. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............

Memory, Learning and

Retention

.................................................

TOPIC 2

TOPIC 1

TOPIC

Learning and Cognition

Memory,
Learning and
Retention

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

32

Distinguish views on learning from a Behaviourist and Cognitive point of view.

Compare and contrast between classical conditioning, operant conditioning
and social learning.
Differentiate the types of memory by its location and function.
Describe the methods to improve our memory.
Explain the causes of memory loss.

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

2.0 I N T R O D U C T I O N
What is it that makes us human unique? It is our abilities to learn and
encode information that can be modified and retrieved for later use. These
human capacities have made us the dominant species for centuries. Professor
Kandel, a Nobel Prize recipient for his research into learning and memory,
differentiated these two vital faculties by drawing upon this distinction:
Learning is how you acquire new information about the world, and memory
is how you store that information over time.

2.1 L E A R N I N G
According to Plotnik et. al, (2011), Learning is a relatively enduring or
permanent change in behaviour or knowledge that results from previ- ous
experience with certain stimuli and responses. The term behaviour includes
any observable response (fainting, salivating, and vomiting).
Learning is a highly complex and dynamic process that involves cognitive,
motor and affective components which is commonly known as the KSA
domains. Cognitive domain includes the different level of mental development
where each level requires mastery of knowledge, comprehension, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation. The motor domain is involved with movements,
coordination and application of motion to tasks. The affective domain deals
with our feelings, emotions, attitude and perceptions.
The study of mental processes has given rise to cognitive psychology that
emphasizes on how cognitive processes like how people think, perceive,
remember and learn. In the 1950s, researchers and psycholo- gists were
very much influenced by Behaviourism, a dominant school of thought in
that century on the theories of learning.
In later years, its dominance was overshadowed by a group of cognitive
psychologists called the Gestaltists. This was the beginning of the cognitive
revolution with focused on the study of attention, memory, thinking and
problem solving. We will discuss next learning theories from both the
Behaviourist and Cognitive perspectives.

33

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

2.2 B E H AV I O U R I S M
Behaviorism is generally understood to refer to the school of psychology
started by J.B. Watson. These psychologists believe in behaviors being
shaped by stimulus-response principles. The behaviorists assumed that
behaviors can be measured, altered and trained. This school of thought
developed a theory of learning based on the idea of conditioning.
Conditioning happens through interaction with our environment.
It is our responses to the external stimuli that help shapes our behaviors.
The behaviorists were interested in observable behaviors and totally
ignored internal mental processes. Thus cognitive processes like thinking,
emotions and attitude were considered too abstract to be considered in
their experiments.

2.2.1

The Rise of Behaviourism

Famous advocates of behaviourism include Ivan Pavlov (Classical

Condi- tioning), J.B. Watson (Connectism), B.F. Skinner (Operant
Conditioning), E.L. Thorndike, Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory) and
Tolman. The earlier part of the last century had seen some of the most
progressive development of the behaviourist theories starting with
Watsons work.
The behaviourists do not subscribe to what cannot be seen and embraced
only observed traits and characteristics. In the 1940s and 1950s it
enjoyed immense popularity in experimental psychology. Why is it so
attractive? Three reasons probably stand out in trying to explain its
huge popularity i.e.
1) Psychological problems are defined,
2) Systematic treatment plans are essential towards mental health, and,
3) Progress is measurable.
The behaviourist theories of human and animal behaviours were closely
linked to their idea of stimulus-response principles and the influence
of individual experiences. These theories were used to explain complex
behaviours such as learning.

34

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

For behaviourism to be acceptable among psychologists, the behaviourists

must be able to explain how learning happens. Behaviourists were wellknown for their empirical studies on how non-humans like rat, dog or
mice learn. They believed that their research findings with animals are
also applicable to human learning. In the later part of this topic we will
look at this aspect of learning.

2.2.2

The Assumptions of Behaviourism

Behaviourists make some basic assumptions when developing their

theories. One of which was the idea of determinism. In the world of cause
and effect, behaviour (the effect) must be due to some reason (cause).
This means that all our behaviours are learned. What we learned can be
unlearned. Thus the goal of behaviourism is to determine more detailed
laws of behaviours (Kalat, 2011). Another assumption con- cerns the
behaviourists belief in the ineffectiveness of our mental explanations.
They do not belief in what they do not see. It is con- sidered
unscientific to infer from what may be there when there is no observable
evidence that it is there.
Finally they hypothesized that environment influence behaviours. This
is taken to mean the outcome affects the regularity of occurrences of the
behaviours in future.

2.2.3

Behaviourist Perspective of Learning

Behaviourists are concerned with observable and measurable aspects

of behaviours (Standridge, 2002). Watsons studies were very much
influenced by the work of Pavlov with classical conditioning.
Watsons theories were further developed by Thorndike and Skinner
based on the principles of operant conditioning. The next section will
give an in-depth treatment of these two learning approaches.
Classical Conditioning
Plotnik et al. (2011) defined classical conditioning as a kind of learning
in which a stimulus when repeatedly used can produce a response
that was originally produced by a different stimulus. This important

35

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

discovery comes from the famous dog and bell experiment by Pavlov
on its digestive process and salivation. In normal circumstances, when
food is put into our mouth we will salivate before eating.
This is what Pavlov did in his famous experiment. He rang the bell each
time he put food into the dogs mouth. The dog salivated when it was
feed. He repeated the procedure many times. After that, he rang the bell
without putting food in and found that the dog had salivated. This is
known as conditioned reflex. Sound of bell is paired with food. Food
is paired with saliva. After repeated trials, sound of bell is paired with
saliva. The dog had learned that when the bell rang, saliva flowed. The
process of conditioned reflex is show below.
1. Food (unconditioned stimulus) = salivation (unconditioned response)
2. Food + Bell (conditioned stimulus) = salivation (unconditioned response)
3. Bell alone (conditioned stimulus) produces salivation (conditioned
response) (Standridge, 2002)

In Pavlovs terms, the food is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and
the salivation is known as unconditioned response (UCR). UCS is paired
with a neutral stimulus (bell) repeatedly. The bell now becomes the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and when salivation occurs without food then
salivation is known as conditioned response (CR).
There are many examples of classical conditioning in our everyday life
like feeling anxiety on hearing the dentists drilling tool or feeling
nervous on seeing the doctors injection needle. Other examples would be
like if you are bitten by a dog, the next time you see another dog you
feel afraid or you had a bad experience taking an air flight recently.
The next time the mere thought of going up the plane causes you anxiety.
For each of the scenario described above, can you identify which is the
conditioned stimulus and which is the conditioned response?
Explanations of Classical Conditioning
According to Plotnik et al. (2011), there are three theories that try to

36

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

explain the mechanism of conditioning. Let us use Pavlovs experiment

as the basis for our explanations.
1) Stimulus Substitution Theory by Pavlov tried to explain the phenomenon
from an association perspective. An association between the neutral
stimulus (the bell) and food (unconditioned stimulus) is perceived by the
dog. After many repetitions, the dog has been conditioned or learned to
associate the bell (conditioned stimulus) with food. The next time the bell
(conditioned stimulus) is rung; saliva (conditioned response) flows. The
effect is similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus.

This theory came under criticism because of some lapses in its explanation.
Scientists found that the responses due to the unconditioned stimulus and
conditioned stimulus vary. Zener (1937) discovered that following the
unconditioned stimulus, the dog salivated and chewed but after conditioned
stimulus, the dog salivated but did not chew. Researchers later put forth
another theory called the Contiguity Theory to explain the phenomenon.

2) This theory states that when two different stimuli (food and bell) are paired
close together in time (contiguous), the bell changed to a conditioned
stimuli and brings about the same effect as the food. This effect is the
same as buying and eating pizza. The mere sight of the pizza causes us to
salivate because buying and eating are two stimuli occurring close in time.
In time, this explanation too did not satisfy researchers and psychologists.
3) Rescorla (1996) found out that association does not necessary occur
when stimuli are paired closely in time. He hypothesized that classical
conditioning still occurred because the neutral stimulus (bell) contains
information on what is to come next.

The dog has information now that once the bell is rung, food would
soon be coming. This expectation is what motivates the dog to salivate.
This is the Cognitive Perspective Theory. Currently there is widespread
support for this theory (Plotnik et. Al, 2011). This perspective stressed that
for conditioning to happen, the neutral stimulus (bell) must occur shortly
before the unconditioned stimulus (food). Interestingly enough, what if
the reverse happens? This theory states that reversing the sequence which
is known as backward conditioning, does not usually result in classical
conditioning.

37

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

Other Classical Conditioning Concepts

Pavlov experiment became the main research method for researchers to
study phenomena of classical conditioning associated with changes done
to the research procedure. Kalat (2011) listed four important concepts.
a) Extinction
A conditioned response (salivation) can be eliminated or extinguished by
repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (bell) by itself that is without
the unconditioned stimulus (food). After a few times, ringing of the bell
does not cause the dog to salivate.
b) Spontaneous recovery
On the other hand, when the conditioned stimuli (bell) have not been
presented for some times after extinction, suddenly you decide to ring he
bell what do you think will happen to the dog? The conditioned response
(salivate) may return. If this happens then we said that spontaneous
recovery has occurred. In other word, this term refers to a temporary
return of the conditioned response after some delay.
c) Stimulus generalization
We sometimes generalized our response to a new stimulus that appears
similar to the stimulus that has conditioned us to response in a particular
manner. If you had been stung by a bee, seeing a wasp or hornet can
evoke the same feeling of pain as the bee. This general- ization of a conditioned
response to the bee, wasp or hornet is called stimulus generalization.
d) Discrimination
We normally respond differently to the same stimuli under different
circumstances. The ringing of our alarm clock wakes us up but we
react slowly to this stimulus. We react differently to the ringing of our
building s fire alarm. We immediately jump up and flee. The ability
of our brain to respond differently to the same stimuli that predicts
different outcomes is called discrimination (Kalat, 2011).

38

Memory, Learning and Retention

2.3

TOPIC 2

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Our learning is not only guided by classical conditioning but there is an

even more powerful way of conditioning us to learn. This approach to
learning is referred to as operant conditioning that says that our present
behaviours coupled with reinforcement or punishment can influence our
future behaviours.
Operant conditioning involves the probability of occurrence of a particular
behaviour as a consequence of some forms of reinforcement or punishment
implemented.
Thorndike was a pioneer in studying how operant conditioning oper- ates
and modifies our behaviours. He is credited with the Law of Effect. The
law states that behaviours that are reinforced are more likely to re- appear
in future while behaviours that lead to punishment are less likely to occur
again.
The following terms are relevant to understanding operant con- ditioning.
a) Operant An action that produces an effect on the same environment
from where the action was initiated.
b) Reinforcement A follow up event after the occurrence of a behavior
that is aimed at increasing the probability of the behavior s reoccurrence.
Positive reinforcement increases the probability by rewarding positive
behaviors while negative reinforcement in- creases the probability through
the use of avoidance and escape.
c) Punishment A follow up event after the occurrence of a behavior
that is aimed at decreasing the probability of the behaviors reoccurrence.
A positive punishment decreases the probability by introducing unpleasant
things or actions while a negative punishment decreases the probability by
taking away pleasant things or actions.

39

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

The examples below show clearly the differences.

2.3.1 Categories of Operant Conditioning

Figure 2.0: The four categories of operant conditioning (Kalat, 2011)

2.4
SKINNER AND THE SHAPING OF
RESPONSES
B.F. Skinner is the foremost radical behaviourist of the century following
the traditions of Thorndikes operant conditioning. In his years of work
and research, he contributed enormously towards our understanding of
behaviours and learning. He designed experiments that became standard
methods for researchers.
One major contribution is his way of operationalize the term response.
Since the measuring of an overt behaviour like a human response is rather
difficult, he decided to use animal response that would greatly reduce
the complexities of the measurement. Using this approach he was able to
parsimoniously define response as one that produces the clearest result.
Once this was established as a verifiable and accurate term, he could now
experiment with the shaping of his laboratory animals behaviours.

40

Memory, Learning and Retention

2.4.1

TOPIC 2

Shaping Behaviour

Circus animals are well- trained performers that follow the orders of their
trainers. How do they do it? To shape the behaviour of human and nonhumans the trainer has to do it in stages. Skinner showed how he trained
a rat to push a lever or got a pigeon to peck at keys. This was done
through shaping which means establishing a new response by reinforcing
successive approximations to it (Kalat, 2011). The tech- niques that
Skinner used were known as chaining behaviour and reinforcement
schedules.
Chaining behaviour is a slow process of progressive behavioural changes
aimed at achieving the targeted behaviour so desired by the experimenter.
When giving out reinforcement, Skinner used different schedules to
maintain and control behaviors. In his study of the schedule he developed
a brilliant method to record responses of the animals that includes the
use of the now famous Skinner box.
According to Plotnik et al. (2011) a schedule of reinforcement is a program
or rule that determines how and when an occurrence of a response will
be rewarded or punished. There are generally two schedules of reinforcement continuous and partial. Continuous schedule means that every
time there is an operant response, a reinforcer is given out. We use this
schedule if we are interested in rapid learning of a particular behavior.
On the other hand a partial reinforcement means that reinforcers are
given intermittently with fixed or variable intervals. Partial reinforcement
can be classified as fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval and variable
interval.

2.4.2

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning has many applications. We will discuss only three

applications of interest.
a) Behaviour modification
A psychologist employs the principles of operant conditioning through
the use of reinforcements and punishments to eliminate undesirable
behaviours. One of the more successful treatment programs using this

41

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

approach was the treatment and therapy of young Autistic children and
Attention Deficit Disorder children.
b) Animal training
We had seen how Skinner managed to train his lab animals to do some
tricks. This is the same method used by circus trainers. They begin with
simple movements and gradually shape the animals to perform more
tricky performances. They usually rely upon positive reinforcement and
rarely resort to violence or punishment.
c) The Art of Persuasion
We can change and shape the way a person think and act through the art
of persuasion. We do not need to use force we only need reinforcements.
This was how governments win propaganda wars through daily usage of
reinforcements.

2.5

SOCIAL LEARNING

We have seen in the earlier part of the topic how behaviourists view learning.
A more popular view to learning in recent years is known as cognitive
learning. Proponents of this approach are interested in learning processes
involving cognitive skills like recall, observation, imitation, reasoning,
judgement and problem solving. They propose that such learning does
not necessarily involve rewards and punishments as commonly used by
behaviourists to invoke learning.
The roots for this view started with psychologists like Wundt in the late
1800s and Tolman in the 1930s. It was heavily criticised by Skinner but
saw resurgence in the 1960s onwards. In this section we will look at one
particular type of cognitive learning better known as social cognitive
learning or in short social learning by Albert Bandura.
Social learning happens when we watch, imitate, and model what others
do without the need for external incentives. This theory believes that we
learn in a social context and any social behaviour we developed come
from our observations and imitations of those we come into contact

42

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

directly or indirectly.
This theory develops along behaviourist line of thinking but differentiate
itself in one important aspect. Behaviourists are of the opinion that
behaviours and learning are directly linked but social learning theorists
opined that all learning processes can by modified by cognition. There is
an emphasis on the power of social rewards and punishments including
vicarious reinforcements and modelling, independent of physical
reinforcements and punishments. This theory believes that an individuals
behaviour is influenced by his/her environment and personal characteristics.
Bandura proposed that four steps are involved when we model a
particular behaviour attention, memory, imitation and motivation (Plotnik
et. al, 2011).
Attention the learner pays attention to what the model says or does as
well as to the features of the modelled behaviour.
Memory the learner must store the information to be retrieved and
reproduced later.
Imitation the learner will use the retrieved information to guide his/
her actions as he/she tries to imitate the models behaviour. This process
improves with practice.
Motivation this is the driving force behind the reason why a learner is
willing to engage in imitating this behaviour. Without motivation, probably
learning will not occur. Motivation can come in the form of simple gestures
like touch, approving look, empathy, facial expression, smile, or attention.

2.6 M E M O R Y
Learning and memory are complex but necessary cognitive functions that
make us human and at the same time unique. Memory is everything. If
you do not have memory you do not have anything. Our brain processes
millions of data each second and stores them away in the form of useful
information. Our brain keeps evolving and changing every second as we
learn and take in new information. Where then are these in- formation

43

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

kept and for how long?

Memory is the ability to retain information over time through three
processes encoding, storing and retrieving. Encoding is the process of
making mental images of the information so that we can keep in our
memories. Storing is where we put our encoded information in locations
where we can retrieve when needed.
Retrieving is the process of recalling that information from our short- term
or long-term storage (Plotnik et.al, 2011).
The next section gives us an idea of where and how long our memories
are stored.

2.6.1

Types of Memory

The human memory consists of three major types sensory memory, shortterm memory and long-term memory (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Types of Memory (Plotnik et.al, 2011)

44

Memory, Learning and Retention

2.6.2

TOPIC 2

Sensory Memory

This memory has been likened to a video recorder that automatically record
and hold sensory information for a very brief time (from an instant to a
few seconds) for you to decide whether you want to pay attention or just
ignore it. It acts as a buffer for our senses. Scientists have identified two
types of sensory memory iconic and echoic memories.
Iconic memory
but as soon as
echoic memory
the information
memory.

hold visual information for a very brief period of time

you stop paying attention to it, then it disappears while
holds auditory information for one to two seconds. Once
is given attention, it is passed from her e to the short-term

In addition, the sensory memory serves the following functions:

1) It serves as a stimuli filter so that we are not overwhelmed by an influx

of sensory stimuli bombarding us from outside.
2) It serves as a buffer to give us time to decide accept or reject the stimuli.
3) Finally it serves to provide stability, playback, and recognition (Plotnik, et.
al, 2011).

2.6.3

Short-term Memory (STM)

Sometimes called active or primary memory, the short-term memory is the

ability of this storage to hold small amount of information in an active
and easily retrievable form for just a short period. This type of memory is
characterized by its duration and capacity.
According to Plotnik et.al, (2011) the duration has been quoted to be between
2 to 30 seconds. Afterwards the information decays over time. However
researchers had shown that we could keep the information there longer
through the technique of maintenance rehearsal. It refers to the intentional
rehearsal or repetition of the elements of information we want to commit
to the short term memory. It has been reported that with rehearsal
information can be kept for another 15-20 seconds.

45

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

At the end this piece of information will disappear when we stop repeating
it unless we move it to the long-term memory. Our primary memory has
limited capacity to store information too. A commonly quoted storage
capacity is 7 plus minus 2 items. It has been shown that the exact capacity
of short-term memory is very difficult to determine as it varies according
to the kinds of materials we are handling.
Chunking can also help in storing more information within the capacity
of the primary memory storage. Chunking means grouping individual
elements into meaningful patterns or clusters.

2.6.4
Difference Between Short-term Memory and Working
Memory
Short-term memory is distinct from working memory (Kalat, 2011). Working
memory refers to structures and processes used for temporar- ily storing
and manipulating information. One significant difference is that working
memory is the information you are using does not have to be new and it
does not have to be on the way to the long-term memory.
Working memory has been hypothesized to contain two components
a phonological loop and a visuospatial sketchpad. The loop stores and
rehearses speech information and the sketchpad temporarily keeps and
retrieves visual and spatial information (Kalat, 2011).

2.6.5

Long-term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory on the other hand, contains a seemingly unlimited capacity

for storing an indefinite amount of information. It is where established
relationships among the elements of information are stored. According to
the dual-store memory theory by Atkinson and Shiffrin, information can
be stored indefinitely in the long-term memory. LTM is crucial for
functioning of cognition.
The process of storing information here can be divided into three stages
encoding, storage and retrieval. It has been found that the longer an
item is able to stay in STM through rehearsing, the stronger the associations
of items and thus allow them to stay longer in LTM. The transfer of
information from STM to LTM is known as consolidation. It is interesting
to note that the brain does not keep all the memories in one location.

46

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

Take for example, declarative and procedural memories are two types
of LTM and they are located at different parts of the brain. Declarative
memory involves memories of facts and events and is hypothesized to
be found in the temporal cortex. Declarative memory is divided into two
kinds episodic and semantic (see Fig. 2.2). Episodic memory concerns with
events or experiences while semantic memory is related to the storage of
facts, concepts, rules, words etc. Apart from declarative memory, LTM
has what is known as procedural memory. This type of memory is
concerned with skills and emotions. Procedural memory is presumed to be
located in the cerebellum.
Process of storing information in LTM
The self-explaining figure below illustrates the process by which new
information is being encoded, rehearsed and retrieved using the Information
Processing Model by Atkinson and Shiffrin.

Figure 2.2: The Information Processing model (Kalat, 2011)

47

TOPIC 1

2.6.6

Learning and Cognition

Locations of Our Memory in the Brain

There have been many studies into locating the exact parts where the
different kinds of memories reside. Recent findings indicate that our
cortex stores the short-term memories as well as long-term memories;
our hippocampus transfers or saves declarative information in long-term
memory but does not transfer procedural information into long- term
memory; and the amygdala adds emotional content to positive and negative
memories (Tulving & Craik, 2005).

2.7

MEMORY IMPROVEMENT

You may have read about memory techniques/courses in advertisements

claiming to improve your memory power many folds after following
these courses. Successful methods/approaches utilize r esearch findings
from the many psychological studies on memory.
Let us look at some ways to improve our memory.
1) Levels of Processing Principle
One good way to make sure you remember your stuff is not simply
repeating the long list of words you want to commit to your memory. How
easily you can retrieve them from LTM really depends on the number of
words and the associations you form. The table below by Kalat, (2011)
explains well how information can best be remembered.

Table 2.0: The levels of processing information (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

48

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

2) Encoding Specificity
At the encoding stage it is important that you pay attention when forming
associations. Those associations that you made at the time of learning will
be the most easily retrievable cues later. This principle also states that if
you want to memorize something at a particular time and place, and then
make the study conditions similar to the conditions when you try to remember.
In general, if you want to remember some materials always then vary
your study habits (Kalat, 2011).
3) The timing of your study schedule
You may have learnt from your experience with taking test or examination.
Studying your entire test materials at one go is really bad. If you want to
remember something a week after you had learned it, it is better to review
the material again a day later. To remember a month later, then review
after 11 days later. To remember a year later, review it in 3 weeks intervals.
Furthermore Kalat (2011) was of the opinion that one can get the best result
by alternating the review with self-test as he said that a test forces you to
generate the material instead of passively reading it.
4) The SPAR method
Survey(S), Process (P), Ask (A) and Review(R) method is a systematic way
to plan your study. Survey step requires the learner to scan through the
materials to memorize. Next the materials must be process or learn
meaningfully. Following that, ask questions or cre- ate your own questions
and try answering them. Finally review the materials a day or two later.
5) Use of Mnemonic Devices
We all had some experience with using some forms of these devices at one
time or another especially when we are required to memorize a long list
of terms or facts. A mnemonic device is an aid that relies on encoding
each item in a special way (Kalat, 2011). You may find remembering the
colours of the rainbow to be perplexing sometimes. One way is to use the
device Richard O York Gains Battle In Vane R(red)ichard O(orange)f
Y(yellow)ork G(green)ains B(blue)attle I(indigo)n V(violet)ane.

49

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

6) Chunking as we had seen in the previous section is one of the oldest

methods and an effective one. If you are required to remember a long
telephone number like +60136033155, it would be easier to remember if you
separate the list into chunks like +60 13 603 31 55 (+60 is the country code
for Malaysia, 13 is the service provider and the rest has been grouped into
easier memorisable chunks).

2.8

MEMORY LOSS

Memory loss or amnesia is a serious form of forgetfulness. It is indicated

by inability to remember new events or recall memories. In the normal
process of aging, forgetfulness is natural but when it leads to dramatic loss
it is not normal anymore. Memory loss can be permanent or temporary.
Memory loss (amnesia) is unusual forgetfulness. You may not be able to
remember new events, recall one or more memories of the past, or both.
Normal aging causes some degree of forgetfulness. Its normal to have
some trouble learning new material, or needing more time to remember
it. However, normal aging does NOT lead to dramatic memory loss. Such
memory loss is due to other diseases.
Sometimes, memory loss may be seen with depression. It can be hard to
tell the difference between memory loss and confusion due to depression.
Some types of memory loss may cause you to forget recent or new events,
past or remote events, or both. You may forget memories from a single
event, or all events. Memory loss may cause you to have trouble learning
new information or forming new memories.
The memory loss may be temporary (transient), or permanent. The causes
of memory loss have been traced to drug use, addiction, lack of oxygen
to the brain, brain growths, brain infections, aftereffects of brain surgery,
cancer treatments, dementia, depressions, Alzheimers disease, epilepsy
or certain forms of medications or seizures, mild concussion or head
injuries due to hard knocks and permanent head injuries or damages.
Let us look at some forms of amnesia as discussed by Kalat (2011).

50

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

1) Amnesia after damage to our hippocampus

One of the functions of the hippocampus is to bind the disjointed details
and segments of an event into a meaningful whole. Once it is damaged
the person will have difficulties storing long-term declarative memories
especially episodic memory. It is still able to retain normal short-term
procedural memories.
2) Amnesia due to damage to the prefrontal cortex
The prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus keep close communica- tion with
one another. In fact massive output from the hippocampus is passed to the
prefrontal cortex. Thus any damage done to this portion of cortex greatly
inhibits the functions of the hippocampus as stimuli cannot travel through
this part. The symptoms of amnesia are thus similar to that of damage to
the hippocampus. Apart from that, victims of this type of amnesia also
suffer from confabulations i.e. giving wrong answers with great confidence
not knowing that the answers were actually wrong.
3) Amnesia due to Alzheimers disease
Alzheimers disease is characterised by severe memory loss, confu- sion,
depression, disordered thinking and impaired attention. The patients have
problems with declarative memory although procedural memory is more
intact.
4) Infant Amnesia
How much of our childhood memories can we accurately retrieve? This
lack of childhood memories especially of our episodic memories is called
infant amnesia. Conversely, studies have shown that preschoolers can
clearly recollect their experiences months or even years ago. No conclusive
evidence has been forthcoming to explain this phenomenon.

51

TOPIC 1

Learning and Cognition

2.9
T H E FA L S E M E M O R Y
CONTROVERSY
There are times we just find it difficult to remember something but it comes
back to us later. The memory is not totally lost but just that there were
some interference or the retrieval cues were not there, we cannot recover
that piece of memory. If we really cannot recall, can a hyp- notist help in
remembering? This type of therapy has been used to help people recover
lost memories especially those that are related to traumatic and unpleasant
events or experiences. Are these recovered memories accurate and reliable?
There is much controversy over recovered memory and false memory.
According to Kalat (2011), recovered memories are reports of long-lost
memories, prompted by clinical techniques while false memories are formed
through feeding suggestions to induce the person under hypnosis to distort
his/her memories or report events that did not happen.
According to Loftus (2003), there are cases of recovered memories being
accurate but she still doubt the accuracy that it can be generalized to all
cases.

EXERCISE 2.0
1. Jack was given a RM200 driving summons for passing a red light at a traffic
junction.
I. Is the event of issuing a summons by the police a classical or operant
conditioning?
II. What are the behaviours involved in this whole episode?
III. Will the punishment increase or decrease the recurrence of the episode? Give a
reason.
2. Describe three major differences between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.
3. List the four categories of reinforcements and punishments according to operant
conditioning theory. For each category give an example.

52

Memory, Learning and Retention

TOPIC 2

4. We learn social manners by observing. Using the social cognitive learning theory,
explain how we acquire these manners.
5. We have different types of memories. List the major differences between sensory
memory, short-term and long-term memory.
6. How do we improve our memory? Give three examples that you may have used
before.
7. There have been many controversies over the accuracy of re- covered memories
and the implanting of false memories. Give your opinion on these issues and
supply evidence to support your contention.
8) Why do human fear death? Use the theory of death management to explain this
phenomenon.

53