to service in the army
or
Article XX.
Japanese subjectsare amenable
of law.
to the provisions
according
navy,
the duty of paying
to
Article XXI.
Japanese subjects are amenable
of
law.
the
to
provisions
taxes, according
jects
Article XXII.
Subject to the limitations imposed by law, Japanese subin regard to residence and change of abode.
shall enjoy full liberty
No
Article XXIII.
Japanese subject shall be arrested,detained,tried,
or
punished,except accordmg to law.
No Japanese subjectshall be deprived of his rightof being
Article XXIV.
tried by judges determined
by law.
in
the cases
Article XXV.
provided for in the law, the house of
Except
no
Japanese subjectshall be entered or searched without his permission.
Article XXVI.
provided for in the law, the secrecy of
Except in cases
shall
be violated.
of
not
letters
the
Japanese subjects
The
Article XXVII.
rights of property of Japanese subjects shall not

in the
be rendered necessary
Such measures,
be violated.
however, as may
with the provisions
interests of the publicwelfare shall be taken in accordance
of the

law.

Article
to

peace

freedom

XXVIII.

Japanese subjectsshall,within limits not prejudicial


antagonisticto their duties as subjects,enjoy

order, and not


of religiousbelief.
and

XXIX.
Article
Japanese subjectsshall,within the limits of law, enjoy
ations.
publicmeetings,and associlibertyin regard to speech,writing,publication,

Article

JAPANESE

HISTORY

667

provided that
present petitions,
respect,and comply with the rules specially

Japanese subjects may

Article XXX.
the

they observe
provided for

TO

RELATING

DOCUMENTS

of

forms

proper

such matters.
The provisionscontained

XXXI.

in the

present chapter shall

not

in case
of national emergency,
the exercise,in times of war
or
the
to
which
with the supreme
belong
powers
emperor.
of the provisionscontained
Each
and every
in the
Article XXXII.
one
interfere

with

the

laws

officers and

present chapter shall,in

of the

precedingarticles
with

far

so

of the army
the rules and discipline
and of the navy.
of the army

or

men

Chapter

Article XXXIII.
house of peers and

III.

The

The

"

they do not conflict


apply to the
navy,

as

and

Imperial

Diet

imperial diet shall consist


of representatives.

of

houses:

two

the

the house

Article XXXIV.

The

house of peers shall,in accordance


with the ordinance
of the imperial
concerning the house of peers, be composed of members
family, of nobles, and of deputieswho have been nominated
by the emperor.
Article XXXV.
of representativesshall be
The
house
composed of
elected

members

the

by

the

people,according to

provisionsof

the

law

of

election.
Article XXXVI.
both houses.
Article XXXVII.

No

by

at

can

Every
Both

Article XXXVIII.
forward

one

and

one

the

law requiresthe consent


houses shall vote upon

the government,

and

time

same

be

member

of

of the

imperialdiet.
projectsof law brought
respectivelybring forward projects

may

of law.

Article XXXIX.

bill which

shall not

be again brought in
Article XL.
Both
houses

in

regard to

laws, or
are

not

has

been

during the
make

can

rejectedby

either of the

houses

session.

same

recommendations

to

the government

mendations
subject. When, however, such recomupon
any
time
be
made
second
cannot
a
during the
adopted, they

other

session.

Article XLI.
Article XLII.
In

of

case

may

The

imperialdiet

A session

of the

a duration
necessity,

Article
be

The

XLIII.

When

convoked, in
duration

of

urgent necessityarises,an

addition

an

of

shall be convoked
every year.
imperialdiet shall last during three months.
be prolongedby imperialorder.
session may

extraordinarysession

the

ordinaryone.
extraordinarysession shall
to

by imperial

be determined

order.

regard to the opening, closing,and prorogationof


prolongationof its sessions,these shall take place
both
be ordered
in
If the house of repre.sentatives
houses.
simultaneously
of peers shall at the same
time be prorogued.
to dissolve,the house
ordered
When
has been
to
the house
of representatives
Article XLV.
the
be
election of new
members
shall
ordered
dissolve,
by imperialdecree,
the day of
the new
from
house shall be convoked
and
within five months
Article

the

XLIV.

With

imperialdiet,and

the

dissolution.
Article
either
number

XLVI.

house

of

No
the

debate

can

imperial diet

of the members

be

opened

unlpss

no

thereof is present.

and

less

no

than

vote

can

one-third

be
of

taken in
the whole

APPENDIX

668

In

Article

XLM^I.

the

of

case

Votes

The
Article XL\T:II.
The
deliberations
may,
resolution

to

Article

houses

by absolute majority.

however,

of

upon

have
the casting vote.
both houses shall be held in
of the government
demand

public.
or
by

in secret

the

of

sitting.
imperial diet

respectively
present

may

the

emperor.
Both
houses

L.

Article LI.

Both

present constitution
management

in both

presidentshall

deliberation

house, be held
Both houses

of the

Article XLIX.
addresses

shall be taken

tie vote, the

may

receive

houses may
and in the

petitionspresentedby subjects.

is provided for in the


besides what
enact,
law
of the houses, rules necessary
for the

of their internal affairs.

Article Lll.

of either house shall be held responsibleoutside


Xo member
the respectivehouses for any opinion uttered or for any vote given by him
in the house.
himself has given publicityto his
When, however, a member
in print,
or
opinions,by publicspeech,by documents
he shall,
such actions,be amenable
as
regartls
means,

in

wTiting,or by any other


the generallaw.
of both houses shall,during the session,be free
Article LIII. The members
from arrest,unless with the permissionof the house,except in cases
of flagrant
connected
civil
of
offences
with
troubles.
delicts,or
war
or foreign
Article LIV.
The ministers of state, and persons deputed for that purpose
by the government, may at any time take seats and speak in either house.

I^^

Chapter
Article L\".

The

"

Ministers

of

State

and

to

Privy

the

Council

respective ministers of state shall give their ad\'ice to


responsiblefor it.
.\11 laws, public ordinances, and
of whatever
kind,
imperial rescripts,
that relate to the affairs of the state,requirethe counter-signature
of a minister
the emperor,

The

and

be

of state.

.\rticleLVI.
for the

The

council shall,in accordance


pri^"^'
privy council,deliberate upon
they have been consulted by the emperor.

organisationof the

of state, when

Chapter
Article L\TI.

V.

"

The

with
the

the

p^o^"isions
important matters

Judicature

shall be exercised
by the courts
powers
of the emperor.
organisationof the courts of law shall be determined by law.

according to

The
Article LVIII.
possess
No

Judicial

law, in

the proper

the

The

of law,

name

judges shall be appointed


determined
qualifications
by law.

from

among

those

who

judge shallbe dismissed from his post except on the groimd of sentence
of his having
having been passed upon him for a criminal act, or by reason
been subjectedto punishment for disciplinary
offence.
Rules for disciplinan,'
punishment shall be determined
by law.
Trials shall be conducted
Article LIX.
and judgments rendered
publicly.
be prejudicial
When, however, there e.xists any fear that such publicitymay
and order, or to the maintenance
of publicmorality,the publictrial
to peace
be
either
in
accordance
with
the law bearing on the subject
suspended,
may
the
decision
of
concerned.
court
or
by
Matters
.\rticleLX.
which
of
the special
fall within
the competency
shall be specially
determined
courts
by law.

RELATING

DOCUMENTS
Article LXI.
which

The

arise out of the


the part of
on

action

competency

of

of

courts

TO

law

shall not

the court

take

rightshave

that
allegations
the

JAPANESE

HISTORY

669

cognizance of any suits


been infringedby illegal

executive
authorities,and which fall within the
of administrative
litigation,
speciallyestablished

law.

by

VI.

Chapter

Article LXII.

The

impositionof

"

new

^Finance

tax,

or

modification

(of an existingone), shall be determined


by law.
fees
all
such
administrative
However,
or other revenue
for
rendered
shall
of compensation
services
not fall within
above

of the rates

in the nature
are
the category of the

as

clause.

The

raisingof national loans and the contractingof other liabilitiesto the


charge of the national treasury,except those that are provided in the budget,
shall requirethe consent
of the imperialdiet.
Article LXIII.
Existing taxes shall,in so far as they are not altered by
laws, continue

new

to

Article LXIV.
The
the form of an annual

be collected
annual

as

heretofore.

expenditure and

budget, receive

of the state shall,


in
revenue
of the imperialdiet.
the consent
the appropriationsset forth under
the

expenditure which exceeds


various
heads of the budget, or those not provided for in the budget, shall
be referred subsequently to the imperialdiet for its approval.
Article LXV.
The
budget shall be first laid before the house of representatives.
Any

Article LXVI.

The

defrayed every

year
for the same,

amount

the

out

expenditurein respect of the imperialhouse shall be


of the national treasury,accordingto the present fixed
and shall not
hereafter requirethe consent
thereto of

imperialdiet,except
Article

LXVII.

The

in

case

fi.xed

increase thereof is found necessary.


the supreme
expenditure based upon
an

powers

and set forth in this constitution,and such


emperor,
have ari.sen by the effect of law, or as appertainsto the

of

the

may
of the

government, shall be neither rejectednor


of the goverrmient.

without the concurrence


Article LXVIII.

reduced

expenditure as
legalobligations
by the imperialdiet,

to meet
specialrequirements the government
to a certain amount
diet
as a continuing
imperial
may
for
fixed
of
number
fund,
a
expenditure
previously
years.
Article LXIX.
In order to supply unavoidable
deficits in the budget,and
fund
shall be
to meet
requirements unprovided for in the same, a reserve

ask the consent

In

order

of the

established.
Article

LXX.

When

there is urgent need for the adoption of measures


for
of the publicsafety,and when
of the state
maintenance
in consequence
either of the domestic
affairs or of the foreignrelations,the imperialdiet
be convoked, the necessary
cannot
financial measures
be taken by means
may
the

of

an

imperialordinance.
In such

those mentioned
in the preceding clause the matter
shall
imperialdiet at its next session for its approval.
When
the imperial diet has not
Article LXXI.
the budget,
voted
on
has
been
when
the
not
into
actual
or
budget
existence,the governbrought
ment
shall carry out the budget of the preceding year.
The
final accomit
of the expenditure and revenue
of the
Article LXXII.
shall
be
verified
and
confirmed
board
and
it
shall
be
of audit,
state
by the

be submitted

cases

as

to the

APPENDIX

670

submitted

by

the

to

government

the

imperialdiet,togetherwith

the report

of verification of the said board.

organisationand competency
by law separately.

The

Chapter

VII.

"

The

of

the

board

Supplemextary

of audit

shall be determined

Rules

LXXIII.
ment
Should, hereafter,the necessityarise for the amendof the provisionsof the present constitution,
a
projectto that effect
for the deliberation of the imperial diet by imperial
shall be submitted
Article

order.
In

the

above

neither house

case,

two-tliirds of the whole


be passed imless a
can

less than
can
a debate,unless not
open
of members
are
present; and no amendment
majority of not less than two-thirds of the members
number

present is obtained.
No
mocUfication
of the imperial house law shall be reArticle LXXIV.
quired
for the deUberation
of the imperialdiet.
to be submitted
No provisionof the present constitution can
be modified by the imperial
house law.

Article LXXV.

No modification can
be introduced
into the constitution,
imperialhou.se law, during the time of regency.
Article LXXVI.
Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations,
and ordinances, and all other such enactments, by whatever
names
they may
which do not conflict with the present constitution,
shall continue
be called,
or

into the

in force.
All

scope

existingcontracts

or

orders which

connected
and which
are
of Article LXVII.

with

the

entail

obUgations upon
expenditure,shall come

the ment,
governwithin the

IV.

k
TREATY

OFFENSI\^

OF
BETWEEN

GREAT

AND

DEFENSRT^

BRITAIN

XSD

ALLIANCE
JAPAN

}
(Signedat London, January 30th, 1902)
The
to

governments

maintain

the

of Great Britain and Japan, actuated solelyby a


in the extreme
East;
quo and general peace

status

aesire

being,

interested in maintaining the independence and territorial


specially
integrityof the Empire of China and the Empire of Korea, and in securing
and industry of all
equal opportunitiesin those countries for the commerce
nations, hereby agree as follows:
.cAjticle I. The
high contractingpartieshaving mutually recognisedthe
fluenced
independence of China and of Korea, declare themselves to be entirelyuninin
in
tendencies
either
view,
by any aggressive
country. Having
however, their specialinterests,of which those of Great Britain relate principally
she possesses
to China, while Japan, in addition to the interests which
well as commercially
in China, is interested in a peculiardegree politically,
as
the high contracting partiesrecognisethat it will
in Korea,
and industrially,
be indispenbe admissible for either of tiioin to take such measures
sable
as
may
either by the aggresin order to safeguard those interests if threatened
moreover,

EELATING

DOCUMENTS

sive
and
for

of

action

other

any

necessitating
protection

the

Article

power,

the

other

its efforts

use

Great

of

either

Britain

prevent

other

HISTORY

671

Japan,

or

powers

arising in China or Korea,


high contracting parties
its subjects.
the

of
of

property

in the

become
will

high contracting party

to

JAPANESE

by disturbances

described, should

above

as

lives and

the

If either

II.

interests

or

power,

intervention

the
of

TO

from

defence
in

involved

maintain

joinmg

in

of

strict

their tive
respecanother

with

war

neutrality, and
against its

hostilities

ally.
Article
in

III.

hostilities

against
and

its assistance

agreement

If in

with

the
that

will

above

event

ally, the

conduct

the

any
other

other

or

and

should

powers

high contracting party

in common,

war

power

make

will

peace

join

come

to

in mutual

it.

high contracting parties agree that neither of them


will,
with
another
without
other, enter into separate arrangements
consulting
described.
above
to the prejudice of the interests
power
in the opinion of either
Great
Britain
V.
Article
Whenever,
Japan, the
or
in jeopardy, the
two
will cominterests
above-mentioned
are
governments
municate
each
with
other
fully and frankly.
shall
into effect immediately
The
VI.
vlrticle
come
present agreement
in force for five years
of its signature, and
remain
from
the
that
after
date
Article

IV.

The

the

date.

high contracting parties should have notified t.welve


of terminating
expiration of the said fiye years the intention
from
until
of
the day
shall
remain
the
one
expiration
it, it
binding
year
have
it.
the
shall
of
denounced
But
either
which
high contracting parties
on
the date fixed for its expiration arrives,either ally is actually engaged
if,when
is concluded.
until peace
in war,
the alliance shall, ipso facto, continue
the
In
faith whereof
by their respective
undersigned, duly authorised
have
signed this agreement, and have affixed thereto their seals.
governments,
the 30th
in duplicate at London,
Done
January, 1902.
In

months

case

neither

before

of the

the

Lansdowne,

[L.S.]
His

Britannic
for

Majesty's Principal Secretary


Foreign Affairs.

of State

Hayashi,

[L.S.]

Envoy

Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary


of Japan
of his Majesty the Emperor
at
the

Court

of

St. James."

HISTORY

THE

REFEREXCE-LIST

BRIEF

HuNO-siN-TSHirEX.

1^

"

"

6 H.

China"
"

"

"

K.

"

and

Lu-Tsuen,

Chinese

History

CHAPTERS

Matter]

Civilisation

A G.

S.

China

"China"
The

George

"

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of

article on
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Lindesay

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in the

Taeping

Jamieson

Encyclopadia

Rebellion.

and

V.

Clakki:, China-Japan

"

Briian-

/ F. Brink-

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oj 1894-1S95.

War

Classic.

TrimeJrieal

III.

Chapter
A

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AUgemeine Weligeschichte.

Douglas,

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in the

Hung

R.

China.

It.'!
History, Arts

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ley,
"

E. GoRST, China.
H. MEDHrasT,

"i W.

"

JAPAN

for Editorial

of

The

n.

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nica.

is resen-ed

Webeb,

Geobg

AND

AUTHORITIES

Pstchologt

I.

Chapter
6

OF

letter

[The

CHINA

OF

StJMMAHT

Early

OF

Captain

By

Chapter

Hibtobt.

Japanese
Brinkley.

F.

Old

IV.

Japan

"
in the
F.
article on
M'Clatchie,
Encyclopadia Britannica.
Japan
"* R.
" J.
and Literature.
Hildreth,
History of Japan.
: Its History, Arts
/ History of Japan, compiled for the Imperial
and
I. Yamagata,
Murdoch
History of Japan.
of the World's
Columbian
Exposition. e Nitobe, Intercourse between
Japanese Commission

T.

H.

R.

Brixkley,

"

"

"

Japan

"

"

"

"

United

States and

Japan.
V.

Chapter

New

"

Jap-vn

of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.


in the new
volumes
Brinkley, article on "Japan"
Times
d London
(weekly),
War
and
East.
L.4WRENCE,
.\eutraliiy in the Far
e XiPON
.Annales
des Empereurs du Japan, translated
Dy
o dai itsi ran,
ou
Aupist 15th, 1904.
f Journal
in Denkschriften der
I. Titsingh.
of O-o-gawutsi translated
by .\. PitzMjUER,
by.

cT.

"

J.

"

"

"

K.

Akademie
in

Florenz,
A

E.

der

Hertslet

Wissenschaften.
"

Book

Xihoxgi,

XXII,

Suiko-Tenno.

translated

by

K.

Volkerkunde
Ostasiens.
und
Miitheilung der deutschen
Gesellschaft fur Xaturand Edw.uid
Cecil
British and Foreign State Papers.
Hertslet,

"

.APPENDIX
DOCUMEN-TS
Book

fcXmoNGi,

Gesellschaftfur Xatur

Japan.
Papers. " A.

and

"

"

"t

Edward

J.

XXII.
und

RELATING

Hertslet
The

0.tM.";i"n.t.

and
Russian

JAPANESE

translated

Suiko-Tenno,

Viilkerkunde

Beveridge,

TO

"

Edw

aud

Adiattcc.
673

by

Florenz.

HISTORY
in M

ittheilungder deuttche

between
Intercourse
XiTOBE.
British and
Cecil
Hertslet,
c

United

States

Foreign State

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