Wireless Communication: Fundamentals: Introduction of Cellular Concept Need

20-09-2012
Wireless Communication:
Fundamentals
Need Transmitter & Receiver
Wireless Communication: Cellular

Concept & Frequency Planning
Base station & Mobile
Communication
Forward (Downlink) & Reverse (Uplink) link
Instructor:
Prof. Rajarshi Mahapatra
Dept. of ECE, GEU
Email: rajarshim@ieee.org
Cabin: ECE Dept.
Communication establishes with devices

within a coverage area
What is the coverage area/range?
Need a cellular concept
R. Mahapatra, GEU
Wireless Communication
Introduction of Cellular Concept
Need
The need to operate and grow indefinitely

within an allocation of hundred of channels has
been the primary driving force behind the
evolution of the cellular concept.
The concept was developed in 1947 at AT&T Bell
Laboratories.
First tests were conducted in 1962 for
commercial applications.
FCC finally set aside new radio frequencies for
land mobile communications in 1970.
Solves spectral congestion and user capacity

problems
Improve system capacity in a limited spectrum
without major technological changes
Reuse of radio channel (frequency) in different
cells
Enable a fix number of channels to serve an
arbitrarily large number of users by reusing
the channel throughout the coverage region
R. Mahapatra, GEU
R. Mahapatra, GEU
Basic Metrics
How
Channel (Frequency) Reuse
Instead of covering the whole area with one

transmitter (base station) of high power,
intelligent allocation and reuse of channels

throughout different coverage areas
Deploy multiple base stations of moderate (lower) power

Each base station (cite) covers some specific area.
which are separated from one another by sufficient

distances so that co-channel interference is not
objectionable
Each base station is assigned a portion of the total

number of channels, while
Co-channel interference
neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of

channels so that
Interference caused by transmissions on the same

channel (e.g. same frequency)
the interference between base stations (and mobile users) is

minimized.
Reuse distance
Spacing the base stations systematically and allocating

the channels appropriately results in minimizing the
co-channel interference.
minimum distance between two cells using same

channel for satisfactory signal to noise ratio
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Cell Shape
Cell Shape
Ideal
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint

and is determined from field measurement or propagation
prediction models
A real footprint is amorphous in nature
Hexagonal geometry cell shape

Closes to Circle
Designed to serve the weakest mobiles within the footprint
(typically located at the edge)
The hexagon has the largest area of the three regular shapes
Simplistic model, Universally adopted
Fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region
possible radio
Approximate circular shape
coverage of the cell
Due to wireless channel
A cell must be designed to serve the weakest signal in the

footprint
Regular shape
Square
Equilateral triangle and
Hexagonal
no gaps
no overlap
equal area
Adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without

leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions
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Geometry of a Hexagon
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cell
idealized
shape of the
cell
Base Station Location

Base station location:
At the center of the cell (Omni-directional antenna)
At the vertices of three cells (directional antennas)
WHY
Practical considerations usually do not allow base stations to be placed exactly

as they appear in the hexagonal layout (~1/4 cell radius away from the ideal
location)
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Frequency Reuse
System Capacity
Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels

within a small geographic area called a cell.
Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the
channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.
Keep interference levels within tolerable

limits.
Frequency reuse or frequency planning
The N cells which use the complete set of channels is called cluster.
The cluster can be repeated M times within the system. The total
number of channels, C, is used as a measure of capacity
R. Mahapatra, GEU
S kN
C MkN MS
seven groups of channel from A to G

footprint of a cell - actual radio coverage
omni-directional antenna v.s. directional
antenna
R. Mahapatra, GEU
Assume a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels.

Each cell is allocated a group of k channels,
The S channels are divided among N cells.
The total number of available radio channels
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The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication M.

The cluster size, N, is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12.
Small N is desirable to maximize capacity.
The frequency reuse factor is given by 1 / N
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Cluster Size
Cluster Size
There are only certain cluster sizes and cell layout which are
possible in order to connect without gaps between adjacent
cells
N = i2 + ij + j2 , where i and j are non-negative integers
Example i = 2, j = 1
N = 22 + 2(1) + 12 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
Cluster size 3
Typical Cluster Sizes

N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21
Cluster size 7
R. Mahapatra, GEU
Cell Of
Interest
13
First tier or
First layer
Second tier or
Second layer
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Cell Of
Interest
First tier or
First layer
Second tier or
Second layer
Third tier or
Third layer
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Third tier or
Third layer
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Interference
Co-channel Interference
Sources of interference
Frequency reuse: several cells use same set of frequencies
To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated by a

minimum distance, reuse distance.
When the size of the cell is approximately the same
co-channel interference is independent of the transmitted power
co-channel interference is a function of
R: Radius of the cell
D: distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell
Two major cellular interference
Increasing the ratio Q=D/R, the interference is reduced.

Q is called the co-channel reuse ratio
co-channel interference
adjacent channel interference
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co-channel cells
Produce co-channel interference
another mobile in same cell

other base stations operating in the same frequency
band
a call in progress in the neighboring cell
noncellular system leaks energy into the cellular
frequency band
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For a hexagonal Cell

Q
D
3N
R
Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The

signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver can
S
S
be expressed as
A small value of Q provides large capacity

A large value of Q improves the transmission quality smaller level of co-channel interference
A tradeoff must be made between these two objectives
i0
i 1
S: the desired signal power
I i : interference power caused by the ith interfering cochannel cell base station
The average received power at a distance d from the
transmitting antenna is napproximated by
d
Pr P0
d0
or
d
Pr (dBm) P0 (dBm) 10n log
d0
d0
P0 :measued power
TX
n is the path loss exponent which ranges between 2 and 4.

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When the transmission power of each base station is equal,

SIR for a mobile can be approximated as
For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the mobile

unit being at the cell boundary, the signal-to-interference
ratio for the worst case can be approximated as
i0
S
R 4
I 2( D R)4 ( D R / 2) 4 ( D R / 2)4 ( D R) 4 D 4
i 1
Consider only the first layer of interfering cells

S ( D / R) n
I
i0
3N
i0
i0 6
Example: AMPS requires that SIR be

greater than 18dB
N should be at least 6.49 for n=4.
Minimum cluster size is 7
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Adjacent Channel Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference
Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in frequency to

the desired signal.
Adjacent channel interference can be

minimized through careful filtering and
channel assignment.
Keep the frequency separation between each
channel in a given cell as large as possible
A channel separation greater than six is
needed to bring the adjacent channel
interference to an acceptable level.
Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the passband
Performance degrade seriously due to near-far effect.
receiving filter
response
signal on adjacent channel
signal on adjacent channel

desired signal
FILTER
interference
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R. Mahapatra, GEU
desired signal
interference
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Power Control for Reducing Interference
Trunking and Grade of Service
Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to maintain a

good quality link on the reverse channel
Erlangs: One Erlangs represents the amount of traffic density carried by a

channel that is completely occupied.
long battery life

increase SIR
solve the near-far problem
Ex: A radio channel that is occupied for 30 minutes during an hour carries 0.5
Erlangs of traffic.
Grade of Service (GOS): The likelihood that a call is blocked.

Each user generates a traffic intensity of
Erlangs given by
Au H
H: average duration of a call.
: average number of call requests per unit time
For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of channels,
the total offered traffic intensity A, is given by
A UAu
For C channel trunking system, the traffic intensity,
is given as
Ac UAu / C
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Handoff Strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in
progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station.
Handoff operation
identifying a new base station
re-allocating the voice and control channels with the new base station.
Handoff Threshold
Minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality (-90dBm to -100dBm)
Handoff margin Pr ,handoff Pr ,minimumusable cannot be too large or too small.
If is too large, unnecessary handoffs burden the MSC
If is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete handoff before
a call is lost.
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Handoff
Handoff measurement
Handoff must ensure that the drop in the measured signal is not due to
momentary fading and that the mobile is actually moving away from the
serving base station.
Running average measurement of signal strength should be optimized so
that unnecessary handoffs are avoided.
In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength

measurements are made by the base station and
supervised by the MSC.
In second generation systems (TDMA), handoff decisions
are mobile assisted, called mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)
Depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving

Steep short term average -> the hand off should be made quickly
The speed can be estimated from the statistics of the received short-term fading signal at the base
station
Intersystem handoff: If a mobile moves from one

cellular system to a different cellular system controlled
by a different MSC.
Handoff requests is much important than handling a
new call.
Dwell time: the time over which a call may be maintained within a cell
without handoff.
Dwell time depends on
Propagation
Interference
Distance
speed
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20-09-2012
Practical Handoff Consideration
Umbrella Cell
Different type of users

High speed users need frequent handoff during a call.
Low speed users may never need a handoff during a call.
Microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can become burdened if high

speed users are constantly being passed between very small cells.
Minimize handoff intervention
handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed and low speed users.
Large and small cells can be located at a single location (umbrella cell)
different antenna height
different power level
Cell dragging problem: pedestrian users provide a very strong signal to the
base station
The user may travel deep within a neighboring cell
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Handoff
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
Handoff for first generation analog cellular systems
Methods for improving capacity in cellular systems
10 secs handoff time

is in the order of 6 dB to 12 dB
Cell Splitting: subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells.

Sectoring: directional antennas to control the interference and frequency
reuse.
Coverage zone : Distributing the coverage of a cell and extends the cell
boundary to hard-to-reach place
Handoff for second generation cellular systems, e.g., GSM

1 to 2 seconds handoff time
mobile assists handoff
is in the order of 0 dB to 6 dB
Handoff decisions based on signal strength, co-channel interference, and
adjacent channel interference.
IS-95 CDMA spread spectrum cellular system

Mobiles share the channel in every cell.
No physical change of channel during handoff
MSC decides the base station with the best receiving signal as the service
station
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Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting
Split congested cell into smaller cells.
Illustration of cell splitting within a 3 km by 3

km square
Preserve frequency reuse plan.

Reduce transmission
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Reduce R to R/2
microcell
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20-09-2012
Cell Splitting
Sectoring
Transmission power reduction from Pt1 to Pt 2

Examining the receiving power at the new and old cell boundary
Decrease the co-channel interference and keep the cell radius R

unchanged
Replacing single omni-directional antenna by several directional antennas
Radiating within a specified sector
Pr [at old cell boundary] Pt1R n

Pr [at new cell boundary ] Pt 2 ( R / 2) n
If we take n = 4 and set the received power equal to each other
Pt 2
Pt1
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The transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the original

coverage area.
Problem: if only part of the cells are splited
Different cell sizes will exist simultaneously
Handoff issues - high speed and low speed traffic can be simultaneously
accommodated
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Interference Reduction
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Microcell Zone Concept

Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell
Any channel may be assigned to any zone by the base
station
Mobile is served by the zone with the strongest signal.
position of the
mobile
Handoff within a cell

No channel re-assignment
Switch the channel to a
different zone site
interference cells
Reduce interference
Low power transmitters are
employed
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R. Mahapatra, GEU

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20-09-2012

Wireless Communication: Cellular

Base station & Mobile

Communication establishes with devices

Introduction of Cellular Concept

The need to operate and grow indefinitely

Solves spectral congestion and user capacity

Channel (Frequency) Reuse

Instead of covering the whole area with one

intelligent allocation and reuse of channels

Deploy multiple base stations of moderate (lower) power

which are separated from one another by sufficient

Each base station is assigned a portion of the total

neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of

Interference caused by transmissions on the same

the interference between base stations (and mobile users) is

Spacing the base stations systematically and allocating

minimum distance between two cells using same

The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint

Hexagonal geometry cell shape

Due to wireless channel

A cell must be designed to serve the weakest signal in the

Adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without

Base Station Location

Practical considerations usually do not allow base stations to be placed exactly

Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels

Keep interference levels within tolerable

seven groups of channel from A to G

Assume a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels.

The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication M.

Typical Cluster Sizes

Frequency reuse: several cells use same set of frequencies

To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated by a

Two major cellular interference

Increasing the ratio Q=D/R, the interference is reduced.

another mobile in same cell

For a hexagonal Cell

Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The

A small value of Q provides large capacity

n is the path loss exponent which ranges between 2 and 4.

When the transmission power of each base station is equal,

For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the mobile

Consider only the first layer of interfering cells

Example: AMPS requires that SIR be

Adjacent Channel Interference

Adjacent Channel Interference

Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in frequency to

Adjacent channel interference can be

signal on adjacent channel

Power Control for Reducing Interference

Trunking and Grade of Service

Ensure each mobile transmits the smallest power necessary to maintain a

Erlangs: One Erlangs represents the amount of traffic density carried by a

long battery life

Grade of Service (GOS): The likelihood that a call is blocked.

In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength

Depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving

Intersystem handoff: If a mobile moves from one

Practical Handoff Consideration

Different type of users

Microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can become burdened if high

Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems