Proposal of Shaft location & Shaft construction design based on

Dighipara coal field geology, Dinajpur, Bangladesh

Shahadat Hossain, ID No. 1107012, Dept. Of PME, C.U.E.T.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

In this chapter parameters for shaft designing, design criteria, design procedure in various
previous fields are explained briefly.

2.1 General Review:

The design of mine shaft is an iterative process, which requires several variables and options to
be considered in order to arrive at an economic decision in mine planning. Converting a mineral
resource to economical mineable reserve is a pre-requisite for starting the shaft design process.
Shaft design process starts with the selection of shaft section area that suits with all available
mining plan. Then the design sequence goes through selecting appropriate shaft depth, shape,
liner size & dimensions at collar, inset, sump. Collar selection is typically complex as it should
meet all the requirements of shafts. Inset design is collaborated with shaft station plan & large
production shift and finally bottom sump design is dependent on type & size of hoisting vessels.
Additional lining requirements, geotechnical, hydrogeological information, shaft sinking method,
impact of chosen sinking method also should be considered.

2.2Basic Parameters:
Various paperwork on shaft design dictates that shaft selection and shaft design depends upon
various parameters. All possible and probable parameters are outlined below
1. Depth of shaft
2. Ore & waste to be handled
3. Dip of ore body
4. Type of ground
5. Geology
6. Hydrogeology
7. Groundwater table
8. Stress bearing capacity of ground
9. Depth of tunnel horizon
10. Shift handling
11. Materials handling
12. Mining machinery handling
13. Ventilation requirement
14. Capital cost
15. Operating cost
16. Selling price of the mineral
17. Possible risks
18. Geology and groundwater conditions at the site
19. Access conditions into mine
20. Risks to life and property associated with the mine

21. Presence of hazardous gases

22. Presence of acid mine drainage
23. Mine history including mine plan if available
24. Inventory of plant or animal species using the mine
25. Potential for surficial changes due to water table variation
Basically ore body size will determine the rate of mining which in case will determine the
tonnage to be hoisted, number of persons & materials to be transported in a given shift. Then
shaft types (skip & cage shafts) which will calculate the area to accommodate the shafts. For
proper planning of the mine and to get maximum economical return/revenue all parameters
should be strictly followed.

2. 3 Steps:
For designing shaft (whether main shaft or ventilation shaft) we can maintain a sequence
outlined in the following:
1. Shaft location selection (Site selection)
2. Shaft design criteria
3. Shaft design

2. 3.1 Shaft location selection:

Since shafts play a major role in the general planning of mine development, their location is
usually pre-determined. The location of a shaft can be changed when adverse geotechnical site
conditions are encountered (K F Unrug, 1984).

Shaft can be located in the central part of the property or on the footwall side of the deposit with
its major axis in the strike direction. In deep multiple orebody deposit, shaft location is usually
determined using fuzzy TOPSIS method and network optimization. A central shaft is most
advantageous in mine as it reduces cost of transport (workers, equipment, productions) &
average weighed air is ventilated to the production faces. But it causes losses of mineable ore in
safety pillars. Side shafts increases development and transport causes in comparison to central
shafts, but it does not affect the mineable ore deposit.
Shaft location selection is also done with the available information of geology, coal seam
thickness whether thick or thin, depth of interested seam, deposit types (narrow tabular deposits,
wide tabular deposits or massive deposits). Any mining engineer will know that the shape, size
and dip of ore body will dictate where the shaft position should be. In addition host ground
conditions and water bearing structures also influence the final location of shafts.

2.3.2 Shaft design criteria:

The foremost top 4 design criteria are outlined below
1. Where is groundwater table?
2. What type of ground will be excavated?
3. How much working space is required?
4. How deep is the tunnel horizon?

2.3.2.1 Ground Condition and type of land to be excavated:

Close to the surface, weathered rock and residual soils are common; these materials generally
are too weak to carry the high foundation loads exerted by large headgear structures, winder

houses and other surface infrastructure. Ground water often affects upper areas of the shaft and
must be controlled by grouting to prevent water from entering the shaft, or by drainage systems
built into the lining structure.

Natural breaks in the rock, such as joints and faults, affect the behaviour of the rock mass at
shallow and intermediate depths. Often, around 1000m below surface, the stresses that exist
naturally in the ground become large enough to begin to induce additional fractures in the rock
mass.

Simple support systems like rock bolts or split sets, wire mesh and shotcrete are adequate to
protect the workforce involved in sinking the shaft under these conditions. Certain weak
geotechnical zones exhibit time dependent behaviour and can deform excessively (squeezing)
when the shaft experiences stress changes during its life.

2.3.2.2 Geology and Hydrogeology:

The study of geology and hydrogeology of the interested mining area is most reliable tool to
know sub-surface information of an area. If any aquifer lies beneath the mineral reserve, ground
freezing method should be applied. Freezing can save the shaft from influx of water by creating
an ice wall & resist the hydrostatic pressure. Artificial ground freezing is used in the construction
of shafts, mines and tunnels to provide temporary earth support and groundwater control when
other conventional methods such as dewatering, shoring and grouting or soil mixing do are not
feasible. In many thermal design of shafts, conventional freezing method is applied.

General study of hydrogeology includes1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Baseline environmental studies

Hydrological and hydraulics studies linked to flood prediction
Integrated environmental planning
Water balance modelling
Water supply
Mine dewatering
Seepage control and contamination assessment

2.3.2.3 Required working space:

Work space requirement, number of persons to be carried, equipment size and shape, quantity of
air to be ventilated etc. are important factor is design consideration.

2.3.2.4 Effect of shaft sinking method:

According to conventional procedures the shaft sinking involves the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Boring
Firing
Bogging
Support
Furnishing

And basically three types of shaft sinking are used:

1. Down-the-hole shaft sinking methods
2. Remote shaft sinking methods
3. Raiseboring methods
Sinking type also dictates how the shaft should be, and effect of shaft sinking method should also
be considered.

2.3.3 Shaft Design:

2.3.3.1 Shaft Cross Sections:
It can be of variable types:
1. Rectangular Shafts: In the early 1900s maximum shafts used were rectangular or square
in nature, for that sinking of these shafts was problematic which slowed down the rate of
sinking.
2. Circular Shafts: This cross-sectional shafts are generally used as this cross section provides
good geometry for air flow and good rock support characteristics.

3. Elliptical Shafts: This shaft had the effect of reducing the circular excavation and cost of
sinking.

2.3.3.2

Determining Shaft Size:

The reserve (ore body) size will govern the rate of mining and the mining rate will determine the
tonnage (ore and waste) to be hoisted, the number of persons and material to be transported in a
given shift. The foregoing is then used to determine the skip and cage sizes which in turn are
used to calculate the total area required to accommodate these units. The shape and size of
equipment to be taken down a shaft are also included in the calculation of the final shaft
dimensions.
Determining the rate of mining can be summarized as follows:
Identify possible mining layouts

 Define standard mining block (stope or panel size) per layout

Calculate steady state conditions per level
Define steady state inputs/outputs requirements per level
Determine minimum access dimensions to cater for equipment and ventilation
Calculate development requirements to get to steady state
Simulate full level production from start of block to ore body extremity
Determine the maximum number of levels that will operate simultaneously
Estimate shaft size required to cater for sum of the requirements of the maximum number
of working levels
Do an economic analysis (NPV & IRR)
Decide on optimum mining layout and shaft configuration
Determining the size of a ventilation shaft can be summed up as shown in Table 1 below:

Description (Mine Opening)

Criteria (Air Velocities m/s)

Downcast shaft 12

12

Upcast shaft

18

Intake airways

Return airways (no personnel)

12

Chairlifts

Conveyor declines

Diesel engine dilution factor

0.12 m3/s/kW

Table 1: Ventilation Shaft design criteria

By summing up the total intake air required for the complete mining system it is possible to
compute the minimum ventilation shaft dimensions required to service the chosen mining
system.

2.3.3.3

Choosing the right shaft:

There are basically three types of shafts namely vertical shafts, inclined shafts and declined
shafts. The right choice of shaft should be upon location, deposit types that makes the most
profitable use in production phase.
For shaft type selection, we study the conditions for applying the told shaft, Its advantages
and disadvantages which is summarized below:

Shaft

Selection
Criteria

Advantages

Disadvantages

Vertical

Steep dipping ore

body, Deep ore body,
Quick access to deep
ore body.

Efficient at depths
exceeding 500m.
Cheaper per meter as
depth increases,
Early return on
investment

Inclined

Flat dipping ore

body, Shallow ore
body

Limited development
to ore body, Short
ore pass system
required

Highly skilled labour

required, High labour
cost, High initial
capital costs, High
maintenance costs,
Require headgear,
Limited hoisting,
capacity Require
constant power
supply
Derailments, Shaft
maintenance &
repairs time
consuming, Spillage
cleaning is time

consuming, Limited
hoisting capacity
Declined

2.3.3.4

Flat dipping ore

body, Shallow ore
body

Can be mined in the

strike or dip direction
of choice, Easy
access to shallow ore
body, Low initial
capital costs (no
headgear), Low
operating costs

Longer distance to
ore body, Only
economical to 500m
vertically, Excessive
travelling time to ore
body

Shaft lining design:

From engineering standpoint, uniform load distribution is the base for lining calculation.
smaller shafts are designed to be rectangular with timber supports. Larger shafts are round
and are concrete lined.

The type of lining mostly depends on the followings (Unrug, 1992):

Hydrogeological conditions,
Function of shaft,
Intended lifespan of shaft,
Shape and depth of shaft,
Obtainability of building materials and
Cost of construction.

Geotechnical properties and hydrologic conditions may significantly affect deciding shaft
lining. On the other hand, the chemical activity like corrosiveness of the water can also be an
important factor. Since modern shafts often have automatically operating hoisting gear
sensitive to moisture, they should be dry. Main shafts are usually planned for the entire mine
lifespan, so they are constructed according to minimum repairs and maintenance times.
There are two kind of support for shaft (Unrug, 1992):
Temporary support and
Permanent support.

Temporary supports protect crew and equipment from falling rocks of the exposed shaft wall
and they are used while the face is advancing. When the work at the face is postponed,
temporary supports are dismantled and a concrete form is located. If the removal of the
temporary lining produces safety problems, concrete can be poured over temporary support.
One of the most popular types of temporary lining are steel rings (Unrug, 1992).
There are several different permanent lining systems along with shaft design and
environmental settings like rock formations. While shotcrete is generally sufficient in strong
rocks, a combination of rock bolts with mesh and shotcrete can be applied in fractured
zones. Permanent lining for water bearing weak strata can be made of reinforced concrete or
steel, as a single (with stiffening rings) or double cylinder with concrete fill between the
outer and inner segments. Permanent linings can be listed as follows (Unrug, 1992):
Timber,
Brick or concrete blocks,

 Concrete monolithic,
Reinforced concrete,
Tubbing (cast iron and precast elements),
Shotcrete, various systems (e.g. with mesh) and
Anchor bolts.

2.3.3.5

Shaft collar design:

The shaft collar is the upper part of the shaft extending to the first footing and must be anchored
in competent rock. The dimensions of a collar, for example, its depth, cross section and thickness
depend on shaft functions, character of over-burden rocks, hydrologic conditions, resulting
water, ground pressures, sinking method and additional loading conditions when appropriate.
Sinking and construction shaft collar depend on geo-mechanical and hydrologic conditions. A
collar is required for a shaft or raise entry used by an underground mine. In addition to providing
a mine entrance, a shaft collar of a production shaft implements the followings (Unrug, 1992):
Keeping shaft watertight,
Providing a top anchor for shaft sets and plumb lines necessary for shaft surveying,
Providing space for shaft sinker to install equipment before main excavation initiates,
Supporting a portion of headframe.

Also, collars are essential for ventilation shafts, service shafts and all raises reaching surface.
Constructing collars in a rock outcrop or shallow overburden is comparatively straightforward.

However, constructing collars may be a major task for deep and particularly water bearing soil
overburdens. The same is true of a portal, but, for deep and water bearing overburdens,
construction may be harder or even impractical. Shaft and raise collars are usually lined by
concrete or shotcrete.

2.3.3.6 Load consideration, stress-strain on side wall:

Most recommended approach for shaft design and analysis is the distortion energy theory of
failure. Side wall load distribution, stress-strain calculations, basically rock mechanics study of
the underground should be done to ensure that the shaft should not collapse and the necessary
support is provided.

Ground support design and optimization for severe conditions is mine contractor specialty.
Stability and stress analyses are carried out using state-of-the-art numerical techniques where
appropriate. Risk assessments and the identification of hazards are an integral part of the
investigations. Services done for stability:

1. Structural geological characterization

2. Support design
3. Seismic risk analysis
4. Pillar design
5. Hazard assessment
6. Full-time project/site
7. General field data acquisition
8. Numerical and statistical modelling
9. Probability based design
10. Design of underground excavation

2.3.3.7

Design Flowsheet:

Fig. 1. Shaft design flow process