I

THE

BALKAN

'

1'

QUESTION

THE
BALKAN
THE

QUESTION

PRESENT
AND

OF

CONDITION

VARIOUS

EDITED

BY

NEW
E.

P.

DUTTON

THE

RESPONSIBILITIES.

EUROPEAN
BY

OF

WRITERS

LUIGI

VILLARI

YORK
AND
1905

COMPANY

BALKANS

37f-

"

Printed

Great

in

Britain.

PREFACE

The

of

idea

the

of
when

1903,

those

of

volume

terrible

The

concern.

and

The

the

of

resources

strained,

while

afraid

that

reaUy

be

the

the

Powers,

than

prominent
and
in

events

of

it

the

same

the

Far

East

Europe
as

with

have

severely
are

might

them,
if

energy,

they
has

This

less

months

eighteen
the

exciting

more

the

distracted

from
not

waste,

Question

time

even

for

one

laid

work.

have

Near

moment

of

some

some

was

still

the

Macedonian

at

]Symptoms

or

one

by

of

insurgents

accustomed
the

keep

to

of

feature

been

for

act

to

their

helped

the

of

autumn

scene

is

has

Turks

moved

recommend

situation

country

quence
conse-

accompanied

periodical

the

the

was

are

history.

great

of

events

in

arose

devastations,

which

Eastern

first

Macedonia
wholesale

massacre,

ago;

this

such

been

tion
atten-

significant
in

absent

the

Balkans.
But
means

their

the
solved.

hands,

eternal

Eastern

Both

owing

parties
to

is

problem
are

circumstances

no

staying

merely
of

by

purely

PREFACE

vi

will

faced

be

soon

phase

make

and

their

danger

watch

keep
and

and

have

means

the

Western

Italy

extension

military States,
Powers"

their

preparing
the

Russia"

the

for

way

besides

shall

being

the

danger

Liberal

While
the

Western
the

press,

interchange
Powers
another
nearer,

the

of

and

weary
we

must

"interested
been

ing
pursu-

conquest,

be

balance

has

of

been

when

Such

quests,
con-

to

great

the
and

and
power,^

to

passing through

happened beyond

diplomatic

the

great

nations.

book

little has

the

distasteful

would

the

to

face,

to

difficulty.

of

arrive.

most

populations concerned,
serious

should

avoiding any,'

have

territorial

moment

opportune

most

of/pure selfishness,and

policy

own

in

so-called

two

and

that

England, France,

"

influence

and

is

prepared

solving the

Powers

the

Austria

"

be

of

of the power

it

events,

clearlyinterested

are

"

all

at

and

ward,

some

Although
and

England,

that

necessary

responsibihty

and

ever,

as

respite

this

and
responsibility

that

great

as

their

forget

terrible

more

is risk that

There

danger, but

are

and

another

Powers

the

public opinion

European

by

crisis.

of the

may

and

nature,

temporary

Porte,

period

of

hope,

constant

between

notes

and

the

addition

the
of

procrastination,
bringing
the

apparently inexhaustible

final

reckoning,when

patience

of

Europe

PREFACE

will be
October

Civil

advice,
hero

the

of

same

Assessor

the

Hilmi

who

stUl
the

of

the

of

remodelling

It

the

De

Giorgis,the

twenty-fiveofficers

and

their

reached

designed by

the

Turkish

but

pay,

this the
Since

Porte

then

with

has

the

Russian

officers at

is

their

said,
own

additions, but

recognise any
the

Ambassadors

Civil Assessors

himself,

and

executive

when

receiving

power;
to

constant

for

"

grant.

effort

Austrian

to

and

which

of

two
an

upon
had

and

donning

reached

their

making shght

steadily refuses
As

newcomers.

of the

based

also

are

Porte

these

had

they

Powers

the
of

uniform,

length arrived, smuggled in,

in clear contradiction

memorandum

Turkish

that

1904,

subordinates,

private individuals,

other

sufficient

Commandant,

Additional

uniforms

posts. The

May,

any
a

been

number.

as

in

no

merie
gendar-

obstinatelyrefused

has

increase

it

without

Sultan

there

till
Itahan

clad

posts

It

officers, deputed

not

was

the

Macedonia.

governs

non-commissioned

powers.

General

their best

Pasha, the

by sixty foreign officers,and

by

unspeakable "pacification"of

included

number

and

assist vidth

to

dated

Austrian

an

Inspector General,

year,

also

Miirzsteg Scheme,

provided

1903,

Russian

The

out.

worn

vii

mandatory

to

result,

Powers,

worded
optimistically
the

reports

of

the

alreadyappeared,have

PREFACE

viii

several

presented
to

the

These

sense

opposition
which

the

five

with

the

of

notes

consequences,"

serious

question de

whole

the

raising of

persistent

that

addition

the

in

concerned,

verbally explained

been

tive
collec-

familiar

the

Powers

"

plunged.

is

country

by

entail

would

have

the

followed

been

calling attention

notes,

which

in

anarchy
have

same

joint

and

novo

the

as

new

measures.

So

familiar, half-comic, wholly

Powers
The

Miirzsteg

farce.

Scheme

could

It

is not

Civil Assessors

very

regime (the Turkish)

the reader

is not

was
principle

is

in

ever

that

foUow

expectation that

on

convinced

the

would

is to

be

fulfilment
other

new

If, and

it
fulfilled,
some

measures

thought

principle which

should

the

that
be

it

within, the

in vain.
be

as

The

good

as

if the

Scheme

bands

inactive

when, that
well

were

the

If

belief that

from

Powers

fortunately kept
1904.

the

written

that

fallacious

more

been

failed

throughout

no

than

and

has

of

basis."

modern

their word

take

failure,but

memorandum

reform

to

have

the

that

cherished

possiblefor Turkey

pages

triumphant.

strengtheningof

The

"

as

only

the

one;

otherwise, for its essential

be

not

is

Porte

principleis truly described

the

humiliating

protesting,the

are

is the old

It

the situation.

leave

must

we

in

expectation
the

taken

memorandum

hour
of

of

that

ascribes

PREFACE

the

to

ix

Revolutionary Committees,
rejects for

the

Powers,

transformation

of the condition

the

of the

overthrow

The
with

of this
the

obtain
to

entrust

book, and

constitute

assistance

each

and

French

Italian

the writers
in

in the

of

many

them
with

connection
writer

Near, and
the
"

"The

Fall

of

The

the

Revue

of

Editor

the

must

Mr

concerns

the

de

All

Near

known

Chirol

the

been

the

Greek

Paris,

Empire,"

express

Embassy

his

warm

and

leader of

historian

and

in

-is known

East, Far

long
as

residence

East, and

well

Ponsonby

British

with

nationalities.

Constantinople." M.

of

Macedonia."

member

has

may

to

of the

Turkey,
of

should

that

qualifiedby

of
politics

to

entrusted

were

subject. Mr

in

bar

advisable

the whole

problem

two

are

Pears, who

Destruction

Editor

"Pro

the

Mr

consular

The

the

on

the

already

are

is the

Question

that

interests

volume

public

chapters dealing

personal knowledge

or

as

As

of those

influential writers

British

expert opinion

the

alone

England

not

by

different writers, and

of

guide.

"radical

thought

was

chapter,so

useful

of

collection

it

the

regime."

of the Eastern

the real nature

prove

Turkish

tuously
contemp-

affairs here

of impressingthe
desirability

motive
to

of

but

of
and

Berard

is

author

of

formerly

was

at

tinople.
Constan-

appreciation

PREFACE
X

of

afforded

assistance

the

consented

who

writers

also

and

volume,

especially

sincerely
in

inducing

both

the

reahse

from

this

in

without

country

and

and

to

and

definite

much

insisted

political

as

be

ready

has

been

upon,

side.

written

and

as

greater

of

and

the

solution.

the

in

the

past,

prominence

to

problem

moral

point

necessity
Above

question,

party,

Italy

Balkan

the

from

face

to

of

aspect

France

of

well

satisfactory

humanitarian

in

result

may

distinction

importance

great

political

view,

people,

He

efforts

joint

their

that

hopes

some

Committee.

Balkan

the

of

members

other

and

Buxton

Noel

Mr

to

not

tions,
contribu-

obtaining

in

him

helped

contributors,

although

who,

others

this

in

collaborate

to

to

various

the

by

him

to

on

has

for

all,
which

the

so

been

given

of

less

to

its

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION,

BY

THE

RIGHT

HON.

JAMBS

M.P.

BRYCE,

PAGES

of

Decay

Need

Turkey

Possible

"

for

"

Action

Future

"

Solutions

Races

and

Religions

"

Small

Nationalities"

The

Final

the

oi

Near

East

Great

and

"

Issue

1-15
....

CHAPTER

DESCRIPTION

OF

KhalLfate

Law

"

THE

TURKISH

EDWIN

BY

The

II

and

Justice

Abuses

LL.B.

PEARS,

of

Taxation
"

of

Hopelessness

of

Fatalism

Turks

gamy
Poly-

Treatment

Christians

BALKAN

16-43

STATES

"

QUESTION,

BY

Dismemberment

of

Bulgarians

The

Constantinople
Mgr.

Quarrel

Joseph

Macedonia
"

Greece

in

Rumania

Rumanian
of

"

Relations

Europe

Conference

of

ence
Independ-

Stamboloflf

and

"

Balkan

Nation

Ambitions

"

Greek

Servia
"

the

against

Bulgarian

Stamboloflf

"

Bulgarian

"

The

"

Influence

Russia

Revolt

"

Exarchate
"

with

Revivals
"

Bulgarians

Russian

P.R.G.S.

M.A.,

National

"

MACEDONIAN

THE

BOURCHIER,

Bulgarian

The

Responsibility

TOWARDS

"

Insurrections

Bulgaro

D.

JAMES

and

Greeks

III

ATTITUDE

Turkey

"

"

THEIR

"

Patriarchate

"

Reforms"

to

CHAPTER

THE

the

Pride
"

Resistance

"

of

Muhamedan

"

^Bribery"

"

Unprogressiveness

Conquerors

as

"

and

Reform
"

Turks

of

Practice

Tithes

"

The

and

Theory

"

Government

GOVERNMENT,

Policy
Serbs

Hellenism

and

Bulgarians

"

"

Greece

and

"

and

Bulgaria

"

"

44-89

CONTENTS

xii

IV

CHAPTER

HISTOET

BERLIN,

(MES

BUXTON

VICTORIA

BT

OF

TREATY

THE

SINCE

KSrOEMS

TUKKISH

OF

BUNSBN).

DB

PAGES

The

Armenian
"The

Massacres

Affairs
Can

Action"

be Eeformed

Turkey

RELIGIONS,

of

Mixture

Eaces

Christians"

"

AND

Macedonian

Control
.

BT

History
"

LUIGI

VILLAEI

Eivalry

among
of the Turks"

"

Character

Aspirations The Patriarchate

The
Greek
Propaganda The Bulgarians The'BulgaroMacedonians
The
The
Serbs
Bulgarian CharacterThe
Servian
The
Kutzo-Vlachs
The
Propaganda
Eumanian
The
Future
of
Propaganda The Albanians
Albania
Adrianople Conclusion
The

Christians

"

Greek

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

TURKISH

90-119

PROPAGANDAS,

Muhamedans

The

Austro-Eussian

"

European

?"

CHAPTEE

RACES,

donian
Mace-

Estahlished"

Schemes

Abortive

More

"

Eeforms

Cretan

"

Halepa" Autonomy

of

Pact

Eeforms

Abortive

"

Eeform

Eeforms"

Treaty" Armeman

Berlin

Notes-

MISRULE

IN

120-166

VI

MACEDONIA,

BY

DR

BOGIEADE

TATAECHEFF

Extortion"

The

"Taxation"

Lot

of the

Bulgarians" Poverty of
Bribery" Censorship"Macedonian

CHAPTEE
THE

MACEDONIAN

The

Macedonian

AND

FREDERICK

Movement

"

"The

Trial

of the Committee"
of Sarafoff"

THE

INSURRECTION

MOORB

Macedonian

History of the Organization"The

"Behaviour

Demands

VII

COMMITTEES
BY

Macedonia

Organization
Organization

Internal

Saraf off and

Intriguesin the

Miss

Stone

Organization"

167-183

CONTENTS

xiii

PAGES

Outrages and
Balance

Persecution

of

Criminality
"

Krushevo

Kepression
Operations
"

An

"

The

The

"

of

of the

the

Salonica

General

"

The

"

Outrages
"

"

The

Rising

Powers

Outbreak

Official Proclamation

Outbreak

"

Action

"

The

Driving

"

Consul's

ments
Com-

Condition

Present

of Affairs

184-227

CHAPTER

ATTITUDB

THE

OF

Berlin

The

"

Policy"

Conference

Cyprus

Convention

Russian

Sir

"

Abdication
Attitude

Russification of

The

Revolution

"

The

--Panslavism"

William

The

"

Policy
English

"

"

Reform"

The

and

The

Crimean

"

The

The

"

War

Treaty

of

of British

PhiUppopolis

Prince

"

Alexander's

Atrocities

England's
Policy Changes of

German

"

"

Currents

Russian

ence
Independ-

Reversal

Bulgaria

Russia

in

Opinion

"

Russian

Prospects of

"

228-273

Future

IX

CHAPTER

THE

of

The

The

White

Policy
Cross

"

Agents

"

CHIEOL

War

of 1876"

Armenian

Austrian

"

VALENTINE

BY

Rayahs The Greek

Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi

The

"

POWBES,

THE

II. and the

Catherine

VIII

01?

ATTITUDE

FRANCE,

B^ARD

VICTOR

BY

The Policy of France

European Concert
The
Spirit Dangers of Partition
"

"

"

The

tionary
Revolu-

Interests

of

"

France

"

Oordiale

^Aims of the Entente

CHAPTER

THE

POLICY

Italian Interests"

Italy

OF

ITALY,

of
Separation

274-285

....

BY

AN

DEPUTY

ITALIAN

Nationalities"

The

Policy of
286-291

xiv

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

SUGGESTED

SCHEME

XI

OP

BY

REFORMS,

HILTON

B.

YOUNG

PAGES

Reform

Eeoonstriiction

or

Centralization

tie

of

Laws
"

"

Vilayets

Local

Limited

Councils

of

Powers

Valis

the

"

"
"

The

Constantinople

Rifaat

The

"

1880
"

Reforms

of

Muavins

The

1896

"

The

of

Reforms

"

Monastir

at

The

Conference

"

Inspector-General

The

Reforms

Murzsteg

The
"

"

Constitution

of

Samos

The

Successful

Lebanon

"

Proposals

for

Reforms

"

"

Macedonia

Christian

The

Governor

"

"

Boundaries

of

the

Province

The

Solution

Final

292-330

"

CHAPTER

THE

EXECUTION

OP

The

Sultan's

Diplomacy

XII

REFORMS

POLICY,

BY

ARTHUR

PLEA

FOR

BRITISH

PONSONBY

Austro

Russian

"

Action

British

"

Diplomacy"

Dilatoriness

of

the

Concert
"

Negotiate"
England's

England
Interests

in
at

the

Stake"

East"

Naval

Dangers

England

to

Demonstrationof

Inaction

331-350
.

Map

At

the

End

ERRATUM

Page

Last

line

"East"
For

145.

"West."
read

understood

the

of

facts

which

affect

this

book

been

direct

subject. Every
the

which, I

stated

and

so

of the
of

the

in the

difficulties of

contain

the

to

broad

that

"

data

Turkish

of

what

is to

say,

little strife and

it

of

last three
for

the

to

the

best

ductory
intro-

as

may

rule which

is

inevitable

will

the

centuries.

the
as

tion
be, that extinc-

plainlyinevitable.

studied

Sultanate

of

means

bloodshed

has

on

Eastern

which

evils from

be

not

either
or

When

long a period,and
to
deep-seated maladies, there
be arrested.
that decay can
The
so

few

with
facilitating,

who

anyone

conditions

is

in these

writers

of

of Ottoman

That

repeat, or

several

is called

the

suffers, and

East

carefully,

general observations

mitigatmg

or

the

myself

some

aspects

to

attempt

what

confine

said, but

so
concisely,

shall not

summarize,

to

removing

the

that

travelled

the

articles

so
clearly,

so

fairly.I

Question

by

them

believe, he will find nowhere

to

pages
the

reflected upon

venture

else

have

conditions

mastering the subject, and will

of information
EngUsh reader a mass

the

even

pursue.

for

necessary

give

has

of them

Their

problem.

to

prepared. Every one

first-hand knowledge

one

has

and

country

the
with

deal

to

just

comprehension

of

and

case

attempt

has

has

writers

the

any

ought

supply such

to

form

to

Britain

pohcy

It is in order
the

wishes

whoever

by

opinion upon
of

[chap.

INTRODUCTION

doubted

the

present
historyduring

its

decay
is

has

ceeded
pro-

plainlydue
remains
no
hope
high-watermark
so

DECAY

I.]
of Turkish

by

the Polish

1683.

Ever

waters

has

been

long

time

take

TURKEY

conquest had been reached

saved

was

OF

since

King, John

then

the

when

Vienna

Sobieski, in

recession

a.d.

of

uninterrupted. Empires

the
may-

die.

Looking back, we can

that
the
Roman
East
see
Empire steadilylost
ground from the death of the Emperor Manuel
in a.d.
Comnenus
not
1180, yet it was
destroyed
till the capture of Constantinople
in a.d.
1453.
a

Much

been

has

rapid

more

Turkish

to

by

One

power.

the

decline
its

one

of

the

European

stripped away.
Hungary \
lost,and then in succession, Transylvaniaand
was
Danubian
i
Bessarabia, and the two
Principalities
the Rumanian
which
constitute
now
Kingdom, i
and Greece, and Servia, and
Bosnia, and Bulgaria,
and
Thessaly,and Eastern Rumelia, and Crete. )
been

provinces have

"

"

In

Asia

frontiers

Egj^
time

under

the

dominion
vast

before
absorbed
mutual

has

been.

Cyprus
the

weak

Ottoman.

once

in

our

own

Everywhere
Powers

break

in
up

impact of the strong, and the Turkish

in proportion to
weak
is exceptionally
it

area

covers.

It

would, indeed, have

pieces by revolt or
the
by rapacious neighbours had not
posed
jealousiesof the European States inter-

now

been

check,

torn

Government,

arms
as

to

had

and

purchasing modern
the

was

her

advanced

detached, and

ago

world

modern

the

the

long

also

so

twice

territorythat

over

was

has

Russia

also

it

not

of

gives

the

precisiongiven
to

every

of

power

to

Govern-

INTRODUCTION

[chap.

exist

advantagesagainstinsurgentswhich did not

If during the last hundred
in earlier days.

years

the

ment,

in the fourteenth

before

have

now

The

process

most

obvious

in

Turkey

the
class

the

always
the

Sultans
another

of all

It
has

is feeble

and

there

scheme

is

of

of

energy

is

step

no

the

with

man

after

Powers,

enacted, but
any

far

is

promises.
occasional

found

of the Janizaries.
the

ablest, and

who

has

sat

The

the
is

has

made

perhaps a

ruin.

mere

administration

taken

ever

Sultan

to

carry

Mahmud

of

present Sultan
most

out

was

but

energy,

expressionin

throne

He

generations.

to

improvement. One
another, extorted
by the
promised or
formally

certainlythe

on

change

at

bursts

its chief

are

vigorous,

more

or

the

as

faults

country

heedless, or

attempt

no

the

for

governing

will not

or

is abler

one

so

reform

European

cannot

brought

go,

The

reasons.

Its
incorrigible.

is

voluptuary. But,
goes,

alone

perishedfi-om the earth.

of decay goes
steadilyon

and

come

un-

fifteenth centuries,it would

and

same.

policywhich

and

stood

Empire

Roman

befriended, as the East

alone

stood

had

Empire

Turkish

the

his

massacre

is

probably

industrious,

of Othman

for many

istically
adept in that characterOriental
consists in
diplomacy, which
contrivingpretexts for delay and playingupon the
jealousiesof other States. But the only contribution
he
dominions

has

pretensionsand

been
a

an

the

to

the

government

assertion

stimulation

of

of Muslim

of his

his Khalifial
fanaticism

NEED

I]
which

has led to the

Christians.

by

to the

the

myriads of

such

Akbar

that

such

are

man

the

Asiatic
even

if,

SoUman

as

Great,

to

were

that
throne, there is little probability
of

process

advances

of

massacre

conditions

Magnificent,or

come

ACTION

amazing chance,

some

the

The

FOR

with

decline

the

could

steady march

be
of

knows
Every European statesman
thinkingman in Turkey itselfknows
be blind indeed

must

which

arrested.
law

It

of nature.

this.

Every

it.

That

does

not

fulness
hopenize
recog-

is not how
to keep the
problem now
Turkish
Empire permanently in being, as some
late as 1878 tried to persuade
so
Englishmen even
the
but how
themselves
to minimize
was
possible,

that the

shock

and
of its fall,

Not

even

its fall is

that

It may

delayed for

be
till

what

near

the

end

to substitute

for it.

close at hand.
necessarily
decades, conceivably
some
of

the

present century.

be at
to
seem
European Powers
present seeking to delay it, two of these because
they are not ready yet to deal with the situation
which
would
its collapse
create, the third because
its subjectsfind commercial
advantages in the
present state of things. But since the fall must
States which, like
those
in the long run,
come
Britain,France, and Italy,have no interest in a
policyof delay,and those persons everywhere who,

Three

of

the

interest of their
apart firom the special
survey

the

positionin

its effect

on

of

general

the

humanity, may well desire

a
positionhonestly faced, and
deplorable
interests

country,

own

to
an

see

so

effort

INTRODUCTION

made

Europe

Macedonia

"

Armenia

the

"

has

case

leaves

power

either

to

strengthen

province

from

the

in

Eastern

succeeded
the

is

Lebanon,

plan, apphed

on

of

administration
which
the

has

misrule

To

solution

that

the

only
the

suffer

does

There

easier.

dilatorypolicymay

be

control.

are

at

together,or making

work,
them

kind

of

to

year.

There

become

less

this

successive
tion
substitu-

upon

in

or

ultimate

an

cases

curative

their

anarchy

make

not

which

policy,because
or
softening

drawing unfriendlyraces
by increasing

contented

are

conflict of jarring
States which
may

in

government

prosperity. That is not

Turkey. Things there grow rather worse
year

plan

And

the

their material

from

succeeded

has

naturally recuperative processes

tendencies

which

This

present

are
a

years

removes

bestowed

hitherto

continue

to

which

this

comparatively civiUzed
organized brigandage

and

for

On

reform

districts,means

have

subjects.

of

to

or

seventy

succeeding in Crete.
a
large scale by

been

Turks

last

Rumelia,

regular

anything

people.

that

Sultan's

successive

to

steps

is

succeeded

ever

which

throne

Sultan's

the

of the
improve the condition
point the experience of the
The
is conclusive.
only kind
has

reforms"

of

No

urgent.

hands, will do

Turkish

in

been

long

part of

one

part of Asia-

one

"scheme

so-called

change, no

in

and

"

In

it.

with
drastically

deal

to

[chap.

probable in

also

cases

now

seems

the

the future.

case

in

than better
in which

imminent

Neither,

FUTURE

I.]
far

so

the

as

OF

in

Those

Turkey.
strugglebetween

case

that

show

EAST

who

Austria

allegethe

and

this risk,whatever

Russia

it may

less grave

for

promised to Armenia,

and

threw

be

risk of
cannot

be, promises

long time to come

than
it is at this moment.
Nothing, therefore,
is to be gained by prolonging the status
in
quo
Turkey, and subjectinganother, or possiblytwo or
of men
three more
to those oppressions
generations
and miseries under which
the Christian population
has been
the sum
has so long groaned. Such
in
of accumulated
as
sufferingin Macedonia
the Treaty of
since 1878, when
Armenia, ever
had then
Berlin withdrew
the protectionRussia

to

be

foresee,is this likelyto

can

anyone

NEAR

THE

any

under

and

the

revolutionaryparty preferinsurrection

they and
is the

the

has

solution

be ?

bearingsof

they
Let

of this book.

us

for
politics,

week, and

to

this

their
are

us

the

causes

which

the

The

on.

is all

need

What

ought

dealt
fix

minds

our

and

with

secular
East

week

in other
on

the

the

with

going to deal
aspect changes from
not

am

great

same

insisted

European provinces

foot.

try to forecast the fate of the

peoples in the

suffered.

be

in the

already on

is

of

continuation

solution, and

because

insurrection

current

point to

first

for

come

to

not

their fathers have

urgent

more

we

all their horrors to

with

This
time

when

Turk, that

war

what

wonder

back

the

see

we

need

Macedonia

parts

larger

problem.

Let

Mediterranean

examine
spiritin which we
brought calamity upon those

INTRODUCTION

peoples

centuries

many

historycan
the

of the

sources

ruin

the

were

that

errors,

back, he

Looking

bore

then

were

what

Empire.
the

were

what

the

means

weakening

available

to

the

that

avert

is difficult:
prediction
possibleto discern,in a broad and general

Explanation

yet it is

of

part in the
Greece, and

perceive what

can

to

latter, which

what

way,

and

errors,

good and evil, and

strengthening the former and

tendencies

ruin.

student

The

ago.

Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor,

in the later days of the Roman

of

Thrace

of

what

see

[chap.

are

the evolution

is easy

the

now

alternative

of Eastern

conjecturethe

as

take, and

politics
may

each

which

consequences

which

courses

to

course

involve.

may

The

Turkish

Adriatic
were

to

once

the

Persian

the

most

districts of the

stretches

Empire

Gulf.

It includes

and

populous

civiUzed

from

world.

Its

the
what

flourishing

populationis

in

proportionto the vast area, and is

probably (though no trustworthy statistics exist)
rather decliningthan increasing.The
Musulman
element
is attenuated
by moral and poUticalcauses
and by the drain of mihtary service ; the Christian
element
But
a stable and
once
by massacre.
gressive
proscanty

now

has

government

regionswill
two

or

natural

doubt

no

three

begin to

centuries

resources,

such

been

they
the

estabhshed, these
recover

may,

and

such

are

within
their

advantagesof

position,rival or
prosperity. The question of

surpass

their graphical
geotheir ancient

their future

is there-

INTRODUCTION

10

chap.

existingsystem as the
least
the
Even
Christians
progressive
have.)
gives securityfor hfe and
European Government
and population
property, permitswealth to accumulate
makes
some
to
provisionfor
increase, and

by

As

education.

Christian

If the

incorporatedin
it is not

has

so

the Austrian

early extinction
ulterior hopes for

that

would
incorporation
There

gain
from

to

the

inhabitants

extension
rule.

Russian

Russian

but

of

This

to

be

dominions,

Turk

to

the

Sultanate, they

people which

own

destroy.
of

the

Turkish

is that

solution

immediate

some

European, and

of

Austrian.

because, looking

the

their

English

wish

not

therefore, be

would,
the

under

do

or

Austrian,

the

have

under

they prefer the

the

or

Bosnia

nationalities

because

Russian

thriven

has

Egypt

administration,

for

of the

destruction

the

provinces
of
primarily

which

seems

about if
probablycome
thingsare left to themselves, Russia-disidingjwith
the
Austria
European part of the Ottoman
dominions, and
subsequently either acquiring
the Asiatic
for herself or dividingwith Germany

easiest, and

part. The

which

law

same

Northern

aU

may

Asia

has

which
and

over

carried her
half

of

over

Central

English in a
all India, will
naturallybestow
century over
her
of Turkey as
Turkey, or so much
upon
Asia, the

other

law

which

European

earned

States

do

not

the

prevent

her

from

appropriating.
Is

this

result

to

be

desired

in

the

interests

RACES

I.

either

of

East,

other

RELIGIONS

States,

of mankind

or

States
have

AND

which

the

France

got all they want

peoples of

and

and
already,

seek

well be unwillingto see

spoils,
may
itself over
already gigantic extend

to

might

its

become

day

one

strength. Into

France

have

for

CathoUcs

of

may

over

the

have

in

respect

India, there

is

of

Britain

Great

the

which

the

large?

at

like

of

or

11

no

share of

an

Empire
territories
additions

formidable

the

specialmotives which
safeguardingher influence
the

her

East,

in

presence

need

Britain

or

Egypt

may

and

in

speak, for apart froin

those much-debated
interests,the general interest
which
all States have
in seeing no
State
one
abnormally expand is evident enough.
of the
and
The
races
religiouscommunities
it is by religion
rather than
East
that
by race
no

to

"

men

united

are

animated

are
as

rather than

organizedin
a

national, and

to

These

races

record

of

they

have

is in some,

generally,rehgious
which

in
is

Armenians,

in

great achievements

with

others, as

quite

now

as

in

literature,in art,

France, Spain,Germany,

England inspiresnational feeUng.

the

recollection

to their faith and

of

"

as

government, which

and
Italy,

countries

religious. It is in all cases

absorptionby any European Power.
have
behind
them
the splendid
not

national

opposed

those

which

sentiment

Musulmans

Bulgarians and

much

in

by
the

among

the

and

of

tenacious

language through
grievous oppression, mingled with

But

ence
adher-

centuries
the

dim

INTRODUCTION

12

traditions

hfe in the

show

the

failure

exterior

national

nations

more

than

they

nothing in which
of imaginationthan in
want
more
different
to
a
appreciate under
sentiments which
they value among
for

usually receive,
men

of

hope

Western

the

dence,
indepen-

deserve
aspirations

These

future.

from

respect

the

brightened by

and

of

days

ancient

their

of

[chap.

the

is

there

themselves.

Apart, however, from the wishes of the several

Eastern peoples,
interests
apart from those special
which

each

of the

has, in the settlement

it

it that

ought

tendencies

the

that

forces

of

now

at

work

What

will

humanity

been

what

progress ?
East

have

best

in that

Musulman

of

future

studying
the

and

in

the
for

interests

common

which

has

power

work,

at

is

reconstitution of the

the

serve

what
questions,

moulding
ultimatelythe best

will be
sort

thinks

has, or

those who,

by

that

are

world, seek

of these

be desired

to

States

European

for

the
two

of

evident

decay

centuries

been

preparing?
of

The

most

the

modern

conspicuous feature
world

the

smaller, and

and

nationalities.

greater, while
The
the
a

minor
few

social

the

the

has

been

growth

The
small

in the

the

of the

great States
States

have

evolution

effacement

of

largernations
have

become

ing.
vanish-

been

coveringthe world ;
being forgotten. Only

great languages are

languages are

types of character, of

organization,each

intellectual life,of

associated

with

great

GREAT

i]

AND

nation, are
will

NATIONALITIES

visible where

now

That

many.

SMALL

of

one

any

13

formerlythere
these

were

dominant

now

prevailagainstthe others
them
be predicted,
for at least
cannot
as to absorb
four or five of the types are immensely strong. Yet,
speaking broadly,uniformity tends to increase,
with
all
varietyto disappear. Eocal patriotism,
that diVersity'and
play of individuahtywhich local
patriotism has evolved, withers silentlyaway.
The
plete
Europe nearly comprocess is in civiUzed

types

ultimatelyso

the

and

only part

of

nationalities
into

the

world

with

the

of

Armenians

small

which

there

that

left

are

developing
create

may

forms

new

the

of

new

literary

life.

Bulgarians, Serbs, Greeks,

add
fanciful
to
might seem

it

"

Albanians

is almost

capacity for

and

character

artistic

and

in

nations

independent

types

East

Mediterranean

and
has

races

yet each

Kurds,

these

two

and
individuality

strong

of

capacityfor greater things than it has hitherto

achieved
in them
the makings of nations
have
which
might, in a still distant future, hold a
of peoples.
worthy place in the commonwealth
"

If I
the

to

were

past done

intellectual

to-day

small

States

have

in

more

for the

world

in the

way

of

than

progress
I

doing,

are

controversy
and

the

that

argue

as

to

might

the

present conditions,

many

of

most

of the

the

small

the

giganticStates
be

differences
and

States

involved

in

between

might be told
of to-day, such

of Spanish America,
republics

make

of
a

past
that
as
no

INTRODUCTION

14

contribution

that

say

the

ancient

argument,

an

has

humanity

development

of

still

yet

of

submersion

stock.

common

such

insisting
upon
to

the

to

[chap.

one

without

may

venture

expect from

to

more

But

civilized nations

new

vigorous

these

than

races

under

races

out

from

the

flood

of

of

Germanizing influences emanating

of the three great Empires.
from
one
any
The
of nationaUties finds less support
principle
and sympathy nowadays, even
in countries which,
like Germany, have profited
than
by its appUcation,

Russianizingor

in the

it did

But

past.

with

the

successful

and

the

unsuccessful

mention
their

sympathies

East, which
of

dawn

indeed

be

efforts of

Poland,

those

to

for

long

so

conditions

centuries

which

with

to

extend

nationaUties

in

the

night see a glimmer

rising before them.
Failings may
discerned in the men
who
belong to

the

of

result

not

well

instances, may

which
nationalities,
failings

these

had

after

sympathized
Italyand Hungary,

efforts of

recent

more

who

those

the

they have
the tenacity

which

under

live.

to

natural

the

are

But

have

Christians

Macedonian

they had so much

clung to their faith when
which
to
gain by renouncing it, the courage
the

Armenian

chose

of them

in 1895

Saviour, prove

their
is left

in

above

and

will

Christians

try

these

to

to

the

strength
races.

the

dust

his

eyes,

as

He
of
Mr

thousands

when

die rather

ancient

beyond
fix

showed

than
of

fibre that

who,

current

abjure
lookuig

pohtics,

Gladstone

did,

THE

I.]

the

upon
will

these

for

the

of

one

beUeve
into

heights

find

of

of

nationalities
future

that
nations

Italy

to

is

peoples
may

fitly

as

direct

development

it

of

Empires,

and

them

help

to

which

those

of

their

promise

more

extension

military

aim

landscape,

the

in

encourage
an

distant
that

the

huge

15

more

has

than

two

or

ISSUE

think

to

reason

enlightened
and

FINAL

such

England,
efforts.

the

sway

and
to

great

will

grow
and

France,

CHAPTER

DESCRIPTION

OF

of

The

DestnuAion

Th6

centred

the

of

is
The

the

present
of
for

and

Bosnia,

thus
a

the

Its

the

Powers

the

better

which

Parliament

especially
unexpected

principal

had
of

the

business.

that
Pashas

to

his

eignty
sover-

consider

the
of

December

on

reforms

Bulgaria

23rd,
a

from

In

stantinopl
in Con-

Conference

government

absolute

following

the

1876,

Parliament,
an

spring

considerable

showed

and

affairs,

discussion

of

public

the

of

administration.

abuses

alarmed

replaced
the
either
would

The

is

power

untrammelled.

independence

author

declared
or

their

who

of

absolute

Sultan;

Government

the

of Conslantinople

an

provided

met,

for

Ministers

them

and

Fall

military

ruler, during the

the

The

is

the

limited_inonarchy.

aptitude
and

and

promulgated

changing

LL.B.

Empire;

of

hands

Constitution

GOVERNMENT

Turkey

civil

undisputed

necessary

Greek

of
All

in

TURKISH

PEARS,

Government

monarchy.

to

THE

EDWIN

By

Author

II

Constitution

to

and
of

members

have

the

Pasha,

Midhat

Constitution,
the

Turkish

the

be

sent

having

one

of

ment
Parliaabout

served

18

TURKISH

The

rule

of succession

differs from

member

rarely the

of the

son

made

rule
the

of

the

take

in

to

part

with

The
becomes

usual

the
of

poUcy
throne.

less

the
The

country

is

result

to

came

he

when

Empire

the

but

throne

as

to

older he

guide the

succeeds
far

as

to be

seem

be

it must

the

is he

present Sultan,

hindrance

the heir is not

is that

competent

abiUtyis concerned, might

this rule

he sees no
pubUc aflfairs,
is almost always regarded
lance.
kept under strict surveil-

he

and
suspicion,

was

Conqueror of

is, however,

succession

foreign statesman,

to

brothers,which

time fallen into disuse.

some

prosperityof

allowed

reigningSultan.

II., the

legalby Mohammed
has for
Constantinople,

to

throne

obtaining in other European

heir apparent
is the eldest
The
of the Imperial family,and
fore
there-

practiceof kiUingyounger

The

Turkish

the

to

very
The

[qhap.

that

monarchies.

mqle

GOVERNMENT

as
an

to

diplomatic
exception

remembered

that he
and

man,

young

the

not

accordingto the strict rule of succession,but by

V.
deposinghis brother, Murad
The
Sultan
appointsthe Ministers who preside
the great departments of tHe State, and who
over
have

their offices in Stamboul.

is the

Grand

Vizir.

things

these

Ministers

advisers

of

is

now

the

reigns,and
and

would
Their

compared
with

unofficial

condition

normal

Sultan.

small, when

in former

In

chief of these

The

the

be

power,
with

that of
advisers

principal
however,

what

body
who

of

it

was/

sponsible
of irreare

in

LAW

II.]

attendance

constant
some

in

there

years

Turkey

the

"

has

surroundingthe
far the
The

more

division

of administration

19

Majesty'spalace.

existed

that of the

dual

of

of the
the

Sultan.

Palace

persons

The

latter

For

government

Porte, by which

that

influence

JUSTICE

his

at

Ministers, and

i.e. the

by

AND

is meant
or

Yildiz,

immediately
body is now

powerful.
of

the

country for the purpose

is into

over
provincesor vilayets,
each of which
vali presides. The
a
or
governor
vilayetsare again divided into kazas.

The

administration

of
law

Minister

of

of law

Justice.

is under

Two

the

tion
direc-

systems

of

the Empire,
operation~~throughout
and are
in conflict. The first and most
constantly
of the Muhamedan
important is the Sacred Law
the
"Sheri."
known
The
Mushm
as
religion,
not only as a sacred book, but as
acceptsthe Koran
the supreme
guide in all matters, legal as well
as
religious.He is aided in its interpretation
by
certain
Traditions," and by recognisedcollections
and
of ancient legaltexts
decisions,called fetvas,
the most
of special
important collection
questions,
being one which was largelycompiled in the early
of Justinian.
days of Islam from the Pandects
a
Among
people exclusivelyMuslim, this body
of sacred law, though not meeting aU the requirements
be fairlysufiicient,
of modern
Hfe, would
and
would
be
deservedly respected. But for
is that equality
the chief of which
reasons,
many
in

are

"

between

Muslim

and

Christian

before

the

law

is

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

20

contrary
for

to
application

and

Christians.

show

this

"

Christian

justiceis

meted

rule

is admissible

evidence

illustration will

estabhshed

an

against that

Court

due

^it is

following

The

of

out

i"_^suited

Muslims
populatipjoujol

mixed

law

Sheri

all its tenor,

to

[chap.

before

Mushm.

to

that

no

Sacred

Hence

when

Christian,it is usually

personalcharacter of the judge and

strict applicationof the law.
not
to the
Such
instances, however, are extremely rare.
in

the

to

The

other system of law

the

Empire

mercial

is divided
The

Law.

which

is administered

Civil and_XQin-

into

distinction

is unknown

to

English jurisprudence,
though recognizedin

most

Continental

been

framed

for

which

to

Criminal

Civil and

has

Law

of

have

Code

the

also

law

Commercial

courts

Napoleon.

codified,and

been

similar in

procedure under it is very

that
practised in France.

In

these

theory
courts

is admissible.

evidence

questionsregardingthe ownershipof land

within
the successions of Turkish
are
subjects
competence of the Sacred Courts, the exclu;
all

As
and
the
sion

Christian"testimony

of

constitutes
Turkish

very

rulers

this

powerful

to

these

tribunals

injustice.It is true that

formallydecreed, notablyin

called

injusticeshould

continues, and

in

grave

have

great Charter

that
it

Codes

adaptations of

Christian

in the

use

are

The
the

countries.

no

override

the
cease;

Sultan
the

Hatt-i-Humayun,
has

but" in
been

practice

sufficiently

religiousprejudiceof

11.]THEORY

AND

PRACTICE

OF

GOVERNMENT

21

Muslim

the

the
population or
opposition of
believe
Muslim
be
themselves
to
judges who
law
of Divine
a
administering
origin.
Municipal government for the control of the

police,of

lighting
drainage,of street-clewing,
and other matters, exists^in!
theory)in the cities,
and
in practice;but
certain extent
the
to
a
exclusivelywith
appointment to office rests
the Palace, and
nothing Mke popular election
for municipal and
other
offices is~TEnowii7 In
Constantinopleitself,the streets are practically
and ill-swept.
No local post
undrained, ill-lighted,
for the

transmission

say, that

to

while

under

once

of

letters exists.

rule

telephones,the Turkish
provided neither.
_____"""'
and

there

be

The

elective

century ago

landowners

which

or

to

light
has

amount

government,
and
theory

find fault, once

government

government

considerable

Turkish

regards form

as

lies in

defect

respect the

the

administration

of

theory

was

that

seen

of

its worst

it

of

is little with

absence

Government

cities

of the organization
aBove^s'Epitsketch

administration

it wiU

electric

possess

and

In the

other

Athens, Sofia,and

Turkish

Needless

is

is

overlooked.

good enough
In

centralization.
is

the

probably

for at that time

worse

there

this
than
was

government under
known
as
Derrebeys.

of local

chieftains

provinces,all judges, indeed all

officials of high rank, are
now
appointed direct
of office depends
from
the Capital. Their term
All

governors

of

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

the will of

upon

Sultan, who

the

by

It is when

as

the

British
of
r

Queen

series

and

Elizabeth

of

books

to

by

England, France,
I

are

tion has

'i 1

It

in

ambassador
Charles

pages

of

wrote

Christians,and

Turkish

time

long
from

nations,
administra-

through and through.

withsuch

Winchelsea,

Lord

to

testi-

the

in

time

of

the

State,

massacres

general misrule, might

be

of
duced
repro-

applicableto present times. The

remark
that
changes,"
Turkey never

now

as

well-known

"

though trite,is nevertheless

existing then
made

Western

Turk

corruptionof

the

has

the

travellers

fill volumes

Grand

series of

historyof Turkey, after a

of six years in Constantinople,
and many
his book
isting,
describingthe abuses then ex-

II.,

residence

the

long

accept

may

day, and

other

corrupt

easy to

to

reader

observant

that

tration
adminis-

discuss the

to

space

own

Ricaud, secretary

mony.

be

can

everything

consuls, from

and

always been
be

find

we

the

our

accord

absolute

would

than

theory of

the reports of

ambassadors

practicethat
not
enough

fact that

cludin
in-

advisers obtain

the

from

pass

of the mischief,but

causes

it

we

I have

wrong.

of

of patronage.

large amount
to

work

government,

mortal, his immediate

any

dustri
in-

most

the

appointments,is greater

all

done

of

details

all the

is

however,

workerr~~~:Asr

attending to

[chap.

many

hopeless of

and

now

is

well-wishers

its amelioration.

corruption
and
simply appalling,

true.

The

of the

Turkish

race

ABUSES

n.]
The

in return

Christian,

the

all

from

not

the

that

they

order

obtain

to

allowed

is

bought

much

of
and

tax-farmers

them,

exact

double

culturahsts

than

they

or

^nd

are

jold.

it is driven

have

are

bribe

to

in

in return
from

more

are

the

agrilawfully to

entitled

are

well

as

property

their contracts, and

to

their

Salaries

can.

Life

country.

The

secure.

those below

peasants, Turkish

irregularly
paid. Justice
is hampered until
Trade
away

23

usuallyto buy

from

exact

from
especially

as

TAXATION

higherofficialshave

and
places,
and

OF

receive.
As
done

the

abuses

in the

perhaps,than

more,

the peasants of Macedonia

lot,by reducing them

and
show

to
at

drive

them

which

Its assessment
of

Turkish

discontented
to

into

the

and

law

and

that

Government

the

its

these

with

abuses

paid

between

their

is tithe

put up

oy

to

The

are.

di.m.p..

tion
good illustra-

the

theory

administration.

collection

shall be

make

of starvation

verge

collection form

difference

to

have

revolt, it is desirable

has to be

the

provides

anjrthingelse

length what

some

heaviest tax

coUectionjif^axes

The

of

tithe

to

auction

of

law

for
or

the
to

that is, that bids shall be invited

public tender
from privatepersons for the payment
of a lump
for the right to collect
to the Government
sum
and
other
one-tenth
of the forthcoming harvest
agricultural
produce,such as the increase of sheep,
cattle,and goats,in a specified
villageor district.
The surplusover
and above the acceptedoffer will
"

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

24

The
legitimateprofitof the tax-farmer.
and the successful
often highly speculative,

the

be
bid

[char

is

bidder

has

deficient

take

to

and

crops,

mistaken

be

if any

accepted tender,

bad

weather,

estimate.

the

requiresthat

Government

of

chance

his

The
of the

payment

accepted, shall

be

Its
guaranteed by an approved third person.
The person whose tender
rightsare thus secured.
has been
accepted then arranges with the local
authorities
valuation of each peasant's
to make
a
For
this purpose
harvest.
next
he, togetherwith
the

and

peasant

one

authorities, visits the

is to be levied and

or

more

crop

upon

makes

in

addition

Government,

which

the

further

The

local
tax
tax-

arrangement by

an

the

to

the

the valuation.

gatherer has usually made

which,

of

secured

sum

to

paid to the
local authorities.
In all probability
it is justin
consideration
of such a privatearrangement that
his tender has been accepted. When,
therefore,a
is made, it is almost
valuation
invariablyfar in
a

of what

excess

wishes, he
excessive
decision

it

has

the

be

experience that
him,

and
as

he
to

wasting time
on

the

levy.

ought to
right to

valuation
will

excess

Should

the

to

final.

their

of

he

If the

peasant
appeal againstthis
local Council, whose
is well

the

that
His

estimate

refuse

to

he

aware

be

would

makes

valuation

the

be.

He

appeal.

on

be

decision

therefore
the

sum

will

the

by

against

best

ment
arrange-

can,

without

bargainingwill be
beyond the legal

accept

an

excessive

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

36

him

they will see

harvesting.There
done

that

no

is

no

the

to

vpell

conceded

to

refuses

and

contribution, preferringto
thus

even

he

does

his seed-corn:

by

not

the

The

let

refiisalto

as

until

his

illegal
perish,

crop

The

do
zaptiehs

in fact

are

is

peasant

the

pay

an

them

sell his cattle,and

poUcemen

peasants, not

to

begins
of injustice

If the

escape.

hesitate to seize and

not

the

than

tax-collector.

obstinate

remains

form

commoner

gather their crops

the legal portion of

as

the

obstinate peasant

peasants

give permission to

illegalas

[ohap.

even

regarded

their protectorsor

as

the

but as persons
of law and justice,
representatives
entirelyat the tax-gatherer's
disposal.It may
be said on
their behalf that they are merely the
and that they as well
tools of the higher officials,
the local hekjisor
watchmen
as
are
miserably

paid.

Their

in arrears,

forced

of

collusion

local

to

the

authorities

Christian

dailyration

of bread
To

is

barely

largeextent

poverty-stricken
peasantswho
their exactions.

tolerate
between

months

invariably
many

support existence.

live upon

are

is almost

their

and

sufficient to

they

pay

tax-gatherersand

the

press

hardly

peasants alike

The

but

on
as

Mushm
the

evils
the
and

zaptiehs

employed are Muslims, they naturallyact more

their
againstthe unbelievers than against
willingly
co-religionists.
Unhappily the peasants of both
creeds have
learned by long experiencethe hopelessness
of any appealto the law courts, and either
remain
patient under their exactions or, as the

TITHES

II.]

Christians have

done

27

in recent

years, make

appeal

to the

committees
who
have often
insurrectionary
executed
their oppressors.
a rough justice
on
Two
exceptionsto the general rule, that the
collection

of

tithe is farmed

althoughthey do
Sometimes

affect the

not

tender

no

out,

as

it

is made

which

in Palestine

the money

spoken

of

the

cases

In

the

by

of the

out

wrung

local

in the

Turks

time

the
The

sufficiently
good.
tithe-farmer or publicanis

was

local

tion
occupa-

unpopular

as

of Christ, and

peasants is

even

unclean.

as

noted,

precedingremarks.

authorities consider
of the

be

may

officials undertake

now

In

the

these

collection.

important districts through which the

new
railwayspass, the collection is made under
the control of the Department of the Public Debt,
of the
which
is managed by the representatives
foreignbond- holders,in order to see that the sums
certain

necessary
for such
It

gross

for

furnishingthe kUometric
railwaysare forthcoming.

is not

in the

collection

abuses

exist.

Many

Sometimes

both

legal

these

are

and

of tithes

other

only
and

taxes

"are
illegal,

excessive

so

guarantee

as

to

that
tributions,
con-

exacted.

defeat

the

imposed. Not long

hundreds
of apricottrees, on
district,
since,in one
the dried fruit of which
the people largelysubsist
down
cut
by the peasants
during winter, were
object for

which

themselves

in order

upon

them.

been

rooted

they

to

are

avoid

Vineyards near
up

for the

same

the
the

annual

tax

even
capital

reason.

The

levied
have

growth

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

28

[chap

Angora goat^ which

is known
when
mohair, ought
manufactured
as
of the
in
be one
to
most
profitableenterprises
Turkey. Thirty years ago this goat only existed
and

export

in the
the

Ottoman
was

had

take

to

second

has

Turkey
rank

levied

tax

that

heavy

so

killed, and

the

but

Empire,

animals

were

of the

hair

of the

upon

great numbers
for

in the

some

years

productionof

mohair.
It

is uncertain

always
is

have

of aU

law

and

levied have
but

upon

the

it

of collection is

justice. Already

due

collected,and

there will be double

taxes

their method

districts the taxes

been

the

Sovereign'ssanction;

that

doubt

in violation
many

the

received

beyond

whether

the next

in

harvest

general beUef

is that

for the year.

Generally
from
the capitalthe
remote
speaking,the more
and
the oppressionin
greater is the irregularity
in justiceto the
But
the collection of taxes.
rulers it must
be explainedthat they
provincial
to
are
constantly called upon to remit largesums
are
Constantinople. Demands
frequentlymade
which are not providedfor by law, and the destination
of which
These
if

they would

find the money

of

obtainingit

taxes

is unknown
are

retain
and
is to

their
remit

as

providedby
belongingto one
be

and

or

contrive to

Their

usual

the heads

summon

each.

the governors,

places,must
it.

to

man

method

of the

apportion

Every

other

selves.
them-

the governors

speciallevies,and

religiouscommunities
to

to

the

local
sum

is inscribed

of these communities,

BRIBERY

II.

is forced to

and

29

the

pay

allotted

amount

his

as

contribution

Such
by the head of his community.
be foreseen,
are
irregular,
they cannot
often very heavy.

demands
and

are

added

But
another

to

which,

all

these

burdens

there

is

only in Macedonia, but

far as
as
even
Syria^ is" still'more
grievous.
In describmg~lfT"am
merely repeatingwhat is
believed
generally not only by those who have
the burden, but by consuls
and
to bear
others
who
the
The
matter.
speak confidentlyon
and

governors
from

the

persons
them
form

not

other

who
officials,

have
capital,
who

have

named.

This

the
casesQojgai^

in many

their

used

are^ggointed

influence

sometimes

payment

to

have

takes the

The
official
periodicalcontribution.
toll from
the
recoups himself by taking pay and
subordinates whom
he in his turn appoints. These
againmake good their losses out of the peasants.
A convenient way
of accomplishingthis is to add
the proportionintended
for the officials to the
of

which

amount

has been

levied

Constantinople.Receipts are
and

the

same

sum

for transmission

constantlyrefused,

is levied twice

or

three

pockets of
of the

the

results of these

pay.

He

never

has

finds its way

the collectors and

that the peasant

to

difference

times

varied

Very commonly the practiceis

than
giving receiptsfor a smaller sum
over.

exacted, and

to

by

been

into the

local officials. One

irregularcontributions
knows

believes, and

not

what
without

he

is

will have
cause,

that

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

30

the

of

measure

squeezed
In

addition
for

Empire,

and

demands

of

these

to

notably
who

They

enforce

likewise

do

in

parts of the
to

to

which

shadowy description.

have

Armenia,

the

meet

province,

exactions

most

their fathers

or

irregular

last-mentioned

of the

legal right is

in many

Macedonia,

in

in the

men,

and

taxes

has

he

money

usuallyAlbanians,

Kurds

be

can

of him.

out

demands

their

whatever

is

taxation

[chap.

chosen,

the

as

tions
levy contribufrom certain villages,
nominallyfor protection
against other brigands; but it is a protection
with

which

Between

the

the peasants would

the

of these

their

unsolicited

willingly
dispense.

of the tax-collectors with

exactions

zaptiehsat

to

beck

call, and

and

those

the life of the

protectors,"
intolera^
peasant becomes....ahsQl^te]y
It is no part of my
task to pointout the wrong
inflicted by such
protectors and by the zaptiehs
the

upon

of the

women

say

that

"turned

the

to

they

alone

"

from

the

utensils,which
in
is

such

as

blood

to

in

is sufficient

all ages

flame."

have

The

other

who
officials,

plough, or
are

aU

seize the

that

he

may

can

few

cooking

possess, and,

he is

of

tortions
ex-

take the

supposed to have property which

send
him
without
concealing,can
trial to

case

tortures

The

It

peasants.

levied
heavy, arbitrary,
irregular,
the peasants produce, and enforced

by zaptiehsand
oxen

are

coward's

all that

upon

"

prison ought
"

not

peasant, in fear of officialand

to

be

he

the

endured.

privaterapacity,

HOPELESSNESS

II.]

is afraid to let it be
of

of

value.

starvation

amelioration

known

becomes

ready

movement

which

his

that

that he

thing
anyfear
any

rule, fie

risk his life in. support of any

jpjcsfflia^
to,better hisjcondition.
further

Consular

our

gross

I may
illustrations,

reports abound

the

with

injustice.
of

England during upwards

Empire was

possesses

to

instances of the most

that

31

existiiae

lot^under

adducing

safelysay

REFORM

Living usually in constant

and
oppression,hopeless of

of

Without

OF

of

existence

century

Turkish

strong

sidered
con-

for maintaining
the balance
necessity
of power in Europe, and some
of her ambassadors,
the singularly
and hopeful
able, energetic,
especially
Lord
Stratford de Redas
Canning,better known
a

who
cliffe,
devoted

spent nearlyfortyyears
much

of their energy

persuade Turkey
Stratford

become
in vain.

to

in

reform.

civilized nation.
Some

of the

country,

endeavouringto

At

sincerelybelieved

in the

one

that

time

Lord

fim^S

Turkey

all his efforts

But

changes suggestedby

were

him

to strike at

corruptionand to enable the Christians

of the Empire to be fairlytreated were
formally
not
accepted; but he lived to see that they were
carried

into

execution, and

in

regarded it as hopelessto expect

his later
a

reformed

His

days he
Turkey.

biography,indeed, furnishes
Turkey has retrogradedrather than

advanced

the time when

The

of

Canning

ambassadors.

he
has

ambassador.

was

been
Sir

that

Henry

also

evidence

of

Layard

that
since

experience
subsequent
came

to

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

32

[chaj.

firm conviction that he

the
with
Constantinople
could persuade the Turk
to accept reforms
which,
the
to
while
general
altogether favourable
prosperityof the country, should render hfe and
for the
Minor, especially
property safe in Asia
of

Christians
worked
Plan

strenuouslyto

more

after

plan

althoughhe
influence

such

secure

favourite and

with

ambassador

presented and

was

was

the

last

had

Majesty'sGovernment

famous

who

had

to

and

that

his efforts had

recognisethat

result.

great personal
he

had

despatch to her
despairingcry of

the

was

ever

and
rejected,

Sultan, for whom

his

great esteem,

one

No

Armenia.

his task

was

less
hope-

failed.

history and present condition of the

a
feelingof despairfor progress
country justifies
the Turkish
people. It is bad enough to
among
find roads and
well built now
fallen
bridgesonce
and Niceea,
like Konia
into decay ; to see towns
The

which

the

trace

sites of

disappeared
; to
trade

see

in

at

sufficient at
universal
and

time

to

corruptionwhich

symptom
The

any

of this

condition

of

work

which

to

have

impoverishmentof

It is

neither moral

hindrances

same

in the

naturallyrich country.

there has existed

which

to-day the

past times

populousand
heaps of ruins ;
have entirely

were

than

others

manufacture

and

succeeded

times

little better

now
flourishing,

to

Turkish

within

even

to

worse

force

nor

find that

patriotism
all but

strike

at

is the

principalcause

the

decay.
the

Turkish

Empire to-day

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

34

Sofia, eighty years

mud

dejected

huts, occupied by

stricken

people.

collections of

mere

were

ago,

[chap.

and

poverty-

their inhabitants

Since

got rid of

oppression these villages have rapidly

have
into towns,
of
adopted the appliances
grown
all making good progress.
civiMzation, and
are
L
have
first two, which
The
enjoyed freedom for a
well-built and
longertime than the others, are now
and
well-governed cities with bright,intelUgent,
and
Sofia will soon
progressivepopulations,
run
Turkish

To

close.

pass

from

any

Constantinopleis to
barbarous
city. The

pass

from

them

profitin

to

or

did, prevent the

peopleswho
that

them

be

to

capable.

subject to him
amalgamation
is wider

The
rulers

are

his

and

own

his rule
recent

in the

could,

Christian

from

making
historyshows
of the

races

anything like
and
the gulf
the conquered

race,

from

when

was

He

other

treatment

conquerors
it

either

first

Turks

the

the country.

entered

that

with

than

now

he found

absolutely barred

separatesthe

which

their

His

unable

nations.

Greeks

of which

progress

been

degree by
appreciable

any

subject to

were

to

civilized to

which

exists in Western

that which
and

has

the civihzation

to assimilate

country,

Turk

of these towns

explanationof
the

over

the

latter

more

conquerors,

reUgion.

the failure of the Turks

Christians
are

is to be found

as

in the facts

conquered peoples,that they

industrious

and, above

and

than
intelligent

all, in the

their

difference

of

II.]
The

THE

TURKS

Turks

came

and

conquerors,

AS

CONQUERORS

into

the

obtained

them,

the Christians,have

or

But
who

seldom

as

the Turkish

shown
or

nomad

possessed
largelydis-

were

settled

for manufacture,
agriculture,
Turkish

country

Christians

of their lands.
who

the

35

nomads

any

alongsideof
aptitudefor

for

trade; and

Christian

and

villageshave
existed side by side,the latter,by the industryand
of their inhabitants, have invariably
intelligence
shown
more
signs of prosperitythan the former.
though the country everywhere
Poverty-stricken
wherever

now

is, it still remains

Turkish

to

that

true

Christian

to

villageis

pass
to

from

pass

from

appallingpoverty to poverty less conspicuousand

has never
less hopeless. Still,the Turk
forgotten
that he belongsto the conqueringrace
; and though
of complaint
the Turkish
peasant has just cause
ceased
to believe
againsthis rulers, he has never
that the Christians
ought to be his inferiors in
in the possession
of
every respect,and especially
property. In other words, the comparativewealth
of his Christian neighbourappealsto his cupidity.
of
the
main
It has been
one
causes
why the
when
Turkish
permitted to plunder
population,
their neighbours,as seven
years ago in Armenia
and twenty-seven years ago

in Bulgaria, has looked

opportunityfor loot.
of Christians have in fact not only been
Massacres
incidents in Turkish
of the regularlyrecurring
one
rule, but have always appealed to the desire for
upon

massacre

largelyas.

plunderon the part of

an

the poorer

MusUms.

36

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

While

shows

Turk

incapableof

be

to

of

history
doing justice

unvarying testimony

the

the

[chap.

subjectChristian race, he is seen at his worst

when
his religious
into play. It is
come
jgrejudices
these prejudicesmSre-tiKCIi
which
any other cause
have always prevented,and still prevent, him from
being a just ruler. The
religionof Islam, or
Resignation, suppliesa teachingwhich in certain
and in an
early
respects works for righteousness,
societyundoubtedly constituted a
stage of human
to

existingsystems. Of
teaching I have nothing here to

of its

be

may

allowed

find words

to

misrule

and

Turkish

when

remark

to

too

all
under

Turks.

evil influences
the

but

it is difficult

corruption
department of
be

must

not

The

common

understood

peasant,

of

of his environment.

governing class

say

aspect

religious
prejudice,
hospitable.When, however,
is incapableof resisting
the

office,he

rises to

this

the

in every

the influence

sober, kindly,and

he

condemn

exists

administration, I

not

that while

strong to

which

condemn

to

is

the

on

progress

there

are

Even

found

among

honourable

and

who
the general corruption
lament
upright men
hands
But
clean.
and keep their own
they are,
On
matters.
unfortunately,powerless to mend
the

other

Christians
the

Turks

examples

hand, it

must

in Turkish

themselves.
of

men

who

not

service

Some
could

be
are

supposed that

named

of everything that
representatives

methods

of Turkish

rule

are

better than

much

of the most

be

the

striking
to-day as

is bad

so-called

in the

Christians.

MUHAMEDAN

II.]

Speaking of
individual

the

PRIDE

and
system generally,
Turkish

cases,

even

strivingagainst

them

and

which

by

37

Nevertheless

officials are
the

they

the

excluding
incapableof

evils which
seek

surround

profit.

to

is true

statement

that

the

of the Turk, tends tajoaakfi.

him- incapable
religion
Christians.
of being a just J[uler
Muhaover
medamsm
couraging
produces this result by directlyenof the conqueror
the domineering spirit
the vanquished,by hinderingthe moral
and
over
of

material progress

the

and

conquering race,

by

the rulers and their

widening the gulf between
subjects.
The
largely due to
spread of Islam was
the sword.
Its teachingis that the coffers,or

idolaters,are
"

Peopleof

the Jews,

all times

his life if he
"becomes

would

pious MusHm
within

that
the

the

to

open

believer

is

unbelievers.

He

the

of

"People
or

The

term

submit

unbeliever

accept Islam.

apostate.

the

all

He

dream
be

save
career

of the
driven

is convinced
faith

placed on a higher plane

is appointed to be a ruler
the

cattle.

Books," who
With
if the

such

are

to

than

be

over

his

belief it would

pridewere
conquerors'

rayah is applied to all the

of the Poi'te.
subjects

pay

could

shall

races

and

Every

The

of the Khahf.

indee3ije remarkable
*

that

of his acceptance of the true

virtue

rayahs^

an

is that

the domain

by

but

out,

spared if they

be

to

are

rooted

Books," that is,the Christians and

the

At

tribute.

be

to

non-Miihamedan

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

38

not

the

of

their

to

proportionof

the

"

keen
is

Muhamedans

equal to

population,declared
their progress

to

spiritual
pride." As

;he Muhamedan

in numbers

State

greatest obstacle

alls

educated

secure

service of the

become

not

India, who

long experience in

anxious
specially

for the

did

they

task-masters.

of

grievous

most

observer,

the

if

greatlyincreased, and

[chap.

in

considers

is what

Turkey, so

himself

that
he

in India
be

to

on

igherplane thanlIie^aHEefSrts~of"aSy~6tKer~S
included.
iCWstianity

He

difl^rentspecies. He
and

Christians

Nevertheless
with
non-

the

India

the

fails in

he

general
Of

to

belongs to a
by divine right,
be, his rayahs.

faUs to compete
of

adherents

Christians.

ruler

ought

or

Christian, faiths,just as

Turkey
with

in

are,

is

almost

other, and

his

progress
course,

fully
success-

to

even

in
co-religionist

when
men

matched
who

hold

to the
opinions regardingtheir relationship
of other creeds, all suggestion
of equality
professors
before the law, or of equal rightswith themselves,
is nonsense.
They have no desire to assimilate
whom
AUah
has
races
placed in subjectionto
In Turkey this pride is increased
them.
by the

such

fact

that

while

the

MusUm

is

soldier, the

being at all times co-extensive with

the
allowed to
nation, the subject races
not
are
It is this pride which
bear arms.
has prevented
from
the Turk
profiting by the learning and
It is this proud and
experienceof the West.
domineering spirit,
engendered by conquest and
Turkish

army

POLYGAMY

II.]

AND

strengthenedand

sanctioned

which

Muslim

makes

just ruler
The
which

the

6^

FATALISM

by religiousbelief,

incapable of being

of Christians.

other
tend

characteristics

of

prevent the Turk

to

subjectraces are
assignedto wonaan,

mainly

to

Muhamedanism
from

actingjustly

viz.,the

two,

positioji

deep-rootedbelief in,
and
influence of, fatalism.
Though these are of
great importance in examining the influence of
Islam
forbids
Each
race,

the

upon

checks
and

he would

race,

than

more

the moral

renders

the

Turkish

do

to

me

and

the

efiect.

their

indicate

material

and

allotted

space

of the

progress

the individual less intelligent

than

otherwise

The

be.

positionassignedto
is regardedby thoughtfulTurks themselves
woman
the most
unfortunate
as
part of the teaching of
their reUgion. Polygamy is permitted. Repudiation
of

wife, rather than

practice.The

common

declared

countries

by

contrary to the
woman

the term

has

no

The

inestimable

service

is

though

such

belief

authorities

in all Christian

Churches
to

the

have

hold
housebeUef

common

teachingof the Koran

soul.
Family life or home

unknown.

woman

the

true

is understood

Empire by

"

The

competent

many

divorce, is the

separationof

is the inflexible rule.

Muhamedan

formal

"

to

in

is
be

is that

hfe, as

countries,is
rendered

subject races

of

an

the

of familyhfe.
Where
preservation
custom
degraded, the
by law and

the

and in time the race

to be
comes
itself,
oifspring,
less intelligent
and, using the word in a largesense,

40

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

less educated

in countries

than

[obai..
children

where

are

brought up in the companionshipof both parents.

they are unable to become as
Being less intelligent,
their neighbours of the Christian
as
prosperous
faith,whom
they have been brought up to despise

"="

and

The

cattle.

as

Turk

from

arises from

this

influoice

of fatalism

for the^-future.
providinjEf
who
the Turkish
Those
know
populationbest are
the most
deeply impressed with the hindrance to
and
material
mental
to
development
progress

prevents the

which

make

to

to

get

"

do

not

is

What

To

Turk,

poorer

up,
the

sanctions

At

the

the

from

of

the
the

which
the

the

as

the
and

much

Sultan
this

the desire

work.

The

asked

why he
he could profit,
is,
Eternal
Books) is
encourages

hindrance

rightto

of fatalism

It is from
with

sphere

making

subjectsof

have
time

same

the doctrine

when

conqueror'spride and

they

proper

to

Muhamedanism

unbelievers, and is thus

that

Turk

the

0-"^

YHcKI

sum

certainly
helped

the average

something by
written
(in

written."

It has

operates upon

inducements

the

of the

It

fearless soldiers;but

destroysin
and

on

answer

does

Osmanlis

the

belief

same

belief.

in their lives.

action

every

r-

of

speak

for

recognition
justice.
regarding

to the

even-handed
belief

current

destiny of

and

woman

prevent the dominant

progress

are

contempt

and

as

the

race

Christian

making.

pride and

contempt, combined

knowledge of the comparative prosperity

subject Christians" and this in spite of

42

to

the Christian
under

except
the
as

the

the

[chap.
been

never

executed

where,

Even

in

as

proclamations known

famous

and of 4be-Hatt-iHatt-ijjhCTtfjafqafia,

enhghtened Sultans have

reforms,
necessityfor fundamental

of

1856,

recognized the
the

compact

has

defeated

When

have

Powers

compulsion.

of

case

Huma^n

of

GOVERNMENT

TURKISH

resistance

of

the express

demand

the
territory,

their Muslim

decrees

of the

is made

for autonomy

Powers

making

it

subjects
Sovereign.
cession

or
are

in

face

of the

to
popular behef that for a Muhamedan
sacrifice territory
territorial rightsto Christians
or
compulsion is a sin againstAllah
except under
and
the Prophet. It is useless to speak of expediency,
for expediency cannot
prevailagainsta
religious
obligation.
It would
be easier stillto show that throughout
the whole course
of Turkish history,
and especially
for
previouslyto the nineteenth
century, when
the
first time
the Powers
began to use their
in favour
influence
of the
subject races, the
the Christian
made
concessions
to
subjectsof

the
heads

have

Porte

of the

repeatedlyviolated.

been

Christian

communities

have

The

had

to

keep up a constant
struggle to maintain the
which
they possessedah antique,and
privileges
the
retention of which
was
solemnly promised;
maintain
sometimes
the right of life
to
even
itself for

they
been

Christians,which

consented
robbed

to

of

abandon
the

was

their

danger unless
faith. They have
in

majority of

their

churches.

TREATMENT

II.]

In

into

In

mosques.

devoted

Christians,

the

from

depend

the

upon

population.
foretold
to

by

the

an

In

and

short,

of

treatment

history.

Whatever

races

by

taken
have

to

have

been

religiousbelief
the

by

the

merits

always
with

been

might

Christians

their

revenues

poverty-stricken

of their

confirmed

rich

Churches

what

tian
Chris-

converted

have

one

before

for

been
the

the

entirely

have

only

church

have

worship

examination

Christian

as

manner

been

rule

remains

subscriptionsof

they possess, they

to

like

43

is still used

rest

Christian

to

there

and

all the

CHRISTIANS

existed

conquest

services

of

which

building
Muslim

the

has

itself

Constantinople

small

as

OF

shown

equity.

whole
as

Turks,
course

people

incapacity

CHAPTER

THE

STATES"

BALKAN

THE

By

decline

after

the

of

the
of

the

provinces

of

the

desolated

by

fierce

against

whose

found

httle
them

afforded
Greek

the

other

bands

of

to-day.

with

began

Ali

Servia

Empire.

complete

1820,

territory

in

nineteenth
of

detachment

1882.
ii

in

and

Tepelen,

The

oglu.

1878,

Greece

the

became

practically

an

of

those

under

Pasvanthe

witnessed

portions

with

Turkey

of

of

autonomy
an

proclaimed

was

insurgent

as

internal

independence

"

lannina

Vidin

outlyinff

was

Bushat,

century

obtained

and

the

to

of

of

as

Haiduks

and

fiefs, such

Mehemet

of

population

disintegration

or

were

Krjalis,

such

estabhshment

pashaliks

under

under

The

and

than

Klephts

Asiatic

lands

Christian

counterparts

the

independent
Skpdra

the

the

Slavonic

or

Balkan

protection

by

and

of Janissaries

ravages

Vienna

eighteenth century

European
The

Empire.

began

from

army

the

the

bands

which

power,

Turkish

in

F.B.G.S.

M.A.,

during

by increasing anarchy

TOWARDS

QUESTION

Ottoman

marked

was

ATTITUDE

BOURCHIER,

D.

retreat

1683,

THEIR

MACEDONIAN

JAMES

The

in

III

independent

increase
a

the
in
of

kingdom
kingdom

III.] DISMEMBERMENT

CHAP.

^^in

and

1882,

OF

in

been

never

in

acquired Thessaly

of Moldavia
principalities
had

TURKEY

45

Wallachia,

and

direct Turkish

under

The

1881.

which

tion,
administra-

18t"l, obtSnedJin^ependenc
wer.g_united"in
time,
1878, acquiringthe Dobriya^_the^me

and

^, Bosnia

of
kin^iom_

the

became
and

in

Rumania

1881.

the

Herzegovina were
practically
annexed
a
by Austria-Hungary in 1878, while
of Southern
Herzegovinafell to the share of
portion

'

became

',
,

In

Montenegro.

the

same

Northern

year

and
tributary principality,

Bulgaria
Southern

Rumelia," an autonomous
Bulgaria,or "Eastern
Bulgarias was
province; the union of the two
effected in 1885.
Lastly,Crete obtained complete

autonomy

in 1897.

natural

The

process

tegration
of disin-

arrested
by the
artificially
action
of Em-ope, the
mutual
jealousiesand
ambitions of the Great
Powers
preventing them
from co-operating
with a view
to the only final
and legitimate
solution of the Eastern
Question

has

"the

been

so
segregation,

various Christian

rule, and
free and

their
kindred

far

is

as

nationahties

incorporationwith

same

Asiatic

race,

the

for change
incapacity

of the
a

and

conservatism, the

to the

modern

all Oriental

Turkish

adjoining

progress, the
same

Eiu-ope,which

peoples,with

the

Ottoman

varietyof causes.
Turks
display the

indolence and
of
spirit

the

the

communities.

gradual dismemberment
Empire in Europe is due to
nomad

under

now

This

of
possible,

same

repugnance
characterises

brilliant

exception

THE

46

STATES

BALKAN

[chip.

their social system,

religion,
form
above
all,the positionassigned to women,
obstacles to advancement,
enlightenment,and the
ideas.
assimilation
of modern
They have been
let commerce,
content
to
industry,and aU the

of

Their

Japan.

by

arts

wealth

which

is accumulated, remain

in

subjectpeoples. The Muslim

is a warrior, and owes
his dominant
positionto the
sword
he exercises the jus belli,
a
; as
conqueror,
of government
reservingfor himself the privileges
and
miUtary service, and leaving to the giaour
for the
the duty of providing ways
and means
of an
maintenance
alien authority. The Muslim

the

drives
finds
on

of the

hands

the
the

such

administrative
fuel

stoking it.

system could

develop into
From

for

engine, the
A

State

Christian
founded

acquire soUdityor

never

homogeneous poUty.

the outset

the Muslim

conquerors

showed

to assimilate the
incapacityor an unwillingness
Christian
in the
the invaders
population. Had
first instance
the
imposed their rehgion on
at the point of the sword, had
vanquished races
to win them
over
they subsequently endeavoured
of equal privileges,
a
by the bestowal
complete
the
followed ; even
amalgamation might have
the germ
contained
indigenous languages which
national
of the various
revivals would
to a large
have disappeared,
Peninsula
and the Balkan
extent
of the present day, from
the Danube
to
Cape
and loyal
Matapan, would have been Muhamedan
an

to

the

Sultan.

Such

policy,however,

was

NATIONAL

III.]

REVIVALS

foreignto the spiritof

with
the subjectraces
the duty
It was

ground and
long as he
free

was

affairs to his

and domestic

gulf fixed
conqueredwas never
The

rayah
for

the

in the

unity,have
Uberation
Danubian

reahzation

heralded

and

schoolmaster

gone

chief,and
insurgent
combined

the

Albanian

movement

two

because the Albanians

certain extent,

possess

which

no

national

their

it has

Christian

the

subject
awakening

an

tion,
Revolu-

French

of Italian and

the

German

this increased

in the

of

trans-

hand

recently of
case
by a literary
propaganda. The

in

hand

with

individual

functions.
is devoid

the

more

in each

same

ment.
estrange-

culminated

Greece,

educational

an

has

the

of
gradualpercolation

and
principahties,

renaissance

case

which

Servia, of

were
Bulgaria,

to

to

movements

of

to

emplified
exprincipleof nationalities,

all tended

The

and

of the

among

it in each

later the

he

parochial

in later times

ideas,the doctrines of the

and

so

customs,

conqueror

interference

of national consciousness,
the
modern

master;

liking.

own

bridged;

bringingwith

his

settle his

Powers, the spreadof education

races,

till the

to

paid his taxes,

to

between

The

widened.

even

tion.
tolera-

traditional

pleased,and

he

contemptuous

and

his

retain

to

treated

of the

submissive

was

worshipas

Turks, who

wealth

make

to

the

47

the

has often

The

so-called

of

not only
vitality,
divided in reUgionand,
are
in dialect,but because
they

literature,and

language is taught;

no

schools

their

demand

in

for schools

which,

has

order

rejectedby the Porte,

by experience,apprehends that
sap their loyalty.

would

Bulgarian

The

complications.
freedom

and

found

have
the

themselves

confronted

Islam, but

about

which

renders

arduous.

bitterlyopposed
arrest

to

the

hostUityof

new

factor has
finitely
strugglein-

to

the

Turk,

Greeks

in 1897.

Servia
The

drew

the

secular
state

been

portionsof
and

in

by pecuhar
obtain
pohtical
the Bulgarians
not
only with

the

has

last

of

brought
the Ottoman
alike

Bulgarian expansion;

its progress,

1885, Greece

and

unenfranchised
Servians

addition

Christians

between

in the

In

Christian

Empire.
to

Thus

between

war

with

nations.

introduced
more

civil

efforts to

of their race,

sister Christian

conflict

attended

the union

of

power

been

been

their

In

revival, the

national

time, has

of

[chap.

been

always

warned

education

STATES

BALKAN

THE

48

are

in order

sword

in

sympathiesof Christian
only the friends
; not
and Philo-serbs,decry

Europe have been divided

of Turkey, but Philhellenes
their misdeeds.
the upstart Bulgars and denounce
The
crimes of Bulgarianrevolutionaries have been
pubUcations,and have
catalogued in numerous
was
enjoyed a notorietywhich
scarcelyaccorded
of other antagoniststo Turkish
to the aberrations
rule.

The

national

of Russia, which
of the

Central

its further
have

few

has lost the support

movement

favoured
Powers

and

developments.
friends, but

its

and
inception,
England, which

The

that
aided

Bulgarians,indeed,
they manifest no signsof

Christendom,
of

the

the

Russia

says

the

proverb, "the

industrious

agriculturalrace,

serfs of the

Muhamedan

of

whom

centres

the

beys,some

or

from

Constantinopleriveted their chains and precluded

of an uprising.
the possibility
It is therefore not
surprisingthat the Greek

and

Servian

the

last

in the

movements

found

century

Bulgarian

insurrection.

extinct, and

national

exist.

But

the

only factor
nationaUty. From
supremacy

The

all the

in

earlier decades

counterpart

no

national

temporal

the
the

earliest

Christian

races,

designationRum-milleti,
of the
domination
spiritual
constituted

years

were

in

ceased
was

power

elFacement

of

spiritwas

had

consciousness

Turkish

the

the

became

they

Bulgarian noble
renounced
who
Christianityafter the
proximity of the great
conquest. The
of
Turkish
mUitary power, Adrianople

Turkish

the

An

grows."

landowners

descended

were

families

and

passes,"

army

never

grass

their

against Austria

Turkish

ravages

traversed

campaigns

"Where

"

the

to

which

armies

country during

[chap.

them

exposed

and

Turkish

and

STATES

BALKAN

THE

so

of

to

not

Bulgarian

of Ottoman

comprisedunder
placed under

Greek

Patriarchate,

imperium
in imperio. The
Patriarchate, though styled
(Ecumenical
or
Universal, has always been an
Greek
and the Greek
institution,
essentially
clergy
which

thus

under

its control

the

of

have

an

never

ecclesiastical

failed

Towards
spread of Hellenism.
the
eighteenth century, Greek

to

labour

the

for

middle

ecclesiastical

GREEKS

Ill]

ascendancy

BULGARIANS

AND

its

at

was

51

zenith

the

Slavonic

Ipek and Ochrida were

suppressed,
filled by
almost all the Bulgarian dioceses were
and
the schools, in which
Phanariote prelates,
controlled by the
Greek alone was
taught, were

Patriarchates of

like the

ecclesiastics,
who,

Phanariote

clergy. The

Greek

Wallachian

and

Moldavian

hospodars

their

for
paid large sums
recouped themselves by heavy
appointments,

dues

levied

and

the

suffered

Turkish

governors,

their

on

grievously from

venality.
had
So effectually
century Greek

the

that

carried out

been

had

classes in

the

flocks, and

by

their

peasantry

rapacity and

process of Hellenization
the end

become

of the

eighteenth
language of the

the

Bulgarian towns, while the

garian
ignorantpeasants, though retainingtheir Bulspeech,declared themselves to be Greeks.
Similar conditions prevailto-day with regard to
the Bulgarianpeasants in Macedonia
who
remain
under the jurisdiction
of the Patriarchate
the
so-called
number
Bulgarophone Greeks," who
perhaps300,000, and who, with the Patriarchist
Vlachs and Serbs, are styled Greeks
in statistics
Athens.
and
The
compiled at Constantinople
resurrection of the Bulgariannation is one
of the
wonders
of the past century. Every trace of the

upper

the

"

"

"

"

former
old

national

existence, every

had
Bulgariandynasties,

Ottoman

conquest

became
manuscripts

record

vanished

literature

"

of

the

with

the

disappeared;

the food of moths

and

the

worms,

52

or

fell

clergy." The
till

survived

it

when

1825

Phanariote

Patriarchs

of the

hbrary

[chap.

of the

fanaticism

the

to

prey

STATES

BALKAN

THE

of Trnovo

burnt

was

by

the

When
MetropolitanHilarion.
writingwas
other purposes,
or
the
employed for commercial
written
in Greek
acters.
charBulgarian language was
of the literary
revival was
The
precursor
Greek

the

Paisii of

monk

Istoria

Slaveno

educational

race.

merchants

refugeesand

(1762), whose

saints,recalled the

the

glories of

Athos

Bolgarshi,a historyof

and

tsars

Mount

Bucarest

The

garian
Bul-

long-forgotten
of
Bulgarian

number
at

the

initiated the

result of their

activity
of a series of unpretending
the appearance
was
educational works
elementarytreatises,
grammars,
written in the modern
etc.
language. The opening
of the first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo
in 1835
marked
an
important era in the historyof the
movement.

"

"

national

within

movement;

fiftyBulgarian schools

some

had

education
the

In

ceased

establishment

played by

was

monastery, where
had

been

ages

of alien
A

Greek

to

be

of

maintained

next

were

at

Greek

schools

Neophyt,
the

the

Slavonic

ten

work,

fi-om

ritual and
the

RUo

language

long dark

domination.

revolt

against the spiritual

authorityof
The
hierarchyfollowed.
historyof

remarkable

and

monopcdy.
leading part

monk

throughout

years

struggle,which

reveals

the

the
this

peculiar
of the Bulgarian chai'tenacity and perseverance
been
acter, has never
adequatelywritten. The

Ill] REVOLT

conflict

AGAINST

continued

THE

for

PATRIARCHATE

forty

53

(1830-1870).

years

incessant
memorials
Bulgarians addressed
and petitionsto the Patriarchate, which
times
someappeared disposed to negotiate,but in
to all
generalopposed a resolute non possumus
The

Greeks

denounced

their demands.

The

of the movement

guiltyof "phyletism,"i.e.the
racial questionsinto the government
as

of

introduction

Church,

and

of them

to

of the
banish

some

induced
Asia

the

districts which

the

Minor.

part the Bulgariansmaintained

in

the leaders

Porte
On

continual

their

tion
agita-

constitute

now

to

the

and
and in Macedonia,
.of the
some
Principality,
Greek
compelled to take to flight.
prelateswere
At length the Bulgarian leaders, despairingof a
to
compromise with the Patriarchate, determined
follow
of the former
the example set by some

of

rulers

nation

their

and

to

transfer

their

Rome.
Their
favoured
to
design was
allegiance
saw
an
by the Emperor Napoleon III., who
influence
opportunityfor the increase of French
in the East; a deputation proceeded to Rome,
and
Sokolski
consecrated
a
was
priest named
bishop of the Bulgarian Uniate Church
(1861).
The
threatened
defection
of the
Bulgarians

from

the

alarm

in

fold

of

was

the

Orthodox

Russia, where
be

something must
brothers"

the

from
secret

done

it

was

to

Church

excited

recognized that

prevent

the

"little

first step
The
lapsinginto error.
deportationof Mgr. Sokolski, who

from
disappeared

the

scene

and

was,

it is stated,

54

immured
of
in

the
"

in

Western

and

France

supportedthe Bulgariancause,
in

drew

1869

up

to create

At

noted

Church

an

under

rejectedby

was

the present

the

Sultan, nothing loath

last the

his Christian

the Bulgarian
establishing

firman

Exarch

resident

twelve

are

Exarch

limits of

and

(Nish

was

fifteen

to

the

within

Bulgarian State, two

nople
Constanti-

at

(February 28th, 1870). The

invested with the right of nomination
dioceses, of which

Vizier

ecclesiastical

permanent barrier between

issued
subjects,

stantinople
Con-

England, now

of

scheme

new

slavist,
Pan-

at

the Grand

and

which, however,
organization,
Patriarchate.

Moscow

at

and

in

great

Ambassador

but

vogue

counterpart

convoked

Russian

only Russia,

in

a
Ignatieff,

General

principle

Russia;

in
was

congress

became

Not

its

movement

"

1867,

The

much

so

found

Europe,

Panslavist

[chap.

monastery.

nationalities,at this time

Slavophil

in

Russian

STATES

BALKAN

THE

Pirot)

comprised in the Servian kingdom, and

The
is in Macedonia.
one
(Veles or Kiipriilii)
Article 10
other dioceses in disputemight, under
of the firman, be included
in the Exarch's
diction
jurisare

now

should

two-thirds

desire.

so

virtue

In

Bulgarian prelateswere
Ochrida

in 1872, but

of their Christian
of

failed

to

provision

this

appointed to
obtain

lation
popu-

Uskiib
the

and

Turkish

exsequatur.
The
Church

creation

of

an

autonomous

Bulgarian

possessed important political

significance.

THE

Ill]

BULGARIAN

EXARCHATE

55

Not

only was the existence of the Bulgarian nation

limits were
to some
recognized,but its geographical
extent
defined, the rightof appointmentto dioceses
(underArticle 10) extending as far south as Fiorina.
Undaunted

contrived

resist, and

to

of the

execution

Patriarchate

its defeat, the

by

to

tiU 1872,

firman

tinued
con-

delay

the

the

first

when

It
elected.
BulgarianExarch, Mgr. Antim, was
shot
its last bolt
then
by declaring the new
and
Church
schismatic
excommunicating all its
No

adherents.

doctrinal

apostasy could

be

alleged

aim
to reconwas
stitute
againstthe Bulgarians,whose
the
old
church
autocephalous national
of
Patriarchates
formerly represented by the

Preslav, Trnovo,

Ochrida.

and

Patriarchates

ancient

autocephalousChurches
States, the
side

set up

the

Ottoman
not

of

the

has exercised

portion of
fearing the
has

national
The
a

fresh

the

non-Greek
in independent

Church

was

Patriarchate

Greek

the

in

garia
PrincipaUty of BulThe
existence.
tion
indignabe
therefore
easily
may

the

fulmination
deterrent

of

the

influence

Patriarchate

over

certain

Bulgarian population, which,

reproach of

of
come,

Greeks
The

understood.

Bulgarian

new

Empire,
being then in

various

established

were

side with

by

the

and

the

while

But,

excommunication

refrained

from

and

schism
in

the

adhering to

the

sequences
con-

world
the

to
new

Church.
of ecclesiasticalautonomy gave
acquisition
impulse to the educational activitywhich

has

done

for the

much

so

STATES

BALKAN

THE

56

[ohai".
of

consolidation

garian
Bul-

the

prolongedstruggle
with
chiefs
the Patriarchate, various revolutionary
endeavoured
to incite the people to revolt against
nationality.During

the

without

Turks, but

of

influence

the

underwent

now

Bulgarian
by pacificmeans,

conducted

hitherto

movement,

The

success.

the

Panslavist

General
the
IgnatiefFwas
propaganda, of which
leading spirit;a secret organizationspread its
ramifications
throughout the Slavonic provinces
of Turkey, and the population,
alreadyexasperated
tered
adminisPasha, who
by the severities of Midhat
the

from
1864
to
"vilayetof the Danube"
1868, were
ripe for revolt when the insurrection
in the Herzegovina and Bosnia
(1875) precipitated
the catastrophe.
The
took
place preBulgarian rising,which
maturely
in
and

the

1876),

was

It

let

weeks

the

25,000

children

were

Shefket

Pasha

of

Gora

massacred.
was

Erzeroum,

chieftain, who

put

while
5000

hand"

"free

within

men,

For

rewarded

mandant,
com-

Circassians

and

30,000

which

horrors

and
villages,
to

founded.

Turkish

apparentlygiven

upon

some

the
the

Pasha,

Sultan, bashi-buzuks

loose

well

too

describe

to

Shefket
was

the

dnly

was

is unnecessary

followed.

by

Sredna

neighbourhood of Philippopolis(May,
prompted by the fear of a general
which

massacre,

the

districts of

the

with

Achmet

peasants

women,

these
the

were
a

few
and

exploits
ship
governor-

Aga,

to

the

Pomak
sword

soldier of

STATES

BALKAN

THE

58

Europe,"

and

[chap.
of

campaign

the

1877-

1878.

The
dictated
of

of

treaty

Constantinople,enlarged
realized

nation.

the

The

new

it created

extended

mountains

of

the

It

Pirot

and

in

reserved

as

own

annexation

become

Russian

initiative of

the

such

the

gates

territorial basis

1876,

Black

from

and

Sea

the

cally
practi-

included

the

the

to

Danube

outlet to the

of Bessarabia.

that

that

the

possessedan

believing
a

at

1878),

to

terranean
Medi-

districts

of

to
Vranja subsequently attributed
comprised all the regionsof European
the
which
Bulgarian element
dominates
preRussia
except the Dobruja, which
for her
compensation to Rumania

Servia, and

Turkey

from

Kavala,

at

March

aspirationsof the Bulgarian

autonomous
which
Principality

Albania, and

Mgeaxi.

the

of

Conference

the

adopted by

(3rd

Russians

victorious

the

by

Stefano

San

this

The

great Powers,

territorywould

extensive

dependency,intervened
be no
There
can
England.

consummation

held

was

on

the

doubt

in view

by

the

dogged tenacity
of character, which
subsequently enabled the
Bulgarians to maintain their independenceagainst
little suspected
at this time
odds, was
enormous
aimed
which
either by Russia
or
by the Powers
at
the
counteracting her designs. Had
"Big
Bulgaria" of San Stefano been allowed to exist,
the emancipation of Bulgaria from
ence
influRussian
liberatingPower;

would

have

been

but

even

more

rapid.

The

RUSSIAN

III.]
once
Bulgarians,

would

have

INFLUENCE

59

installed in their

had

nothing

rightfulheritage,
to

more

from

expect

Russia.
It is

in politics
true
that gratitude
especially
in
consists
a
lively anticipationof favours
The
to
come.
Bulgarians possess in no small
unamiable
degree that healthy though somewhat

characteristic

which

is

styled egoism in the

individual,but becomes
patriotismin the nation,
and such devotion as they have hitherto manifested
has been
towards Russia
largelyinspiredby the
the

expectationthat
would, in her
the
has

great

good time,

own

Stefano.

of San
provisions
long since proved
the

protecting Power

be

to

less furnished

carry
That

into

effect

expectation

delusion,but

it has

the

Russophil politicians
in the Principality
with
a
highly seductive argument:
do
"without
Russia
we
can
nothing"
bes Rossia ne
mozhem
has always been the text
of their discourses, and
the moral
they deduce
is that the realization of the national aspirations
depends on a policy of complete subserviencyto
the dictates of St Petersburg. With
a
port at
Kavala, the
Big Bulgaria of San Stefano would
none

"

"

"

"

have

been

open

to

Western

influences ; in

portion
pro-

strengththe Bulgarians
in even
a
greater degree
independence which the

to their increased

would
the

have

manifested

spiritof
little Principality,
of
the
outcome
Treaty,displayedfrom the outset.
It is easy, in the lightof events,
stubborn

the

to

Berhn

reproach

Lord

Beaconsfield

destroy

the

STATES

BALKAN

THE

60

helped him to
treaty, with political
who

those

and

Stefano

San

[chap.

short-sightedness.The

Russian

drew

equally astray
the
facilitating

the

up

treaty

were

of

calculations; instead
of

Russia

formidable

The

progress.

divided

of

Berlin

three

into

the

Danube

districts

of

Sofia

the

and
and

the

valleys of
maritime

Turkish

Rumelia,"

under

of San

structing
con-

(13th
Stefano

The

Balkans

Rhodope

region
with

the

became

the

the

tract

Bulgaria;

Christian

advance

southward

the

"

Maritza
Tunja and
of Burgas, constituted
province,described as
a

their

were

upper

with

"

district

in

followed

KiostendU

and

Balkans

her

sections.

tributary Principalityof
the

to

"Big Bulgaria"

between

between

they

barrier

Treaty

The

July 1878).
was

Mediterranean

the

to

who

statesmen

an

the
nomous
auto-

"Eastern

Governor-

General;

the

remaining territories,comprising the greater

and
the Bulgariansanjaks of
part of Macedonia
the

Turkish

left under

Adrianople vilayet,were

administration.
The

to

confirmed

Powers

of

by
;

Rumelia

the

the

received

unhappy

rule is recorded

with

Porte

its

the

organization at

Commission

all that

districts handed
in

the

much

of the

assent

province

autonomous

European

for the

the

Principalitywere
frame
their
to
politicalconstitution
choose
their Prince, his election being

allowed
and

of

inhabitants

back

-quoted

of

Eastern

the
was

to

hands
done

Turkish

Article

23

BULGARIAN

III.]

INDEPENDENCE

61

of the

to receive institutions
Treaty, They were
analogous to the Cretan Organic Statute of 1868,

which

the

statute

Porte

undertook

apply

to

scrupulously,"en
y apportant les modifications
qui seraient jugdesdquitables."The words quoted
have
the
a
as
special importance, inasmuch
Statute
Cretan
was
shortly after modified, in
"Pact
of this provision,by the
of
pursuance
in the firman
Halepa,"an arrangement embodied
of November

in

which,

1878,

addition

other

to

conferred
the
Cretans
on
important privileges,
considerable
a
a
Assembly with
representative
23
majority of Christian
deputies. Article
Porte
further engaged the
to
appoint special

commissions, in which
be

the

native

largelyrepresented,for

the

element

should

of elaborating

pui-pose

the

proposed reforms, and, before promulgating

the projectresulting
fi:om their labours, to
take the opinion of the Commission
for Eastern
Rumelia.
Characteristically
enough, the Porte
and the Commission,
presented a projectof its own,
takingthis as a basis, drew up the elaborate
"Law

of

which
and

received

never

remains
From

Vilayets" (23rd August

the

the

dead

firm
full

the

national

of

newly

this

to

secure

the

Sultan

day.

their
created

strong democratic

determination
measm-e

of

sanction

letter to

first hour

Bulgarians of
manifested

the

1880),

for

hberation

the

Principality
spirit,and

themselves

and
freedom
complete
political
independence. The
peasant deputies.

of

62

who

formed

met

at
"

the

Trnovo

anti

in

for the

the
most

the

part

to

led

by

radical and

Tzankoff

conservative
Prince

by

up

Russian

evident

displayed an

Governor

tendency

Dondukoif-

General, and
rebel

to

Prince
tutelage. The young
the Assembly
Battenberg, whom
of

Russia

elected

April 29th, found

a
positionof the
time

of

his

Prince

himself

of

from

and

feature in

Russian
of

which

"

drawn

Korsakoff, the

"

Notables

word
adopted as their watchBulgarians ; they attached

foreign movement
Karaveloff, rejected every
Constitution

[chap.

1879,

the

of

Assembly

"

Bulgariafor

themselves

STATES

BALKAN

THE

against

Alexander
the proposal

on

Bulgaria on

the

outset

At
greatest difficulty.

arrival the

whole

civil and

in

the

military

of his
Conscious
authoritywas in Russian hands.
obhgations to Russia and devoted to his uncle,
the Tsar Alexander
to shape
II.,he endeavoured
his pohcy in accordance
with the wishes of the
liberatingPower, and selected his first ministry
from

small

of

group

"

Conservative

"

and

he was
soon
compelled
Russophilpoliticians
; but
before the radical and ultra- Bulgarian
to give way
in power,
passed an alien
majority,which, once
law, and proceeded to oust the Russians from the
various lucrative posts in which
they had installed
themselves.
and

The

Russians

made

eventually the Prince,

determined

d'etat,and
assumed

with

absolute

stiU

to solve the

the consent
power

on

stout

under

resistance,
Russian

problem by

of his

fluence,
incoup

uncle, the Tsar,

May 9th,

1881.

QUARREL

Ill]

WITH

fell

Bulgarianow

RUSSIA

once

63

under

more

Russian

generals,SobolefF and Kaulgovernment. Two

St Petersburg,concentrated
bars, despatchedfrom
all the
Prince

in

administration
became

their

hands,

and

the

spectator of their activity.

mere

length,finding his position intolerable, he

approached the Bulgarian leaders and brought
TzankofF
coalition of all partiesunder
about
a

At

on

the

basis of

of

restoration

the

Constitution

who
had formed
(September 1883). The generals,
him
remove
by force,were
compelled to
a plotto
beat a hasty retreat.
Swine, scoundrels, liars !
he
cried
Kaulbars, as
quitted the Sobranye,
cheered
by the triumphant Bulgarians.
derisively
"

"

The
it

breach
was

with

destined

soon

shortlybecame
events

Russia

the
which

to

theatre

complete,and
widened.
Bulgaria

indeed

was

be
of

concentrated

series of remarkable
the

attention

Europe, and resulted in the enlargement of

its
the Principalityand
the
consolidation
of
independence.
On
September 18th, 1885, took place the
-bloodless revolution
of Phihppopolis. The
union
of

of Eastern

Rumelia

with

Bulgariawas proclaimed,
and Prince Alexander
entered
Phihppopolisamid
the acclamations
of the people. This bold stroke
effected without difficulty,
inasmuch
was
as Turkey
had refrained from exercising
of sending
her privilege
troops into the province. The situation was
nevertheless precarious
in the extreme.
Europe was
scandalized at the violation of the Berlin Treaty,

64

STATES

BALKAN

THE

[chap.

and

England alone gave encouragement to the

Bulgarians. Turkey, urged by Russia to reconquer
her forces on
the revolted province,massed
the
and invaded
frontier,while Servia promptly declared war
At this criticalmoment
the Principality.
the
Tsar withdrew
the Russian
officers who occupied
the
higherposts in the Bulgarianarmy ; but the troops
and
proved equal to the emergency.
Ill-equipped
commanded
subalterns, they routed
by young
SUvnitza
the invaders
at
(November 19th) and
Tsaribrod, pursued them
and

captured Pirot,
when

Austrian

into

Servian

territory,

marching

were

intervention

put

end

an

on

Nish

to the

paign.
cam-

Fortimatelyfor Bulgaria,
Turkey remained
union of the two
inactive at this juncture. The
achieved
by the war,
Bulgarias was
practically
subsequentlyratified by the Convention
Top-khane (April5th, 1886),under which Prince

and
of

was

of
recognisedas Governor-General
Rumelia.
The
Eastern
abUity of the Bulgarians
their political
salvation had come
as
out
to work
So
both to England and to Russia.
a revelation
long as the Bulgariansmaintain their independence,
be incompatible
of their race
would
the union
Alexander

with

Russia's

Prince
union

the

removal
and

was

had

the

became

in

success

immediate

cause

already begun

Bulgarian

Balkans.

in the

programme

Alexander's

proved
He

with

was

cause

necessary

accomplished by

to

in
to

the
effecting
of

associate
Macedonia.

the ends

means

fall.
his down-

of

himself
His

of Russia,
a

military

THE

Saxe-Coburg

Gotha

He

the Sultan

declined
the

were

made

about

disorder, but

by

partisansof

Prince

revolution,and

by

the

by

conversion

to conciUate

Prince

after

Sultan

Among
impose

in

with

the

Russia

faith

following
streets

recognitionfrom

the

conditions

the

proposal, which

heir-

Powers.

Russia

Bulgaria at this time was

of the Bulgarian Church

The

sealed

was

investiture from

which

removal

of

(1896),and shortly

received

the

; in

Boris, the

and

on

the

Russia

in the

Prince

Ferdinand

Patriarchate, and
Sofia.

of

the Orthodox

apparent,to
the

determined

reconciliation

The

Sofia.

in

apprehensive of a
recognitionstilldelayed

resigned,and
barbarously murdered

was

year

reaction

Stamboloff

1894

the

by

bring
vigilant

to

Ferdinand,

findinghis

the Powers,

in

despotic methods,

however, eventuallyproduced
country.

Russia

frustrated

were

StambolofF, whose

of

Sobranye.

by Russia,

usurper

the

the Powers
and
susceptibilities
Fresh efforts
to recognisehim.

to whose

deference

energy

as

[ohap.

by

elected

was

denounced

was

STATES

BALKAN

66

of

the

aimed

at

soughtto
the

the

with

Exarch
the

conciliation
re-

to

final

Bulgars from their

the Principality,
brethren
of
provoked no little
resolutelyand
indignationin Bulgaria,and was
opposed by the Exarch
successfully
Joseph. In
of
separation

this

1902

the

Macedonian

eminent

ecclesiastic,statesman,

patriotcelebrated

the

elevation

the

his

Church

amid

to

universal

and

twenty-fifthanniversaryof

headship

of

in
rejoicings

the

national

all the

lands

STAMBOLOFF

Ill]

inhabited

AND

his services to the

and

administrative

Bulgariancause

of StambolofF

those

67

He
has
Bulgarian race.
extraordinarydifficultywith

tact, courage,

to

JOSEPH

the

by

positionof
and

MGR.

rank

filled a
summate
con-

abihty,
second

alone.

The

men
jointaction of these two remarkable
in Macedonia
on
a
placed the Bulgarianmovement
new
footing. At first the Exarch, hke the rest of
the possibihtyof
the Bulgarian clergy,doubted
pursuinga policyindependentof,or hostile to, that
of Russia ; but nothing succeeds like success,
and
with the
he soon
entered into hearty co-operation
The
dictator at Sofia.
keynote of Stampatriotic

interested Mendship with

an
policy was
Turkey ; this object he pursued by a varietyof
or
methods, alternately
caressing
bullyingthe Porte
circumstances
as
required. Thus, in 1890, when
boloff's

his
the

positionhad
of
intrigues

been

rendered

desperateby

the machinations

and

Russia

almost

of his

menacing Note to Turkey,

demanding the recognitionof Prince Ferdinand,
and the restitution of the rightsof the national
enemies, he addressed

church

in Macedonia

the

the Porte

hastened

Bulgarianprelatesat
once

the

most

ferment

in

similar

course

was

in
agitation

fomented
by a deliberately
and

demand

to

enforced

that country,

grant the exsequatur

Ochrida

and

cordial relations

Uskiib.

were

All

to
at

restored, the

Macedonia

disappeared,and presently
visited Constantinople,where
he was
Stamboloff
received with high honour
by the Sultan.
By a
of action

he

extracted

further

con-

cessions

at

STATES

BALKAN

THE

68

[chap.

periods,includingherats

different

for

Thanks
bishopsat Nevrokop and Veles in 1894.
and the
to the diplomatictriumphs of StambolofF
skill of Mgr. Joseph,the Bulgarian
administrative
entirelyby
propaganda in Macedonia, conducted
made
astonishing progress
peaceful methods,
and

between

1889

obtained

tended

rather

the

than

to

the

But

1894.

benefit

future

present, and

advantages
generation

little to

did

grindingtyranny and oppressionto

was
subjected.
population

which

the

restoration of Russian

The
led to

recrudescence
Stamboloff

which

generallybeUeved
would

henceforth

revive

the

influence in

of the Macedonian

the

Bulgaria
agitation

It was
kept well in hand.
in the Principality
that Russia
and
favour Bulgarianaspirations

had

programme
Russia

that

was

assuage

had

years before

of San

Stefano.
that

abandoned

The

truth

programme

is she

likelyto revert to
in bringing the existing
she succeeds
it unless
into a state of complete tutelage; a
Principality
strong,independent Bulgaria,extending from the
be a fatal obstacle
Danube
to the ^gean, would
to her cherished
designs.
ten

some

situation

The

by

in

; nor

Bulgaria was

"regularized"

of Prince
Ferdinand, and since
recognition
the historyof the country has fortunately
event

the

that

ceased
incidents.
not

that

to

The

sacrificed,as
since

May

present

series

independence
may
1903

be
a

of

gathered

of

dramatic

Bulgaria

was

from

fact

Stambolovist

the
and

anti-

THE

III.]
Russian

ministry

Ferdinand
of the

BULGARIAN

incurred

was

been

much

reconciliation
observers

course

has

with

will

in

69

obloquy

the

at

Russia, but

him.

Prince

power.

maintain

to

open

NATION

few

that
The

petent
com-

other

any

bulk

time

of

the

nation

unquestionablydesired a solution of the

protracted crisis and the restoration of normal
conditions.
The
have
Bulgarians, however,
tion
taught Russia a lesson, and since the reconciliathat
at

Power

least, from
affairs.

maintain

their

This

all appearance

interference

Whether

in
liberty

they

wUl

the future

themselves, but

of support which
Western

refrained,to

undue

internal

degreeon

has

mainly

Europe, and

more

with
be

their

able

depends in
on

the

to

some

amount

the
especially

Powers, may see fit to accord them.

virile, laborious, thrifty, and

severing
per-

has

qualities
displayed many
which
entitle it to play an
important part in
South-Eastern
the
ftiture history of
Europe.
of its troubled
During the twenty-six years
existence the young
Bulgarian State has made
Education
has
almost
phenomenal progress.
stituted
advanced
rapidly;public works have been ina
on
large scale; the country has been
has
of railways
with a network
covered
; wealth
tained,
undoubtedly increased, and order has been mainof great difficulty.
often in circumstances
The
military organizationreceives high praise
from foreignexperts. Notwithstandingthe recent
race

economic

the
crisis,

financial

situation

compares

the

[chap.

that of the sister States, inasmuch

favourablywith
as

STATES

BALKAN

THE

70

national

debt

small.
proportionately

is

have
worked
wonders.
Bulgarians indeed
They have existed since the Treaty of Berlin
in conditions
anything but favourable to development.
active
no
friends,and
They have had
they have had to contend with very active and
unscrupulous foes. Assassins have been hired to

The
"

murder

their

have

lived
the

by

leading citizens; foreignemissaries

basest

Servians,

the

them

among

apprehensionof
foe.
They have
a

calm

the

faced
and

by

far

all these

for the reversion

Balkan

of

powerful

difficulties with
of

which

any

Servia.

Peninsula
with

the

has

have

always regarded
more

rightful hmits
boundaries

there
in

element
1

The

any

these

or

of

been

less

pages.
the

less
their

is

part

no

of

States

be

dealt

The

of

intimately
than

Question

only

can

outline

as

other

Macedonian

Bulgaria,and
in

of the

progress

mere

Stefano

constant

Turk."

of the

rise and

connected
that

in

more

perseverance

(B) Greece, Rumania,

the

fight

to

proud, and have proved themselves

solid and trustworthyof the claimants

most

The

had

lived
a

revolution

be

might

race

have

they

invasion

courage

have

they

means;

and

stir up

to

with

in

Bulgarians

boundaries

of

San

adequately definingthe
beyond those
considerable
Bulgarian
race;

the

Peninsula

4th Oct.
Times, leading
article,

1892.

except

BALKAN

III.]
the

Dobruja,

therefore

AMBITIONS

and

been

the

national

concentrated

Adrianople vilayet. The

immigration into Bulgaria
a

into

powerful

Greece

influence

^there has
Servia

or

other

the

and

Greece, Rumania,
many

other

Epirus,
the
Greek
upon
the
of

the

islands

Ionian

"

of

the

Macedonia,
'iSea

Rumanian

recovery

of

"

had

aspirationsof

the

the

eyes

time

tended

in

establishment
of the

Greeks

Thessaly,
Islands," Crete, Cyprus,
Archipelago,and the large
to

Asia

in

all of

upon

Minor,

which

Great

the

Idea.

only

Bessarabia

fi"om

be

well

as

as

comprised

are

can

unity

has

"

no

situation.

have

Since

time

settlements

MeydXri

Servia

Kingdom

fixed from

been

been

economic

national

directions.

of the Hellenic
have

the

hand,

and

popular feeling and

the PrincipaUty,and

on

developments in
political
has considerably
affected the
On

Macedonia

great Macedonian

"

influx

energies have

on

the

similar

11

The

in

dream

reaUsed

by

Russia, and

the
the

of the large Ruman

populationunder
absorption
Hungarian rule in Transylvania. The bulk of
the

nation

Serbo-Croat

is

still under

Austrian

Hungarian rule in Dalmatia, Bosnia, the

Herzegovina,and Croatia, while a portion of it
a
separate poUtical organizationin
possesses
or

Montenegro.
may

be

Servian

The

to

Macedonia

afterthought.While
been
their rivals have
largely
variety of aims, the Bulgarians

described

as

energiesof
by a
dissipated
have
given undivided
the

claim

an

attention

to

their

THE

Macedonian

programme,

has

purpose
The

way

with

Not

only

that

of

is there
in

population
in

the

maritime

commercial
furnish
the

on

entitled

there

of
intelligence

with

is

is

to

the

Greeks, their

activity,

which, if inadmissible

marked

no

future

given

pretensions of

to

tion
considera-

districts where

the

Greeks

cultivated

more

dehmitation.
the

least

at

preponderancethe

national

in

any

in

that

say,

be

the

the

educational

and

claims

preferencemay
race

generally
superior

principleof nationalities,are
in specialcases
certain
to
a

that

Rumanians.

peninsula,and

districts, but

supremacy

them

in any

genuinelyGreek
Macedonia
(south of

Chalcidic

civilization and

and

to

considerable

Southern

Kastoria),the

regard

compared

Servians

the

of

activity.
with

be

of course,

cannot,

their

Greeks

the

position of

[chap.

concentration

and

strengthto

lent

Macedonia

STATES

BALKAN

this,

Beyond
based

their

on

racial

It is
entertained.
be
superioritycannot
only natural that they should appeal to the past
gloriesof HeUas, for the sympathies which these
been
evoke
have
of inestimable
advantage to
them
in their struggle for libertyand
at every
Athens
subsequent stage of their history. At
hears

one

much

Aristotle, but

of
these

for
significance
Macedonian
we

Question.

find it at

what

race

the

or

the
races

Alexander
illustrious

the
names

possess

practicalsettlement
We

must

or

of

take Macedonia

present day, without

ruled

and

Great

no

the
as

considering

occupiedit in

the

past;

74

THE

Central
an

Powers

times

recent

[chap.

at this

periodpresents
counterpart to their policy in
the
secret
sjnnpathiesof Russia
Russia

and

instructive

STATES

BALKAN

sacrificed to
struggUng Christians were
the
principlesof the Holy Alliance, which
regarded all resistance to constituted authority
with

the

abhorrence, while

with

that
affected

the

Christian State

the

to

be

sidered
con-

injuriously

of

strong

in South-Eastern

Europe.
Russia, England, and
the

rescue

the

hands

limits

which

at

Powers

establishment

last

at

intervened

three

their interests would

by

When

all

Greeks

of Ibrahim

from

and

his

France

tion
extermina-

Egyptians,
the newly-

they assigned to
such as to
constituted
Greek
State (1832) were
condemn
it to a prolonged strugglefor existence.
The three Powers, indeed, were
intenselyjealous

of each

other, and

uppermost
successful
was

in

for Greece
her

in

their

but

programme.

this

of

obtain
not

was

"La

r^duite
de

la

ottomane
k

n'exister

mais

plus

que

Russie, convenait

settlement

coup

mieux

la
a

la

monarchic,

cette
sous

with

Nesselrode,

wrote

le dernier

Russia

in accordance

Russie,"

the

to

1829,

better

not

was

Owing

and

1828

"pouvait peut-^tre donner

monarchic

of Greece

calculations.

campaigns
positionto
;

future

the

ses

protection
inter"ts

combintoutes
pohtiques et commerciaux
que
aisons qui I'auraient forcee,soit k trop s'etendre par
des conquStes,soit a substituer k I'empu-eottoman
des Etats
qui n'auraient pas tarde k rivaUser avec

GREEK

III.]
la Russie

de

POLICY

puissance,de civilisation,d'industrie

et de richesse."

This

confession

is as true

to-day as when
Accordingly,Greece
Thessaly,neither Crete
on

her

trouble

Samos,

in the

future.

The

earUer

marked

by

internal

were

of the

case

conditions

democratic

started

was

which

and

1832

presaged

decades

of her

convulsions

as

six Constitutions

1864

successivelyapplied. The

were

and

intriguesof
were
representedby
English parties at

and

French,

between

Epirusnor

sister States ; the

protectingPowers

Russian,

Athens

received neither
nor

policy

written.

was

under

the three
the

it

of Russian

career

existence
in the

75

Constitution

last, the

of

ultra-

has

1864,

been

observed
by King George, who
conscientiously
in 1863
vacated
by the
occupied the throne
depositionof King Otho, the first Sovereign.
Under
King George the country has enjoyed
relative internal tranquillity
owing to the
; but
national craving for expansion a series of popular
convulsions and costlymilitary
demonstrations
have
occurred

at

successive

each

Question, ruining the

culminatingin
In

1854,

of Russia
and

; an

miUtary

disastrous

Greek
effort

of the

finances

sympathy
was

made

the

Cretan

efforts.

Thessalywas

In

attempted.

In

refused to grant the extension

State, and

on

was

to

insurrection
1877-1878

Eastern

of 1897.

war

the

side

acquireEpirus,

troops occupied the

French

1866-1868

the

crisis of the

Piraeus.

led to
the

renewed

invasion

1881, when
of frontier

In

of

Turkey
approved

76

the

by

another

STATES

BALKAN

THE

Conference

of

mobilization

took

[chap.

ambassadors

Berlin,

at

place.Thessalywas eventually
ceded
to Greece, but
Turkey succeeded in
retainingEpirus,which, up to the river Kalamas,
had been
accorded
to Greece
by the Conference.
In

after

1886,

there

blockaded

the

Crete

the

to

Greek

led to the

discord

of
acquisition

Some

from

Crete

the

secret

controlled
war,

and
The

no
on

the

the

the

Turkish

the

the

national

cause

though
in reality

progress

in the

hope

Epirus by

the
over

Greek
a

that

Greece.

of

Hetaeria,

time

practically
decided

on

frontier.

enterpriseinvolved
few strategical
points

border, but its consequences

in

that

of hostiUties

country,
the

in

facilitate the

outbreak

at

territorybeyond

Thessahan

conflict with

rule,but the Eihnike

its bands

army

the definite withdrawal

societywhich
the policy of

failure of

Greek

1897,

would

that country and

had announced

sent

loss of

Powers

Powers

the insurrection

Bulgarian

at

before

the

trouble, was

undertaken

was

six weeks

the Powers

of

war

Cretan

alarm

among

disastrous

The

the

and

Macedonia,

Philippopolis,

1897

despatch of

the

followed.

arisingout of
prompted by

of

In

ports.

island, and

Turkey

revolution

mobilization, and

another

was

in

the

Macedonia

were

to

serious

the Turks
enough. During and after the war
persecutedthe adherents of the Greek Patriarchate,
as
they now
persecute the Bulgarians,with the
result that a largenumber
of Patriarchist Bulgarian
went
to the Exarchate.
over
The prestige
villages

HELLENISM

Ill]

of the Greek

AND

Kingdom

in Macedonia.

It

MACEDONIA

diminished
considerably

was

was

77

indeed,

never,

great

as

as

supposed by the authors of the war, who

expectedthat a generalinsurrection would follow

was

the outbreak

of hostilities. Had

initial successes,

the army

gained
tion
popula-

the

genuinelyGreek
in the Chalcidic peninsulaand the Bistritza
it
revolted; as
valley would
probably have
no
pation,
happened,there was
risingat all. The anticifounded, not on a
strangelyenough, was
well-matured
scheme
based
on
insurrectionary
a
but on
the belief,which
wide-spreadorganization,
some

has grown

into

creed, that the

majorityof

vast

the Macedonian

populationis Hellenic both in race

sympathies. This doctrine is inculcated in

and

school

text-books

and

in

Greek

frontier

the

Une

least at

that

at

of

pamphlets written

eflfbrthas been

no

test,such

as

would

of the Macedonian
The

be

learned

by the
the
patriotism,
briUiant

Greek
in

the

Balkans,

is

at

or

accepted with

; it is

defended

with

countless

books

and

Greek, EngUsh,
made

to

put

afforded

by

of

it to
an

French

or
a

practical

organization

Greek

conveyed

1897
to

reason

fear, has

nation.

loftiest

advocacy

avail littlewithout

process of

and

draw

peasantry.

misfortunes

which, there is

most

in

which

of the

Rhodope,

faith by every
implicit
great literaryabihty

but

maps,

The

not

lesson

yet

most

been

ardent

the
spiritof self-sacrifice,
of

Hellenic

claims,

can

the laborious,patient,
disciplined

which
and organization
preparation

alone

bring

can

issue.

Within

httle has

successful

Greek

seven

national

the

up

to

the

the

in

done

build

[chap.

movement

without

and

been

to

war

national

STATES

BALKAN

THE

78

Kingdom
since the

years

Even

future.

the

has not yet been taken

of the army
reorganization
field for Greek expansionis
in hand.
The legitimate
wide indeed.
Epirus,perhaps aU southern Albania,
southern

under

be united

central

the

Greek

Macedonia

the

future

years ago

the

restoration

might

have

civilization

than

has forbidden

The

Question has
of

detain
had

no

either

of

the

hundred

Byzantineempire

Greek;

Christians of

the

but

within

the reahzation

not

part, knew

most

races

grovrth and

Servia need

history

the

Balkan

revival of the

of the

yet

northern

fall within

State.

for
possible,

seemed

may

But

not

Hellenic

Peninsula, for the

the

Minor,

crown.

will

of

hmits

Asia

portions of

possiblysome
and

the islands of the Levant, and

Macedonia,

the

other

national

the past century

of such
of

progress

no

dream.

Rumania

and

long,for the Macedonian

important bearing on the

us

these

States.

Under

the

sagaciousrule of King Charles (Prince Charles of

HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen elected Prince of the
of Moldavia
united principalities
and
Wallachia,
1866, proclaimed King of Rumania,
1881) Rumania
"

has
first

made

the

place among

Eastern

the

remarkable

Europe

in

progress,

and

Christian

regard to

now

States

holds the
of South-

administrative

organization
and commercial
importance. Unfortunately
disabilities imposed on the Jewish
population,

RUMANIA

HI.]
the

and

neglectedcondition
blots

remain

the

on

thirty-eight
years

has

had

confront

to

dangers,internal
the

of

escutcheon.

his rule,

innumerable

and

strained

of the peasantry, still

national

the

are

79

During

difficulties and

external; among

relations

with

Charles

King

the

Russia

latter

owing

to

appropriationof Bessarabia in 1878, and the

tension with Austria-Hungary resulting
from
the
of the large Rumanian
populationof
oppression
Transylvaniaand the Banat
by the Hungarians.
The sympathiesof the people have been so much
her

attracted

the

to

and

eastern

Romania
borders

western

question relatingto

Kronstadt
been

paid

they

are

Their

to

Rumanian

the

the

Vlachs,

or

Macedo-Rumans,

Kingdom

Danube.
to

As

their

largeextent

pursue

kinsfolk

nomad

nile.

declared

the bonds

in detached

they dwell

has

incorporation
impossibility,

an

and
numbers^
insignificant
Hellenic sympathiesalike weaken
their

at

their

their

with

on

as

Turkish

renders

which

remoteness,

them

office
schools

called, imder

sometimes

with the Rumanian

connect

ful
power-

comparativelylittle attention

^that

"

the

in 1899

"

their

on

Sturdza, fell from

Minister, Dimitri
a

irredenta

north

which
of

groups,

the
and

Ufe, they
pastoral

who has made an exhaustive

Weigand, a high authority,
studyof this interesting
people,estimates the Vlachs or Arom",ni
(as they call themselves)of Macedonia at only 70,000. He
reckons the Slavs at 1,200,000 (800,000Exarchist Bulgarians,
Bulgarians,
300,000 Patriarchists,
100,000 Pomaks or Muhamedan
either Greek or Servian in their sympathies),the Greeks at
^

220,000, and

the

SpanishJews

at

90,000.

80

THE

can

form

never

unit

STATES

BALKAN

[chap.

compact community

become

or

in the future

political
system of Macedonia.
Nevertheless the principleof maintaining
the
Rumanian
it may
be found,
element, wherever
and
of fosteringits national
consciousness,has
It is held that
long been accepted at Bucarest.
the nation

from

moral

derive

may

and

material

tage
advan-

its detached

fragments,although their
be hoped for.
cannot
The
political
incorporation
Vlachs

of

Macedonia

aptitude;
have

been

many

possess

considerable

of their

wealthy merchants

great benefactors

of Greece, and

mercial
com-

Athens

buildingsand institutions
their liberality.It is hoped that the stream
munificence
eventuallybe directed to
may

owes

of its finest

some

to

of

it is foreseen

Bucarest, while

that

Rumania

will

compensation elsewhere should

a
demonstrably Ruman
populationin Macedonia
other
Power.
eventually be adjudged to some
have

The

claim

to

Rumanian

Macedonia

with

doubtful

whether

advantage will
have

been

or

Grammos

"

subsidy,but

the

less Hellenized

winter
"

would

to

the

poUtical

All

outlay.

the

their

highlands

of

naturallyfall

to

Vlachs
of them

; many

Greece, and

in

it seems

commensurate

any

repay

habitats

summer

considerable

more

migrate every

aids the movement

Government

principal

Pindus
the

and
Greek

Kingdom.
The
The

progress

other
have

of Servia

has been

newly-constitutedStates

escaped

the

misfortune

disappointing.
of the
of

sula
Penin-

native

mined

STATES

BALKAN

THE

82

of
hostility

her

and

Russia

[chap.

peasant partisans.

Bulgaria in
possiblyprompted by Austria, by whom
His

unfortunate

from

saved

Servians

attack

the

1885

on

of

consequences

was

he

was

defeat.

The

compensationfor the aggrandisement

of Bulgariaresulting
from the revolution of
Sofia, Vidin, and
they claimed
Philippopolis
;
western
till
not
Bulgaria in general. It was
aimed

after

the

they

turned

at

failure of their
their

ill-starred

attention

to

that
enterprise

Macedonia.

Until

Bosnia
and
the
they had hoped to annex
Herzegovina,and to acquirea port on the Adriatic,
but the Austrian
the
occupationof these regions,
legitimategoal of Servian ambition, had bhghted
the
national
hopes ; Bulgaria had now
proved
and
other
no
capable of defending its integrity,
field for
but
Macedonia.
expansion remained
1878

Access

to

but

them,

the

Adriatic

they might

at

had

denied

been

least find

an

outlet

The
Russia
^gean.
rupture between
ambitions,
Bulgaria encouraged their new

the

to
on

and
while

nothing loath to see their attention

the occupied provinces.
distracted from
ing
Accordingly,in the period immediatelyfollowwith Bulgaria(1887-1900),the Servian
the war
and a
launched
in Macedonia,
propaganda was
of professors,
masters
goodly army
priests,and schoolentered the promised land.
The inception
Austria

was

of the

movement

with

the

reversion

of

to Panorthodoxy
policyfrom Panslavism
the growing influence of M. PobiedonostzefF.

Russian
under

coincided

SERBS

HI]
The

BULGARIANS

83

Bulgarian schism, largely the

Slavonic

once

creation

of

disavowed, and the Servian propaganda,

Russia, was
at

AND

and

Orthodox,

alone

was

regarded

to Russian
worthy of her support. Thanks
the berat,
aid, Mgr. Firmilian, a Serb, received
or
exsequatur, as Archbishop of Uskiib in 1902,
the
after prolonged opposition on
part of the

as

Bulgariansand

Greeks,

exerted

herself

another

Serb

his

propaganda,which
Belgrad, finds its
Macedonia, whom
as

hitherto
to

done.

into

come

But

as

field

of

the

Slavs

from
of

describe themselves

therefore

they

have

be

supposed
Bulgariansonly.

the

conflict with

of

Servian

financed

"Bulgars," as

might

considerable

The

among
to

recently

nomination

hberally

it teaches

It

has

successor.

is

instead

"Serbs"

the

obtain

to
as

Russia

and

proportionof

the

Slavonic

populationadheres to the Patriarchate, Servian

the Greeks, who
to
activityis also obnoxious
consider allegiance
to the Patriarchate
as
ing
implyGreek
nationaUty,and describe the Slavonic
Patriarchists
Serboas
(not
Bulgarophone
"

"

phone") Greeks.
claim

to

The

Macedonia

arguments
are
given

Gopchevich,^but his work

by the scientific world.
described by Weigand as
(em freckes Schwindel).
the argument
dwell

so
1

from

much,
Makedonien

is not
The
an

und

Alt

for the Servian

length by
taken seriously
at

claim, indeed, is

impudent imposture

However

history,on
cannot

"

be

which

this
the

entertained.

SerUen, Vienna,1889.

may

be,

Servians
The

84

fact that
in

Tsar

1346

ruled

Dushan

possesses

no

well

as

potentate, as

STATES

BALKAN

THE

[chap.

all Macedonia

over

That

significance
to-day.
Alexander

the

Great, Tsar

be

relegatedto their
place in history;they have nothing to do with
The Christian population
contemporary Macedonia.
of Old Servia (Ipek,Prizren, Prishtina, Mitrovitza)
is undoubtedly Servian, but
of the Shar
south
Simeon,

and

the

range

the

Servians

Dushan's

Tsar

have

footing,even

no

palaceis stillvisible

Attitude

The

(C)

rest, must

of

the Balkan

the Macedonian

attitude

The

the

towards

depended

in

the

of

game

Congress

their
the

present day Rumania

has been

shaped

of Vienna

and
from

from
has

as

pawns

Berhn.
Russian

loose

warm

support of Rumania

Servia

and

Rumania
Russia.

Up

continued

to

and

to

the

revolve

her

pohcy

exigencies
When
in 1886
Bulgaria
she enjoyedthe
tutelage,
; the policyof Bratiano

in accordance

in fact identical with

over

great Powers

served

Triple AUiance,

broke

was

exercised

or

appointmen
mighty neighbours. Disresults arrived
at
by the

estrange themselves

in the orbit of the

Austria

two

have

led both

of Berlin

largely

manipulatingthe pohcy

in

States, which

at

to

The

States

has

which
time

to

Governments.

little

of the

towards

Balkan

Question

time

usually succeeded

have

States

the

influence

from

various

the

of

each

the

Uskiib.

at

Question.

Macedonian

on

have

Russia

of

though

with

the

that of StamboloflF,and for

BULGARO-RUMANIAN

in.]

in
parallel

the

some

the

drawn

were

of the

earlier years

85

without
friendship,

Balkans, united

the

the

fear

togetherby

danger. StambolofF, who

common

Rumania,

ideal

historyof

States,which

two

of

almost

an

years

many

RELATIONS

had

of his stormy

spent
in

career

in his

wavered

towards
friendship
had welcomed
the land which
him
in the days of
his exile ; he
was
even
ready to favour the
Rumanian
propaganda in Macedonia, inasmuch
its progress was
as
only to the detriment of the
Greek nationality.
Rumania
The
good understanding between

and

never

Bulgariacame

Russian

influence

Slavonic

State

to

with

end

an

the

revival of

the

in

Principahty. The
Stoiloff^ adopted an
Russophil ministry of M.
irritating
policy towards the neighbouring State
and encouraged a Bulgarian propaganda in the
be
Uttle doubt
that this
Dobruja. There can
poUcy was
adopted at the suggestionof Russia,
who
has always aimed
at weakening the nonher advance

which

forms

into the

the

Bulgaria and Rumania

Some
strengthen the barrier.
between

widened

the

by

the

committees

and

autumn

brink

the
of

war.

of

on

1900

Happily,

would

infinitely

years

later the

countries

was

perpetrated by the
Rumanian
subjects
;

crimes

Macedonian
in

two

to

close alliance

Peninsula.

between

estrangement

first obstacle

they

better

were

on

relations

been
established, and in November
latterly
made
King Charles and Prince Ferdinand

the
have
1902

joint

THE

86

excursion

[chap.

battlefield of

the

to

STATES

BALKAN

Plevna,

where

exchanged.
expressionsof friendshipwere
anxious
The
present Bulgarian ministry is most
to arrive at a close understandingwith Rumania
;
with
accord
such
the
an
understanding would
patriotic
policy of M. Sturdza, and would offer
for the future independenceof
a valuable
security
cordial

the

Danubian

two

Meanwhile

States.
has

combination

another

been

set

Observing
auspicesof Austria.
that Russia, having re-established her influence in
Servia after the marriage of King Alexander, was
a
rapprochement
endeavouring to bring about
between
Bulgaria,Servia, and Montenegro, and
the direction of their common
to
secure
policy,
Count
Goluchowsky hit upon the idea of uniting
on

foot under

the

oppositionto the new

Slavonic
league. Accordingly,on the invitation
of the Emperor Francis
Joseph, a meeting took
Greece

and

place between
Abbazia, in
of views

status

quo

are

anxious

to

dreads

because
be
No

took

Eang George and King Charles at

A
friendlyinterchange
May 1901.
ance
place on the basis of the mainten-

of the
States
she

in

Rumania

definite

agreed that
in
regard
Macedonia.

preserve

"

Greece, because

under

the

any

other

compact
mutual

Vlach

that

was

Rumania,

element

would
rule.

Turkish

than

arrived

both

which

Macedonia,

Bulgarian encroachment;

she knows

absorbed

in

at, but

it

was

practised
the
to
respective propagandas in
Herein, however, lay the insuperable
tolerance

should

be

GREECE

III.]

AND

BULGARIA

the two
inasmuch
as
difficulty,
irreconcilable, the
essentially
conducted

the

at

Greek.

the

The

object of obtaining

millet,or nation,
recognitionof a Rumanian
the appointment of a Rumanian
bishop at

the
and

Monastir, while
demands
a

their

still pursue

Rumanians

propagandas are
Rumanian
being

of

expense

87

and

its usual

with

certain

Patriarchate

the

nor

was

Already

possumus.

arisen

has

coldness

Bucarest,

non

between

other

any

their

meets

Athens

result

to

be

expected.
The

idea of
and

Greeks, the

the Christian
of
of

element,

realization.
the

made

of

war

overtures

action for the

between

compromise

serious

two

the

1897

of

purpose

the

with

the

by Article 23 of the
this time pubUc feeUng at Athens
idea

Powers
voice

of reforms

"

the

had

just failed in
impatientlydemanded

Crete and

to define their

their future

sphereof

frontier

reform
Crete

was

joint

to

reforms

Treaty.
hostile to

project of the
and the popular

"

annexation

Bulgarianswere

influence

and

view

Berhn

the

The

Macedonia.

in

outbreak

obtaining the

indicated
At

factors

Bulgarian Government

Athens

at

garians
Bul-

unhappily incapable

seems

little before

the

"

in other

of

asked

words,

their

refusingto do
broke down.
The Bulgarian
this the negotiations
has always been
for reforms
demand
suspected
at Athens
tion.
as
coveringa secret projectof annexaThis, no doubt, is in some
degree true, as
the

Bulgarians are

"

on

confident

that

under

any

scheme

of

would

itself,and

[chap.

numerical

their

autonomy

assert

STATES

BALKAN

THE

88

superiority

the way

pave

for national

union.

only other suggestionfor

The

formed
co-operation
part of a
Confederation
propounded in
That

eminent

man

scheme

more

Bulgarian

for

by

1891

no

was

Greco-

Balkan

M.

Tricoupis,

in

favour

of

in

institutions

Turkey than are his

he
fellow-countrymen in general, and
boldly
proposed that Greece, Servia, and Bulgariashould
form
alliance for the partition
of Macedonia,
an
to an
having previouslycome
arrangement with
believed
regard to their respectiveshares. He
autonomous

the

Balkan

States

purpose

of

found

take

up

not

interfere should

the

arms

together for

the

expellingthe
favour

some

Sofia;

at

prompted

by

far

to

so

would

great Powers

as

Turks.

Belgrad, but

at

Stamboloff
the

of

some

concessions

scheme
was

jected
re-

indeed, possibly
great Powers,

it to

denounce

bargained for

The

in

the

went

Sultan, and

Macedonia

as

his

reward.

Unhappily
for

amicable

an

seem

the

hkely

life to
of their

as

Turkey,

Balkan

States

and

to

to

serve

great neighbours.

democracies

and

arrangement,
heretofore

have

not

are

offer
the
The

not

their
a

new

yet ripe
discords
lease of

selfish purposes
young

yet reached

that

turbulent

stage of

maturity at which compromises become

political
and the principle
of do ut des is accepted.
possible,
still remain
under
the tutelage of
They must

HISTORY

OF

CHAPTER

IV

TURKISH

REFORMS

TREATY

By

To

those

of

Macedonia

of

reform

the

schemes,
been

but

The

Previous

in

firmans

of

The

Turkey.

Midhat
into

the

security

subjects
led
in

up

reforms

of
to

every

case

In

1875

and

the

the

of

internal

have

Berlin,

of
the

been

struggle
unrest

1878

promulgated
Hatt-

the

1839,

of

Constitution

adequate

But
of

in

all, if they had

the

Berhn
for
in

been

guarantees
of

government

Sultan.

direct

been

would

Treaty

in

had

been

good

the

of

and

1875,

force, have

put

have

suzerainty

things

Treaty

1856,

in

Pasha

Reforms

its

Hatt-i-Sherif

of

i-Humayun

history

incompatible.
the

to

history

twenty-five

It is

the

two

that

Austro-

the

last

reforms.

under

hope
an

at

uses.

under

never

invariably proved

various

its
of

not

administration.

by

for the

Turkey

introduced

Porte,

the

to

glance

without

be

not

may

indeed

in

cling

regenerated

scheme,

schemes

BUXTON

still

be

to

THE

BERLIN

victoria

who

us

reform

of these
years

miss

is

Russian

OF

SINCE

the

Christian
which

events

had

their

ungranted

European

for

origin

reforms.

Turkey

THE

IV.]

CHAP.

BERLIN

TREATY

91

generalrevolt. The flame burst

and the Herzegovina. Servia
out first in Bosnia
rebelled next, then Bulgaria. Each
rising was
in

culminated

with
repressed
carnage

red

with

interfere, and

at

in

Slav States

1877

was

these demands,

in the

fields of

the

1895-96,

so

run

never

to

of

Save

massacre.

blood.
the

of

stantinople
Confor the

autonomy

Turkey accepted

of

consequences

bound

was

Conference

Had

have

Turkey

Europe

virtual

demanded.

Armenian

nature

far

more

have been averted.

would
to her integrity
injurious
declared
them
and war
She rejected
was
en
masse,
between
Russia and Turkey. The
prostrationof
Turkey alarmed England, who sent her fleet to
retired

Russia

the Dardanelles.

and concluded
Constantinople,
Had
Treaty of San Stefano.
to

stand, there

gates
Turkey the

with

of

allowed

the

from

that

treaty been

have

would

been

Macedonian

Question to-day. Macedonia

have

part of

formed

the Powers
had

declared

laid down

at

"

would

Greater

Bulgaria." But
that what
Europe

in unison
the

no

Treaty

alter,
Europe alone could
summoned
at
Congresswas
famous
Treaty of Berlin was

of Paris
and

in

1856,

European

Berlin.

Here

concluded

in

the

July,

1878.
territorial changes eflFected

that

Treaty
do not concern
here, except in so far as they
us
the sphere to which the reforms promised
narrow
in the Treaty were
to
apply. It is enough to
and the Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
note that Bosnia
The

by

92

OF

HISTORY

REFORMS

TURKISH

Eastern

Rumelia, and Montenegro

severed

from

the

were

direct rule of the

[chap.

then

finally

Sultan.

Two

by the Treaty of
already laid down
principles,
Paris, were
finallyestablished by the Treatyof
Berlin.
first place,the authorityof the
In the
of Europe to control the Near
Concert
Eastern
Question, in its collective capacity,is definitely
assumed.
In the second
place,the rightand the
of the Powers
to secure
reforms for all
obligation
the Christian subjects
of the Porte is recognized.
On
the very
which
Great
Britain
day on
consented

to

concluded

with

agreement,

by which
capacity,the

individual

regard to

the

This

the

enter

the

Berhn

another

Turkey

Christians

Congress, she

she

and

undertook,

same

of the

secret

in

her

obUgations with
Asiatic provinces.

In return
for
Cyprus Convention.
the pledge of English assistance againstRussian
His ImperialMajesty the Sultan
in Asia,
advance
promisesto England to introduce necessary reforms,
later by the two Powers, into the
to be agreedupon
of the Christian
government and for the protection
of the Porte in these territories;
and other subjects
and in order to enable England to make
necessary
provisionfor executing her engagements, H.I.M.
further consents
to assignthe Island of Cyprus to
be occupiedand administered
by England."
By this document
England possesses a separate
and
above
her collective right
treaty right,over
was

"

with

the Concert, to insist

of her

engagements.

on

Europe

the Porte's execution

is

aware

of the fact.

THE

IV.]

BERLIN

despatchfrom

TREATY

93

M.

Waddington, the French

that
admitted
Government
England had acquired
a
right to intervene henceforth activelyin the
administration of all the territories of Asia subject
to Ottoman
jurisdiction."
In

"

To
the

return

pledgeditself in
Articles

three" Nos.

23,

reform

to

engagements
The

Treaty of

to the

that

and

in

Christians

which

to

were

the

Porte

these

contain

if carried out,
promise,
the problem of
solving

of

What

Treaty?

which

61,

Berlin.

The

62.

pledges are
reforms
they

sufficient basis for

are

the

Muhamedan

Turkey.

They

ment
govern-

short,

are

outline of reforms,

but

theyprovidean
defined. England

adequately
at that day sincerelybeheved
in the desire and the capacityof Turkey to reform,
Sir A. H. Layard, then Ambassador
to the Porte,
ardent beUever
in the possibilities
of the Turk,
an
strained every
The

result

of

to

nerve

his

subsequenthistoryof
the Articles

secure

efforts

is

the three

their

fulfilment.

apparent

in

provincesto

the

which

apply. Crete, seven

years
her blood-bought freedom.
Armenia,
ago, won
stricken, still drags out
a
hopeless existence.
Macedonia strugglesto-day in the birth-throes of
reform
scheme, itself
liberty.In each case
a
produced by revolution,brought the struggleto
a

head.

schemes

For

were

that

which

to

reason,

and

that alone, the paper

Europe periodically
presents to
As
all the world
Turkey, acquire significance.
of his predeknows, Abdul Hamid, unUke some

94

HISTORY

uncompromisingin

has been

cessors,

in the

interference

European

REFORMS

TURKISH

OF

[chap.

his

to
hostility

of

government

his

subjects. He is strengthened in this

he has pursued
with which
hostihtyby the success
the two supreme
objectsof his life. Those objects
Christian

estabhshment

the

are

complete

centralization

Article

religious freedom

the

of his government.

the

of

62

his Khalifate, and

of

Treaty provides for

the

security of all the

of the
Christians
are
Empire. Its provisions
was
merely declaratoryof what
already law in
of
Turkey. The historyof the defiant repudiation
of this Article is a pregnant one.
the stipulations
It is the religious
problem which Ues at the root
of the

whole
is

problem
They
of

Near

Hatts

will take

Christians

where

it

Eastern

was

no

more

The

Turkey to-day

remains

in 1878.

Whatever

that

need

of

the Christians.

of themselves.

care

in

be

reglementstov

and

Once

Question.

solved, there wiU

and

firmans

and

position
exactly

the law

may

provide,it is a matter of elementaryknowledge in

Christians are admitted to
no
Turkey that practically
the army, the magistracy,
to any officialposition
nor
of inferior authority. If they are, it is at the
save
expense

of their faith.^

Forbidden

to

carry

arms,

there are a certain number of Christian

Constantinople
of them in high positions.But in the provinces,
some
officials,
1

In

the greatestabuses occur,

appointed. The chief if not

where

but. Muslims
none
practically
the only exceptionsare the
are
Muavins or Christian vice-governors
of the vilayets. But they
have been given no authoritywhatever except on paper, and
are

often littlemore

than Palace

spies.

ARMENIAN

IV.]

96

REFORMS

againstthat of a Musulin the law-courts, the special

man
prey of the taxand the victims of an unpaid and hungrygatherer,
the universal testimony
these things are
army
of every Consular
despatchfrom Turkey.
23 refer to special
Articles 61 and
provinces.
unheard

their evidence

"

(A)

Article
replaces

Article 61
San

The

Sublime

out, without

further

Stefano

to carry

"

and reforms
in the
to

and

Armenia.

Treaty

of

Porte

undertakes

delay,the ments
improveby local requirements

demanded

inhabited
provinces

1 6 of the

the

by

Armenians,

and

guarantee their securityagainstthe Circassians

It will

Kurds.

steps taken

make
periodically

known

the

this effect to the Powers, who

to

wiU

their application."
superintend
The

here

Porte

(a) It

makes

is to introduce

In response

to

"

reforms

reform

into Armenia,
has

"

"

accepted

schemes.

"

Local

separate engagements.

this,the Sultan

at least three elaborate

(b)

four

requirements

are

be

to

considered

in the reforms.
These

refer to

the

scattered

communities

of

Armenian

Christians,and their sedentarycharacter

compared

to

the

nomadic

habits

of

the

Kurds

Both have been

studiously
ignored.
of the Armenians
(c)The security
the Circassians and Kurds.
against

is guaranteed

96

HISTORY

REFORMS

TURKISH

OF

[chap.

reply to this, the Sultan has organisedthe

Kurdish
Hamidzyeh, a body of irregular
cavalry.
Powers
to superintendthe appliare
(d) The
cation
In

of
Yet
is the

reforms.

despatchestell

Government
concession

one

must

we

that this

us

expect from

never

the Porte.
Was

Article

than a
anything more
shadowy promise given to appease for

and

of Armenia

the discontent

Salisbury,in

Lord

the

Layard,
the

61

that the

what

time

had

despatch
after

the

in

not

yet

implies
"

such

government;
lawless

the

four

Armenia

obvious

pretation
inter-

61.

simplestform
securityfrom

of order

immediate

of
(a) the reorganization

reforms
the

and

good

rapine,whether
flourish,and

or

says,

of

tion
introduc-

into

legal,that industry may

to decline."
populationmay cease
he

conclusion

for the

come

representative
government
Macedonia, he gives us the
of Article

It

H.

it

of
as

Sir A.

to

implied to the British

day. After statinghis opinion

us

of the

Government

time

Ambassador,

Treaty, teUs

vague

To
are

secure

this,

necessary:

Gendarmerie

under

European officers ; (6)the establishment of Courts

of Appeal in all the chief towns, each of which is
at least one
to contain
European lawyer ; (c)the
abolition of tithe-farming
of
fixed tenure
; (c?)a
office for the Valis and high officials.
There
to be

is

no

doubt

that Article

61

seriously
applied. On August

was

intended

21st, 1878, the

98

HISTORY

the

proposalsof

the

It

demands

the

of

[chap,

severelycondemns

principleof centralization.
of

elaboration

clearer

It

Porte.

of the

the maintenance

REFORMS

TURKISH

OF

of

Court

the

Assize, and

stitution
con-

of

the

be

adopted. It requires
radical changes in the positionof the Valis, and
the immediate
of the population.
taking of a census
methods

of

taxation

Sultan,

The

to

still

to

all the demands

troublesome

outcry,accepts
; but Earl Granville,

of the Powers

then

Foreign Secretary,wiser than his colleagues,

remarks
that
without
European supervisionit is
greatlyto be feared that all attempts at reform
"

will

abortive."

prove

in 1881,

Early

the

Powers
to

the

Porte

Article

of
her

For

the

But

61.

matter, and

waive

England again urges upon the

duty of making further representations
with
regard to the non-ftilfilment of
Powers

England, in
France

and

at variance

are

deference

the

to

on

the

ments
Govern-

Germany, finally
agrees

to

proposals.

the next

ten

the matter

years

of Armenian

despair. Prince Bismarck

for the
had
repudiated Germany's responsibility
affairs of Asiatic
Turkey. Russia's attitude had
tired of rebuffs
changed,and all the Powers were

reforms

over

their

scheme.

thmgs went
had long ago
from

the

spoilswith
he

left

was

in

given up

was

from

In

bad

ceased

tribunals.
the

aid

the

the
to

to

of the

The

worse.

look

The

Armenian

provinces
Christians

justiceor redress
tax-gathererextorted his
regular soldier. What

property

of

for

the

Kurd

and

the

ARMENIAN

IV.]

MASSACRES

99

irregular.Kurdish chieftains,of the type of the

decorated and promoted
famous
Mussa
Bey, were
red-handed

from

of the
expostulations
had begun the work
of intelligent
free men
into

race

of

in

and

murder,

defiance

great Powers.
of

of

Anarchy

extermination.

race

rapidlydegenerating

was

demoralized

the

slaves.

There

was

speedy,though not a widespread,growth of secret

Hamid,
revolutionarysocieties. In 1893 Abdul
his long immunity from
reckless from
Europe's
correction,organizedthe Hamidiyeh cavalryfrom
among

the Kurdish

tribes.

Our

Consuls

protested

vigorously
againstthis flagrantdefiance of Article
61, but the Powers
merely "gave the other cheek
also."
of a missionplacarding
house
with
revolutionary literature by some
the signalfor the outbreak.
agitatorswas
professional
Vengeance began with arrest,tortm-e, and
the burning of mission-houses.
In the Sassun
sent to levy
district,
a
illegally
body of irregulars,
the taxes, having been
repulsed,Zeki Pasha of
Erzinghianwas
despatchedto lay waste the nahiS
almost
with regulartroops. Sassun was
(district)
and the Sultan issued a firman calling
depopulated,
loyalsubjectsto arise and suppress the
upon "aU
In

the

revolt."
In

same

Asia

November

year, the

Minor
1894

was

on
a

mock

into the case

by the Turks
brigands."England, France,

humihated

themselves

as

to

fire.
held

inquiry was
of the
and

"Armenian

Russia

allow

their

so

far

repre-

100

sentatives

close of the
at

ventured
that

support

of

and

reforms

the

Powers.

which
was

made
his

to

but

enforce

It

ment,
Govern-

lukewarm

Memorandum

the

was

agree,

the

only

and

in

Porte

scheme

by
to

ways

increase

the

serious attempt yet

most

the

and

some

inadequacy,to

the

on

the

presented to

was

was

British

Sultan

the

execution

of

engagements.
The

scheme

Erzerum,
and

it

Armenians

by counter-proposals.

met

calculated, by its

danger ;

he

Russia, pressedthe Porte

were

would

Russia

that

Ambassador

the

with

May 11th, 1895,

Project of
three

the

Rosebery,

They

Finally,on

startled

so

British

1894-95,

France

for reforms.

was

the

proof that they enjoy security."

Lord

under

the

existence of

winter

the

During

At

magnanimity

own

to

continued
clearest

the

his

remark

to

"the

was

of

[chap.

Commission.
Sultan

inquiry,"the

"

results

the

the

sit upon

to

REFORMS

TURKISH

OF

HISTORY

applied

Biths, Van,

Diarbekr.

Chief

to

the

its

among

with

and

the

of

office of

vilayetsof

Sivas, Mamuret-ul-Aziz,

guarantees in connection
tenure

six

measures

the
Valis

are

the

appointments
and
superior

the
officials,
to

appointment of a High Commissioner

superintend the carryingout of reforms, the

creation
at

of

permanent

Constantuiople,to

Commission
which

the

control

of

missioner
Com-

High

is

responsible,a general amnesty for

politicaloffenders, and
compensation for those
injured in
The

the

outbreak.

recent

"Project"

was

accompanied by

Joint

ABORTIVE

IV,]

which

Communication

mixed

general

Musulmans,
of

governor
the

Kaimakam;

associated

Provinces

and

each

with

and

Mutassarif,
be

to

and

divided

into

administered

communes

be

to
gendarmerie

the

have

to

of

farming

Courts

movable

by elected councils; the

organizedunder special
regulations;

Kurds

the

The

Christians

Vali,

"

the

Assessors,

of

be

to

elaborated

or

Councils

were

101

further

Muavins

Christian

scheme.

grade

REFORMS

to

taxes

of Assize

scheme,

stration
separate admini-

be

to

be

aboUshed

created.

it will

readilybe seen, contains

everythingexcept the one thing needfiil. There
is no provisionfor European control.
But

had

presented.

was
"

Russia

would

the

disarmed

"In

no

scheme

before it

case," she had

declared,

she associate herself with

The

Sultan, well

Powers, massacred
Armenians

Mixed
in the

7th.

Commission

and

and

Trebizond

at

refiisalto

pubUsh

at

once

more.

the

abandonment

of every
the

futile

forestalled

massacre

wheel

remonstrances

for the

scheme, it suited
He

3rd, and

as

of the

September several thousand

streets of Constantinople.

return

accepta maimed

June

in

in the

in
Finally,

straint."
con-

of the act, boldly

aware

all the proposals on

rejected
proofof his contempt for the

of

measures

his

"

Sultan's
"

Project

on

measure

game

reforms

the

9th, and

began
succeeded

to

to

October

"acceptance" by

on

Massacre

effective

of the

turn

the
his
the

massacre

Ak-Hissar, Sivas, Kharput, Bitlis, Zeitun,

102

HISTORY

OF

TURKISH

Marash,

Urfa, Aintab,

Mush,

places.

Violation

effective

and

massacre,

it

that

It may

be

of

as

the

Armenians

up

so

these

in

his

to take

protests

On

was

"

child.

PhilipCurrie,
13th,

that

"

far

as

of the

to

enquire into

was

have

1896

and

taken

meanwhile

of

streets

the

breaks

out

and

him

blocks

Russia

Urfa

not

place."

is loud

the

wished

if it had

that

with

blow,

sums

ment
Govern-

the Government

blood

stantinople
Con-

of 7000

again in
Kharput

will

not

more

procure
scheme

the
reel

raise her

violated,children maimed

"

systematic.

20th, 1896, Lord

to another

Islam,

to

Musulmans

place,and

more

carnage

last effort to

Powers

Both

that

not

In

Women

October

"

Egin, Sivas,

second

again.

nowhere

Massacre

provinces, and
head

woman

of the Turkish

Yildiz, but

at

once

Armenians.

the

outrage

reforms

sent

Ambassador

point.
run

before

than

of

conversions

assert

British

every

of

devastated,

scheme

indictment

wished, they could

at

one

the

words

massacres

The

have

forced

non-Musulmans
these

Sir

December

Fitzmaurice,

question of
his damning
in

more

apply."

to

Vice- Consul
the

even

concerned, the whole

are

which

provinces to
intended

on

disturbances

recent

other

Armenian

an

roughly stated,"writes

the British Ambassador,

the

an

Armenian

no

the mother

become

countless

organizedsystem

an

determined

was

should
"

by

[chap.

exterminatinga people

of
"

and

considered

was

method

REFORMS

the

Salisburymakes
assent

of reforms.

of

all six

He

handi-

CRETAN

IV.]
his

caps
as

the

Powers

expediency of
no

action

the

is

ready

France

escape,

Armenia

them

of

the

is at

Porte

23

undertakes

the

put forward,
this

at

history of

loop-holeof

lead,

action

no

reform-schemes

for

end.

an

Article

long

he taken"

can

Russia's

Crete.

(B)

By

As

satisfied with

jump

to

"

"

is not

follows

is taken, and

preface

recommendations

in respect

Russia

lO^

this

proposalsby

own

of

any

REFORMS

of the

Treaty of Berlin, The

scrupulouslyto apply in the
the Organic Law
of 1868, with

Island

of Crete

such

modifications

"

as

be

may

considered

equitable."
The

greatly disappointedwith
the provisions
made
in the Berhn
for them
Treaty.
claring
They solicited the intervention of England, dethat the Organic Law
was
inadequate,and
that

Cretans

form

new

The

were

of

government

Organic Statute

to Crete

in response

Powers,

and

anarchy that
It forms
Its main

to

to

the

in the

basis of

Councils

in

to

include

the

that

President

granted
the

and

island.

subsequent reforms.

establishment
all

districts,
sanjaks and
vilayets,

important Council,

been

of
representations
alarming unrest

all

the

provisionwas

necessary.

had

1868

allay the

existed
the

of

was

of

the

administrative

kazas.

the

of the

of Administrati

The

most

Vilayet, was

Legal Tribunals,

104

OP

HISTORY

TURKISH

REFORMS

[chap.

and three
three Musulman
Metropolitan,
All the Councils were
Christian representatives.
General
be mixed
to
as
regards religion. A

the Greek

Assembly

into

be divided

to

was

returning
deputies.

held

be

to

was

All

Muhamedans
The

Statute

Porte

spent

the

Christians

usual
ten

the

of

Article

Powers, and
23

Organic Law
applied."
By October of
such

an

of

duty

Halepa

of the
of

or

result the
the

was

to

provision
Treaty of July.
be
scrupulously
"

the

same

year

main

Statute

minor

executive
assessors

was

purpose

Organic

few

28th, 1878,

signed,and on November
by Imperialdecree.

was

for
provisions
the

referred the

"

"

Its

in

thingshad reached
missioner
acute
stage in Crete, that a High Comsent to the island,charged with the
was
of
Pact
The
making a settlement.

confirmed

was

of 1868

in

made

was

The

as

paper

evading
ever-increasing

and the Cretans

in
application,
discontent
and
agitation.
In February, 1878, the Assembly
to

methods.

years

its

case

and

mixed

by

however,

was,

next

each

Musulman

two

the

island

communes,

decided

be

to

concession, stultified by
The

and

between

cases
were

tribunals.

twenty-two

Christian

two

The

year.

every

of 1868, with

modifications.
the

to

the

for the

the

creation

Governor-General

different fi'om his, for the

insertion

the

Among

separationof

power,

ratification

solemn

these

are

from
judicial

of Mvxmins
of

creed

reorganizationof the

106

violated

HISTORY

TURKISH

OF

which

convention

sanction, having
of Article

pursuance
The

Christians

Powers

refused

years

Crete

edan

Valis.

to

REFORMS

23

been

concluded

Treaty

unable

resist,the

to

interfere,and

"in

of Berlin."

for the next

governed absolutelyby

was

national
inter-

possessed

of the

were

[ohap.

five

Muham-

The

generalinsurrection of 1896-97 was begun

but it
of desperatepohticians,
handful
by a mere
broke
gained ground every day, and civil war
The
Sultan's suppressionof the revolt with
out.
the signalfor intervention.
once
massacre
was
more
he was
At
the instigationof the Powers
obligedto restore the Pact of Halepa,to appoint
a

Christian

Assembly.

Governor-

themselves,
of the
the

the

and

his sanction to

rate
mode-

Constitution, and

thanked

for their intervention.

Convention

autonomy

the

summon

prepared by the insurgents

approved by the Ambassadors
The
Assembly formallyaccepted

newly -restored
Powers

to

scheme,

Powers.

This
of

further gave

He

reform

General, and

of 1896

granted to

was

Crete

the third
under

measure

Turkish

rule.

the others.
as
illusory
It provided for the appointment of a Christian
of office,
Governor- General, with a five years'tenure

It

was

to prove

as

for the
of the police,
autonomy
reorganization
island, except in regard to the annual tribute to
the

the

Porte, and

it stated

publicappointments should
and

one-third

to Musulmans.

that
be

two-thirds

of the

givento Christians

AUTONOMY

rv.]

But

the

ESTABLISHED

Sultan

had

no

old

intention

more

granting autonomy to Crete

granting elementary reforms
his

107

task

than

he

of

had

of

Armenia.

to

He

of

obstructingthe
scheme, of instigatingintrigues against the
Governor- General, and of renderingthe Constitution
unworkable.
Matters
were
complicated by
the intervention of Greece, and on February 15th,
from the foreignwarships
1897, naval detachments
The
occupied Canea.
positionof the insurgents
bombarded
international
fleet on
was
by an
February 21st, and shortlyafterwards the forces
of the Powers
occupied Candia.
A collective Note was
presentedby the Powers

was

to

both

which
no

at

soon

the
it

be

annexed

and

Germany
the

of

end

an

the

with

direct

Turkish

This

Sultan.
in

rule

having withdrawn
remaining four great

Crete.
from

for the

them

administration.

Prince

Powers
purposes

George

of

for
appointed High Commissioner
in 1901.
Powers, an appointment renewed
In April, 1899, the Assembly voted
a
new

Greece
the

stration
admini-

autonomous

the

in

Crete

Austria

Concert, the
immediate

should

(2) that

Greece;
an

in

Governments,

suzeraintyof

divided the island between

of

Turkish

(1) that Crete

by

endowed

under
was

and

laid down

was

be

case

should

Greek

was

Autonomous

Constitution,
was,

into native
In

and

the

local

ministrat
ad-

by international authority,put

hands.

examining

the

affairs of Crete

for the

last

108

twenty-five years,
the

and

selves
them-

had

control, has

continued

their

by

of

intervention

place, the

first

unbacked

Powers,

force

conclusions

two

[chap.

one's mind.

upon
In

REFORMS

TURKISH

OF

HISTORY

coercion
result" it

invariable

one

the

reimposed the Turkish yoke with redoubled

severity. In the second place,the three measures
of autonomy
granted under Turkish rule,viz.,the
of 1878,
of 1868, the Halepa Pact
Organic Law
has

and

Convention

the

them

their

of

have

1896,

condemnation.

own

of European
principle

carried

They

with

omitted

the

for

the

control.

(C) Macedonia.
More

elaborate

provisionwas
European provinces at the Treaty
either for Armenia
Article

had

or

refers to

23

provided for
"

Similar

other

adapted to local requirements,

regardsthe exemption from taxation

parts

shall

Porte

in which

the

be

largely represented,to

the

new

laws

in each

be

also

of

Sublime

Commissions,

first clause

laws

Turkey
no
specialorganizationhas
present Treaty.
"The

The

Macedonia.

than

Crete.

exceptingas
granted to Crete,
the

of Berlin

latter part of

The

Crete.

made

introduced

into

Europe for which

been providedby the
in

shall
native

depute special
element

settle the

province.

shall

details of

MACEDONIAN

IV.]
"The

labours

these
to

schemes

for

the Acts
the

of

109

organizationresultingfrom

shall be

Sublime

the

AFFAIRS

submitted

for examination

Porte, which, before

puttingthem

into force, shall consult

Commission

European

promulgating

instituted

for Eastern

Rumelia."
these

What

have

we

similar laws
from

seen

The

internal affairs.
of

democratic

local
that

Statute

is

the

be

to

Organic

Constitution

principleof self-governmentin

the

it estabhshes

of

study

our

That

Statute of Crete.

intended

were

similar

"

"

laws

to

were

be

Their

to
appropriateness
assured
by the promise
requirements was
SpecialCommissions, largelycomposed of

country, should

of the

natives

nature.

draw

the

up

laws.

guaranteedby the provision

that the schemes
drawn
up by these Commissions
should be submitted
to a European Commission.
After
Sir
a
Henry
delay of two
years,
Their effectiveness

Drummond

was

who

Wolff,

had

served

on

European Commission, reportedto Earl

that the schemes
had been prepared,and
the

1880

Commission

the
them.

Sir

Commission

his work
to

Earl

Edmond

Lord

to succeed

invited

Porte

Henry

met

Lord

once

Edmond

in

the

Rumeha

and

Powers
order

Fitzmaurice
Drummond
more.

was

Granville
in June
to

to

Before

that

the

assemble
re-

consider

appointed

Wolff, and

Fitzmaurice, in

Granville, foretold

between

the

the

the

beginning
a
despatch
differences

Eastern
provisions applying to
the
to
remaining provinces re-

110

HISTORY

OF

REFORMS

TURKISH

would
constitute
spectively,
their adequate execution.
In Eastern
in

supreme;

Eastern

In

only

was

Rumelia

the

had

been

be

to

sulted.
con-

reforms

were

the

protected by
Macedonia

it

Macedonia

obstacle to

grave

Commission

the

Rumelia

[chap.

their

aegisof the Commission; in

application
jv^as left to the Porte

alone.
The

European Commission
the new
Projet de hi,
modifications, and adjourned.
The
Cretan

Projet
Statute.

in the

what

to

applyit in

say,

lines

minor

of

the

improvement

vast

and
provinces,
as

gave

them

tantamount

no

attempt

has

to

it not

yet

too

Drummond

late to insist on
would

the Macedonians

But

made

been

ever

provinces. Sir Henry

the

considers

execution.

few

interieure."

Needless

WoliF

the

Salisburydescribed

"autonomic

to

of

elements
of the

condition
Lord

loi follows

with

proved
ap-

Notwithstandingits shortcomings,

the

it contained

de

nevertheless

be

its

of
guilty

creduhty if they reposedconfidence

to-day in the promisesof 1878.
Exirope'sapprovalof the Turkish Projetde
loi was
followed
by a long period of increasing

too

infantile

misery, secret
continued
to

to

plunder

rebellion,and

misgovern
and

and

anarchy.
extort, the

raid, Europe

to

Turk

The

turn

Albanian
a

deaf

ear.

The

by

two

problem
facts.

One

became
was

complicated
increasingly
the ever-growingconscious-

MORE

IV.]

ABORTIVE

SCHEMES

111

of the

other the
Bulgariannationality
; the
hostihtyof the Greeks to the Bulgarians.
In 1896 the Sultan, fearingthat Europe might
issued
begin to wake up again to her obligations,
of reform.
of his periodicalfirmans
The
one
ness

sound

clauses

granted a share in
gendarmerie
; each
assistant

the

assessor

are
appointedinspectors

the

upon

the taxes, and

The

the

result

Christians

"

who

the

to
reportedinjustices

The

the

and

Macedonian
with

specially
to

report
of

of the officials."

the

entered

his

as

invariable

the

the

collection

justice,the

stoned
killed,or, for variety,

Muavin

superviseand

misdeeds

was

are

and

have

is to
or

to

of

execution

Christians

administration

governor

Christian

The

little stale.

The

one.

gendarmerie
the

were

Christians

who
prisoned
im-

inspectorswere
received

assessors

no

powers.

revolutionaryCommittees
violence, and
Europe left

taliated
re-

her

consular reports unread.

In
the

July,

1901,

present reform

informed
that

he

the

Hilmi

Ambassador,

shaping a
A

to

Commission

of Konia,

of

the

year

to furnish

scheme
of

reforms.

Yemen,

of
appointedInspector-General
and

Zinovieff,
for

control,

to sit in Constantinople,

was

supervisethe

Pasha, ex-Vali

M.

reform

new

permanent

under Ferid Pasha

and

negotiationsrespecting
scheme
began. The Sultan

Russian

was

Macedonia.

the

reforms

Hussein
was

in

to

be

donia,
Mace-

reports to the Commission,

later the

Turkish

reform -scheme

is

112

received

HISTORY

the

by

O'Conor

and

is

change

[chap.

Sir Nicholas

the

it to

upon
No

"

REFORMS

Ambassadors,

comments

Lansdowne

TURKISH

OF

Marquis

apparent

of

except

wires
to
tighter still of the
Valis
to
have
are
no
Constantinople." The
in appointing or
dismissingsubordinate
power
and
officials,
they are to receive every order for

the

drawing

even

the

Powers

be

conciliated

are

tribunals

detail direct from

minutest

that

and

free

will be

by

Nizamieh

that

assurances

exist, and

none

labour

"compulsory

The
the

ference
independentof interMilitary Courts will

or

where

established

Yildiz.

the

on

that

will

roads

be

maintained."
Sir Nicholas

"palpably insufficient
of the
to

regards the scheme as

the requirements
meet

O'Conor
to

situation,"but

hopes

it may

the way

open

effective reforms.

more

convinced
at last that Turkey
Europe seems
herself. She does not yet
is powerlessto reform
than
realize that something more
"supervision"
has been to relegate
last move
is required. Her
to two

Hungary
our

of

this

Powers

Prime

duty of supervision.Austria-

Minister

informs

seem

interpretation
upon
Lansdowne
he has

seems

given,to

to

the

us,

Europe in the task. The

recent
to judge from

Goluchowski,

constituted, so

been

have

Russia

and

put

two

"

mandatories

selves,
them-

Powers

remarks

from

rather

"

Count

different

Europe's behest, but Lord

determined, by the good advice

enforce

the view

of Mr

Balfour.

114

HISTORY

TURKISH

OF

important extension

securing an

REFORMS

[chap.

of the

Februaiy

scheme.
The

proposals issued

new

October

24th.

Lord

that of
proposal,
rejected for his
the
to

much

appointment of
the

accompany

Lansdowne's

Austrian

the

officers of
The
of

Russian

and

to

assessors

the

of

pay

General

of

Porte,
will

great Powers

armerie
gend-

foreign
whom

to

be

attached.

is ultimately
to alter the divisions

Government
the

alternative,

Inspector-General.The

the

on

most

less efficacious

is to be entrusted

nationaUty,in

Vienna

practical
Governor-General, was

Christian

from

districts with

administrative

view

to

regulargrouping of the various nationalities.

is to be
development of local autonomies

more

The

Muhamedans

to

are

during the

of Christians and

Commissions

Mixed

favoured.

crimes
investigate

committed

disturbances.

This, the latest scheme, is

doubt

no

step in

rightdirection. It introduces a certain measure

it will
and if conscientiously
of publicity,
applied,
reveal a state of thingsfor which there
inevitably
remedy,
will be
Only one
remedy.
only one

the

however,

can

secure

to

the satisfaction

Macedonia

legal rights. That remedy, as Turk and

Christian, soldier and homittadjiequallyknow, is

of her

the

severance

of Macedonia

the

Sultan.^

The

cut.
1

Crete
Macedonian

in this volume.

and

wires

to

the Lebanon

from

the direct rule of

must
Constantinople

have

shown

be

the way.

reform is dealt with in greaterdetailelsewhere

CAN

IV.]

TURKEY

have

We

hastilyreviewed the historyof

in Turkey since 1878.
schemes

conclusions

What

116

very

reform

abortive

REFORMED?

BE

draw

we

may

from

that

history?
Reform

1.

in

Turkey
That

foreignpressure.
both

the

What

be

must

acceptance,

applied
for

and

trolling
con-

of reforms.

execution

is it that

"Ht"iniit

jppngdMp

pressure

the
'insisting
on

for

'g

prevents Turkey from

carry-

1 ing out her treaty engagements independentlyof

1 European control?
is this coercion
and
Why
1 this control the absolutelyessential guarantee of

1 reform?
The
obvious
will
two
most
reasons
1 suffice us here.
1
(a,)The government of Turkey is a theocracy.
1 Its civil law is based on the religious
law! ThaT"

Ilaw

is founded

the Koran

upon

and

the

on

Sunna

(Tradition).
There
Church

is

distinction

no

the

in Islam

State.

The

law

which

Sultan

between

the

is

Pope and
authorityis
Emperor in one, althoughhis religious
for practical
by the Sheikhrepresented
purposes
and
his secular
ul-Islam, or head of the religion,
Vizir.
By the very
authorityby the Grand
of the religionhe represents,the Sultan
nature
can

and

sanction

no

is

which
law
religion. Now
every
and rehgiousequalityof
political
non-Musulman

is

of the

Sunna.

and

all administrative

hostile
aims

powers

at

Musulman

direct violation
The

to

of

the

the
and

Koran

Khalif is invested
except the

that

power

with
of

116

HISTORY

violatingthe

TURKISH

Sacred

Sheikh

the

nor

OF

-ul

Neither

Law.
Islam

[chap.
he

himself

deviate

may

precepts of

the

hair's-breadth from

REFORMS

by

that

one

Sacred

Law.

Now

Turkey
which

to

Europe

equalityof

the

As

non-Musulman.

non-Muslims
of ethics but

has

force has violated those

pointsout in an
of May, 1897, "the

Review

not

the

"

Patriot

to

put into

absolutelyforbid
and

man

which

scheme

every

urged

precepts

the Musul"Turkish

article in the

Fortnightly
inferior situation assigned
world is a question
in the MusUm
The
of law."
Sultan, urged by
"

to
forbid true behevers
the legaltheory
"but
"practise"their religion,
iota." The only result
is not thus altered by one
of reforms asserting
equalityis,therefore,to rouse

Christian

Powers,

"

may

fanaticism.
religious

violent

financiaPcondition

(6.) The

of

is

Turkey

desperate oneT SlTlL. H. Layard, who beheved

realized their impotence
in the Turks' willingness,
solved.
to reform, until this financial problem was
present impoverishedstate of the
a
largenuinber of public
treasury, when
the

"In

Turkish

employees, officers
other

persons

their bread,
where
the

can

moQey

are

the

of

the

army

and

and

navy,

depend upon the State

reduced
to beggary,
literally

for

who

Porte

necessary

find, out of its

to

effect

own

resources,

greatjiidrajporta

these days Jiuropehasattempted

reformsT^~~Since
the credit of Turkey by establishing
restore
to

the

Imperial Ottoman

Bank

and

the

Dette

"'"l

(J?U5?Z?ANJ?PNTR0L

Publique.

Yet

"Odysseus," writing in 1900,

it is "annually proved that the
is collapsing." The
Government

that

remarks

machinery

117

of

existing
systenT is rnaiiitained somehow, but there
reforms.
is scant margin for inaugurating
History is the irrefutable witness of the hopeless
failure of reforming Turkey from
nople.
ConstantiFor

the

Palmerston's

warning

in 1841,

extensive reforms, and

for the Druses

only result

was

write

the

after

promised
of separate

Maronites.

and

the

of 1860.

massacres

Consuls

our

the Porte

anarchy of

the

Lord

to

response

granteda system

Kaimakams

years, and the

in

Lebanon,

"

next

The

The

twenty
reforms,"

Armenian

carnage,

paper." If Turkey could

pointto one singleprovinceof her Empire which
she has
reformed
independentlyof the Powers,
she might yet be givenanother
chance.
This she
"are

much

so

waste

"

"

is unable

to do.

2. Reform

in

under European
Turkey is possible
~"

pressure.

(a.)The

reli^gomone.

The

Musulman

to

mere

for

reason

not

this, again, is mainly

carry

which

law

very
out

reforms

exhortation,obhges him

also

binds
and

to

to

to

ample testimony that

the

this precept.

give

in.

He

Islam."
Musulman

the
resist

yieldwhen

The
Sunua, in
cnnfrnnti'"j|
f^yfjiipprioK^forfp
bids him
emergency,
"lest damage ensue

is to

that

submit

History bears
has obeyed

118

HISTORY

(b.)The

further

European

question

proof of

the

eating. What
have
provinces which
direct administration

the

Granted

"

inaugurating
in

been

All

severed

the

Porte

ing
carry-

pudding is

facts?

the

are

of

in

[char

successful

control

The

out?

arises:

is successful

coercion

reforms, is European
them

REFORMS

TURKISH

OF

from

are

in

the
the

prosperous

and

thrivingcommunities.
Take
only those provinces which still remain
under the suzerainty
of the Porte, while exercising
in their internal

autonomy

tourist will confirm

Cook's
cross

administration.

Palestine

from

over

in

me

Every

statingthat

the Lebanon,

into

to

where

ultimatelyresponsibleto the
for native and
to security
Powers, is to cross
over
to
European, to thriving and cleanlyvillages,
and developing
good carriageroads, to abundant

the

is

Governor

cultivation.

in civilization and

the

latest

institutions and

The

Turks

by

are

good
few

its

faithful service.

their

Fehmi
is

government

and

in

an
practically

are,

officials who
their

govern

officials,

capacityfor

the

There

Turkish

such

the

indeed,

try

subjectsof

to

all

for instance,Hassan

as,

Pasha, the Vali of Salonica

hard,
infinitely

informed

developingits

even

of

devoid

duty and
humanely,
religions
do

is fast

themselves,

really honest

are

commerce.

means

no

and

Books,

the control

rapidprogress

Crete, we

order.

Blue

under

made

European Commission,

of the

by

Rumelia,

Eastern

but their task

existingsystem of
Superimpossibility.

the

EUROPEAN

IV.]

however,

vised,
well

and

they

is

Dette

Publique.
officials
be

control
in

and

paid,

subsequent

||fcu/^-"

work.

in

Turkey
of

to

reformed
the
the

chapter.

rMder"

the

Porte,
and

exact

and

Turkey

successfully

nature

will

the

control,

European

^What
be,

excellent

even

responsible

should

their

in

administration

Under

successfully

authority,

secure

done

already

successful

not

administered.

superior

demonstrated,

the

by

can

have

amply

itself,

by

diligent

regularly

positions,
This

by

119

CONTROL

find

of

that

discussed

CHAPTER

RACES,

RELIGIONS,

the

long
a

ago,

of

no

It

problem

but

the

would

part of it

is necessary

is meant

more

unit.

Geographicallyit
Shar

the

mountains
the

which

we

the

Macedonian

of those

peninsula,

river

at

Albanian

Bistritza and
the

Rhodope

period

remote

The

country

consists

Macedonia

provinces.^

political

north, the

kingdom.

Question

country

unit, being bounded

south, and

east, and

call

been

ever

The

vilayetsof Salonica, Monastir,

the

and

the

west,

formed

now

is

the

on

on

the

on

history it

of its

three

Sea

iEgean

mountains

the

settled

of Macedonia.

than

racial,a linguistic,
nor

Dagh

on

Balkan

the

Macedonia.

term

neither

by

has

geneous,
homo-

been

races

so

forms

begin by explainingwhat

to

the

by

of

been

have

of

mixture

"

f^' ^^^

Macedonia

population of
the

PROPAGANDAS

VILLAKI

characteristic

marked

and

AND

LUIGI

By

Had

and

the

Kossovo,

refers to the

It must

of

tions
condi-

be remembered

the
to
expression,however, is often extended
Adrianoplevilayetas well,where the conditions are somewhat
it is quiteseparatefrom Macedonia.
similar. But geographically
It will be dealt with at the end of this chapter.
^

The

190

122

RELIGIONS

PROPAGANDAS

AND

[chap.

of
differences
origin or of
wholly on
find characteristically
anthropological
type. We
may
Greek
types, Bulgarian types, or Turkish

based

types, but

among

Greeks

many

are

is not

Greek;

certain

districts

who

those

whose

and

type

and

it is with

so

find

we

call

themselves

whose

the

origin

others.

of three distinct

members

speaking their respectivelanguages,but all

similar in type. Language is a more
rehable

races

very

of classification,
the
as

means

speak Greek,

of

makes
religion
method

the

bulk

of the

Greeks

Bulgarians,Bulgarian. But

another

distinction,and the Turkish

of

their

classifying
peoples according to
the divi:"ion
creeds, cuts across
accordingto
members
are
orlaiiguage
; for Bulgarianswho
the

Patriarchist

any

Turkish

called

For

Church

called

are

subject who

is

the

Christians, the

political
point

by pmpaganda. There is a Greek

Bulgarian,a Servian, a Rumanian

it is the
many

and

even

converts

In

one

sense

no

means

view, is

of

propaganda,
propaganda,

immutable

changes according to
object of each party to
possible.Thus

communities,
become
to-morrow.
a

in South-

but

as

whole

yesterday may
perhaps Servian
"

is

and as
witiri^'"owir'i^aIs"an3""li^raSoSsT

is by
nationality
Eastern
Europe,

as

and

important

most

that

each

of

Greeks,

Muhamedan

race

Turk.

from
classification,

In

race

in

which

viction,
con-

make

individuals,
Greek

were

Bulgarian to-day, and

As
Odysseus says:
Macedonia
is merely a
"

"

MACEDONIAN

v.]

political
party,

but

HISTORY

it

123

perhaps be better
defined as a body of people with
a
common
language and customs, and generally with a
common
religion."
may

Most

Macedonians

when
bilingual,
they do
not speak three or four or five or ten languages,
so
that the change of party is easilyaccompanied
by a change of language. We
may
say that,
for the
Muhamedans,
religionis the line of
are

'

division, as

all Muslims

the

(except

Albanians)

Turks ;
as
inaccuratelybe described
for the Bulgariansit is the national
Church, as
of the Bulgari^party is
practically
every member
member
of the Exarchist
Church, although,of
a
not

may

propaganda is the hasis of the division,as

is primarilya political
Church
institution ; for
a questionof ^arty, based
on
Greeks it is more

course,

the
the

adherence

idea of civiUzation,
and

the Greek

members
party contains~many

Greek
races

to

for the Servians

for they
nationality,
the Bulgarians,and

and

have

of the

other

it is

chiefly

Rumanians

Church
"no~separate
who

many

Rumanians

are

the

race

Thracians, of whom

very

little is known,

the

western

the

by

Illyrians.Descendants

said

to

be
"

part of
the

of Macedonia

probably

which

of

"

or

the

we

298.

call
while

peopled

former

Rumans,

Odysseus,"p.

or

Servian

peninsula was

Kutzo-Vlachs,

Turkey in Europe, by

to

like

Servians

by race do not
Rumanian
or
parties.
The original
inhabitants
belonged to the great

belong

the

are

while

the

latter

The

Greeks

the

in

their

Roads

established.

on

the

the

Greek

who

they

influence survived

During the early days of

Roman
Empire, with its mixed
two
civilization, the
languages

Eastern

coexist, as

to

well

of

some

as

the

dialects.

local

The

was

language of the Romans,

civilized people with whom

alone.

coast

continued

were

founded

were

militarycolonies
soon
adopted the

Thracians

in contact, and

Graeco-Latin

the

Roman

the

first

come

the

the

came

built,towns

were

The

and

manners

had

Then

parts of the country, and

all

were

wholly Hellenizsettlements
being limited

coast-towns.

conquest.

Albanians.

in

succeeded

never

[chap.

the

represented by

are

ing Macedonia,
to

PROPAGANDAS

AND

RELIGIONS

124

first barbarians

to

settle

permanently in

peninsulacoming from the north-east

the Bulgars,a Finnish
people whose home
the middle Volga districts ; they now
occupied

Balkan

the
Slavs
this

they

southern
said

are

region

early as

as

not

were

have

to

begun
the

established

The

Danube.

the

of

banks

third

to

pour

into

century, but

until

after

the

Bulgarian invasion. Their positionin the East

of Europe bears certain
analogiesto that of the
in the West.
Teutons
amalgamated
They soon
their language;
with
the Bulgars and gave them
is the modern
the result of this union
Bulgarian
people,

who

Finns.

No

although

some

may
traces

described

be
of the

of the

as

Slavicized

originalBulgars remain,

Macedonians

have

Finnish

MACEDONIAN

v.]

features, and

the

others,

Vlachs

the

the

in

When

in

came

of

interior

retired

mountains,

fined
conlUyrians,who were
Albania,
as
region known
reached
the iEgean Sea they

west

with

contact

into the

the

invaders

the

the

displaced all the

ments
spoken by isolated settle-

who

dialect

of

races

Slavonic

Latin

the

save

of
and

other

and

them,

125

Bulgarians of to-day speak a

Slavs
and
language. The

purely Slavonic
Bulgarians drove
before

HISTORY

the

then

Hellenes, and

that

strugglebetwixt Greek and Slav

for over
has
which
lasted with
varying success
thousand
a
Bulgarian armies threatened
years.
and
East
Roman
the gates of Constantinople,
an
of
BulgaroEmperor earned the terrible name
ktonos" or
Slayerof the Bulgarians."
commenced

"

"

Thus,
in

Macedonia

make
on

early as

as

most

the

up
the

of

in the

and

the

interior; lUyrians or

and

isolated settlements

soon

divide

Bulgars and
These

into
the

various

century,

that

country

of Latinized

two

groups,

"

now

Greeks
Slavs

in the

Albanians

the

have

we

which

elements

large towns;

mountains;

the

in

the

populationof

coast

Vlachs

ninth

the

west,

Thracians

Slavs
the

in

or

themselves
Slavicized

Serbs.
elements
Eastern

dominion

of the

however,

strong enough

partlyunder
Empire, which was
were

to

Hellenize

them,

the
not,
and

partlyunder that of Slavonic princes. In time

they might have amalgamated,although,owing to
of the Balkan
the peculiarconditions
peninsula,

126

RELIGIONS

the

the

never

were

its

numerous

of

one

any

Unlike

[ohai'.
slow.

and

each

But

the

crystallized
preserved

its

Turks
individuality.The
enough to absorb the
they were
strong enough to

subject peoples,but
prevent

that

so

races,

and

nationaUty

be

to

supervened,

conquest

different

PROPAGANDAS

bound

was

process

Turkish

AND

them

from

becoming
conquerors, they did
language or customs

other

dominant.
prenot

to

impose their
on
conquered, but they did try to convert them
Islam, by maintaining those who
refused
be
converted
in a
position of inferiority.

number

to

attempt
the
to

Vlachs

did

not, and

to

prepared to

outbursts

of

conflictingelements
day.
century

the

respect

of

Church,

all

Hellenes.

races

of

Greek.

who
When

less
was

did

fanaticism,were
until

of

or

who

persecutionand

the

Turkey

present

in

were,

Orthodox

the

identified
not

these

nineteenth

the

allegiance to

more

He

those

nationaUty. Thus

middle

Christian

their

face

survived

the

to

but

savage

their

preserve

Down

Slavs, Albanians, and

Muslims,

become

were

occasional
able

Greeks,

of

with

the

Muhamedan

the

spiritof nationality
spread from Western
Europe to the Balkans,
the Greeks
the first to be aflfected by it,
were
and
their right of freedom
nation.
to claim
as
a
the other races
But
soon
began to disentangle
was

themselves

from

independence on

Hellenism
their

own

and
account.

to

strugglefor

RIVALRY

v.]
The
the

AMONG

of these various

outcome

creation

CHRISTIANS

of

number

of

States, carved

12T

movements

of

out

less independent

or

more

was

the

European

provinces of Turkey Greece, Servia, Rumania,

and
Bulgaria. In these countries, in spite of
"

serious

difficulties and

progress

has been

more

Turkey.

owing

have

countries

in

or

Macedonia

inhabitants,

deal.

to

which

more

the

of

achieved

have

less

and

homogeneous

all the

left

were

them

that

populationof the
their independence

The

of

races

united.

the

for

hope

But

Balkans

sufficient

represented in numbers
and
their nationality
to
in the

it is with

rule, and

now

far

neighbouringprovinces
other parts of the Empire,
jealousiesof the Powers

mutual

quarrels

are

the

But

Ottoman

under

was

the

to

the

and

we

than

troubles, much

all of them

achieved, and

prosperous

under

internal

to

are

preserve

predominance

land.

them,
rivalrybetween
which has been greatlyenhanced
by the existence
of neighbouring independent States, for Greece,
Servia,and Bulgaria all lay claim to a part or to
the whole ^
Macedonia, or at least each regards
that
coimtry as ,being^within Jts_^'sphere of
There

is often

bitter

"

influence."
This
races

the

rivalrybetween

should

have

fairlyeasy

Macedonia

themselves

of these

the constant

made

the

one.

differences

Christian

different
task

The
to

of

Turks
the

ruling
availed

full; but

has
and persecution
oppression

ended

128

RELIGIONS

by making

PROPAGANDAS

AND

all the

the

anarchy

of

has

reached

such

[chap.

discontented, and

Christians

maladroioistration
that
J)itch\

and

civil

change of
necessity.

some

regime
I

is felt

shall

various

deal

now

nationalities
The

propagandas.
of the

body,

all tS'iTe

by

Muhamedans,

Macedonia

The

shall deal

the tion
excepwith as one

Muhamedans.

the

was

with

given above.

reasons

(A)

to

separatelywith each of the

and
their aspirations
and

Albanians,

for the

absolute

an

war

first

country in Europe

be

the

rule, and long before

subjectedto Ottoman
the Turks subjugated
capture of Constantinople
it with

it,and studded
Even

before

Asia

Minor,

real Osmanlis

the

smaller

Chazars, Kumans,

and

Turkish

numerous

crossed
of

settlements
other

colonies.
over

from

Patzinaks,

tribes, all

more

or

in Thrace
estabUshed
were
origin,
by the Greek Emperors themselves ; but they were
absorbed
and
converted
to
by
soon
Christianity
of the peninsula.
the other races
first Osmanli
The
colony dates from 1331, and

less of Turkish

throughout the

fourteenth

century the

stream

of

poured into
almost
Macedonia
without
interruption
; by the
transferred!
from
time the Sultans had
their capital
the country was
full of Turks.
Brusa to Adrianople,
At the battle of Kossovo
(1389) it was
completely
subdued, althoughislands of independencesurvived
Turkish

freebooters

and

soldiers

"

130

RELIGIONS

Albanians, but
followed

tors

of

to their
a

district of

at

were

it.

They

nor

the

in

caste.

reserved.

They

class, for

while

For

the

them

all

they

The
are

and

the

districts

most

the

are

and

Une

the

wealthiest

landowners,

or

of the

any

left to

are

Servia

Karasmak,

rivers Vardar,

the

by

plain of Yenidje-

the

Pajik mountain;

and

Vodena,

and

by

enclosed

touching Vodena, Labanitza, Domenitza,

extensions

"and Timovo.

Even

here

the

Turks

no

by

in

plain.

districts
conqueror
lands.

are

The

and

Elassona,

in

and

Monastu-,

population.They

towns

to

constitute the whole

the

the

Turks

the

where

the

are

Banitza, with

the

They

army,

chief

Macedonia

of

Moglenitza,and

district round

but

Jews.

numerous

Vardar, limited

parts of

advantages are

they are not addicted to trade

which
money-making professions,
Christians

all

not, however, the

are

large

any

large towns,

Government,

privileged

in

even

in

never

the-^ Christians.

always outnumb^d_by
the

in

this addition
were

found

are

country, especiallyin

coiistitute

absorbed

Muhamedans

the

Bulgarians

once

spiteof

In

Macedonia,

in

and

mosOarBarous^eHe^

becanae~tKe

numbers,

majority

the

They

Christians.

the

[chap.

of Greeks

number

suit.

the Turks, and

PROPAGANDAS

AND

of

number

mountainous

are

means

centred

villagesin

parts of these

same

usually inhabited by Christians, the

fertile
naturally choosing the more

There

tiskiib,Veles

are

other

groups

of Turks

and
(Kyopriilii),

round

Kumanova;

CHAHACTER

y]
at

OF

Prishtina, Ipek, Prizren

Serres
Kastoria,Prilip,

of

and

Turks
Serres

between

Bosnian

mixed

The

of

adherents

Islam

are

settlement

are

of Jewish

however,

tains
con-

Servian

Greek

Vlach

about

Salonica

there is

At

to

in

the

small

Muhamedanism,

regarded by

not

and

and

scattered

converts

are

country

or

some

while

of the country.

lation
popu-

Bulgarian
northern~~partof "the

the

Muhamedans,

all the

Bulgarian frontier

vilayet there

Kossovo

Struga,

generalin

Christians.
the

and

In

Muhamedans.

who,

in

large proportionof Pomaks,

centre

and

131

Ochrida,

at

have
villages

Many

largetowns.

TURKS

THE

their

religionists
co-

There
are
genuine Musulmans.
also wajideringcolonies ^f Muhamedan
gipsies,
whose f looting proclivities
spicuous.
pecuharly con7 are
as

Turkey bear witness

to the
good quahties of the individual
many
Muhamedan,
especiallyof the genuine Osmanli
he is sober, patient,reUgious,cleanly in
Turk
there
is
his habits, dignifiedin bearing. But
All

travellers who

know

"

-rdso^
a

doubt

no

to

as

his utter

he

when
good ruler, especially

over

Christians

living among
to

despise,who

the

Christians
are

Turkish

has

to

rule

peasant, when
he

whom

unarmed

make

ir^abilityto

while

is
he

taught

is armed,

mitted
justicefor any violence combecomes
by him against them, natvu-ally
In
cruel.
a
mainly agricultural
arrogant and
community quarrelsas to the ownership of land

who

can

obtain

no

RELIGIONS

132

bound

are

who

obtains

suflPer from

dans
of

arise,and

to

the Turk

Turkish

the

and

occasion
AU

for

army

when
to

of

corps

and

the

while

in

theory
privileges
to pillage,

their

of licence
their

Christian
in

serve

and

even

they are allowed

frequentlyformed into
army

are

bashi

found

be

to

and

obhged to
period of years,

irregularsor

Christian

always

corruption

are

certain

arms,

carry

and

murder,

to

actuallyin

not

chaos

form

Turks

it is

advantage. The Muhame-

utter

in the

[chap.

cases

privilegedclass,

them

the

the

Government,

the

neighbours.

in these

the

they are
are
given
on

PROPAGANDAS

AND

with

buzuks.

For

is

arms

serious

crime.
Turks

nomads, and, at all

essentially
in Europe, they are
little more
than an
events
of occupation holding the country by a
army
The idea of abandoningRumelia
militarytenure.
to be contemplated,
is regardedby them
as
a
possibility
although naturallyenough they do not
The

are

wish

to

placed under
majority of them
be

Asia

in

Minor
of

countries

they

would

were

the
1

towns.

probably

and

By Rumelia the Turks

but

tendency

important
mean

the

Servia, both

separated from
More

to

were

the
to

return

Before

Turkish

numerous

slowly

characteristic is their

country

Government,

time.

short

Bulgaria
has

the

Christian

contained

which
since

If

it reaUzed.

see

pendence
indethose

tion,
popula-

steadilydecreased
Turkey. Another
to

is

congregate in
the

decUne

of

European Turkey generally.

CHARACTER

v.]

their numbers.

OF

The

THE

Turkish

tendency to decrease,and
petent authorities

that

133

TURKS

shows

race

it is said

by

steady

some

diseases
sj^hihtic

com-

largely

are

for this. In Macedonia, however, their

responsible
numbers
In the
are
kept up by artificial means.
first place,the civil and
militaryestablishments
maintain
a
quantity of officials and soldiers in
the country ; but

the most

contingentis
emigrants from the
Thessaly,Bulgaria,

numerous

furnished

by the mohajirs,or
From
emancipated provmces.
Crete

Bosnia, and
of

stream

there

has

Muhamedans

still under

the
of

rule

them

been

to

of

been

Macedonia, partlybecause

there

province once
on

Ottoman
the

whose

lands

murdered

or

in

estates

more

frontier
a
partly because it is now
more.
During the recent rising
authorities
placed these mohajirs

available,and
the

the

and
lands

given
were

constant

dominions

the

Padishah,

the

have

majority

had

element

Christian

fled.

to

the

This

been

had

owners

added

turbing
dis-

new

situation,as the emigrants

bitter
against their Christian
particularly
neighbours.
of the
With
regard to the actual numbers
it is j^tnpossible
to
Turks
of the three vilayets,
According to the most
get rehable statistics.
Muhamedan
relikble calculations,the
tion
populaare

does

whom,
The
so

not

perhaps,

Christians
that

amount

to

more

one-third

are

it is clear

about
that

are

than

Osmanli

1,300,000
the

700,000,

to

country

of

Turks.

1,500,000;
cannot

be

134

RELIGIONS

regarded
Turkish

as

regard

own

the

from

almost

country

anarchy
well

ruined

the

their

as

the

and

\i ment,

from

various
rebels

be

carried out.

of

the

cannot

I hater
by
in

the

under

the

as

the

authorities,

abjectpoverty.

the

I have

bands

been

that

received

voluntary

There

administratipn

reformed

material

themselves

they

assured

duringthe
encourage-

assistance,

needed

should

representsthe feelings
Muhamedan
population

this

That

majority of

the

believe, for

the

Turk

is

a
essentially

they are executed

and
Christian
he acquiesces
Government,
existingorder of things as the only one

of

much

prominent Beys ; the latter wished

the
that
act
to
vigorously so

which

reforms

misgovern-

subject to
plundering. The

homittadjileaders

even

Turks

not

are

too, and

insurrection

recent

the

them

of the

some

in

pfopfletorsTMidreduced

most

that

benefit

has

stupidityand laHn^Thave

own

large landed

doubt

no

the

corruption of

peasantry to the

would

and

The

as

wholesale

to

nor

the

in Macedonia

non-existent.

Christians, although they

massacres

much,

so

importance,and
be

to

hear

certainlysuiFer

of

ment

by

maintenanccpof
Young Turkish party,

The

small

said

themselves

is

as

is the

sometimes

we

be

the

less

of
poUticalaspirations

ideal

only

fact but very

as

[chap.

land, much

the

to

supremacy.

whom

may

Muhamedan

Turks, their
of

PROPAGANDAS

land.

With

thejj

AND

when
reforms, especially

which

he

can

maintain

his

supremacy.

THE

v.]
That
should
and

civilized

rule

barbarians

but

able of progress

that

should

to

than

Western
the

when

given

the

both

natural

incap-,
hegemony over

the

are

civilized

according
so
infinitelymore

have

proved themselves,

chance, capable

contrary to all the

seems

progress,

minority,

of barbarians

if not

who

be

may

hold

standards,

Turks, and

if in

race

majorityof people who,

135

people, even

over

desirable

CHRISTIANS

of

extraordinary
most
elementary

of justice.
principles

The

(B)
The

Christians

of

Christians.

Macedonia

united

by
language,by racial ties,nor by poUticalaspirations.
It is this which
hitherto impeded the emancipation
of the country.
Christian
and

communities

Rumans

and

is

The
the

and
But

connected

by

Eastern

few

ties

one

or

of

of

these

language

other

of the

States.

Christians

of

four

Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs,

"

with
political
aspirations

free Balkan

in Macedonia

are

each
;
Kutzo-ylachs

or

nationaUties

There

not

are

or

some

Church, with

Orthodox
Catholic

converts

of the various

or

in

Albanians

ecclesiastically
they are

Churches, the Greek

all

Macedonia

of

belong

to

the exception
the

north,

foreignmissions.

divided

(Ecumenical

into two

main

Patriajchate

To
the former
Bulgarian Exarchate.
belong all the (Seeks, Serbs, Vlachs, Orthodox
Albanians, and a proportion of the Bulgarians;
and

the

136

RELIGIONS
the latter the

to

division

is

between

Greek

PROPAGANDAS

AND

majorityof
of

one

and

the

chief

Bulgarians. This
of

causes

hatred

Bulgar.

THE

After

the

[chap.

GREEKS.

the

capture of Constantinople
by the
Turks, the Greeks, althoughsubjectto periodical

persecutionsand

and

frequentpillaging
by their masters, were
granted certain privileges,
and eventually obtamed
of considerable
a position
influence in the Turkish
Empire. By the term
Greeks

massacres,

the

Hellenes

only, but
all the ex-subjects
of the East Roman
Empire who
adhered
Church.
Orthodox
to the
They were
constituted into a millet or community, consisting
of a lay and an
ecclesiastical council, which dealt
with

the

internal

important
Greeks.

the

and

the

of

the
and
now

look
When

for

people,and many
habituallyconferred on

were

the

to

came

be

the

brain

of

of civilization
representatives
the
Greek
The
language was

culture,

Christians, and
agency

afiairs of the

Greeks

Levant.

language

not

offices

The

Turkey
in

meant

were

even

Greek

the

promotion

non-Hellenic

among
Church
of

Greek

powerful

ideas.

In

eighteenthcentury Greek influence declined,

the
in what
is
movements
insurrectionary
the Kingdom
of
the Turks
Greece
made
the Hellenes with suspicion
and hatred.
upon
Greece

became

country considered

free,the inhabitants

that

the

work

of

of that

emancipation

138

RELIGIONS

the

south-western

in the
*

south

ChaUdice,

of that

of

in

few

and

of

most

conspicuous,and
and
banking are

hands

the

keen

are

inns

Greek

and

most

pointof

the

some

great

Rumans
^and

hears

people with

into contact

the

to

element

Greeks

are

actual numbers

In

is the

wealthiest;
in their

extent

and

the

Jews

the

shops and
inscriptions.In the

pubhc placesone

in

in

"

of the

Greek

the

and

but

isolated settlements.

competitors

all bear

comes

Salonica,especially
in the

the

towns

although

"

[chap.

part of the vilayatof Monastir,

most

trade

PROPAGANDAS

AND

much

Greek

whom

the
caf^s

spoken,

the traveller

Greek-speaking
;
they are far inferior
or

placeslike Kastoria, where

is thoroughly Greek, the
the
ing
surroundtown
almost
wholly
country is inhabited by an
do
Bulgarianpopulation. But the Greek patriots
of
not
count
only the real Greeks as members
to

in

Slavs, and

their party.

Albanians,

They

and

the

claim

the Vlachs, the Orthodox

Bulgarianswho

do

not

adhere

BulgarianChurch as Greeks, and call them

Vlachophone," Albanophone," and "BulgaroIn
Greeks.
word, they consider that
a
phone
all the
have
who
Macedonians
not
joined the

to

the

"

"

"

"Schismatic" BulgarianChurcH, except the Servians

in the

extreme

north,

are

party

and

of the J^ Grand

from

all

thought

prove

that

Greek

land.

The

the

Greek

of

adherents
Idea."

conquest,

greater part of

propaganda

ofjhe^^^reek
So

that, apart

they wish
Macedonia

is carried

on

to

is

mainly

THE

v.]

by

three

the

PATRIARCHATE

agencies
"

schools, and
The

kingdom.

the

189

(Ecumenical

the

influence

Greek

Patriarch

Patriarchate,

of

the

Hellenic

until

was,

1870,

in the
Church
undisputedhead of the Orthodox
Turkish
Empire,^ and although his authoritydid
not extend
beyond the territorial limits of Turkey,
he was
primus inter pares with regard to the

Orthodox

other

Whenever
and

by

into

Greek

it ceased

Orthodox

belonged.
in Turkey
other

the

not

only

all the

the

began

many

to

awaken

first demand

cephalous Church.
Bulgarians,with

After

Servian

the

in 1870

Patriarchate

the

of

much

was

affection
dis-

communities.
to

was

for

sense
an

of
auto-

long agitationthe

help

hands

clergy

caused

Hellenic

non-

ferred
con-

Greek

Greek

their
nationality,

their desire,and

in

corrupt, and

and

these

The

with

but

was

The

lines.

Greek

among

to deal

had

bishopricswere

Greeks, education

extortionate

When

Greeks

it

Its character, nevertheless, remained

thoroughly Greek,
on

with

chief

which

to

country

to

the

of the

Patriarchate

Greek

But

races.

on

the

ipsofacto

that

fell under

authorityin

Turkey

jurisdictionof

ecclesiastical

Patriarch, and

from

State, or annexed

autonomous

an

the

under

and

detached

neighbouringPower,

be

of Russia, Austria, etc.

province was

erected

Churches

of

Russia,

obtained

Bulgarian Exarchate
Ipek

had

had

but

little

formallysuppressedin 1766,
authoritysince 1679, and was
while the Bulgarian Patriarchate of Ochrida, which had long
abolished the followingyear.
been Hellenised,was

RELIGIONS

140

was

PROPAGANDAS

AND

created.

This

the

Greeks, who

among

of their influence

aroused

and

great indignation
in it

saw

diminution

importance, and

anathematized
Church

[chap.

the

adherents

the
of

the

schismatics,and doubtless,from

as

archate
Patrinew

strictly
right. But
onlyits own

ecclesiastical

point of view, they were

as
Odysseus says : The Phanar has
pohcy to thank for the birth of a rival Church.
That
did not
rise impartially
above
policy
of race
distinctions
and
language, but by its
"

"

and

to

Hellenize

to

attempts

"

destroy all

all ecclesiastical institutions

non-Hellenic

the

latter into rebellion."^

the

Exarchate,
have

their
is

the

it has

idea, and

the

the

Exarchate

with

their Church
well.

as

faults, the

But

the

venerable

traditions,and

is

owing
"

the

Grand

archate
Patri-

the

to

one

other,

ality
their nationand

all its weaknesses

Patriarchate

of the

of

war

European Turkey.
whole
even
villages

with

with,

bulwark

symbohze
propagandas

to

come

they change

reckoned

garians
Bul-

in

from

over

creation of

between

and

Individuals, famihes,

frequentlygo

the

it drove

great majority of the

being constantly waged

and

and

Since

joined it,for

national

elements

still

it remains
Idea

"

and

to

and

wealth

its

to

force

the

be
its

strongest

of the

Greek

party.
The

feature

Greek
of

Greek

establishments
1

schools

Turkey

life in

were

in

are

an

Macedonia.

opened

Europe, by

also

"

in

the

Odysseus,"p.

important
The

first

eighteenth
285.

THE

v.]

GREEK

the

through

century
Macedonian

PROPAGANDA

141

munificence

of

the

rich

merchants

residingabroad, and their

have been
numbers
since.
increasingrapidlyever
munities
chieflymaintained
They are
by the local comthemselves
and
in
by Macedonians
foreign countries, the Patriarchate
contributing
than

little more

the

land

Government

gives

providesthe

teachers

at

sites.

small

from

education

The

Athens.

for

Greek

The

contribution

and

the

trainingcollege
imparted is on strictly

classical lines.

is of

talk

said, the
was

Greeks, the

contributed

have

causes

Hellenic

the

between

communities

Greek

the

waiting for

of

the

attitude

and
have

indeed

become

harmony
local

the

and

was

Since

then

fatal blow
the

Greek

prudent poUcy

the

energy

caused
the

Greeks

Macedonian

they hope

acquiesced,and
war

the

with
opportimity,combined
good relations with Turkey.

its

maintenance

the

War

followed

has

acting

all,the disastrous

but, above

eariier ambitions.

Government

this

consuls

Turko-Greek

result of the
to

the

late years various

lessen

to

there

among

consulates

Greek

have

as

annexation, and

agitation.Of

of the

Centres

Greek

the

time,

one

all of

was

kingdom

on

strong revolutionarymovement

Macedonian
as

At

Macedonia.

in

Hellenic

influence

without

not

course

cause

of the

neighbourhood

The

them
most

thus

of the

to

of
the
In

have

regain what

Bulgarianpropaganda

to

lose.

ardent

of

They

have

Turcophilsin

RELIGIONS

142

their
the

throughout

and

encouraged the
in
frequently bringing
way,
every
the grim vengeance
themselves
of the
Turkish
The
troops,however, in their

authorities
down

aided

risingthey

recent

[chap.

Bulgarians,and

the

of

hatred

PROPAGANDAS

AND

upon

rebel bands.

made
httle distinction between
repression,
other
Christians, as
Bulgarians and
a
many
Greek
to remember.
villagehas good cause

work

of

great weakness

The

southern

the

to

Hellenism

regions to

hold

to

districts

Greeks, thus

As

for

as

have

the

south-western

purely

numbers

or

the
to

exist.

In

"

Bulgarophone
that
losingeven

"

secure.

of

numbers

the

Greeks,

Their

to

about

300,000.

BULGARIANS.

earlypart

Greek

prevalentlyHellenic.

even

Bulgarians as

few scattered

"

probably amount

the

considerably ^from 50,000 to

and
but it is only the coast;;line
districts that can' be regarded

THE

Until

they have
purely Bulgarian

the risk of

actual

in fact ;

instead

doubtfiil

been

statistics vary

700,000,
the

of

parts

preserved those

in

own

running

might

have

strengthof

or

south-western

but

their

the

on

communities

the

and

Macedonia, they might

which

propaganda

wide
too
and
an
area
spread over
loses in intensity. By hmiting themselves

therefore

tried

Greek

it is

is that

of

of the

of the

people

former

nineteenth

could

chapter

century

hardly be said
we

have

seen

THE

v.]
how

of

the

BULGARIANS

Bulgarian nation
four

over

then

was
a

Church,

created,

after

how

and

eclipse

an

first the

guage,
lan-

the _State
finally

once^ore.

Bulgariaarose
received

revived

centuries, and

the

Exarchate

143

in

When
the

powerful impetus,and

the

1870

Bulgarian
wherever

of

cause

herats

issued

appointing Bulgarian bishops, it

all opposition. In
the East
a
triumphed over
national
can
a
nationality
hardly subsist without
this the
tained.
obChurch, and
Bulgarians had now
were

The

Exarch

became

the

centre

of the

Bulgarianpropaganda,and his influence increased

Sultan at first did not view the
every day. The
with disfavour, as it formed
Bulgarianmovement
useful counterpoiseto the
Greek
a
propaganda
when
the latter threatened
to become
dangerous.
War
and
the Treaty of San
The
Russo-Turkish
the Danube
Stefano created a big Bulgaria from
Black
from
the
Sea
the
to
to
^gean, and
the
Ochrida; but the Berlin
Treaty rescinded
back to Turkey,
arrangement and gave Macedonia
The
limitingthe autonomy to Bulgaria proper.
propaganda continued, supported now
by funds
and
fi:om the inhabitants of the fi-ee Principality

the

agents of

its

published on the thousandth

Cyril and St Methodius,
of the Bulgarians,and
was
throughout Bulgaria and
whole

of

Macedonia

future

our
a

lies in

little book,

Government.

anniversary of
forth

set

the

widely

Macedonia;
in

claims

distributed

Macedonia.

"Bulgarian State

St

the

"The

without
Balkans

144

RELIGIONS

would

be

Salonica
it must

PROPAGANDAS

AND

without
be

must

be the

importance
chief

the

building. If Macedonia
Bulgarian,Bulgaria will never
literature

broadcast, and

of

had

of

which

chief window

wide

this State,

is to illuminate

does

become

not

be

similar nature

strength
;

or

door

the

Other

[chap.

constituted."
scattered

was

influence

Bulgarian
agitation
was

on

opinionin both countries. A constant

kept up for the appointment of more
Bulgarian
bishops,for, although the Porte had regarded
the
did

creation

of

wish

not

the

to

Exarchate
it grow

see

interminable

opposed

with

powerful, and

too

delays to

favour, it

the

appoiatment

of these ecclesiastics.

elaborate

An

and

system

lished,
estab-

was

Bulgarian schools, which

the

about

been

had

educational

had

50,

risen

to

in 1804

in

293

1889.

iron

and
discipline,
at the
the
Bulgarian
Uke a military
force,
gjonnasium at Salonica, were
in the
each
one
individuality
sinking his own
education impartedwas
of Bulgarism. The
cause

organizedwith an
teachers, mostly educated

They

on

were

practicalhues

more

suited

schools, as

than

that

different

the

Bulgarian people. Elementary

formed

modern
The
been

fax

part of

the

of

the

Salonica.

as

It

Bulgarian

Kumanova,
has

science

culture
agri-

and

curriculum, and

astonishing,extending
north

of the

character

several

taught, includingTurkish.

languages were

progress

Greek

of the

won

its

and
over

has

cause

indeed

ramifications
as

far

south

nearly

all

as
as

the

146

RELIGIONS

PROPAGANDAS

AND

[chap.

be described
slightlydifferent in race, and may
as
Bulgaro-Macedonians. These people,although
theif"sympathies are
entirelywith the Bulgarians
of

the

realize
Principality,

that country would

than

the

was

Rumeha
the

in

be

of

union

1885;

far

that

now

union

with

difficultmatter

more

Bulgaria and

for, while

in

the

Eastern

latter

case

populationsin question were

practically
the
homogeneous, in Macedonia
Bulgarian or
Bulgaro-Macedonian element is not the only one,
and
incorporationwith the PrincipaUtywould
bitter jealousies
the part of all the
arouse
on
two

other

Balkan

Macedonia
each

States

them

among

even

would

lead

claiming the largestshare,

districts

would

create

endless

division

trouble,

to

and

of

the

mixed

difficulties.

Of

doubtedly
peoples,the Bulgarianshave unthe keenest
and their
political
insight,
have little of the wild and unpractical
aspirations

all the

Balkan

which

dreaminess

characterizes

those

of

their

neighbours.
the Berlin

At
for

the

better

Treaty arrangements
government

of

made

were

Macedonia,

and

provincehoped that even

if the Great
no
Bulgariawere
longerfeasible,at
least they would
enjoy peace and security.The
been
have
to
results, however,
proved them
the

inhabitants

deceived,
been
races
as

and

of that

Turkish

steadilygoing
sufFer

by

from

this state

Christian, Greek

as

rule

in

bad

to

of
well

worse.

things,Turk
as

has

Macedonia

All the
as

well

Bulgarian; but

THE

v.]

BULGARIAN

CHARACTER

147

the

took the
Bulgarians,being the most energetic,
initiative in risingagainst the oppressor.
Their
be described
now
as
aspirations
nothing more
may
drastic

than

the

execution

Macedonia
Berlin

set

All

Treaty.

that she

should

of the

forth

that

fulfil her

cerning
provisionscon-

in Article

of the

23

they ask of Europe is

promises,so that they

live in peace.

may

The

ways,

Bulgariansare
and

and

curious

diflFerent from

They

races.

are

very

people in

all the

hard

other

many

Balkan

working,"
very

getic,
ener-

stayingpower.
They are
either
brilliant, certainlyless clever than
Greeks
the Vlachs, and not giftedwith a
or
commercial

they
the

are

of great

instinct.

But

admirable, and

farmers

as

they

are

and

not

the
keen

peasants

found

all

over

Balkan

to Athens,
peninsula from Bucarest
and
from
to
Belgrade,employed
Constantinople
in all kinds of work.
They are not yet highly
that under
able
favourcivilized,but they have shown
conditions
they are capable of astonishing
silent, unexpansive, some
They are
progress.
people might say sullen; but they have one

the

great merit, rare, unfortunately,

among
of

South-Eastern

Europe

"

they

are

peoples

truthfid.

most
They appreciate the value of education
highly,but they are thoroughlypractical.They
do not
talk about
their gloriousancestors, like
of the
the
Serbs ; they think
the Greeks
or
If they have
not
great
present and the future.

historic traditions, they

are

endowed

with

solid

148

RELIGIONS

qualitieswhich
in the

former

are

backs

acts

up

their

as

conduct

seldom
of

part
to

as

their

demands

Its so-called

regard

to

commercial

the

agents

reaUy political
agents, but their
rule is circumspectand
prudent,

gives occasion

the

the Porte, and

to

intermediarywith

foreignPowers.
in Turkey
are
and

Bulgarians

naturallyhelped in various ways

and people. The
Bulgarian Government

the

by

play a largepart
peninsula.

outside assistance,the

regardto

of Macedonia

[chap.

them

will make

destinies of the

With

PROPAGANDAS

AND

for

complaintson the
authorities.
With
regard

Ottoman

the

are
European Governments, the Bulgarians
fortunate.
They have arrayedagainstthem

not

Russia
think

and

only
the

and

Austria
of

other

"

Powers, who

^the interested

their

territorial ambitions;

own

nations

are

indifferent

either

or

sympathetic.
only platonically

THE

SERBS.

the Serbs
always easy to distinguish
the two
the Bulgarians in Macedonia, as
districts,
often intermingledin the same
are
their languages, though different in Servia

It is not

from
races

and
and

Bulgaria, become

Until

the year

1878

of

These
the

were

Old

in

so

the inhabitants

aspiredto the
Turkey inhabited

Servia

less

annexation

by

men

of

Macedonia.

independent

of those

of

Servian

Servia, i.e. the northern

vilayet of Kossovo, Bosnia,

and

districts

the

race.

part of
Herze-

THE

V.}

govina. By
Servia

SERBS

annexing

would

have

149

the

latter

two

into

come

provinces
with

contact

Montenegro, and the two Serb States might have

of
ultimately united, thus reaUzing the dream
of a Great
Servian patriots
Servia.
But when
at
the

Berlin

from

the

Congress in

the

Herzegovina, and

that

she

had

Great
and

obliged to turn
So they looked

were

Servia.

the

Salonica

idea

Bosnia

subsequently showed
of relinquishing
them,

intention

no

conceived

with

received

Poyers-the-jnandate...tooccupy

and

the Serbs

Austria

1878

of

elsewhere
towards

the

Servian

for their

south,

Macedonia,

its seaport.

They made the most

of the diflferences between
the Bulgariansproper
and the Bulgaro-Macedonians in order to enforce
their claim that the latter were
not
Bulgariansat
in disguise. Ingenious philoall, but Servians
logical
as

historical

and

arguments

by patrioticenthusiasts

to

prove

devised

were

the

contention.

M.

Gopchevich, for instance, in estimatingthe

population of Macedonia, puts the Serbs nearly
a

million, and
The

sanction
at

does

placesUke

gave

garians.
Bul-

official

by appointingconsuls

movement

Vodena

the

mention

even

Government

Servian

the

to

not

and

the Servian

Serres, where
schools

opened
throughoutMacedonia, and a Servian gymnasium
of the
in imitation
established
was
Bulgarian
this propaganda
But
gymnasium at Salonica.
name

unknown.

was

lacked both
of

that

of

the funds
the

New

and

Greeks,

the
and

were

venerable
the

traditions

energy

with

150

RELIGIONS

which

that

of the

that
At

it had

present

becomes

but

of

the

few

far south

Serbs

and

but

claim

that

reallySerbs

Servia

are

consuls

In the Kossovo

there

certain

are

very

valleysnear
towns.

far-fetched,and
of

north

the

to

over

won

the

hardly
Servian

Shar

Dagh in
population is being

Servian

the

schools

Bulgaro-Macedoniansare

been

Even

success.

Servian

in other

and

the

have

propaganda.
Old

in

is somewhat

of them

of

Servian

elsewhere

all, save

at

it

Uskiib, the Servian tion

populaforms, indeed, the majority

as

Struga, in Monastir,

any

the

activityof the
limited.
day more

Christians;

To

chance

scant

of

is numerous,

carried on;

artificialfoundation,

an

the

every

as
vilayet,

such

on

most

closed, and

[chap.

Bulgarianswas

based
altogether

was

PROPAGANDAS

AND

steadilydriven back by the lawless Albanians,

who
are
permitted by the Turkish authorities to
piUage and outrage them to their hearts' content.
while
the
Albanians
Thus
formerly settled in
Servia have
nearly all emigrated to the Kossovo
vilayet,the Servians of that province are being
forced

emigrate

to

situation

The

of

effort to

is

rightand

all

losing what
result
been

of
to

remain

their

Servians
hold

on

of

Servia.

behind

gets

should

make

Old

Servia

their forces
by dispersing
they risk, like the Greeks,

natural, but

Macedonia

over

the

retain

Kingdom

who

those
That

steadilyworse.
every

the

to

the

might

have

extension

accentuate

the

been

secure.

of their

The

only

propaganda has

unfortunate

and

useless

THE

v.]

SERVIAN

PROPAGANDA

151

quarrel with jthe_Bulgarians,thereby preventing

the co-operationeven
of the Slav races
of the
Balkans.
The

Servians

since the
of

Ipek

have

had

autocephalousChurch
the^Servian Patriarchate
no

suppressionof
in

weakness

1766,

and

nation

as

this constitutes
in

the

their

Turkish

chief

Empire.

the Greek
archate,
Patrito
belong ecclesiastically
although in the Servian districts of the
Kossovo
vilayetthey have Servian bishopsand
clergy. Lately the Servian nationaUty has been
recognizedby the Porte, but this decision is unhkely
much
to have
practicaleffect.^ There has of late
been a tendency towards
ciliation,
a
Servo-Bulgarianreconin the hope that both
peoples should

They

co-operate for the

freedom, and

similar

regard to the
Bulgaria. Recent
in

of

Uberation

quarters

state

as

Old
a

tendency

of

in Servia

events

of ferment, and
Servia

convenient

is

Macedonian

has been

Governments

with

country

of

cause

common

Servia

have
a

out

of

and

kept the
for the

war

regarded

way

apparent

in

many

internal

difficulties.

If, however, the Servian

propaganda is weak

in

itself,it has acquiredpowerful outsidejgrotgetion

Russia, who
1

tried to

use

the Christian

The Turkish Government,

as

of
populations

people
recognition

I have said,divides the

that this

Churches, so
or
accordingto their religions
communities are : Islam
would be a new
departure. The existing
Bulgar or Exarchists,
Muhamedans, Rflm or Patriarchists,
or
Katolik or Catholics,Ermeni or Gregorian Armenians, Musevi
or

Jews, and Prodesdan

or

Protestants.

15"

RELIGIONS

AND

PROPAGANDAS

Turkey as instruments for her

graduallydropping all those
with

her views.
weak

too

showed

they
and

back

to

spirit.

Macedonia

in

who

did not

fall in

The

Russian

have

the

up

appear

dangerouslyindependent,
the Bulgarians
until

were

as

their

agents

d'ordre

become

to

being used

are

ends, has been

own

present the Serbs, who

At

ever

[ohap.

received

claims

of

the

consuls
the

mot

Servians

in
Bulgarians by all the means
their power.
They foster the jealousybetween
the
Serbs
and
the Bulgarians,
and
they present
in the guise of liberators.
to the former
themselves

and

repress

The

Serbs

and

hope

see

their

the

are

that

aspirationsreahzed.

The

also if

they

Russia

should

The

present

Kutzo-Vlachs.

likelyto treat them

signs of independence.

VLACHS.

Rumans

or

of Macedonia,

interestingethnographicand

an

one

is

show

THE

day
historyof
example of

may

instructive

an

prove

weakness,

own

they

in which

way

Russian

their

aid

by

Bulgaria should
the

of

conscious

linguistic

to be the
usually admitted
of
the
descendants
aboriginal Thracians, who
amalgamated with the Latin colonists and adopted
maintained
their language and
civilization,and
characteristics
their national
by retiringto the

problem. They

the

of

fastnesses

mountain
influence

are

also

Danube,

Latin

region north of
large militarycolonies were

survived

where

Macedonia.

in

the

154

RELIGIONS

AND

PROPAGANDAS

considerably.According to

very

they

not

are

than

more

[chap.

authorities

some

50,000

whereas

Rumanian

patriotsaffirm them to be at least

half a million; probably they amount
to about
But
their importanceis
100,000.
politically
very
small.

They

With

the

treated

havH^'usudly" kSBf~oir"ffood

Turks,

them

less

who,

the

xmtil

badly than

the

Greek

still count

party

last

rising,

their other Christian

subjects.They attend to their trade

For
movements.
part in political
from
they were
indistinguishable
whose
language they spoke as well
and

terms

and

take little

long

the

time

Greeks,

their own,

as

them

Greeks

as

in their statistics of Macedonia.

But

Vlachs
of

accumulated

and

went

the

idea

Bucarest, where

of

awakening

Macedonia,

and

determined

Greeks,

like

degree, had

an

the

work

detach

to

to revive

agitatefor

Vlachs,

in

to

set

the

Vlachs

hfe

Then

nationaUty

returned

cany

of the

his

out

from

Vlachs

to

plan.
the

former, and

Church

Bulgarians,though
the

business,

fired with

of

he

autocephalous

suffisred from

He

to

was

1865

the

of

was

fortune.

feeUng
to

ceive
con-

Monastm

he

language

firstto

Rumanians

the

between

considerable

Vlachs;

natural that

The

Macedonian

consciousness

it was
peoples,

to

the

among

national

Apostolo Margariti of
the early years of his

devoted

to

the

and

of

follow suit.

community

certain

He

growth

should

too

Rumania

he

the

the other Balkan

among
the

with

"

in

for the
a

less

tyranny of the

THE

V]

RUMANIAN

Phanariot

because
firstly,
then

were

The

clergy.
favoured

rather

PROPAGANDA

regarded

the

of

races

separatedby

the

the

as

Greeks, who

dangerous

most

unhke

secondly, because,
the

Macedonia,

considerable

propaganda;

hostile to

and,

Government

Rumanian

was

revolutionaries ;
other

Turkish

the
it

155

Vlachs

distance

were

from

the

their brethren
free.
That
were
country where
be
Greece, Servia, and
pected
susBulgaria should
of

wishing

natural, but

no

to

could

one

VlacH

similar views.

Greek

clergy made

these
to

Turkish

managed
more

been
or

had

done

the

allowed

to

less

The

of

The

get hold

of

of

treason

But

the

Vlachs

then*
ever

hitherto

Patriarchate

instead

authorities, and

continue

has

independent Church

dowing
en-

Vlachs

Ottoman

undisturbed

to

hitherto.

Government.

the

took

effort to

every

bribe

to

Vlachs

institutions

accused

funds, and

the

have

they

as

ones,

Greek

rich

educational

was

of
suspect Rumania
were
opened, Vlach

schools

and
literature cirCJUlated,

Vlach

Macedonia

annex

propaganda
The

since.

proved

an

possibili
im-

has refused to grant

bishops,because in no
constitute
this
a
diocese
does
majority.
race
This refusal suggesteda strange idea to Margariti.

them

even

Although
prepared
Macedonian
would

an

to

few

Vlach

Christian

Orthodox

the

favour

Vlachs

grant them

Negotiations were

to

himself, he

conversion

of

Catholicism, if the

was

the

Pope

autocephalous Church.
actually initiated between

their

the

nevertheless, in

insurrection

Cretan

new

the

still

Porte

considerable

acquired
believed

that

almost

Rumanian

schools

the

of

favour

and

attached

to

last he

he

soon

the

the

to

and

form

failed, owing
Turkish
with

bulk

to

But

more
suspicions,

rebellious

he denounced
Vlachs

remained

who

his

from

coming
in

On

the

common

the

the

strenuous

who

its
are

both

movement,
to

with

accede

Margariti's

hand,

the Albanians

oppositionof

will brook
one

againstthe

refused

other
cause

loyaltyof

of the Vlachs

of

rebellion

Rumania,

Government,
the

rose

party, to the Turkish

feelingagainst him, and

leaders

proposal.

attempt

he

and

appointment.
the
Bulgarian Committee
ago
Vlachs
with
a
suggestion for

years

but

Greek

dismissed

was

few

the

propaganda

authorities.

the

and

bitter

in Macedonia

The

local

those

the

approached the
co-operationin

to

it

Margariti

for his

Macedonia,

in

the

even

police,roused

Turks

made

Hellenism,

to

auspices,and

less well founded, that

which

chance

arbitrarymethods

Greeks,

at

out,

of Rumanian

or

broke

1887

The
sovereign at Monastir.
Government
appointed him inspector

became

his

in

Turkish

lay in actingunder

in

when

importance.

best

the

was

party increased,

hostile

more

But

and

and

numbers,

P^re

Monastir.

Rumanian

The

dropped.

soon

of

little response,

with

met

movement

[ohap.

means

missionary at

French

Faveyral,a

by

Vatican,

the

and

Margariti

PROPAGANDAS

AND

RELIGIONS

156

ing
tamper-

no

support

hostile to the

the

in

Europe.

Bulgarian

THE

v.]

but

movement,

Turks
by^the
at
especially
from

them

the

Krushevo,
Sultan.

insurgents,and

bands.

The

Rumanian

should
with

extension

far

as

the

and
of

formed

two

is

naturally

in

or

of

presence

by

divide

way

givS

of

them

it

have

Dobruja

Rumanians

the

from

apart

that,

should
the

hne

Varna

ambitions,

demand

Rumania

its frontier

as

pensation.
com-

in

right

considerations of

of power.

ALBANIANS.

THE

The

them

Macedonia,

Greece,

this claim,

the balance

of

territorial

Macedonia, it is considered,
make

number

opinion might

RustchukThe

to

alienated

even

have

Bulgaria annex

an

greatly

Government

to

pubUc

Servia

Bulgars,

propaganda in Macedonia, and

pecuniary support. Although it

said

Rumanian

rebel

on

this

some

be

cannot

as

has

the

gives it

repressioninflicted

loyalVlachs

on

the

to

157

barbarous

joined

favourable

ALBANIANS

districts

western

of

the

vilayet of
gossovo are
primitive

a
MfifflSStk-Snd
largepart of that of
and
inhabited
wilder
more
by a race
than any to be found
in Europe
^the Albanians.
ing
of this strange and interestVery little is known
people,save that they speak an Indo-European
"

tongue, but
groups
that

they are

who

were

do

not

of the

belong to any
Aryan family.

descended

from

driven westwards

by

of the

It is probable

the ancient
the

nized
recog-

lUyrians,
advancingwaves

158

of

Tosks

the

primitive of
of

number

their

rule.

attained
the

certain

invasion

Turkish

Albanians

of the

them
and

the

Ghegs, in

but

that

of their

Government

them

It has

in
as

Albania

the

land.

has

to

The

northern

and

overawe

in

large
in

Muhamedans
Sultans

allowed

of

tribal chiefs.

The

deUberately kept

Albania,

volunteers

The

Turks

self-government,
fact, hardlyobey any authority

enforced

never

The

country, but

measure

own

of barbarism

state

of

traces

civihzation,until

became

century.

considerable

Romans

Tsars

over

the

Albanians

seventeenth

the

few

after his death.

reallyconquered

number

the

into

of
Skanderbeg, the "Athlete
made
a
desperateresistance, but

defeated

were

never

of

swept

more

under

Christendom,"

they

of

measure

the

subdivided

are

Servian

the

the

are

Although
country, they left

Under

main

two

north, and

Ghegs

and

two,

into

tribes.

the

occupied

selves,
people themhas
practically

the

in

The

south.

the

in

the

divided

are

Ghegs

viz., the

groups,

They

literature.^

[chap.

lawless, and

and

wild

is
no

language, like

Their

Slavs.

PROPAGANDAS

AND

RELIGIONS

the

them

Turkish
in

ignorance,and makes use

the
neighbouringpeoples.
the duty of militaryservice
many

Albanians

Imperial

armies.

but

serve

They

in
speak of, and are humoured
In the vilayetof Kossovo
they are
every
way.
they
graduallydrivingback the Servians, whom
and
rob
murder
with
impunity, and sometimes
pay

no

taxes

to

Even the

popularsongs

are

very

few.

THE

v.]

make

even

raids

ALBANIANS

are

who

form

Orthodox

the

across

divided

They

159

frontier

into

Servia.

by rehgion into Muhamedans,

two-thirds

of

ChristmiSjand

the

whole

Roman

number,

Cathohcs.

But

rehgion sits lightlyon their'shoulders, and they

fanatical.
In every tribe, save
are
by no means
the

Mirdits, who

all Catholics, and

are

families,there

many

Muhamedans

both

are

even

in
and

Christians,and

although constantlyfightingamong
is hardly ever
the cause
of
themselves, religion
the quarrel. They have
but
little agriculture,
trade

no

industries,and indeed

or

The
fighting^__

save

in

Turks

Europe

much

the

reforms

in

demand

that the Sultan

few

have

occupations

used

them

in

they have
used the Kurds
in Asia, giving licence to plunder
and practicalautonomy
in exchange for fidelity
and persecutionof the other races.
to the Sultan
They also furnish a useful argument against

risingof

and

often
When

same

for

Macedonia;
the

when

should

Albanians

the old division

the

fulfilhis

is at

actuallytakes

as

way

promises,

threatened,

once

place.
of Turkey

Powers

into

pashaliks
was
abolished,and the present system of vilayets
in its place,large Albanian
districts
introduced
and
of Kossovo
into the vilayets
were
incorporated
Monastir, with

the

result,if

further

object,of introducinga
and

fresh instrument

the

Slavs

the

Albanians

and

Greeks.
have

of
For

with

not

the avowed

element

of

order
dis-

persecution
among
the

Slavs, indeed,

peculiardetestation,

and

RELIGIONS

160

scheme

any
is
the

successful,

There

action.

Albanians
not

all

and

numerous,

With

begin by

districts

the
could

be

which

excluding
its sphere

settlements

country,

but

the

of

they

easilykept in

their barbarism

aU

from

isolated

are

over

[chap.

Macedonia

for

must

Albanian

purely

of

reforms

of

be

to

PROPAGANDAS

AND

are

order.

Albanians

have

excellent

qualities.They are brave, hospitable,

succeed
in winning their conand, if you
fidence
and
to
attaching them
your
person,
absolutelyreliable. The foreign embassies and
many

consulates
as

kavasses

in

by

furnished

the

of

account

on

are

They

Albanians

Turkey preferablyemploy
no

their trustworthiness.

and
unintelligent,
Empire with some

means

Turkish

have
of its

But
civil servants.
their
generals and
best
qualitiesonly develop when
they are out
In
Albania
of their own
they are
country.

ablest

always

can

pluad^"

their

Albanians

of

have

the

less savages.

or

hardlybe said that the Albanians have

ing
beyond that of maintainpolitical
aspirations,
and
their autonomy
their vested
right to

It
any

more

done

neighbours. Among
the

something

Franciscans

and

schools in various
maintains
For
has

the

Muhamedans

towns,

the

in
the

nothing

the

Scutari

Albanians
some

of

way

the

schools.
has

been

Italy

and

Austria

Jesuits

and

collegesat

Orthodox

established

both

north

Catholic

the

education;

have

opened

ment
Italian Governand

elsewhere.

Greek
But
done.

Syllogos
for

the

The

million

in

with

provinces only

Salonica

At

Macedonia
Like

from

Ferdinand

and

the

majority

poorer

of

remain

in

towns

of

of

of

Jews

the

whom
in

are

They

good thing

and

in

chief

has

exchange

out

for

boatmen,

the

and

foreign Powers.

two

or

or

of the

being

the

districts

subject race

one

persecuted, and

never

protdg^s

they

Imperial
to

make

Government,

left alone

great

his

how

Turkish

They

intelligent. A

subjects

trade, but

porters, servants,

one

the

financiaL...
support.

honest,

many

favourite

and

thoroughly know

"

know

Their

banking

are

Spain by

Salonica, they form

loyal subjects of

consequence

Majesty.

At

in

are

they speak aS^aiiish

they usually

course,
are

Turk

of

out

population.

They

peasants.

even

the

settlements.

Turkey, they

driven

well.

as

other

Jewish

of

Jews

shop-keepers, and

small

few

Isabella, and

occupations are,

are

are

redistribution
would

large

those

languages

the

in

this day, but

to

other

"

them

JEWS.

are

all

nearly

dialect

and

there

descended

over

province.

THE

the

be

to

of

half

number

small

said

rational

[chap.

are

than

less

all, but

in

Macedonia;

that

they

regards numbers,

As
a

PROPAGANDAS

AND

RELIGIONS

162

they

its

industrious,

are

many
of

are

the

of

them

different

ADRIANOPLE

v.]

The

Aadrianople Vilayet.

province,which

This

of attention

need

has

reform

Austro-Russian
in

168

been
is

scheme,
as

ignored by

much

quite as

is Macedonia

the

itself.

Its

populationis also mixed, but only three races are

^the Turks,
representedin considerable numbers
the
the
Greeks
Greeks, and
Bulgarians.The
the coast of the ^gean, and that of the
occupy
far as the Bulgarianfrontier ;
Black Sea almost
as
they constitute the bulk of the populationin the
southern
part of the country, extending as far
The
inland as Ardrianoplecityand Kirk-kilisse.
Bulgarians,who are here of pure Bulgar stock,
broad
a
strip of territoryalong the
occupy
Bulgarianfrontier,with ramifications to the south.
"

As

in

Macedonia,

many

Greek

towns

by Bulgarian villages.The
scattered

about
in

numerous

all

the

large

districts there
or

sect

are

are

the

In

towns.

settlements

villagesinhabited

called PauUcians,

said to

rounded
sur-

Turks

are

country, and

Bulgarians,and

Muhamedan.

there

over

are

near

by
be

the

are

western
south-

of Pomaks

the

frontier

Muhamedan

descended

from

Bogomils who played so large

a part in the
history of the Balkan lands
religious
in the Middle
Ages.
Turkish
persecutionof Christians, and the old
exist in
Greeks
and. Bulgarians,
hatred between
Adrianopie as in Macedonia-, and in -the summer
of a rising.
the scene
the vilayet was
of 1903

the

Pauliciams

or

164

followed

usual

as

the

for
this

by

its conditions
The

grant it

conditions
Rgviewing\the
themselves

the

features

of all

th^JTurk^^
the^^hristmis^by

mutual

of

of

iealpusy

Greeks

Balkan
neighbourijag

the

of the

four

persecution
and

the

Albanians,

the

of

lawlessness

the

would

of Macedonia,

main

the

it

in

autonomy.

an

assert

call

solution

separate the Bulgarian half

sufficient to

vilayetand

Turkish

savage

fairlysimple, for

be

would

[chap.

most

action.

serious

most

case

PROPAGANDAS

devastation, and

and
repression

be

AND

RELIGIONS

Slavs,

ambitions
The

,States.

first

..

of

place
the

presence

be
be

ambitions

lion's

the

satisfied.

autonomy,
The

the

on

separationof

from

Macedonia

share,

But

if

the

lines

jealousy of

the

mixture

of

certain
in

each

them,

among

chapter,this

generalthe

the

neighbouringStates
for if it were
a
case
question,

by all, and

claimed

in another

in

of the

dividingMacedonia

claim

as

armament
well, by the dis-

as

districts

difficult

more

force

population,and

Albanian

The

proper.

of

substituted

were

international

purely
a

soon

existing rdgime. The lawlessness

be
Albanians
could
repressed by the
of a
well-organizedgendarmerie, and
of the

are

settled as

the

perhaps an
the

be

course

administration

decent

of

of

would

point

districts would

the

end

might

Greeks
races

and
in

given

were

will be

obstacle

would

none

Macedonia
which

would

set

forth

be obviated.

Slavs,'and

in

Macedonia, may

CONCLUSION

v.]
offer

to

seem

165

well-nigh insuperable obstacle

But, as I
pacification.
although the populationis

think

to

are

districts where

of

mutual

find

to

to

areas

to the Ochrida

down
the

To

south, is

the

in

population;
and

co-exist

on

in

mass,

the

terms
we

almost

west, the Bistritza

the

on

prevalentlyBulgarian country.
Bistritza,along the

Chalcidice, we
north

country
Kossovo-

of these

of

Polje

districts

of

are

have
the

sea-

Greek

Shar

Dagh

is Servian.

The

mixed, but

course

representsthe generaldistribution
and the Rumans
Turks
the population. The
about
scattered
everywhere, but they are

in the main

are

the

lake

of the

the

of the

east

borders

of

south-west
and

coast,

there

by
exclusively
Central Macedonia, limited by the Shar
the north-west, and
the Struga valley

race.

Dagh

races

inhabited

shown,

mixed, and

very

hatred, still,taken

large

one

several

have

nowhere

this

numerous
sufficiently

to

affect the

general
justrule they

arrangement, and under a strong and

trouble.
would
not be likelyto give much

over,
More-

of the

Balkan

tendency

to

common

most

peoplesis the migratory instinct, and this would

solution of the problem.
be
a
a
help towards
of Macedonia
The obvious remedy is the^division
into
Greek

three
"

and

and
provinces ServianT^ulgafianr^
TsISncfTof one
natianalr^
"although
"

woul3"remain
another,

they

provincewhere
movement

in

districts

would

tend

to

be

in

could

be

they would

of this kind

inhabited

mainly by

emigrate to the
the majority. A
fostered by the

166

Government
as

far

as

so

PROPAGANDAS

AND

RELIGIONS

as

[chap.v.

to render the various

provinces

possible
homogeneous.

what the Christians of Macedonia

But, above all,

require is
which
every
every

decent

regime under
all can
where
Eve~in~pgac5~^iid
security,
man's property shall be safe from plunder,
woman's
honour from outrage. In desiring
government

this all the Christians concur,

of

and

race,

Muhamedans
Government

all

the

without

distinction

enlightened
An
too for that matter.
impartial
of Euijmeanswould
consisting
largely
of race-hatr^far more
the old sores

help to heal
than
effectually
States.

of

"

many

any

more

division between

the Balkan

Moreover, these different races,

they

were

equalfooting,
might Uve side by side
in peace, and indeed theywould in a sense
complete
each other, owing to their different qualities
tiie
Greek trader,the Slav farmer, the Vlach shepherd,
all necessary elements of society,
and if dealt
are
with wiselymight be kepteach in his own
sphere
of utility
with the others. In
without interfering
the future, of course,
further difficultiesmight
arise,but for the present the cryingneed above
all others is for peace, security,
and impartial
justice.
on

an

"

i
i

""v.

'"jJC^

C\ C\

CHAPTER
TURKISH

By

MISRULE

DR

publishedin

it

be

can

German,

atrocities

inhabitants

described

in

the

with

and

grievances

them

Macedonian
known:

here;
which

whole

are,

trouble.

but

whole

and

make

may

"

Bands

of

of

Turkey
Thousands

shaU

life

the

at

of

less

are

root

divided

be

extortions

of
persecution

of

not

the
well
of
into
of

the

*""""'-""

nationality.

the whole
brigan^Tlnfest
to

state

the

categories brigandage, the

Church, and

the

daily sufferings

nevertheless,

the

The

universal,

as

intolerable

and
tax-ga^therers,

"

of

so

and

the

They

Turkey,

by the Turkish
been
rising have

present

Christian

they

the

foreign press,

deal

in

these words

committed

the

during

troops

describingthe

characterized

best

The

the

in

begins with

1856,

anarchy."

three

TATARCHEFF

Christian

chaotic

the

MACEDONIA

existing throughout
Empire is so great

Turkish
that

BOGIBADE

of the

misrule

IN

written

PAMPHLET,

condition

VI

the

very

of Christians

outskirts
have

of

been, and

of
the
are,

ean
Europcapital.
carried
167

168

off to

the

and

mountains

for

ransoms

IN

MISRULE

TURKISH

MACEDONIA

obliged
The

freedom.

their

[chap.

to

large

pay

bandits

compel

of the neighbourhood to give them

villagers
^food,clothing,
ammunition,
arms,
they need
the

all
and

"

Woe

who

those

to

could

things which

other

many

resist

be

not

theni

denounce

or

mentioned.
!

"

.Tlieir

pillagedand burned, and their women

of villageshave been
are
outraged. Hundreds
attacked
and
destroyed by these freebooters time

houses

and

are

The

again.

but

them,

pursue

do

authorities

the

on

not

attempt

contrary they

very

to

often

share the

Brigandage becomes
plunder with them.
the
is
Commerce
only lucrative employment.
liable to so
risks that it has to be given
many
aU economic
activityis paralyzed.
up;
The
of
the
and
exactions
violence
beys_
less fatal to
not
(Muhamedan
landlords) are
agricultural
activity. The beys think themselves
of everything
at libertyto disposeas they choose
that

belongs
^

if

to

the

peasants

they impose ruinous

pleased with a horse or an

it off by force, or steal it in broad
ox, they carry
If the
offer a ridiculous pricefor it.
or
daylight,
Christian
resists,he will probably be murdered;
and
if by chance
the murderer
is brought to trial,
corvees

he
has

are

always acquitted, for he asserts that

There
in
self defence.
only acted

is

hundreds
kind

they

which

mention,

and
for

thousands
want

although
'

most

of

of

space
of

of

instances

them

Forced labour.

cannot
are

he
are

this
even

doubtless

170

TURKISH

regular public

they

dare

which

has

The

offices and

for

existed

open

law-courts

local

Muhamedans

the

of

town

dismiss
who

the

dared

such

issue

to

Yildiz

the

Mutessarif

impudent

tried to

Dibra, but

protested against
insisted that

bazaar, and

Uskiib

monopoly,
other vilayets.

occasion

one

by wiring directlyto
the

in

tobacco
in the

than

in

[chap.

law-courts

years

more

on

MACEDONIA

the

enforce

not

Porte

IN

MISRULE

such

the
ceedings
pro-

they closed

Sultan

should

(Vice-Governor)
order.

an

If

his

their demands,
ImperialMajesty does not satisfy
they try to induce
by force the Christians to
join them in their protest,and if the latter refuse
do
to
they are attacked, robbed, and even
so,

killed.

in

Not

long ago

the

kaza

Albanians
town

and

way

into

the

down

of

there

Dibra.

invaded
those
the

was

Two

the
of

three

thousand

or

quarter of the

forced
villages,

several

with

occurred

Christian

Christian

doors

typicalcase

houses
axes,

breaking

by

looted

and

their

what

they wanted, in spiteof the presence of Turkish

regulars. During the disturbances, which lasted
the Christians, of course,
were
a
over
fortnight,
forced
small village300
to feed them
; in one
Albanians
were
kept free of chargeduring twelve
days* At last the Sultan yielded and dismissed
Mutessarif, and

the

the

Albanians

homes, laden with plunder,without

Europeans
time

there

do

is not

not
a

realize

that

retired to their

being punished.
at

single Christian

the
woman

present
in

THE

VI.]

whose

Turkey

please; that
that

whom

she

the

that
all

suffer from

for

the

latter

have

hatred

of

the

mercy

the

misfortune

take

more

of

that

they

Macedonia

of

of

the

of

others,
tion,
persecuThe

Greeks.

their

in

bitter

more

the

lot

the

Turkish

only to

since

Bulgarism

Christian

misrule, the

than

still

to

dangerous than
justiceis unknown.

abominable

become

of the

whatever

Christians

hatred

171

enter

and

common

the

the

to

has

is

Bulgariansis worse
they are subjectnot
but

at

may

Uke

complaint

Although
the

Turks

they

resistance, and

BULGARIANS

is not

whenever

wish ;

THE

honour

first Musulman

house

OF

LOT

emancipation

of

Bulgariaand the annexation of Eastern Rumelia

determined
to
the
to
Principality. They are
and
if they possiblycan,
Macedonia
Hellenize
they are constantly denouncing to the Turkish
poUce all the leaders of the Bulgarians,especially
and in generalall those
the schoolmasters, priests,
who
or

received

have

of the

members

to

and

accusations
the

Salonica, imprisoned,and

To
a

closed

are

education,

Bulgariannational

both

exercise

Turkish
their

unfortunate

Church

and

song,

In

Bulgarian

many

teachers

exiled to Asia

is

crime

chains

in

sent

Minor.
to

in the

sing
eyes

Turks.

and

of Greeks

The

komittgdjis,

reading a Bulgarian book,

found

be

as

revolutionaryCommittees.

of these

consequence
schools

some

officials, civil

utmost

endeavours

Bulgarians abjure
nationality. They

and
to

their
say

military,
make

the

national

openly

to

172

them

The

"

If you

do

national

be

to

Church,

and

exile

with

will be

you

existence

dominions.

and
nationality
imprisoned,sent

allow

your

into

that

they

are

Patriarch, and that the Offices

are

we

for you

language ;
Russian

of the

enemies

declared

his

condition

on

speciesof

your

the

churches

Greek

the

in

[chap.

your

but

the Greek
in

your

exterminated;

opened,

under
said

abandon

not

hke

not

Exarchists

Bulgarians and

of

does

Sultan

MACEDONIA

IN

MISRULE

TURKISH

Ottoman

Bulgarians,
language, are the
Empire." Some

meeting of Greeks in Salonica,the

Phanariot
Archbishop closed the proceedingswith
He who is a Bulgarian
declaration :
the following
revolutionist.
is a Panslavist, an
Let
a
agitator,

years

at

ago,

"

ask

us

Pasha

GaUb

enemies

of

are

the

villages

many

where

Macedonia

close

schools

of these

Government."

our

There

to

the

and

churches

are

towns

in

closed

to

(most of
given to the Greeks
them
"Greeks"
only because they recognizethe
Patriarch, but
Bulgarian by nationality and
language),although the majority are Bulgarians.
Whenever
a
or
villagewishes to
Bulgarian town
build a church, the formalities demanded
by the
and

Bulgarians

authorities

are

so

people preferto
in
it.

house

was

in the

In the town

for twenty
to

or

build
closed

that the
complicatedand costly,
ceremonies
perform the religious

of

to

own

Bulgariansagitated
they obtained permission

Resna, the

before

years

their

school, if the authorities allow

church.

Their

them, although they

were

old

church
and

are

POVERTY

VI.]

OF

MACEDONIA

178

the

majorityof the population. In some

villages
the Bulgarians are
allowed
not
to perform
even
in private houses
in the
religiousceremonies
or
cemeteries.
Macedonia

is naturallya rich country in every

beautiful
respect. It has fertile plainsand valleys,
mountains

full of mines

lakes, w^hose
all kinds

clear

of

favourable

conditions

in

afiairs are

abound

waters

would

one

be prosperous

Europe. The
quiteobvious,

Under

such
the

habitants
in-

instead, the

are,

for this state

reasons

I shall

and

and

trout

expect

they

picturesque

in

fine rivers.

fish, and

to

poorest

of all kinds,

of

try to explain

them.
As

and
agricultural
pastoralcountry, there
plenty of employment for everyone

an

be

would

is inclined

who

to

work.

The

land

could

support

populationten times largerthan the actual one,

The
condition
under a good administration.
same
in existence in the neighbouring small
States
was
a

of the

under

better

their hvelihood

are

flourish.

does

from Macedonia

return
not

at

hberty
to

their

refugeeswho

troubles.

to

now

The
earn

obhged
at
periodically

lands

Macedonians

include the

duringthe

to

year,

once

able

not

country,

own

but

200,000

over

are

This

their

only work,

would

who

in

of the

seasons

not

There

they

or
emigrate permanently,

either to

find

misrule, but

Government

labourers, who

Macedonian

certain

Turkish

under

Balkans

are

where

and

in

they
security.
Bulgaria,^

own

fled to

country
Bulgaria

174

TURKISH

it

were

would

MISRULE

under

make

The

and-

as

Macedonia

and

does

they

rich.

in
ever5rthing

suBji5^"^9-'-poo
keep -its jQiristian
ignorant as. jpossihle.The misery of the
to

of

those

have

who

hovels, made

of

whatever.

Macedonia

central
not

of

roof

[chap.

and

prosperous

Government

inhabitants

and

MACEDONIA

Government,

better

Turkish

its power

IN

On

sun-dried

contain
is

side there

one

is

There

beings.

Their

ceihng,

no

furniture

place for

for the

the

human

windows,

no

are

four walls

no

other

the

on

houses

bricks, with

and

animals, and

domestic

it.

seen

straw,

is incredible to

no

inmates
of the house
chimney. The
sleepon
the ground, for there
neither bedsteads nor
are
mattresses.
contrast, indeed,
They form a striking
to the houses

the

kind

in

fruit, and
the proper
cent,

has

official abuses

for

hay

be

on

the

Christian
and

in

in

of

schools

per cent,

for

the

for

which

cent,

not

the

Ottoman

amounts

realitythe taxes,

this,1 per
of

for

the

public

farthingis spent

supportingthe

sum

the tithe in

increase

per

by

for wine,

money

Besides

term.

paid

So the total

the army.
But

(out

in

committed

this constitutes

Agricultural Treasury, ^
instruction

in Macedonia,

"

grain,and
of the

sense

to

limit

and

"

-five years ago.

those

to

in

were

According to the law,

on
agricultural
produce

of tithes.

is the

per cent,

paid

twenty

is first turned

collection

the

which
Bulgaria,

condition

the
considering

attention

our

10

wretched

same

In

of peasants in

ment),
Governexpenses

of

to 12 per cent.

miscalled

tithes,are

TAXATION

Ti.]
much

heavier, and

population. The
Turkish

system
still

misrule.

taxes, and

far greater loss to

cause

it is rendered

but

The

is bad

vexatious

more

in

consequence,

the

peasants. There

the

itself,

through
farm

the

obtainingthe highest

price possible,continuallypostpone
In

in

enough

authorities,who

interested

are

175

the

auction.

harvestingis delayed, and the

often exposed for a long time
in the
crops are
field before they can
be brought in.
There they
liable to be stolen, or
raided by Turks, or
are
of
destroyed by rain, birds, or other enemies
bidder, who

has

has
villages,

been

is

yet

bought
unable

time.

However,

12

cent., in kind,

more

waste

the

tithes

when
of

finish his

to

the

several
work

in

coming from these

two
are
as
causes
nothing compared with those to
which the people are
of
subjected in consequence
the part of the
taxarbitraryimpositions on
farmers.
Although the law establishes a tax of
per

is very

sum

dwell

not

been

the

often
on

described

losses

on

agricultural
produce,this

doubled

these

abuses

in another

trebled.

or

here,

mo^

favouritism

the

greatest injustice.The

and

who

pays
to

who

defer

rayahs

rich

are

his due, and

payment.
not

On

have

partiality

to

to

influential

pay

largersums,
is allowed

moreover

the

only forced

and

iead

rule, large estates,

consequentlyought

far less than

that

conspicuous,and

as

owns,

shall

chapter.

and

Musulman,

they

as

It is in the collection of the taxes

are

to

contrary, the
pay

at

once,

poor
but

176

TURKISH

there

are

repay

additional taxes

also

in which

cases

paid

emergency

and

"

of the

sent

the

these

there
Porte

is

has

an
an

commands

peremptory

Vali

every

to

witnesses

"

or

of contributions

State, and

Sublime

year

pay,

ordering him to remit

Constantinople. Moreover, if two

to

money

must

When

advance.
the

once

emergency
are

in

year

they

[chap.

the form

under

for diflferent needs

are

MACEDONIA

IN

MISRULE

be

can

administrative
and

found
council

who

will

that

is solvent, he

declare

certain

before

Christian

is

thrown
instantly
into
prison; the ordinary legal formaUties are
omitted, and
appeal to justiceis illusory.
any
Many native Christians,who reallyowe
nothing
in prisonby the
at all, are
compelled to remain
order of the collector. Deprived of work, their
famihes
sufferingfrom hunger, they are obliged
owes

money

to

at

money

their household

even

pawn

exorbitant

an

utensils,or
of

rate

borrow

interest.

There

escaping from the clutches of the

Turk
is not a tax,
tribute-grabbing
; for tribute
position,
In the imthe word.
as
Europeans understand
of the
destination
sums
levying,and
is

no

way

the

demanded

Turk
are,
a

in

of

the

commands,
as

it

the

two

were,

dominant

have

Macedonians

Christian

must

hostile

camps

military caste,

other

an

obey.
"

armed

subject people,

The

voice.

no

There

in the

one

minority;

unarmed

and

helpless.
The

decayed

economic

feudal

problem
system.

The

is

the

result

of

greater part of the

MACEDONIA

IN

MISRULE

178

TURKISH

to the

money-lenderincrease, and

an

[chap.

the latter exacts

additional 30 per cent, interest.

Besides

other

above-mentioned

the

male

Christian

must

tax,

When

he

the

of fifteen years he pays

ranges

pay

shUlingsyearly.

seven

each

Turkey

In

personal taxes.

taxes

there

are

new-born

called bedel, of
reaches

the age

hidjaretinstead,which

firom six

a year
shillings
upwards,according
of the family. From
his eighteenth

to

the

to

his sixtieth year

means

he

pays

of four to

sum

six

of the Turks
shilUngsyearly,for the maintenance
and as much
who pass through the town
or
village,
for the Gardes
Champitres. Landed
property is
taxed
heavily,and the tax on live stock is one
for
shilling

These

young.

as

those

for

are

the Christians

on
imposed forcibly

are

such

or

the chief contributions,

but there

are

others which

only,

sheep,goat, or pig,old

Governmental

building

people who
quake,
earthfrom
suffer from
fire in Constantinople,
tions
epidemics,etc., etc. Voluntary contribufor charitable purposes
are
hardlyknown in
the Turkish
Empire, but they are imposed on the
Christians and collected hke ordinarytaxes.
In
districts
the
beys compel the
many
barracks,

purposes,

Christians

his

plough
pay

work

for

them,

and

the

taxes

farm

for

of the

making

for

taxes

feast-days.The
ordered
are
villages
by
for nothing, or to
estates

Sundays
more

to

etc. ;

without

peasants of
the
send

landlord.

roads

and

wages,

bey
his

The

to

one

work

on
or
on

ploughsto
Christians

but
bridges,

never-

VI.]

BRIBERY

theless

they are
them.

repau-

however,

compelled to
The

are

roads

brought
Turkish

of labour

combined

country where, briberyhas

to

fine

Without

art.

official caiinot

exist.

Bribes

everythingand from everybody. A

A
Turk
proverbin Macedonia
says :
"

without

bribery."

Mudir, judge

in

"

The

lowest, accept bribes.

kamlik, for instance,costs from "T200
Mutessariflik,about

There

"T7000.

are

1896,

to

up

"T500;

of the

to

pay

him

Vali

of

many

the

brigands to

country

was

who

Turkish

such

infested

was

bandit leaders
those

Kaima-

to "T300

were

over

marshal, and

divided
bold

an

Councillor

yearlytribute of
a
despot of the
well
abuses

high

indignant with

vilayetwere
the

the

of Monastir, like many

as
Everybody, Turk
His
terrorized by him.

that

powerful Privy

kind.
was

hurt

ValiUk,

Pasha,

Vali

The

This

"T3000.

won't

Dervish

was

Sultan.

others,used

Bulgarian

stantinople,
at Conspecial bureau
where
civil appointments and
motions
propurchased. The father of bribery,
is

influential and

most

taken

are

from
word, all officials,

Vali, Kaimakam,

the

highestto

been

bribery

for

you

and

of result.

is

Turkey

them

on

and

maximum

minimum

work

bridgesthemselves,
properly kept up, for the

never

system results in
with

179

him.

extent

by

them.

worst

Christian,

as
were

great

so

officials of
He
that

the

protected,'
whole

the

Many

spoilswith
enough not to

their

about

of
the
pay

the

Vali
him

i
;

|
;

180

MISRULE

TURKISH

but

i took

"T500.

He

him

used

send

to

dismiss

to

similar

sent

The

to

the

matter

the

3rd

Pasha,

in

the

deaf

of the

the

the

was

until

ear,

garrisonof

dismissal

last

at

Monastir

arrived

The

of the

in

the

upshotof
while

Izett

other

some

the

was

commandant

in the town,

arrested; but

but

Commission

and
Constantinople,

officials were

asking

Governor;

complaints.

Corps

Army

even

people

Sultan,

Sultan, which
the

the Vali

bribes

as

obnoxious

the

examine

town

Vali

petty

remained

at

post!
Another

fruitful

of the Gardes
Garde

Champetres

ChampStre is a

is,and

must

the

Christian

and

power.

of abuse

source

man

the fields,orchards,and
He

these

accept

complaints.

appointed by

his

to

petitionsto

Constantinopleturned
some
militaryofficers

of

of

one

imprisoned,

chickens, butter, sheep, etc.

eggs,

\ began
'

From

released.

soon

[chap.

and

arrested

sometimes

^ tribute, were

MACEDONIA

IN

be,

or

Field Guards.

duty

whose

cattle of

is the institution

town

Muhamedan.

In

is to watch
or

village.

past times

allowed
to appoint
villageswere
Christian
guards,but for many years they have
been deprivedof that privilege
by the Kaimakams
and
Mudirs, who
favourites,
appoint their own
of the earth, the greatestthieves
usuallythe scum
and
criminals of the place; they become
thus
of importance,with unlimited privileges
personages

of

the

domestic

The

village.

Garde
He

affairs of

ChampStre
interferes

the

is the

even

peasants, and

plague

with

the

regulates

CENSORSHIP

VI.]
their

marriages. He
behaves

and
Turks

who

pointsout

honour
steals

and

to

abduct

the

of
the

If

best

He

master.

Christian

concubines

who

he

likes,

helps the
girls. He
well-to-do

most

of the

local

for his harem.

is safe

grapes

anybody

house

right-handman

woman

no

in any

brigands the

is the

procures

sells it to
him.

He

stays

lord

wish
to

peasants.

bey,and

as

181

from

fruit

and

likes to

peasant complains,woe

The

him.

He

by night, and
business

do

to him

with

and

his

family!

According
number

of

to

the

Christian

latest
Field

reports
Guards

certain

have

been

appointedin Monastir ; but unless the reforms are

it is
seriouslytaken in hand by the Powers
doubtful
if they will remain
long in the service.
Printingpresses, as a rule, are forbidden to the
Bulgariansby the Government
; all their classical
books, and
from

most

of

their

school-books, have

to

Bulgaria,and are subjectto a very

strict censorship. The
close
schools
under
are
the possessionof a suspicious
and
supervision,
book
is punished with
extreme
rigour. Many
their fathers,
sometimes
and
even
school-boys,
have
been
exiled to Asia
Minor, because they
possessed suspiciousbooks, or had in their desks
picturesof Russian or Bulgarian officers. There
in Turkey ;
are
Bulgarian newspapers
only two
(" News "),the organ of the Bulgarian
one, Novini
the
Exarchate
in
other,
Constantinople,and
Za/mitza
("Morning Star"), the organ of the
come

182

TURKISH

IN

MISRULE

MACEDONIA

[chap.

Protestant

propaganda. Independent Bulgarian

not
are
allowed, nor is
or
periodicals
newspapers
of establishing
there a possibility
any so long as
rule exists.

the present Turkish

newspapers

in

print anything

about

all other
to

It
Empire.
words,
liberty,my

the

Turkey,

Novini, like

is not

internal

the
not

may

The

even

country,

allowed
afiairs of

mention

society,

tyranny,

Macedonia, Armenia, Albania, etc., etc.

praisethe

Prince

the

It must

of

Bulgaria or publish his

full title of
Royal Highness ; it may not even
speak of the "Bulgarian Cabinet."
Bulgarian
history, Bulgarian literature,or Bulgarian geography
be taught in the schools.
From
not
may
be
Turkish
history only glorious events
may
not

"

"

recorded.

All

stories,poems,

ideas
progressive

are

or

expressedare

novels

in which

forbidden.

persecution to which the

Christians in Macedonia
are
subject,apart from
the massacres
inexhaustible,
are
duringa repression,
in a small
be adequately described
and
cannot
situation is as follows:
The
everything
space.
Bulgarian in Turkey is ruined both morally and
materially.The Turks are ajEraidof the Bulgarians,
The

who
In

are

the

misery

the
south

and

strongest element
the

Turks

in

support

Macedonia.
the

Greek

they encourage the

propaganda; in the north
Servian propaganda,and everyvrhere
they persecute
/ the Bulgarian Church, schools, and
nationality.
j In the south the people are ruined by the beys;
";
'

MACEDONIAN

VI.]

in
and

the

north

they

everywhere

collectors,

by

the

determined

harassed

are

by

demand

are

DEMANDS

the

by

the

authorities,

by

fight

and
until

brigands,
the

The

money-lenders.
justice

to

183

liberty,
they

obtain

tax-

donians
Maceand

they
them.

CHAPTER
THE

VII

MACEDONIAN

COMMITTEES

AND

THE

INSURRECTION

FREDERICK

Bt

The

idea

of

the

MOORE

Komittadji

prevailing in

awful

word

Western

Europe

is

that

simply

"committee-man"

is

Boris

Sarafoff

whose

is
is

name

Balkans,

and

threats

he

lady
of

mutilate

the

is

of

well

their

band

bodies, goad

the

writers

outrages

of

Macedonia

most

yet with

committed

impression
of

And

truth.

some

the
and

Turks

by

by

priestsand
to
to

hopeless
massacre,

neighbouring States

to

of

scrupulous
un-

money

peasants

the

movement

Adrianople

the

authorityover

these
a

them.

condemn

to

SarafofF's

all
insurgents,practically

the

the

criminals, who

Greek

dare

who

be

extort

the

envoys

exceptionof

(though
Turkish).

beyond

to

of

missionaries,

despatch

murder

With

known

violence, assassinate

even

to

in

supposed

risings,wilfullyprovoke
and

the

as

only revolutionaryleader

all

at

chief

capture

as

things contain

knowledge only
insurgents
for
must

the
be

of

one's

freedom

necessarily

distorted.
When
184

the

Berlin

Treaty

rescinded

that

of

186

THE

in

these

concert,

defeated
and

it

and

sooner

united

or

in

effort

at

time

by

that method
for

the

three

success.

Macedonians

in

were

Macedonia

in

time

necessary

they

same

formed

were

short

formed

were

the

were

Bulgaria wherever

and

[chap.

expeditions were
invariably
later by the Turkish
troops,

realized

was

Associations
in

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

numbers,

any

^commiiiees"

secret

itself.

These

the

beginningsof the External and the

Revolutionary Organizationsof which

hear

so

were

Internal
we

now

much.
with

Along
Bulgaria

the

formation

of

committees

in

carried on
literarypropaganda was
and
with
the object of enlighteningthe masses
in the
Macedonian
Question.
interestingthem
The movement
with a heartysupport from^the
met
well as from the
as
Bulgariansof the Principality
Macedonian
emigration,and by the end of 1894
the

of Macedonia

cause

Bulgar

from

the

held

Danube

to

the

the

heart

of every

^Egean.

But

still a conspicuousfeature of
was
lack_ijf.jjnity
between
bond
these
: there
was
no
organizations
entirelyindependentand
any of them, each was
free

of
at

work

to

delegatesof
Sofia.

the

then

of

drawn

The
document

lines;

so
was

congress

summoned

was
"HighXommittee"
the meeting, and
the "Statutes
Adrianople Organizationwere

famous

Macedonia-

of the

own

all the Associations

The

outcome

its

on

"

up.

followingare
as

revised

the

by

Articles
principal
later congress

:
"

of that

MACEDONIAN

vii.}

18T

ORGANIZATION

I.

Object.

1. The

object of the Macedonia- Adrianople

for the population of
Organizationis to secure
and
the
Macedonia
vilayet of Adrianople a
poUticalautonomy, declared by the Organization,
introduced
and guaranteed by the Powers.

II. Means
2. Moral

for Attainingthe Object.

material

and

help

to

be

given to
their struggle

Adrianople Slavs in
oppression.
against
the Macedonia-Adrianople
between
3. Union
all who
sympathize with the
emigrants and
Macedonia-Adrianople cause.

the Macedonia-

4. To

world

the

arouse

of the cause,

in favour

of

interest

by

and ^meetings.
propagandas,
other actions which
5. Any
by circumstances.

III.

the

writings,

be

may

dictated

Macedonia-AdrianopleAssociations

Bulgariaand
into

be

of

means

Macedonia-AdrianopleAssociations.

6. All
m

civilized

all the

one

other

body,

High Committee,

IV.

The

countries
at

the

are

head

estabUshed

to

be

tuted
consti-

which

of

will

in Sofia.

Committee.

directing the affairs of

bears
all the Macedonia-Adrianople Associations
Macedonia
Adrianople
of
title
the
High
18.

The

Committee
"

188

THE

MACEDONIAN

Committee," and
inscription.
19.

The

members
with

seal

is

Committee

mandate

themselves
20.

has

elected

Treasurer

COMMITTEES

secret

of

one

and

same

of

composed

six

Congress,

they elect among

Vice-President,a

year;
a

Secretary.

Committee

majority

bearing the

ballot in the

President,

The

by

[chap.

decides

vote, and

the

all

President

questionsby
its

executes

decisions.
The

Associations

obey the decisions

of the Committee
unconditionally.
Committee
is responsible to the
22. The
Congress for its acts.
21.

The

V.

29.

The

must

Congress,

Macedonia-

Adrianople Congress is
delegatesof all the Macedonia-

composed of the
Adrianople Associations.
mittee
30, The
Congress is summoned
by the Comto ordinary and
extraordinarysessions.
If the Congress is not
summoned
36.
by
the
for
Committee
an
ordinary session, the
to
Associations
have the right to send delegates
Sofia, who

Congress in

will

the

VI.

41.

The

constitute

last

days

General

Committee

of the

of

month

July.

Dispositions.
has

the

right to

negotiationfor joint action with

formed
of
other
by persons
but
having the same
objects as the
Adrianople Organization.
into

into

themselves

enter

tions
all Associanationalities
Macedonia-

HISTORY

VII.]

OF

THE

Macedonian

chefF,whom

ORGANIZATION

189

school-teacher, Traiko

Kitan-

Bulgars loved an^^Spected,

elected
was
a
president,and in a few months
the
result of his efforts.
general activitywas
bands
were
new
Early in the spring of 1895
formed

all the

and

sent

enthusiastic

resigned their

captured

men

it for

back

short

Turkish

the

still

movement

the

was

The

have

he may

in the ranks

there

was

publicationof
collection
and
and

of

seventy
and

Melnik,

held

and

winter

all the

the

insurgents

had.

for

death

him

to

the

that

autumn

paramount

so

an

personal ambitions

The

individual

the

was

of the
of

cause

ambition

of the

ruption
dis-

Organization.
Boris

of the

organ

fees from

whole

the

any

the

in Switzerland, France,
the

with

Sarafoff, in 1898,

energeticpresident. The

no

in that

donian
presidentof the Macehis
and
true
a
patriot,

was

election

the

bands

disaster

first

subsequent leaders
Until

revolutionary

as

the

but

sudden

was
country'sfreedom
object that it obscured

of

of

serious

Committees

which

and

frontier.

more

of KitanchefF.

the

Sarafoff

town

time,

officers of

the

by

troops together drove

across

the

Six

Boris Sarafoffi

was

remarkable.

not

frontier.

commissions

land

achieved

successes

were

native

these

Among

The
year

their

to

leaders.

Macedonian

young

Bulgarian army
returned

the

across

regular

Committee,

members

in

the

Bulgaria

Belgium, and America,

throughout civiUzed
publication

lands

of

Macedonia

Organization in
shape; teaders
the

among

of each

leader

on

Servia

to

theories

the

rebel, and

follow

him

into
organizations

Greek,
he

was

he

had

which

others,

to

the

had

towards

; but

Macedonian

He

freedom.

the

he

work

been

ready to

most

their local

welded

Internal

mittee.
Com-

when

Minor.

He

in

followed

scheme, ahd

of

through the denunciations

hardly completed this task

arrested

liberated

was

the

all independent

were

dropped the Servian

had been
taught in
lead all the peoples

Bulgarian element

But

societies sprang

those

he

to

after much

like their

not,

for his education

offered

would

rise~irom

to

Monastir,

and

who

found

the

he

country,

take

Bulgaria.
present revolutionary

which

that

began

had

were

as

Macedonia

returningto

nationalist

to

secret

vilayet of
when
a boy

the

in

taken

other,

Grueff,

Damian

itself

too,
organisations,

these

But

garian
Bul-

or

Internal

who

men

young

of

extent

inert, the

n5eginning

were

and
fathers, lost allj^hope,
up.

the

External

the

activity. But while

Organization was

their

[chap.

atrocities,was

of Turkish

accounts

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

190

and
the
the

returned

exiled

to

Asia

general amnesty
first Austro-Russian
at

once,

like

of

of

1903,
reform

numbers

of

bands.

fortunate
Organizationwas more
in findingworthy successors
than the External
one
to its first leader.
Delcheff, a youthfullieutenant
of Grueff 's,assumed
command
immediately after
The

the

Internal

arrest

of his chief; but

after the

latter

was

THE

vii]

INTERNAL

liberated he
band

in

ORGANIZATION

(Delcheif)

Gerjikoff, a

killed with

was

in

encounter

an

191

the

his entire

Serres

district.

law

of

graduate
universityof Geneva, then teaching in
that province. He
at Monastir, roused
under
arrested, but
suspicionand was
young

continued

prisonhe

direct the

to

the
school

soon

fell

from

his

of
organization

his district.
Delcheff

Under

and

leaders,fresh committees

minor

the

Soon

peoplebut

It had

local

authorities had

who

bands

for

the

where.
every-

terrible

only

not

reckon.

to

charged with
general bands for

were

policingof districts,and
arms

many

up

the State, with whom

the

even

transport of

sprang

Organizationbecame

force,a State within

the

and
GerjikoflF,

and

ammunition

to

general rising;it

tribunals,
by which

members

with

head

had

the
the
tributed
dis-

be

its

own

who

its
transgressed
laws were
sary
punished with a severitydeemed necesto maintain
loyalty,and also Macedonians
of whatever
nationalityfor acts of treacheryand
divided into revolutionary
espionage. The country was
districts, departments, and
communes,
officers at the

local associations

Committee,

which

reisidencebut sat
were

of each.

the

was

had

Central

all the

Revolutionary

known

no

at
chiefly

Above

or

Salonica.

estabUshed
Four

papers
news-

issued in different parts of the country

to

acquaint the

of

affairs ;

members

for, according

permitted in

Turkey,

with
to

all is

the
the

ever

real
few

course

journals
peaceful and

192

THE

in

prosperous
The

and

houses

pounds

to

of the

popular with
are
examples

there

giving

the

cause

soon

simmer

of

of

hamlets

the

was

hither

peasants stole

drill.

It

the

land

In

levy
Internal

of

and

Greeks
at

the

army;

because
to

the Internal

and

this

there

never

were

supply

the

was

this the
demand

their States ;

Servians, Vlachs,

ments
Bulgarians.Govern-

as

draft

often

Governments

Turks,

well

and

ments
Govern-

payments

did.

as

but

seed of

Committee

demanded.

exact

made

war

the

saying that the day

nightto the'Komittadji.

circumstances

pay

transported

the fields to meet

foreigners
residingwithin

Committee

even

but

taxes

the

the

common

Committee

revenues

was

warnings,and
thither; and one by one

into

out

their methods

drastic,as the

all

carried news,
and

became

to the Turk

in view

revolutionaryactivity:riiies,

messengers

instructions

of

hundred

one

and dynamite were

bombs
cartridges,
from
sowed
place to place; agitators

rebeUion

Bulgarian

sum
respectable

covered

night

as

the

exists in Macedonia.

poverty which

As

dominions.

than

more
a

"

[chap.

Ottoman

sublime

was

fifteen

in

the

movement

element,

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

men

Committee

enough

volunteers.

to

serve

seldom
arms

in

did,

in hand

Governments

put

did the same.

spiesto death, and the Committee
The
are
majority of the spies in Macedonia
had been
Greeks
Greeks, chieflypriests. The
approached under the regime of GeijikofFand

DelchefF, and

asked

to

cast

in

their

lot

with

danger, excessive
the

too,

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

194

executors

as

most

One

these

of

is in

said

once

human

to

power

to

sufficiently
punish

them

infamies
and
to

which

to
can

one

that

the

to

for

the

how

the

Turks

can

of
"

subjected;
worked

men

of

corpse

priestwho

which

centuries

readilyunderstand
mutilate

oppressors.

Nothing

been

Greek

me

"

have

pitch

soldier,or

their

as

do

we

always
long-

were

often, from

were
daring, and
pent animosity,as ferocious

the

applied. Then,

penaltieswere

selected

men

[chap.

Turkish

assisted the Muham-

edan.
It

offences
to

men

brought

lightly.The
jailor into

exile.

threat;

second

and

its character
with

fine,

indeed, possibleto punish light

not,

was

that

Committee

of the

komittadjisstruck

send

hght transgression
offence, accordingto
offender,was punished
assassination.

into the

terror

not

beating, or

could

heart

The

equal to

inspiredby the Turks, and the accounts of

their deeds, exaggerated by Turks, Greeks, and
Russians, secured for them the accusation of having
equalledthe Turks in criminality.
that

In

annual
as

the

1898,

its President,
and

his

made

methods

countries

Sofia, elected

and

foUow
the

him

fact

feel his power

Boris

at

the

Sarafoff

tious,
ambitwenty-six,
He

scrupulous.

gifted with
men

of

man

young

too

not

energetic,and
which

in

meeting

Committee,

External

was

strong,

personalmagnetism
the

to

that

he

obscured

death.
made

the

But

foreign
fact that

SARAFOFF

VII.]

the

movement

of

centuries

AND

STONE

195

genuinelypopular one born

persecution. There is no doubt,

was

of

MISS

however, that he acted with strong convictions,and

that he believed
could

that

by

chieflyunder

dictated

by

alone

donia
Mace-

be freed.

SarafofF dominated
ruled

his methods

the

High Committee.

the clause

He

Through actions
circumstance," and paid little

force of

"

regard to the other laws. To him is due the

subsequentstrengthof the External Organization.
A
political
party which had secured the election
largelyby intimidation at the poUs used Sarafoff's
aid to maintain
a

certain

its power.

Collectors

part

of

the

allowed

were

on

army

"

Cause."
which
threats.

from

the

on

with

pay-day and request

the
percentage of each officer's salaryfor
Sarafoff^ issued
a
"patrioticloan," to
his emissaries
enforced
subscriptionby

small

Even

this state

course

rewarded

was

of support

amount

Bulgarian Government.
to pass through the
a

He

few murders
of

things aroused

quarters,but Sarafoff"

many

Of

committed.

were

strong protests
was

not

reUeved

of his office until later.

A

few words

which

first called

Europe
One
American

must

and

was

now

attention

public

America

the

be said about

to

the

in

Miss

Madame

deeds

Western

Macedonian

capture of

Missionary; and

two

mittees.
Com-

Stone, the
Tzilka,

was
undoubtedly
Bulgarian ProtggJtant, which
illnot
planned by SarafofF. The captiveswere

196

THE

MACEDONIAN

treated, and
detained
to

the
to

was

buy

COMMITTEES

obtain

not

convinced
sufficiently

the

Turkish

of the

authorities
from

ransom

the

that the Committee

would

have

againsthim
the

to

modern

risingof

SarafofF told

biU

for the

me

the Sultan
used

arms

purchasedmany
dynamite used in

"16,000

rifles and

other

Professor

the

event

in

between

war

was

the most

the

was

Mihaileanu

Mihaileanu

and

was

of

the

last year.

The

caused

which

of
responsibility
the refunding

exact

Porte.

the

pay

being

Government

of the
to

with

fullyexpectedthat

for that

"

their

large ransom

American

The

arms.

of

object

only

[chap.

assassination of

Bucarest, which
Rumania

almost

and

Bulgaria.
who pubjournalist
lished

Rumanian

violent attacks

the Committees

on

all

things Bulgarian. Greeks who had

municate
grudges against Bulgarians,but feared to comdirectlywith the Turkish police,
gave
information
againstthem in letters to Mihaileanu ;
on

the

and the
professorhad them promptly printed,
the
Turkish
forwarded
Legation at Bucarest
as
soon
as
they appeared.
papers to Constantinople
Without
further proof, investigation,
trial,the
or
of
them
accused, some
men
totallyinnocent
prisoned
imand
merely victims of personal spite,were
and

by

the

streets

exiled.

Mihaileanu

High Committee,
of

Bucarest.

arrested, tried, and

but

the

The

and

was

assassinated

actual

condemned

Rumanian

condemned

to

murderer

in the
was

prisonment
lifelongim-

Government

also

vii]

THE

demanded

the

deemed

TRIAL

of

of
instigator

extradition

no

SARAPOFF

extradition

to be the

however,

OF

under
Principality
and the Kingdom of

SarafofF,whom
the crime.

is,

Bulgaria,

suzeraintyof

Rumania

they

There

treaty between

the

197

the

Porte,

the treaty

existing
between
and
Rumania
Turkey legallyapphes to
of enforcingit.
but there was
no
means
Bulgaria,
The
action of Rumania
united the Bulgariansin
The
Bulgarian Government
support of Sarafoff.
refused
Sofia.

The

frontier and

until

troops

Bulgaria massed
were

that

1903

While

him

friendlyrelations

Sarafoff

under

was

at

Bulgarian
for

hers, and
of

but

withdrawn,

him

innocent.

the

on

the verge

on

afterwards

troops were

tried

declared

her

countries

the two

but

up,

verdict

massed

Rumania

him

deliver

to

war

it

time

the
not

was

resumed.

were

of the

trial,
a congress

summoned
by rivals in
Organizationwas
the ranks to elect a new
president. Tzoncheff, an
ex-generalin the Bulgarian army, and a strong
External

of

advocate

Bulgaria,strove to win the

the
vice-presidencyunder
became

leader

virtual

the

Macedonia

of

annexation

the

was

to

the

of

of

give

and

moral

Committees,

subjectthe
The

latter

his

material
set
own

movement.

the

External

that

its

aid to

about

at

the

duty

donian
Mace-

once

to

sway.

mittees
that of the Comi.e.,
Organization,
Macedonia, was
beginningto develop an

Internal
in

to

he

secured

Michailoffsky,but

following the rules of

which
clearlystated
Organization,
Instead

He

election.

to

198

THE

new
entirely

view
At

country.
heads

of

with

other

the

Bulgars

when

Vlachs

had

begun

reSeis took

the

of the

and

that

entered

the

of

eventually
Big Bulgaria
;

the
reviving

Macedonians

and

join the revolutionary

ranks,

to

broader

had

of Servian

number

idea

save

[chap.

the future of that

regard to

first no

annexing Macedonia
but

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

free Macedonia,

view

of national

with the

tions.
aspira-

addition
possible

vilayetoF Adnanople, with its sea-board

be the most
powerfulof the Balkan States.

would

It would

contain
Russia

peoples.

of all the

members
and
^

maintain

balance

other Balkan

Austria, for their ends,

of weakness

in the

Balkans

the weak
and hamperby creatingenmities, aiding
ing
the strong, just as the Porte
plays with the
various
weakness

would

of

The

Macedonia.

in

races

broken

be

Macedonia's

with

balance

the

ment
accomplish-

freedom.

of

state

like

geographicalpositionand its
would, in the opinion
ethnographicpeculiarities,
Macedonia,
of

the

the

Russian
of

that

"

for

tion
confedera-

realization

the

of

which

an

of

annexation

quicker way
policywould

States.

nucleus

impregnable bulwark against

Mediterranean.
the
expansion towards
the Bulgarians of Bulgaria still believe

the

even

the

Balkans,

make

would

Many

its

rebels, form

of

that

from

The

towards
arouse

watchword

the
Macedonia_for
General

TzonchefFs

would

Macedonia

jealousyof

of

an

confederation; but

the

be

the

Macedonians
ambition

the other

Macedonians
!

is

"

and

as
jealousy,

INTRIGUES

VII.]
well

Committee,

worked

mass

and

into

took

blameworthy acts.
Turk, but against

up

The

newspapers

the

battle, and

either

organized on

for

another

question. TzoncheiF
the

the

with
politics

the rupture that the

called

of

of

only against the

Organizationas well.

violent became

knew

199

matters

led him

Bulgaria divided
meetings were

he

ORGANIZATIONS

not

the Internal
of

THE

diflferences on

as

Internal
He

IN

that

he

local

could

not

count

on

local

organizations.It was
to
him, however, and
accomplish
excluded,

various

on

twenty committees

grounds,
to

contrary

tions
organisathe

election,

new

So

decide

to

congress

opposed

side.

the

majority

forced
his

as

upon

ends

he

delegates of

him, and

created

he
villages.By this means
of forty to thirty,
secured his election by a vote
and
of the minority rose
whereupon a member
declared that, in view of the methods
employed,
new

the

in smaller

ones

minority would

constitute

twenty

regular congress

secede,

of

and

with

themselves
Delcheff

1902.

the

franchised
dis-

into

the

present

was

of the Internal
rupture, as the representative

at the

Organization.
Since

whole

the

1895,

armed,

carried
the

on.

and
It

was

of this

DelchefF's

to

calculated

that in 1904

or

1905

thoroughly equipped for a

knew
and overpoweringrising. Tzoncheff
the glory
but sought to wrest
programme,

peasants would

sudden

this

of

preparingthe peasants
Many of the villagers
work
was
being gradually

directed
was
organization
for a general revolution.
were

work

be

THE

200

from

the

MACEDONIAN

other

COMMITTEES

leaders, or

[chap.

least to

at

make

their

abortive
rebellion.
impossible,by an
about
to be done, was
Delcheff, seeingwhat was
in despair. He
despatched messengers
across
the frontier to spread the news
and
the
warn
inhabitants
againstthe fatal step, and succeeded
the
in localizing
revolt to the
frontier district
of Razlog. Delcheff
here came
to the conclusion
that
in
an
independent Committee
Bulgaria
success

could

not

secessionists

With

on.

go

reside

further

and

other

ways,

the

became

and

and

of

experience,should

and

under

DarvingofF.

was

him,

But

the

foredoomed

district was

into

the

active

most

militarytraining
proved extremely

his

have

He

cause.

leaders

the

of

one

in

cause

released,went

Tzoncheff, with

useful to the

the

of the Internal Committee.

leaders of the bands

General

of

interests

Sarafoff,now

and

Macedonia

appointed

Sofia, collect subscriptions,

dispense

at

news,

dissolved,and

Internal Committee

of the
representatives

the

the
organization,

declared

was

of

consent

Tzoncheff's

from

Extern",lCommittee
to

the

brave, as

were

many

Saieff, Yankoff,

hke

the

risingin
The

to failure.

Razlog

bands

were

Bulgarianfrontier,having
cution
accomphshed nothing,but brought about a persesoon

driven

of the
It had

as

would

inhabitants.
stated

been

leaders that

the

across

some

series of outrages

horrify the

they hoped

by

for

and

of the

by

revolutionary

the

civilized world
intended

to

Turks
was

bring

such
what
about.

against the
A

little

of

great dread

Macedonian

the

war.

the cloak

If Russia
no

Europe, togetherwith a
Russia
seized the opportunity,
of humanity and peace, undertook

honestlydesired
have

would

reforms

Russia, Austria, Great

of

simpler
signatory

other
that

instrument,

Britain, France, Germany,

the

Italypromisedprotectionto

peasants

in Macedonia,

been surer, safer,

or

co-operatingwith the
the Berlin Treaty. By

of

Powers

had

way

by

and

peasants

institute reforms.

to

than

for

against Bulgaria.

in Western

aroused

and, under

Principality

strong protests followed

Government

sympathy

[chap.

the

from

up

and

Turks,
Turkish

the

was

went

great outcry

from

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

202

all the

but

Macedonia;

persecuted
Powers

had

forgottenthis obligation until the Macedonians,

in despair,brought it forciblyto their attention.
this late
A joint action of the Powers, even
at
have
date, would
accomplished its object and
the status
maintained
Empire,
quo of the Turkish
so

much

desired

however, would
settlement

have

of the

desire.

not

by England

The

act,

with
would
way.
and

their
have
So

with

interests

put

when

in

all

Russia

offered to undertake

government

of

more

or

question,and

feared

they

as

Western

platonicsympathy
to

been

That,

France.

and

less permanent

Russia,.j|flss

this

Powers,

who

felt some

the Macedonians,
that
the

manner

and

Russia

Austria

while

of

obstacles
became

the reform

Macedonia,

and

break-up
of

hesitated

Austria,

Turkey,
in the

allied,

of the Turkish

still

maintaining

ACTION

vii]

the

status

show

much

to

203

Powers,

Turks,

and

wishingto
also

to

business, accepted the

be

position.
pro-

vilayetof Adrianople,suffering

reforms

of

POWERS

the

Macedonia,

as

scheme

the

THE

Western

troublesome

Why
as

the

solid front

rid of

quo,

OF

was

which

not

"the

in the

included

interested

two

"

presentedto the Sultan, no one thought

Abdul
with
his usual
of asking. But
Hamid,
and
the scheme
at once,
diplomacy, swallowed
better for it; and
said he felt much
suggesting
been forgotten,
he included
that Adrianople had

Powers

Russia
vilayetin his Iradd of reforms.
offered no
objectionto this show of generosity,

that

because

she

by

meant

But
knew

was

his

both
the

scheme.

well

little the

how

aware

Imperialedict.
the Bulgariansand

Russians, and
In

the

put

annual

Note

the
no

Sultan

Macedonians
faith

which

in

the

their
mittees
Com-

representativesof the
Powers
the plea for the execuat Sofia, in which
tion
of Article
of the
Berlin
23
Treaty, the
of the
scheme
was
pointed out.
in^ufficigjacy
handed

The

Committee

to

the

also

announced

that

it would

but
the
assertions
so
;
suspend operations
that
its activity
often
made
by the Turks
is absurd.
prevented the institution of reforms
risingin August
Up to the time of the Monastir
the
counters
komittadjis avoided
1903,
important entake
with the Turks.
Fights would
discovered
band
was
by the
a
place whenever
not

troops, but

regular battles

were

always

avoided.

after

Long

manifest,
"

under

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

204

the

Hilmi

the

carry

scheme

than

before, the Monastir

Ten

thousand

armed

with

hundred

district

became

"

worse

in rebellion.

rose

only a portionwere
than two
rifles,againstmore

modern

Turkish

thousand

The

out

of whom

men,

bashi-buzuks

become

persecutionof the peasants

General
Pasha, the Inspectorpointed
ap-

and

to

had

reforms

failure of the

the

[chap.

soldiers

and

host of

has

Turk

other

idea

of

governing a
discontented
provincethan by repression.When
few
committed
of anarchy, which
acts
a
men
of
London
detectives
a
score
pohce and
would
have
official,
prevented, every Turkish
including the
Inspector General, immediately
accord
that the only way
declared with one
to put
no

an

to the disorders

end

fightBulgariaas
she was
followinga
to

The

affair
was

The
its

authors

had

Greece
similar

has

and
Gerjikoff"

almost

been

as

in

the

by

The
a

of

no

the

plan.

because

have

of
on

the

bad

European

tried

effect

to

the

sympathy.

official

whatever
was

proached
ap-

school-teachers

students, mostly of Salonica,and

leaders

the

Committee
young

cution.
exe-

character.

hand

and

The

Salonica

"

self-sacrificeof

that

me

Internal

number

the

mediasval

Sarafoff* told

affair.

"

foughtwhen

design and

the

revolutionary
organizationhad
in

the root

pohcy.

commonly known
ingeniousboth
desperationand

"

Outrages

to strike at

was

informed

of

discouragethem
outrages would
But

the

young

THE

vii]

BALANCE

OF

replied:
"Europe put

men

after

had

we

been

When

the

CRIMINALITY

back

us

freed, and

European

205

under

the

promised
Powers

Turk,

tion.
protec-

us

had

accom-

pUshedthat part of the Berlin Treaty which affected

them, they forgot the people whom
they had
have pleaded for twenty-fiveyears
sacrificed. We
that their promises should
be executed; we
have
of our
pointedout the insecurity
property, of our
fives,and

of

women's

our

honour,

but

all to

no

These

thingsmust be brought home to

the people who
have betrayed us.
death
The
of
half a dozen
Europeans they will feel,but every
soul of us can
perishwith no effect on them."
It is very easy, sittingat home
comfortably
purpose.

in London,

under

beneficent

as

exists in the world, to

of

annoying sense
"

outrages

wife

soldiers ;

of Salonica

if

you

going

from

on

you

but

your

you

remonstrated

if not

childreh

Muhamedan,
beaten

for

would

be

"

not

minds

our

like

excuse

will

and

home

only

your

were

stolen

for any
were

by

the

material

from

of these

an

the

brutal

by

clothes

good

wear

as

if your

But

us.

outraged at

way

evidence

be taken
with

man

possessions,
you

if,when

rences,
frequentoccur-

set aside for that of any

yourselfimprisoned and
then if you
object,I wonder
to
fight only according to

you

daringto
content

civifized methods

The

an

to

comes

dared

your

gun

your

from

market, lest they should

to

the

when

duty

daughter were

or

when

"

dismiss

government

"

with

the

revolutionaryleaders

certaintyof

defeat ?

undoubtedly

sym-

206

THE

pathizedwith

the

the

out

attempt
But

grounds.

COMMITl^EES

MACEDONIAN

the

leaders

the

peasants

[chap.

dynamiters; they argued against

of policy and
not
ethical
on
the young

as

suggested

men

that

they

should

wait

let the

and

armed

were

determined,

were

until

explosions

signal for the uprising. That was

agreed to, and the insurgent chiefs themselves
the S^onica affair occurred
were
surprisedwhen
prematurely on April 29th, 1903^
Early in February a Bulgarian rented a little
street
shop in a narrow
directlyopposite the
come

as

Ottoman

Bank.

but
groceries,
they kept much

stocked

He

his

priceswere

it

with

once

exorbitant

so

trade away.

at

Half

dozen

that

regular

who

however,
patronizedhis shop daily,
seemed
of provisions.
to purchasegreat quantities
They brought baskets and oil-cans and buckets,
and
them
took
heavily laden ; but their
away
hide
to
purchases merely served
quantitiesof
For
earth.
fortydays this comedy lasted,and all
the time the Imperial Ottoman
Bank
was
being
successfullymined.
Consideringthe fact that a
customers

"

house
in

at

the

the

corner

street

presence

"

believe

of what

Salonica.
at

was

Feruh

Sofia,told

of

therefore

and

difficult to
aware

host

me

that

the

man

dynamiters,and the
ment
spies which the Governaccording to the work
it is
doubly industrious
"

the

going
Bey, the
few

to

even

of

rewarded

employs
they do,

den

as

of the

known

was

on

authorities
in the

Turkish

weeks

were

not

very heart

ol

Commissioner

after the

explosions

THE

VII.]

he

that

SALONICA

OUTRAGES

informed

was

of

the

dynamitersa fortnightbefore
advised

the

because

of

Porte
the

from

How

did

Excellency.
Through
"

we

knew

that

Salonica
The

of my

one

fast

were

tunnel

place,
weaning

in

"

this ?

asked

His

agents. Moreover,

custom-house

officials at

rich."

growing
finished

was

He

Bulgarian cause.

secret

two

the

occurrence.

have

the

know

you

of

attempt take

effect it would

European sympathy
"

intention

the

let the

to

207

in

good

time.

But

with
men
day the plotterssaw
picks and
shovels digging in the street
at a
spot not far
from the tunnel and approaching it. On
inquiry
trouble with the
they learned that there was some
There
was
water-pipesto the Hotel Colombo.
one

no

time

to

mountains.

the

warn

The

revolutionaryleaders in the
mustered, probablytwenty-

men

five in all,and

decided

to

off the

carry

affair on

the

followingnight.
On
the morning of April 29th, a
Anatolian troops barelymissed beingblown
outside

the

machine

"

minutes

incident
for

placed

the

on

soon,

track

The
was

just

"infernal

timed

few

and

the

Constantinopleon

came

Salonica.

up

of

exploded before the train

it.
During the day the Ghiadalquivir
A
occurred.
Bulgarian took a passage
too

reached

of

station

train

with

board

on

before

the

hailed

ship

small

sailed.

boat

and

French
about

bag
At

mail-boat, and

the

went

half

an

hour

last moment

he

ashore, ostensibly

to

speak

to

behind,

terrific

enveloped the
definitelyuntil
the

been

the

return,

not
; but

ship weighed
she in motion

hardly was

flames

burst

whole

hull.

the

evening

[chap.

leaving his bag

quay,

explosionoccurred

later

moment

the

on

did
him

without

when
a

friend

i^s he

anchor

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

208

It

amidship,and

out

which

was

not

that

soon

learned

dynamite

had

cause.

the open-aircafi^sand
eight o'clock,when
crowded
with
music-halls
along the quay were
foreignersand the wealthier natives, and the chief
of open
thronged, a number
thoroughfares were
At

carriagesdrew up simultaneouslyin front of all

Their
drivers were
the
more
popular resorts.
in which they were
of the mission
doomed
unaware
all dynamiters.
fares were
to play a part. The
stood up in the carriages
of them
and others
Some
"

"

and

dismounted,

lit and

threw

they

carried.

apiecewhich

bombs

series of

followed, creatinga panic,but

people
or

of

The

before.

With

hollow-cast

diameter, the

shop oppositethe
town.

bombs
away

When

few

The

too

soon,

from

them

the

Bank

the

shells,about

dynamite,

and
imported separately,

the

only

plosions
ex-

exceptionof one
ex-officers of the Bulgarian Army, not a
the
handled
dynamiters had
explosives

were

two

man

killed.

half-dozen

the

and

the

2^ inches

fuses

had

in

been

put togetherin the little

and

in

other

placesabout

Bulgariansgenerally threw their

and the people had
time to get
before the explosionsoccurred.

British

army

used

the

hand

grenade

210

school

had

attention
bomb

off to

drawn

was

the

at

cast

school, where

it

Other

followed

bombs
In

fire

opened
Almost

front.

poured

from

the

continued,
and

Finally the
the

house.
than

dead
and

discovered.

din

were

barrack

house

occupied by
the

up

more

during

thousands
bombs

than

two

other
the
hours

of rifle-shots rent
Turks

the

ceased, and

They dragged out

alive, already shot

one

for
error

the
ploded,
ex-

the air.
entered

bodies, more

two

in

in

street

thirty bombs

which

the

detachment

mistaking the
volley into it before

For

the

across

direction, and

other

the

damage.
effective
equallyin-

darkness

Bulgarians,fired
was

the

of

Uttle

another
simultaneously

down

force, in

troops rushed

and

dynamiters,

did

fast, and

the

on

terrace, while

window

nearest

moments

[chap.

burning Bank,

the

exploded,but

few

the

From

rented.

been

was

street

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

dozen

places,

finished them.
Thus

scheme

ended
was

the

giganticand

outrages. The

Salonica
well

laid,but

it failed in

if further proof
points. It proved,however
needed
two
were
things: the coiTuptioB_.."Q
the
Turkish
officials,and
desperation of the
many

"

"

Macedonians.

All

the

explosivesnecessary

were

brought in through the Salonica custom-house.

The
importation of table salt into Turkey is
in by
come
dynamite may
prohibited,but even
bribery.
blown
Many of the dynamiters were
up with
their bombs, and the soldiers succeeded
in kilUng

THE

VII.]

few

REPRESSION

211

that

night, but the majority escaped for

the time being. A house-to-house
search through
the Bulgarian quarter and the Bulgarian schools
Where
was
of
members
the
begun at once.
discovered, fights took
conspiracy were
place.
burned
from
around
Generally the houses were
a

and

them,

the
All

emerged.

inmates

the

other

hounded

town

were

their

some
hiding-places,

with

the

thrown

into

HUmi

Bulgarian

out,

of

butts

shot

were

few

were

the

rifles,but
had

have

may

to

hopes

the

the

Monastir

honest

had

such

Before

he

"suppression" of

the

duration.

short

direct

if he

but

scheme;

of

in

death

majority were
of

"

were

shot
to

of the reforms,
by means
Empire
became
the
Inspector-Generalunder
Russian

the

prison.

Pasha

the

of

men

beaten

were

they

as

he had
district,

"

saving

when

he

Austro-

hopes, they
left Uskiib
rebellion

abandoned

aU

in

effort

lapsed into the easier

the Turks
task, in which
are
adepts,of duping
consuls and deceivingforeigncorrespondents.
After the Salonica explosionsthe Turks
were
The
effect on
the
free hand.
a
given practically
Western
the
Turkish
Powers
was
just what
at

Government
The
for

reforms,

had

Internal
favourable

and

calculated
Committee
turn

of

that

it would

had

been

European

be.

waiting
sympathy

beginning their rising. In Russia's sympathy

had
faith ;
now
England,
they never
theirs. They strove
France, and Italy withdrew
before

212

to

THE

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

delay the revolution, but

forced

their

hands.

It

that the
district,

hold

people.

the

the

acts

of the Turks

to

the

point,in the

came

Monastir

[chap.

leaders could

longer

no

ings,
Throughout June and July the arrests, beatand
shootingsof Bulgariansassumed appalling
known
to be
proportions,and a risingwas
imminent.
the

At

the

last,on

insurrection

broke

night of August 2nd,

in

out

the

kazas

Ochrida, Perlepe,Monastir, Fiorina, and

During

the

between

the troops and

and

Ekshisu

inhabitants
of

bands

few

next

and

had

various

at
komittadjis

Turkish

to

place

Smilevo

whose
villages,

frequentlygone

bashi-buzuks

Kastoria.

days fightingtook
the

of

out

plunder

as

armed

their Christian

attacked.
The
bands
trated
concenneighbours,were
in the Karadjova mountains, and
especially
and
the whole
Fiorina
Kastoria
region between
in their hands
was
by August 6th.
in the Monastir
On the night of the outbreak
three hundred
revolutionists entered
vilayetsome

Krushevo,
inhabited

time,

wealthiest

Church.
in

were

and

there

officials in the
the

were

set
out.

ten

Their

wives

safely escorted

thirteen

in the

fire,and

to

the
and
a

the

to

Turkish

station at

soldiers

surrounded
on

twelve

or

also
The

Macedonia,

belonging

gendarmerie

were

town.

officials were

buildingwas
they came

Some

the

in

town

Vlachs

chiefly by

Patriarchist
soldiers

the

the

Turkish

escaped,but
Konak,

Turks

shot

the
as

ever,
children, how-

Christian

house

KRUSHEVO

VII.]
close
was

with

213

the

exceptionof
shot, whether
by accident
komittadji,I could not
by,

The

revolutionists

Turkish

from

by

ordinate
insub-

an

learn.
the

free

town

established

their headquarters

School, three of

Greek

who

woman

or

declared

misrule, and

in the

one

the

leaders

Their first act

forming a governing Triumvirate.
to commandeer
was
provisions.The komittadjis
about
from house to house, knocking at the
went
of bread.
doors and demanding contributions
At
all the lead in
time they requisitioned
the same
the town

Ottoman

known

employ

trial, and

bullets.

Greeks

seized two

of

make

to

shot

Vlachs

of

armed

before

the

other

some

the

The

day

before
the

next

the

wealth

of

sums

each.

forthcoming, and
been

up

rebels to

about

men

collected.

In

in
case

every

"T3000

some

these, with
later, swelled
1000,

Paper

to

ordered

of money

to

on

the

more

half-armed

large number
General

than

of

Bakhtiar

the
are

no

band

that

troops

were

Pasha

in

the

money

was

said to

have

redeemable

money,

week

into

proportionto

being granted to Macedonia,

exchange.
For

appear

pay

autonomy
in

the

secretly

summoned

were

Triumvirate, and

treasury

been

came

the

of

number

had

town

who

of the

in

semblance

revolution, and

bands

the number

been

them

them.

day they

same

have

to

spies,
gave

as

young

That

attack
held

made

was

brought
command.

given

was

the

on

town.

up,
A

with
man

THE

named

Adam

the

him

of

of

are

entered

balls had

passed.
burnt.

been

not

had

town

trailed
them

with
to

as

the

to

But

were

in
set

unburned

houses

and

with

when

while

bashi

The
Krushevo

on

the

and

most
was
was

town,
worth

collected

was

houses

slate slabs.

which

two

cannon

had

to

been

The

the

marks

bore

the

still carried

the

doors

visible

doors

soldiers

fire.

of

were

the

and

had

bashi-

kill before the

plunder and

on

of

in the

cut

cases

the

many

marks

fire-brands

most

and

the

of

the

gates of
of

adzes

the

selves
provide them-

Turks

lootingexpeditionis

They
belts

the

which

as

the

on

The

window-sills

had

in

open,

houses

the

away

situated

huge

rocks, and

in

rushed

axes

the

thrust

buzuks

was

still standing,and

was

holes

burst

been

It

which

everywhere.

of

through

from

down

is

to

house
in the
Every burned
ignited individually.Oil -stains

been

on

axes
so

house

one

far

mountains.

roofs

with

stone,

week

latter from

villagesas

of

ridge

the

Krushevo

of

town

This

collect

to

[chap.

bashi-buzuks

up

5000.

Turkish

neighbouring
Perlepe.
summit

about

of

for

The

brought

Aga

number

allowed

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

214

the

on

their adzes

gramme.
pro-

in their

there.

buzuks,

who

had

market-day, knew
which
they knew
plundering. The
by the soldiers

carried off in the

vehicles

often
the

wealth
the

were

plunder,
and
of

visited
of

houses
which

bashi-buzuks,
the

victims,

or

KRUSHEVO

vii.]

the

on

backs

of their

gl5

animals, and

own

it sold

publiclyin the bazaars

Perlepe. The officers got the
in the

found
buzuks

the
the

After

houses,

sack

the

Turkish

and

that

soldiers and
and

was

bashi-

provisions.

authorities

circulated

for the

statingthat
atrocities.

the

of

Monastir

money

furniture, silver,

declaration

and

of

much

to sign,
people of Krushevo
the
Bulgarians had committed

the

few, under

compulsion,actuallydid

sign it.
Krushevo

The
a

I think

massacre.

of

affair

On

entered.

for

which

clothes
backs.

fate of those
than

worse

of

some

young

carried

off

refused
of the

the

to

stopped

even

any

good

taken

from

their

the

leave

others.

Turks

were

women

by

were

raged,
out-

were

soldiers.
the

At

The

town

the

was

time

of

still

course
lying in a dry waterof
which
passed through the town; some
the
had
hidden
under
the inhabitants
bridges,
One
being discovered.
only to be shot on

my

visit,bones

were

the

who
that

they

out

number

people

before

town

wore

the

The

valuables, and

they

Some
and

the

their way

searched

and

killed.

leave

to

grand plunder,not

was
eighty-eight

non-combatants

ordered

was

her

had

who

woman,

infant

threatened

were

held

by

ruined

to

the

to

bury

their

wounded

before

up
a

produced money.

been

with

man

they

dead, and

eyes,

and

were

some

not

of the

even

had

its life

unless

sword

the inhabitants

When

town,

her

herself,had

she

returned
allowed

bodies

were

left

lying about

until

devoured

The

when

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

216

the

have

but

that

left for

them

at

dread

that

sacked

only

the

in

The

is

one

real

reason

there
lines
Turks
of

the

left

was

Vlachs

and

The

the

Krushevo.

Greeks

town

escape, and

opening

an

the

I believe

but

bands

given as
Bulgarian quarter

the

the

bombardment.

the

which

dynamite,

reasons

from

retired

let the

often

is little doubt
was

after

days

by dogs.

insurgents had
the troops began

Turks

several

for

streets

[chap.

touched;
un-

why they
was
pally,
princi-

that they knew

them
to be
entirely,
extremely wealthy, while the Bulgars were
poor.
The
was
only instance of fightingin the town
the case of Peto, a komittadjileader and a native
had
who
of Krushevo,
fought the Turks for
if not

the
rebels had
After
captured
eighteen years.
his native place,he declared that he would
never
again surrender it to its oppressors. With a few
of the band known
the
other members
as
Knights
"

who

of Death,"
he

the

shot

and

town,

hours.

several

dowTi

in

The

die in

to

sworn

himself

barricaded

outside

had

an

the

cause,

isolated

house

just

the

Turks

for

fought

little band

is said

nearly fifty Turks

before

to

it

have
was

finallyexterminated.
The

along

the

Salonica

appeared near
were

Fightingoccurred
Uskiib
Railway, and bands
and
Gyevgeli,while others
in the
But, save
Gumenja.

risingspread eastward.

entrenched

Monastir

Doiran
at

the
vilayet,

revolt

was

not

general.

The

218

By

THE

MACEDONIAN

the

middle

COMMITTEES

of

captured Klissura,and

the

August
the

on

[chap.

25th

the

rebels

they surprised
whom
prisoners,

garrisonof Neveska, taking 80

they disarmed and set free,and levied
the

on

took
400

place
rebels

and

of Krushevo

other

and

have

at

Armensko

number

of the

as

to

The

Turks

said to

are

bashi-buzuks

fame.

In the

year,

the visit
been

sent

of

murder
the

it broke

the

large
Pasha

The

The

men.

rebels

same

scenes

Smilevo.

at

consuls.
lion
August 18th, the rebelAdrianople vilayet.The
had
been
preparingfor

on

the

in

under

the

assisted

of

direction
bands

Michael

from

Bulgaria.
the actual outbreak
determined
was
by
of the Russian
fleet to Iniada Bay (which

Whether

M.

rebel
out

the Russian

whole

Bakhtiar

repeated

were

out

and
Gerjikoff,

centre

Turks, with

afterwards.

lost 60

revolutionarymovement

of

of

insurgentsretreated,but
brought into Monastir

were

meanwhile,

broke

but

engagement

of Monastir, between

under

batches

of the

had

tion
contribu-

were
villagers
subsequentlyallowed
refuge in Monastir, on the strong representations

take

about

An

east

battalions

11

wounded

at once,

"T1000.

Smilevo,

at

contingentof
50

of

town

had

of

the

country
hands

of

was

by

compensation for the

Rostkovski) or not is uncertain,
to

exact

leader
before
fleet.

himself
he

knew

the

of

the

Malko-Tirnovo

rebellion,and
from

assured

that

town

in

that

me

approach
the

became
a

to

insurgents. The

few
the

days
sea

the

was

troops

were

in

VII.]

DRIVING

several times

defeated, and,

innocent

on

rage

called
and

the

who

were

flooded

was

little better

by

"drive"

heavy losses, and

in

committed

orders

to

knows

how

to

of

the

because

the
laid

be

the

But

few

of

the

enemy

killed.

combatants

The

and
bands

the

middle

back

the

extensive

Morihovo

they

result

of

had

soldier

of

these

range

near

non-

many

destroyed,

not

were

be

burnt,
villages

great

merely displacedand obligedto

Large numbers
quartersfor a time.
the

where

responsibility
entirelyat the

but

appeared in

The

district would

take
of

new

up

komittadjis
Monastir

in

September, and repeatedlydrove

More
troops sent to dislodge them.
conducted
by Said
operations were

Pasha, but

of

were

equally

without

Turkish

A
inconclusive.
was
operations
a number
swept of komittadjis,
a

of rebels

Neveska,

The

not

district

pursued.

and

obey orders, and

privates.

Klissura

not

excesses,

for the atrocities must

door

six

succession

retreat, but

were

well.

behave

in

one

thousands

to

they
no

country into

the

troops re-occupiedKlissura

they

brigands.
militarygovernor

exterminatingthe
A
converging movement.

forced

were

levies,

to

Bey againstsome

latter

the

arms,

of

each

conducted

Edhem

ment
Govern-

Albanian

the

up

view

of

was

with

their

under

man

Pasha, the

surrounded

means

The

bands

divided

troops, with

bands

than

Nazir

of Monastir, had

with

usual, vented

as

available

every

country

districts,and

219

non-combatants.

out

In the west

by

OPERATIONS

unsuccessful.

Three

220

THE

times

the

bands

the

the

In

with

met

of

wounded

but

they
several

on

losses,and

severe

brought

were

in

official statement

the

spite of

contained

military hospital

number

and

escape,

wounded

of

large numbers
Monastir.

to

troops

[chap.

surrounded,

were

always managed
occasions

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

it

men,

that

only a small
in reality
full

was

similar
movement
overcrowding. A
in the
conducted
Pasha
by Suleiman
kazas of the Salonica vilayet,
where
some

to

bands

had

result.

Turks

entrenched
attack

The

retired.

troops did

themselves, with
Barovitza

on

In

fact, it

attack

was

central

strong

the

same

failed,and
evident

was

to

the

that the

the

komittadjiswith any
vigour,but contented themselves with devastating
and
the country, burning the villages,
looting
The
everythingthey could lay their hands on.
losses of the bands as a result of the risingwere
not

the
insignificant,
men,
to

; but

consuls, that
in

the

Monastir

persons
The
the

120

rendered

we

have

combatants,

massacred, it is difficult
of

the statements

razed
were
villages
vilayet alone, and

foreign

to the

ground

over

60,000

homeless.

of

Monastir,
at

was

its

at

There

is

no

need

to

when

moment

height,is worthy
"

"

non

postedin
followingofficial proclamation,

streets

rebellion

of

children

and

women,

estimate

number

the

of attention

MoNASTiE, September26th,1903.

mention

how

much

Imperial Majesty, the Sultan, our benefactor

enlightenedmaster, desires the prosperityof

His
and
the

AN

VII.]

and

OFFICIAL

PROCLAMATION

the welfare

221

of all his

subjectswithout
exception, sacrificing
sleep and quiet day and
night,thinking how to perfecthis lofty purposes,
country

and

therefore,commands

benefits

the

of certain

execution

are
everywhere courts
approved and
estabhshed for the preservationof the rights of
the people; for the guarding of faithful subjects
of the laws, bodies of policeand
and the execution
gendarmes are enUsted ; for the protectionof life
and property, guards are appointed ; for the spread
of education, schools are opened ; roads and bridges
for the people to carry food and
constructed
are
:

merchandise

also various

; as

other needed

begun everywhere and to

is apportioned.
local income
attend
must
"Every one

are

and

by

expect the results

the

minded

Imperial

to

his

part of the
business,

own

fruits of these

and

But

Government.

some

favours
evil-

fited
wishing the people to be benefavours, and regarding only their

not

ones,

by

this end

benefits,

these

the inhabitants
and
selfish interest, deceive
cominit
various
repulsivetransgressions. There
is not the least ground for the lies and assurances
own

All the
Bulgariansare deceived.
elsewhere
civilized peoples of Europe and
regard
which
the
with horror their deeds,
destroy
peace
of the land, and everywhere with great impatience
and
the suppressionof these enemies
to peace
The
order
is awaited.
Imperial Government
that many
observes with sorrow
people still rebel
of its
because
notwithstanding that until now
it has
proceeded with marked
great mercy
the
agitators. But since the
clemency toward
Government
cannot
coolly see the order of the
country destroyed, and the peacefulpopulation
other
and
gorically
evils, it catesubjected to murders
with

which

the

"

"

"

orders
wherever

they

are

the

commanders

sent, to

of

the

disperseand

troops,

kill most

THE

222

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

severely(sic)the
stiU remain

disturbers

in

rebellion.

to

have

left their firesides and

return

those

who

to

their homes

do

not

been

toward

run

of the

will
ImperialGovernment
destroyed in the severest fashion."
The

coveringletter

Monastir

at

Turkish

on

from

punished and

document

instructive

an

the

to

commentary

official literature.
"

"

be

the mercy

the British Vice-Consul

transmittingthis

Foreign Office, forms

deceived,and

their trades, are invited

and
their villages,
and

and

return

their followers who

Therefore, for the last

time, the Bulgarians who

have

and

[chap.

I have

Sir,

"

the honour

translation

of the

which

been

has

Monastir, September
ZOth,1903.
to transmit

Proclamation

herewith

the

Bulgarians
publishedthroughout the vilayet
to

Hilmi
Pasha.
The
list of reforms
by Hussein
and
I venture
accomplished is purely illusory,
the opinion that it is likely
to express
to remain
as
so
long as the work of reform is left in its

present hands.
"The
which
for

the

only
I

am

Tribunal

new

the

of

creation

extraordinaryTribunal
in
of complicity
accused

is the

aware

trial of

of

persons

and, if the number

movement,
insurrectionary
of Courts
of Law
of the ordinary Turkish type
has been
increased, it can
hardly be considered a
for congratulation. The
matter
poUce and gendarmerie
have not
kind
of
reform,
undergone any
of
unless
the appointment of a specialCommission
The
Inquiry can be described as such.
Inspectorthe

General

has

appointed
assured

shown
in

that

me

the
in

hst of the

Christian

villages;but

great number
appointment is merely nominal,
a

rural watchmen

of

the

cases,

am

the

Musulman

VII.]

CONSUL'S

COMMENTS

223

watchmen

their
continuing to draw
as
pay
formerly,and, in the singleinstance where I have
been able to make
personalinquiry ^that of the
Patriarchist
half-anvillage of Boukovo, about
"

hour's

distance

Christian

that

no

and

that

this

from

Monastir

watchman

Musulmans

two

I have

"

had
had

discovered

been
been

appointed,
forced

upon

purely Christian

village.
With
".
regard to the opening of schools,
I have no
statistics regardingthe number
of these
left intact by the troops, but at the
establishments
the only Bulgarian school
present moment
open
in this vilayet
is the primary school at Monastir.
The
tion
".
minatory clauses of the Proclamawill, of cotirse, fail to produce any effect on
the
it is probably the
insurgent bands, and
encing
peasantrywho wiU have an opportunityof experithe "severer"
foreshadowed
measures
by
humble
his Excellency. In my
opinion,the chief
.

interest of these clauses

is in the

admission

that the

has
been
insurrection, the suppressionof which
stillexists,and in the contrast
so often announced,

it affords to

the

been

tenor

made

of the

reported
ImperialRepresentative

the

overtures

having
by
at Sophia.
Simultaneouslywith the publicationof this
Proclamation, the Inspector-General,
acting under
has appointed a
instructions ftom
Constantinople,
wiU assist
Commission
which, under his presidency,
The
mission
Comin the applicationof the reforms.
is composed of the
following members:
pality;
Khouloussi
Bey, President of the Salonica Municias

"

Naoum
the Administrative

Nikaroushi,
Council

Greek

of the

member

vilayet
;

of

Nikola

of the same
body;
Bulgarian member
Mikhail Katsoyanni,a Greek who, notwithstanding
General
in my
his protests before the Inspector-

Robeff,

presence,

has been

made

to

pose

as

Wallachian;

THE

224

and

Niko

Effendi,

Administrative

to

of the

prove

"

the

of

end

the

is

unlikely

have, etc.,

JAMES

"(Signed)
Towards

of

Vilayet of Kossovo.

constituted

thus

obstreperous.

[chap.

member

Servian

Council

Commission

"A

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

M'GREGOR."

September

the

methods

more
The
suppressiondid become even
severe.
activityof the insurgentsbegan to diminish,and

of

the

surrender

became

on

arms

the

part of the villagers

frequent; but while

promisedclemencytowards

more

towards

run

of

of the

the mercy

all who

clamation
pro-

would

ImperialGovernment,

always meted

punishment was

the above

surrendering
instance
of
an
forty who laid
peasants, and
their arms
down
being decapitatedin cold blood
the
notice.
The
to my
came
discipline
among
less perfectthan before,
komittadjisproper was
as

is attested

by

captured letter

some

that

little doubt
numerous

the

blames

the

bands

were

well drilled for

nor

in the

appeared in
led by
one
the

Turks

Perim

anything more

that

district

Doncho
on

mountains.

the

themselves
small

an

surgent
in-

party of them

had

13th.
near

an

The
Perim

attacked

than

risingbroke
few

weeks

some

had

sufficiently

not

warfare on a small scale.

guerilla
But
on
September 27th, a new
out

jfrom

outposts for the

in fact,
of the operations.There is,

leader, who
failure of

to

out

bands

had

before, and

encounter

with

trenched
komittadjisenvillage,and a
Turkish
outpost

226

large

Encounters

and

Morihovo,
the

was

Bulgaria were
Bulgarian Government

what

it could

crossing into
task
was
beyond

the

but

side of the Macedonian

called

were

reserves

of

botlT sides

on

its

the

of

pressure

arrive at

Then,

out.

wholly

the

on

the

Troopswere
large

in consequence

foreign Powers,

attempts

made,

understandingwere

an

territory;

frontier,and

the

to

prevent

powers:

movement.

of

to

Turkish

were
sympathies Df_the_jieople

massed

to

anxious
sincerely

from

bands

less

was

the

was

it did

and

war,

by

at
repressionwere
the relations between
Turkey and
The
strained^,
tio^^reaEIng-point.

worst,

avoid

But

everywhere began
approaching.

rising and

the

While

bands

winter

as
disperse,

Fiorina,

situation

the

October

the

critical, and

Presba,

at

about

Monastir.

Demir-Hissar,

at

even

of

middle

their

place

took

in

rebellion

the

of

recrudescence

other

brought

this

country, and

the

[chap.

troops from

Turkish

of

number

parts of

COMMITTEES

MACEDONIAN

THE

to

mutual

the
Bulgarian
proposed, and, on
side, begun; but it was
suspended on account

demobilization

of

frontier

critical.

became

imminent,

but

Government
the

On

the

to

not

was

Sobranye,
it

War

owing

Austria,

and

relations

incident, and

was

October

and
warded

to

seemed
the

to

fact

at

one

once

more

moment

hostilityof Russia
that
the
Bulgarian

large majorityin
the insufficiency
of armaments,
off for the time being.

sure

of

24th, the second

Austro-Russian

THE

vii.J

scheme

reform
it

PRESENT

and

it

give

loyally, and
will hold
in

one

Macedonians
If

hands

the

joining

the

have
fear ;

the

fly to
Both

other

stands

each

of

their

good

the

Bulgaria

locus

Austria

which
denied

her
the

standi

have

the

on

and

grounds

Porte.

vassal

to

made

promises

which

Both

they

lost

been

of

is the

war

beUeves

treaty

save

to

kinsfolk.

that
The

does

not

it

gives

that

Macedonian

tion,
Ques-

had

hitherto

her

being

parties,however,
are

to

more

success.

Russia

of

thing
every-

dihgently

that

each

chance

the

lies

existence

is convinced

in

starving

persecuted

situation,

one

people longing

recently signed Turco-Bulgarian

really change

the

nothing

thempc*6f"e-,and

very

more

question

on

have

free

Turkey

and

all winter

only wayjout
it

of

assistance

Bulgaria

arming

hand,

of

who

men

"

and

by

restraints, and

fewer

the

on

bands

possibleno

bloodshed.

chance

only

out

they

upon,

if the

inhabited

land,

carried

is

stands

now

the

it best

newer

without

situation

wasted

adopted

definitelysettled

be

although
both

be

this

that

be

must

and

improved

but

227

deemed

it should

believes.

population, whose
in

country

scheme

AFFAIRS

inadequate,

subsequently

the

There
side

the

their

radical
is to

and

chance.

OF

brought forward,

was

imperfect

was

Bulgarians
to

CONDITION

unable

to

State
have

fulfil.

CHAPTER
THE

ATTITUDE

] '" Ct

By

Author

of 'Twixt

attitude

OF

Gfreek and

of

THE

valentine

Middle

The

VIII
POWERS

chirol

Turk, The Far

Eastern

Eastern

The
Question,

Question,etc.

the

towards
European Powers
Turkey has passed through three principal
phases.
that of fear, and lasted as long as
The
first was
the Turks
were
powerful enough to threaten the
West.
defeat

be

It may
before
the

Vienna

Western

said

to

in

have
1683.

nations

ended
In

with
the

their

second

graduallydrive back
Ottoman
the
invader, reconqueringmany"OTthe
had
for
been lost to Christianity
countries which
third
The
centuries.
phase which differs from
the second
mainly in the importationof a new
modus
operandi is that in which the Christian
ditions
Powers
begin to take an active interest in the conof the rayahs or Christian
and sufferings
This last phase commenced
ofthe Porte.
subjects
the one
late in the eighteenthcentury, and as, on
behalf of the oppressed
on
hand, the efforts made
have often been only a cloak for aggresChristians
sive
concerned,
designs on the part of the Powers
the other hand, has by her own
and Turkey, on
of
short-sightedpolicy defeated the endeavours
phase

"

"

CATHERINE

vm.]

CHAP,

those
the

who

II. AND

wished

results have
in the

THE

mend,

to

been

i2^r.^^5f

and

not

disastrous

as

to

end

the

to

229

her,
Turks

second

phase.
To the Empress Catherine
II. of Russia belongs
the merit
of having originatedRussia's historic
mission in the Turkish
Empire, and of having,
the rayahs. Voltaire,
to
so
speak, discovered
of aU
people, is said to have first turned her
thoughts in this direction, and it was
amongst
as

the

Greeks

that

her

first

agents

sought to

the

of revolt againsttheir Musulman

spirit
War
of 1767-74
During the Russo-Turkish

OrlofF, in

command

Mediterranean,
the

Morea

induced

and

oppressors,

but

abandoned

them
the

cruellyat
laid

was

into the
peace

was

to

rest

grant

been

of the

hands

fleet in the

Greek

Turks,

and

the

Morea

Nevertheless, Russia

henceforward
the

on

Europe.

an

amnesty

engaged in
at

interests of the
inhabitants
time

to exercise

relations

of

Ambassador

some

the

Russian

Admiral

imported
by which
Treaty of I"itchuk-Kainardji,
which
restored in 1774, the new
principle

influence
the

the

rulers.

populationsof
of Magnesia to rise against their
having compromised them, he
their fate. They suflPered
to

waste.

destined

was

of

kindle

The

between
Sultan

was

permanent

Turkey and
compelled

Christians

to aU the

the revolt,and to allow

who

had

the Russian

to
Constantinople

interfere in the

rayahs, and

of
especially

of the Danubian

enjoyed a

This treaty was

held

certain

by

more

had for

who
provinces,
measure

Russia

to

the

of autonomy.

give her

sort of

230

THE

undefined

Turkey,
that

protectorate
and

the

all the

over

Her

her

policydown
the

at

successes

territorial ambitions
the

1787

Cabinet

that between

of

the

to

the

Crimean

War.

time

increased

towards

the

south, and

Petersburgmade

Vienna.

It

Austria, Russia, and

of

principal

same

of St

that

proposal to

extension

of

one

[chap.

Christians of

and

maintenance

protectorate remained

objectsof

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

her
in

curious

suggested
Turkey a buffer
was

State, independent of each, should

be

created,

comprising Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia,

under
a sovereign
belongingto the Greek Church.
Russia
extension
of territory
to acquirean
was
on

the

Black

Bosnia,
about
the

by

the

the

be

Turks
be

was

and

to

to

Sea, and Austria

Herzegovina.

declared
from

Europe,

revived, and
Grand

to

throne.

resulted

the

Duke

the

throne

If the

war

then

of
expulsion

Greek

Empire

of

was

Byzantium filled
Paulowitch, who

rightsto
England, France, Spain,and

renounce

Servia,

in the

Constantine
all his

to have

was

the

Russian

Venice

were

all to share in the

spoilsof Turkey.
At this time Russia's sympathieswith the rayahs
concentrated
the Greeks, the best
were
on
specially
of the Sultan's
known
and the most
interesting
Christian subjects: the Slavs of Turkey had indeed
But
hardlybeen discovered, even by the Russians.
the war
proved less successful for Russia than the
precedingone, and by the Peace of Jassy,in 1792,
aU that she gained was
of coast on
extension
an
the Black

Sea, and

some

further guarantees for the

VIII.] THE

GREEK

Danubian

provinces. By

WAR

(1809) their autonomy

and

the

was

In

Greece

Russia

under

once

Catherine

time

to

of Bucarest

confirmed,

more

independence granted to Servia.

the spiritof revolt
kindled
by
II.

entirelyquenched, though
time

Treaty

231

of

measure

INDEPENDENCE

OF

restored

In

methods.

had

the

by

had

peace

been

never

been

from

Turkish

customary

formidable

risingbroke out
which
to
Turkey proved unable
quell in spite
of lamentable
dissensions amongst
the insurgent
leaders, and of the indifference displayedby the
1821

leading Continental
influence

of

Alexander,

States

under

Metternich.

at

the

But

the
the

on

of 1825,

end

reactionary
death

Nicholas

of

I. took

an

Russia's right
early opportunityof reasserting

to

interfere in the internal

The

Empire.
that

the

Tsar

affairs of the

demanded
should

massacres

of

Ottoman

the

Sultan

Although

cease.

no

himself
ruthless in
to show
more
sovereignwas
of risings
the repression
his own
subjects,
among
of
he invoked
the rights of humanity in favour
the Greeks, and
his own
privilegesas protector
of

the

treaties.
was

The

backed

by

up

with

Moldavia

regard to
to

Servia.

devoted

was

Russia's

European Powers,
of

own

From

interests,the

past

Russia
and

Akkerman

the

(1826)

of Bucarest

Wallachia, and

and

mainly

of

resist, but

of the Treaty
tKe^rovisions

them
which

the

to

Convention

Russo-Turkish
confirmed

tried

Porte

virtue

in

Christians

Orthodox

to

tended
ex-

this Convention,
the

Greeks

furtherance
derived

of

little

23a

THE

direct

ATTITUDE

benefit.

few

months

and

Russia, and
in

third

in

who

still

As

London

favour

united

which

but

to

Powers

the

which

France

made

joint

her fi-eedom.

Government
of

the

was

three

fleet in the

in

1828,

settlement
it

refused

between

out

the

though

1827,

cluded
con-

for
fightingdesperately

war

broke

Convention,

of Greece,

Turkish

The

assisted

of

squadrons

the

(1827).

in

England

autonomy

the Ottoman

the

between

formal

more

party, these

demand
was

[chap.

protocol signed a

London,

earlier in

also
was

under

But

POWERS

THE

OF

of

giveway,

to

Powers

hilated
anni-

Bay of Navarino
and

Turkey

Russia,

rather

delayed than
Greek
Question,

the

Russia

waged by

for her

own

the

(1829)secured,
Treaty qf^Adriajiaple
in addition to largeterritorial and pecuniary
pensation
comto Russia, the recognition
by the Porte of
the independence of Greece, and
guarantees for
the
immunities
granted to Servia and Moldomaterial
Wallachia.
The
support given by
and
France
had, however,
already
England
purposes,

assured
in

was

enfranchisement

the

London

that

signed,and adhered
which
regulatedthe
Kingdom.
j

dence

by

had

Russia

'

of
her

France

of

what
own

and

Greece.

indeed
is

now

of

the

to

by

status

Greece, and

protocolwas

final
the
of

procured
Rumania,

it

Porte, in 1830,
the

new

the

Hellenic

semi-indepen-

and

of

Servia,

conjunction with
England, the complete emancipation
But
the underlying Russian
concepaction, and,

in

234

THE

in

the

from

ATTITUDE

meantime

France,

Prussia

Syria
Mehemet

Ali,

had

returned

where

British

as

he

councils of the Porte

an

Porte.

that

Sir

Stratford

Stratford

de

Redcliffe)

loT^onstantinople

Ambassador

for many

was

result that

occupiedby

the

to

juncture

Canning (afterwardsLord

the

been

restored

this

more

with

joint action,

at

was

[chap.

estranged
Austria, Kussia, and

persuaded

were

POWERS

once

Crete, which

and

It

become

take

to

THE

OF

exercise

to

years

influence such

as

the

over

other

no

wielded before or after

ever
foreignrepresentative
him.
He
had
charged
already on several occasions dismissions in Turkey,
important political
of
in connection
with the emancipation
especially
Greece, and it was in the Ught of former experience
that he was
able without
hesitation to shapeBritish
policyon the lines it was to follow for nearlyhalf
a

century.

maintain

That

the

policy was,

authorityof

the

on

one

Sultan

the

hand,
and

to

the

integrityof the Ottoman

Empire as ~a barrier
nople
Constantiof which
againstIlussian,.aggceasiQn
believed to be the ultimate goal and
was
the other hand
to secure
on
by constant friendly
"

"

pressure, and, if necessary,

of
of

the Turkish

afford
of

aU

real

the

even

Porte, and

had

(1839)
which

system

on

thorough reform

were

as

should

the^Christiajxsubjects
them

Hatt-i-Sherif

already
paper

of administration

render

The

vention
collective inter-

the

the Powers, such

protection to

loyal.

by

enacted

excellent.

contented
of
many

and

Gul-hajifih
reforms,
There

still

THE

VIII.]

remained

to

CRIMEAN

them

see

the

it with
She

enUsted

whole
and

Continental

all the

in

the

which

the

fought

her

diplomacy.
co-operationof the
the Turkish
Empire,

the
in

of

process

throughout

on

Tsar Nicholas

British

to the

Russia

only partiallyand

internal

The

Empire.

and

Government

in

out

support

great Elchi's masterful

going

was

active

of

resources

of reaction

his influence
arrested

Powers,

covert

spiteof

Uttle

but

against it

forces

235

carried
effectually

practice.
This policy received
from

WAR

temporarily
disintegration

the

Ottoman

had revealed
as

ality,
person-

his

plans
when

earlyas 1844,

duringa visit to England he proposed a partition

refused to
the British Ministers
of Turkey, which
He
returned
to the charge at the
countenance.
a
dispute between
beginning of 1853, when
monks
Latin and Orthodox
concerning the Holy
him
another
Places gave
opportunityof raising
the
in

question.
London,

decided
Prince
for

Russia

the

in

were

again rejected
Thereupon

Paris.

take

exclusive

the

to

dominions,
demand

in

this

admitted"

have

The

also

Christians

tantamount
own

and

overtures

independent action, and

Menchikoff"
to
Constantinopleto
to

Orthodox
to

His

his
and

led to

he

he
sent

demand

of
protectiogu

all the

the

Sultan

Turkey.
claim

For

would

have

been

resigningall authority in his

his refusal to comply with
the

Crimea.

War.

firmed
(1856) solemnly conof British policy. Turkey
the"pniiciples

Treaty

of

Paris

236

ATTITUDE

THE

system
would
other

[chap.

to

oF

henceforth

Powers.

be

the
the

On

direct

other

improve the condition of

regard to differences of race

and

fate

of all the

concern

hand, she undertook

her

to

without
subjects,

ment
religion.In fulfilof this obligation,
the Hatt-i-Humayun of
elaborated a very complete charter of reForms.
Convention
of Paris of 1858 granted a fuller

1856

The

of

measure

of

them
to

POWERS

in the publiclaw
participate
meant
that her
Europe, which

admitted

was

THE

OF

Moldavia

the

to

autonomy
and

or

Danubian

Wallachia, and

palities
Princiadded

to

Bessarabia, which, after having been annexed

Russia

in

1812, had been

France

retroceded

by

her in

and

England wished to go further

and
unite the two
to form a
so
as
principahties,
expansion,but
stronger barrier against Russian
this was
prevented by the action of Austria and
Turkey. A personalunion was, however, effected
in 1859, when
they both elected the same
prince
as
Hospodar.
1856.

Russia
Not

found

now

only had

she

herself baffled

been

beaten

on

all sides.

in the Crimea, but

sympathiesof the Rumanians

by the conduct of her generalswhile they occupied
effected
the country, whose
complete union was
the auspicesnot
of the Tsar, but
under
in 1862
of the French
Emperor. The Russian claim to
exclusive
protectionof the Christians in Turkey
had
been
Greeks
showing
were
rejected.The
she had

aUenated

themselves
to

Russia's

the

less and

purposes,

less inclined
and

even

to

the

be

moulded

(Ecumenical

PANSLAVISM

VIII.]

Patriarchate
Russia
who

proved

expected.

less docile instrument

Servia

absorption,remained
facts
in

suggested a

the

of

doctrine

of

former

and

the

Greek

intensified

European peoplesto
the

Balkan
of

Greek

Slavs

as

evolve

to

substitute

Slav

national
aroused

were

This

was

was

awakening

the

whole

old

of

the

for her

onism
antagrevived

now

the

various

consciousness, and
to

civihzation

independence and
lines.

these

activity
repairingthe

began

and

the

by

fear

to

All

protection of
Turkey. The

populationof

between

her.

to

she

she

war,

to

Russia

direction for her

Pansjavism,

claim

Christian

from

While

the

than

Montenegro alone,

faithful

new

Balkans.

effects

and

far removed

too

were

237

new

on

tion
concepother than

proved

movement

Russia's

in the early 'sixties

opportunity,and when
advance
demands
Bulgarians began to
time
autonomy, and to agitate at the same
an

Russia

autocephalous Church,

the
for
for

forward

came

only against Turkish

protector, not
misrule, but also against the oppression of the
Greeks
The
Patriarchate.
Greek
were
quietly
as

their

dropped by Russia,
favours

pohcy

for
of

the

the

who

Slav

Western

reserved

now

races

Powers

of

all her

Turkey.
with

The

regard

to

defeated
more
by the
being once
whilst
incurable
obstinacy of the Turks; and
the
fate of
the
shared
the
Hatt-i-Humayun
continued
to
Hatt-i-Sherif, chaos
prevail in

reform

the

was

administration, and

the

Christians

looked

238

in

THE

vain

OF

THE

redress

of

ATTITUDE

for

any

POWERS

[chap.

their

oppressive

disabilities.
The

Bulgarian

however,

movement,

not

was

first viewed

altogetherwith disfavour by the

Turkish
Government, who regarded it as a useful
counterpoiseto the Greek revolutionary
agitation,
and
finally,
through the pressure of Russia, a

at

firman

issued

in 3 870,

pendent
indean
constituting
Bulgarian Church, or Exarchate, and
as
a
recognition of Bulgarian nationality

the

was

millet

Christian

with
community endowed
certain
rights of self-government. The Slav
in a
provinces of Turkey remained, nevertheless,
state

or

of chronic

risingsin
defeated

ferment,

Bosnia

and

in 1875

and

the

the

the

buzuks.
arms

part of

the

Turkish

July Montenegro
againstTurkey, Russian

ultimatum

the

across

alone

saved

complete destruction.
Everything seemed
The

attempt
the
But

the

to

avert

their attitude

exponent

this

and

Servian

menace

final

had

old

teers
volun-

Russian

armies

made

of

from

flagration.
generalcon-

another

catastropheby

intervention

of Paris.

of the

to

bashi-

and

officers and

Danube,
the

massacres

Servia took up

British Government

collective

Treaty

hideous

and

abortive

the

1876

troops

In

flocked

were

Herzegovina which
European diplomacy,

ingenuity of
Then
in the spring of
came
risingin Bulgaria,followed by
on

there

the

ing
invit-

Powers,

since
changed considerably
England was the only active
pohcy of reforms by means

THE

VIII.]

of

CONFERENCE

friendly pressure

opinion in England
at

the

of 1870.

the

was

too, had
Italy.,
unwillingto run

Russia, and
the

divided

was

War,

of Russia.
in the

forces after the

decided

extend

afraid

horror

absorbed

to

war

foreignpolicy,

Austria, as before

jealous and
to

public

between

was

risks.

was

anxious

Balkans, but

no

239

distrust

sympathetic,but
restoringher shattered

Crimean

1876

Sultan, and

was

tasF of

and

the

on

atrocities and

Turkish

France

OF

distrustful of

her

influence

and

act;

in

she, like

nothing for the ethical aspects

of the question. Germany, above all,was
anxious,
the
Eastern
to do nothing to annoy
then as now,
Germany,

cared

"

neighbour." Russia, on the other hand, was keen

to retrieve the positionand
prestigelost by the
Crimean
and
her
War,
people were
genuinely
stirred by an
agitationwhich
appealed aUke to
their rehgiousand racial feelings.The
Panslavist
the policy
movement
at its height,and
was
now
of Uberatingthe "Little
Brothers"
of Bulgaria
from
the
Turkish
of
yoke, with the possibility
eventuallyuniting all the Slav peoples under one
sceptre,kindled

the

enthusiasm

Nevertheless, in December,
the

six great Powers

of

1876,

met,

on

aU

classes.

conference

the

of

initiative of

to discuss the afiairs

England, at Constantinople,
of Turkey ; but it proved abortive, as the Sultan,
reckoning upon the divergentaims and interests

of the

different Governments,

recommendations,
for the

which

protectionof

reiected its chief

included

foreigncontrol

the Christians.

Russia

con-

no

THE

tinued

bring

to

without

OF

ATTITUDE

POWERS

bear

on

to

pressure

[chap.

Turkey,
collective

another

though

success,

THE

but
tocol,
pro-

signed in London, gave the Porte practical

warning of the consequences ; and at last,in the
broke
between
out
the two
spring of 1877, war
After a victorious but hard-fought
Powers.
and
exhausting campaign the Russian
troops came
and
within sight of Constantinople,
the Treatyof
San
Stefano was
3rd, 1878.
signed on March
This

document

foremost

Panslavist

exclusivelyfor
of

Balkans,

the

in

Russia

from

and

and

and

Danube

Sea

territory.Greece,

sent

the

Rumania

armies

her

situation

of

the

her.

rayahs

provided that
Statute

of

statutes

for

the

provision was
stipulations.The
the

Turkish

Bulgariawas
-^gean, and

the

Drin, while
extensions

given
other

hand, received
for

Danube

having
retrieve

to

Plevna, by seeing Bessarabia

With

regard to

the Porte

no

from

the

still under

Crete

peoples
aggrandizement of

rewarded

was

across

before

filched from

the

drafted

was

Slav

Black

were

on

it

the

to

the

to

first and

as

Asia.

in

Montenegro

nothing,and

of

the

for

the

Black

the

Servia
of

from

for

Treaty,
benefit

Europe

extend

to

the

described

be

may

of

should
and

of
made

Slav

was

apply the Organic

draw

up

similar

European Turkey; but

for
enforcing those
peopleshad been freed

yoke, and

point from the Russian

view.
Bulgaria,once

condition

rule, it

Turkish

1868,

rest

the

that

and

the

important
Panslavist point of

erected

was

into

fair-sized

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

242

[chap.

further,^orn
Bulgaria was
given to Bumania
Dobruja, which was

of

them.

for

for the loss of

Herzegovina

handed

were

and

Greece

of

Montenegro
and

the

defect

of

territory(Vranja

Bosnia

The

and

claims

of

recognized,but

were

received

Servia

left unsettled;

pensation
com-

Austria, under

to

over

conditions.

restrictive

certain

Bessarabia,

as

the

extension

an

of

district of

Bulgarian

Pirot),
cardinal

The
the

inadequacy

all the

bound

and

the

whose

of

the

and

which

rule.

This

was

in

non-Bulgarianraces

the

upon

of all the Powers,

co-operation
composed
rivalryhad only been superficially
Berlin
Congress. It is curious to note in

should

have

regard

to

both

conditioned

was

cordial

this connection

destined
of

independence
a

success

Powers

foresee,was

Russian

which

surpriseto
of the
could

the

Russia

exactlythe

character

beheved

as

both

that

made

the

instruments

the

protection

The
especiallyof the Greeks.
the satisfactory
remained
an
open question,

genuine

the

the

was

Balkans,

solution

came

all the

of

Treaty

Big Bulgaria
of all Bulgars,
aspiration

the

remain

to

bogey

reforms

at

Turkish

left under

fatal in that the idea of

more

was

the

Berlin

for
provisions

of the

of the Christians

the

and

her

mistake

same

rivals
with

Bulgarians,whom
to become
mere
inevitably
The
ambition.
spiritof
displayed
they afterwards
of

the

all.

Berlin

Another

to

Treaty, which, however,

hardly have
character

obstacle

of

been

the

expectedto

Sultan, Abdul

THE

VIII.]

Hamid
the

II.

CYPRUS

No

and

autocrat

The

next

of

two

of

of

the

in

the

administration
sore

were

unsettled.

The

before

law

that
both

time

that

ruthless

fulness.
diplomaticresource-

policy,given

case,

were

hands

the

243

bound

and

actual

to

tied

were

conquest

the

prove

for

the

pacification

the

and

busy during

of

this

Austria's
years

Bosnia

prove

master

results

nugatory.

would

circumstances

img,ginedat

one

ruler

young

CONVENTION

of

was
Herzegovina. Russia
same
period manipulating the
negro
Bulgaria. Greece and Monte-

because

their claims

remained

still

Powers

were
collectively
engaged
in drawing up the Organic Statute
for Eastern
Rumelia, which
was
promulgated in 1879, and
proved a good piece of work, as far as it went.
It provided the
Christian
a
province with
assembly, a native mihtia
a provincial
governor,
and gendarmerie,elaborated
an
improved system
end
of justice,and
to
the inequality
put an

the

of

Christians

and

Muhamedans.

was
devotingherself
England in the meanwhile
mainly to the task of carrying out in Asia
Minor
an
experiment in her favourite policy of
authorities.
reforms through the existingTurkish
Stefano and that of
Both
the Treaty of San
Berlin contained
provisionsin favour of reforms
in Armenia,
and
tion
by the Anglo-Turkish Conven-

of

.Tune

4th, 1878

Cyprus Convention),
herself to

(better known
Great

support Turkey

Britain

in the event

as

the

pledged
of further

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

244

[chap.

Minor, the Sultan

aggression in Asia
the necessary
his part undertaking to execute
on
reforms, and giving England Cyprus as a pledge.
of
Great
Britain
at once
appointed a number
Russian

officers

miUtary
Asia
on

Minor,
Russian

duty

it

to

the

over

travelled

where

officialsfailed to

keep

the

at

reports,received

wrote

grievances,and

Turkish

vice-consuls

was

and

movements,

country,
to

whose

and

consuls

salutarycontrol
authorities.
They

exercise

local

as

watch

time

same

doings of

the

all

the

over

listened
petitions,

the

the

local

on

pressure

have

in

desired

results,

the
Porte
brought to bear on
through the Embassy at Constantinople.The
results achieved
by this system, although of a
by no means
ing.
unpromistemporary nature, were
The
of impartialand honest
mere
presence
of
Europeans in these little-visited districts was
was

pressure

itself

check

injustice of
weakened

the
the

by

the

on

Russian

peril,could
representations of
results

achieved

Britain

had

officials. The

Turkish
and

war,

free

menaced

ever

not

afford

its

British

in

Asia

hand,

old

and

maladministration

policy of England,
energeticallyfollowed, was

to

Minor,
are

if

by

the

disregardthe

mentors.

The

where

Great

proof

Porte,

that

the

consistentlyand

altogether so
futile as it has since been
represented. It had
the
great advantage of doing justice to, and
securing the support of, the best Musulman
as

well

as

Christian

not

elements.

But

it

was

THE

viii]
at

best

at

the

REVERSAL

only
real

of

root

the

evil.

which

able
England was
preponderatinginfluence
impossible to the divided

great Powers
The

in the

change

of

for the

but

friendlypressure

Dulcigno

of
had

policy

had

unable

But

to

naval

demonstration

their
and
an

Dulcigno

at

coercion.

Gusinje, where

Turks

until

resistance

authorities,

in

enforce

to

of firm

means

forcible

district of

this arrangement the

opposed equal

six

securing the
Montenegrin claims.
to the Montenegrins

awarded

Albanian

been

the

England in
Eastern policy,

Turkish

of

and

instead of the

they

of

was

in

successful

Greek
been

own

Minor

councils

the

on

policy proved

settlement

Asia

system of reforms by

substituted

her

by

total reversafof her

and

This

do

Government

led to

that

Moreover,

to

in

strike

not

European vilayets.

1880

was

did

which
palliative

245

POLICY

BRITISH

OF

authority.
Albanians

international
forced

them

the
Powers
By similar means
give way.
compelled the Turks to surrender Thessaly and
But to the question
a
part of Epirus to Greece.
of reforms
in the provinces still directlyunder
Turkish
never
control, the policyof coercion was
reforms
of administrative
applied. A programme
indeed drawn
was
paper by the collective
up on
wisdom
of the Powers, but, unlike the Organic
to

Statute
remain

of
a

Eastern
dead

excellent work
his

Rumelia,

letter.

At

begun by

militaryconsuls

in Asia

it

the

was
same

Sir Charles
Minor

was

allowed
time

Wilson
allowed

to

the
and
to

246

THE

ATTITUDE

the

drop,and
fanatical

OF

field abandoned

influences

the Armenian

of

POWERS

THE

the

corrupt and
of which
officials,

to

Palace

massacres

be the

to

were

[chap.

sanguinary

outcome.

the condition
.

chieflydirected
of Bulgariato
Principality
Russian
province. Prince
was
Imperial Commissioner

reducing the

towards

of

mere

been

had

efforts of Russia

The

Dondukoff-Korsakofi*

during the interregnum between

the

and

election

Bulgaria

as

filled all

the

with

chief

which

combined

such
the

that

of

unlimited

Civil

and

Assembly

democracy

Prince

Russia, he
whereas

powers,

Service

Constitution,

up

he

in

should

prove

would

have

if

were

he

show

were

signs of undesirable independence,means

mate
provided by which his people could checkhim.
was

What,

Alexander
Alexander
Russian

plated
contem-

and

elected

Prince

Battenberg, nephew of the Tsar

11., a choice naturally agreeableto
of

The

history of Bulgaria is

in this volume, and

for

according to

his

was

Tirnovo

at

is that

here

not

was

princeand people should unite in

Constituent
Russian tutelage. The

views.

elsewhere

however,

that

oppositionto
Assembly met

and

if the

tool

vdUing

almost

draw

autocracy

fashion

treated

its ruler, and

were

BulgarianNational

to

Treaty

he

posts in the

The

encouraged

Prince

the
he

though

Russians.

was

to

of

the Berlin

in

time

aU that need

Prince

Alexander

be

told
said
ruled

powerful protector'ssuggestions,

high

favour

at

St

Petersburg.

THE

VIII.]

When
a

RUSSIFICATION

the

first

majority

the

Bulgarian

of

Liberals

his

by
the

Russian

Minister, and
exercised
of the
of

obtained

under

Police, the

the

to

the

his

of

Army

machinery

the

complete Russification

in

Eastern

was

Prime

which

auspices. The

Governor

He

1881.

powers,

of

was

suspend

to

Ernroth

absolute

servative
Con-

Prince

May,

Minister

officers of the

efficient

very

9th

Russian

returned

advisers

General

Council, the

hundred

opposed

on

Ml

Parliament

Russian

Constitution

made

BULGARIA

Russophil party,

or

induced

OF

he

President

War,

the

Sofia,

Chief

and

three

were

Russians.

thus

organized

A
for

of

Bulgaria,whilst the
national sentiment
humoured
was
by the prospect
of speedy aggrandizement in the teeth of the
consuls
Treaty of Berlin. Russian
agents and
Rumelia

agitationfor
of

than

in the

The
British
Mr

union

the

course

with

the

movement

Principahty,where

was

less

no

radical

province.
change in the

Government

the

towards

Sultan, irrevocablyalienated

Great

by the

Britain

was

policy of
now

the

of

Porte

the
after

office, hastened

to

return

attitude

tendencies
developmentof reactionary

influences

popular

southern

Gladstone's

The

the

strenuously promoted

in

Turkey.
Western

from

coercion,

the

of

chief advocate

which
and

strument,
in-

he
appliedhimself to restore the prestige
of his territories,
had lost through the surrender
the one
hand, the spiritual
on
authority
by reviving,
of

the

Khahfate,

and

on

the

other

by

concen-

whole

tratingthe
fanaticism

the

double

[chap.

executive

in his

increased

policy

against their

Turks

the

of

POWERS

THE

of

power

This

hands.

own

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

248

the

Christian

the

involved

of
proscription
liberal and
the
more
independent statesmen
the Empire, who
extent
recognized to some
rule with
necessityof harmonizing Turkish

and
fellow^ubjects,
all
of
the

Western

Sultan

The

standards.

the

at

same

ness
developed extraordinary diplomatic adroitof the different
in exploitingthe jealousies
off againsteach
and
in playing them
Powers,
had
other.
He
speedily realized the change of
publicopinionin England, and the British occupation
of Egypt, in 1882, intensifiedhis resentment.
He
therefore
was
quite ready to intriguewith
Power
Russia
other
or
against Great
any
time

but

Britain;

for

herself

trouble

not

about

time

some

much

so

Russia

more

about

did

Turkey

as

Bulgaria.

reaction

methods

of

under

The

while

the

Russian
with

to

reconcile

of

his

Prince

he

chafed

subjected,

was

of the

arrogance

and
officers,

the extravagance

realized

that

he

could

money.

win

the

of his

the Constitution,
people by restoring
did in 1883
after vainlytrying
; and

he

the

people

Alexander

againstRussian

they squandered Bulgarian

Alexander

which

The

government.

officials and

confidence

there

tutelage to which
people resented the

which

Prince

settingin

was

"

III.

demands
for

he

hated

of

found
him

Russia
that

with

the

new

cordially he
"

those
Tsar

quietly

THE

260

tend

run

the

much
was

POWERS

THE

[chap.

Russian

ascendency
therefore also opposed
Balkans.
She was
in this she certainlyderived
union, and

in the
to

OF

ATTITUDE

only

to

promote

regarded

useful

as

Russian

Berlin, where

from

encouragement

Austria

for counteracting

instrument
without

ambitions

compromising
the
relations of Germany
with
St Petersburg.
time that an
Hoping at the same
easy victory
would
the
consolidate
positionof her prot^gd,
him
to
King Milan, in Servia, she induced
take

up

arms

that

the

union

against Bulgaria,on
of

Eastern

Principalitydestroyed
the

Balkans.

Bulgaria
the

Tsar

At

this

exposed

was

the

RumeUa

critical

attack

to

suddenly recalled

of

balance

the

plea

with

the
in

power

juncture,when
on

both

Russian

all the

fronts,
officers

servingwith the Bulgarian army, hoping thus to

render
it powerless,and secure
by its defeat the
recognition that Bulgaria was
helplesswithout
Russia's
The

support.
of

valour

the

brilliant generalship
of Prince
these
were
was

treacherous
let loose

chief

danger

but

by

series of

had

invaders

and

hitherto

of front

it executed

just in

defeat them

apprehended;

marches

days' fightingat Slivnitza,

degeneratedinto

frontier,whence

Turkish

been

forced

magnificent change
the

the

on

the

Alexander, stultified

the
Servians
hopes. When
Bulgaria,the Bulgarianarmy

upon

concentrated

the

Bulgarian troops, and

rout, and

time

to

utterlyafter
The
the

Servian

meet

three

retreat

Bulgarianswere

SIR

viii]

only prevented
an

Austrian

of the

WILLIAM

from

marching

ultimatum

status

WHITE

But

quo.

the

Belgrade by

to

on

make

to

251

the basis

on

peace

campaign

had

proved

an
Bulgaria'svitalityto the world, and made
tudes
vicissiimpressionwhich no subsequent political
could
efface.
that
Bulgaria had shown

she

able

was

to be

merely

stand

to

did

alone, and

the satellite,
even

not

mean

of Russia.

force
Bulgariawas not yet saved. Where
had
failed,diplomacy might stiU be successful.
and
Russia
Austria, backed
by Germany, made
final effort to prevent the union
of Bulgaria
a
ference.
Conand Eastern
Rumelia
at the Constantinople
Lord
But
Sahsbury had grasped the
change in the Balkan situation to which Austria
But

had

the

knew

of
politics
had

statesman

de

blind, and

remained

Sir

Eastern

Europe
since

them

known

Redcliffe, representedGreat

Ambassadors
with

armed
Eastern

Sir

his

French

and

restore

White,

WiUiam

who

In

of

the

Britain

the

German

should
to

status

was

stantinopl
Con-

at

be

occupy
quo

ante.

supported by

defeated this
colleagues,
weight of his remarkable

En^nd

rdles with

Stratford

Italian

and

proposal by the sheer

overawed
personaUty, which
himself

English

no

Lord

urged that the Sultan

an
Eiu-opean mandate

Rumelia

But

as

Russian, Austrian, and

The

who

White,

WiUiam

and

Russia

had

Sultan

the

even

thus

changed

rega^ld^to^jSidgaria.
face

of British

coercing Bulgaria,the

oppositionto
Sultan

abandoned

policy
his

resistance
it

agreed

was

For

moment

be

nominally

even,

under

to

the

for five years.

William

Sir

seemed

Sultan

influence, the

White's

and

Rumelia,

of Eastern

appointed Governor
appointment was

personalone,
to be formally

Bulgaria was

of

[chap.

compromise,

as

merely

be

should

Prince

i.e.,the

union, which,

the

to

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

252

to

realize

independent Bulgaria might

be
the
most
powerful barrier against Russian
ambitions.
He
not
only sought a rapprochement
convention
with
Bulgaria,but a Tui:co-Bulgarian
was
actuallysigned,earlyin 1886, which amounted
This
alliance.
defensive
to
departure caused
a
that

and

strong

Government

Russia,

in

irritation

intense

Alexander

Prince

to make

determined

Russian

the

and

dearlyfor his audacity. It found the situation

de
in the PrincipaUty itself suitable for a coup
main.
Public opinionwas
not yet ripefor an alliance

pay

with

the

Turks, and

the

popular feeling.

outran

the union, the discontent

officers who

did

the

been

had

war

of

uneasiness

the

affection,and
Prince
1886.

detain

he

Russian

him, and

Bulgaria;

but

some

that

his

certain
not

was
was
was

the

at

Alexander

Russia, the
to

Church

Russia

Though

of

incompletenessof
of the Bulgarian

slow

idea

of

Russian
of

amount

disr

to

successfully
conveyed
was

the

profitby it.
kidnapped in August

Government
he

in

their services

sufficiently
recognized,and

caused

estrangement,

The

think

not

somewhat

convention

new

did

allowed

unfortunate

not

to

into

venture
return

to

telegram to

the

PRINCE

VIII.]

from

Tsar

ABDICATION

ALEXANDER'S

Rustchuk

253

his

rendered

able.
positionuntenHe
understood
he
the irreparable
mistake
had
to
made, and
though his return
Bulgaria
had been
a
triumphal progress, he abdicated the
throne (September 7th, 1886).
assist the Bulgariansin their choice of a
To
Government
the Russian
sent
Majorsuccessor,

brother

Kaulbars, the

General

who

Kaulbars

had

five

Bulgaria

of

Minister

been

the

growing anti-Russian
country, for he posed openly as

and

to

increased

for

War

the

an

in

conduct

feelingin
a

dictator,

candidate

servient
sub-

Petersburg,he stumped
electioneering
agent, assisted by

to the wishes

Bulgaria as

of

election

the

ensure

all the

General

His

before.

years

the

of St

But

vice-consuls.

and

consuls

Russian

finally,
having failed to dragoon the Bulgarians
to plunge the country into a state of anarchy,
or
for Russian
which
might have served as an excuse
militaryintervention, he broke off all diplomatic
followed
relations and left the country in disgust,
by

the

Russian

Protracted

consuls
and

Bulgarianregents
Rumania

to

for

might

and

throne, and

vacant

him

vain

union

have

the Balkan

the

and

refusal of
the

States,

King

overtures

for

mieux

of

made

to

confederation

ultimatelyinduced

Sobranyeto elect faute de

of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Charles

countries, which

the two
way

for the

candidates

various

between
the

the

between
negotiations

entertain

paved

agents.

Prince

the

of

Grand

Ferdinand

(August 14th, 1887).

had

and

Regency,
the

under

Minister

Prime

made

the

of

soul

The

been

[chap.

anti-Russian

of the

Stamboloff, the head

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

254

party,
he

was

regime

new

"

"

still continuing to
positionhe held until 1894
Prince
dictator.
Ferdinand,
act
a
as
practically
however, graduallytired of his tutelage,and he
be recognized by the
to
all anxious
above
was
Powers,
especiallyafter his marriage with a
sullen hostilityof the
Bourbon
princess. The
"

means
recognition,and no
make
the
Bulgariansfeel

Finding

to

dismissed, and

weaken.
in 1895

Russia, towards
time

some

of the
This

act

by

the

Russia
But

was

the

sealed

The

reconciliation

with

Ferdinand

by

the

the

spiteof

never

was

soon

Orthodox

numerous

for

"

conversion

the other Powers,

of Russia, and

has

"

had

of
recognition

faith.
Prince
ing
includ-

concessions

the apparent ascendency

pro-Russian sentiments,

independence

It

the

by

to

was

assassinated.

thus removed.

and
in

Stamboloff

1894

Prince

Boris

followed

was

wishes
of

which

Prince

the Porte.
the

to

effected and

infant

Ferdinand

to

he

inclined,was

afterwards

neglected to
pleasure.
weight of its dis-

were

In

powerful obstacle

most

his

to

way

tance
support elsewhere, Bulgarianresis-

no

began

the

barred

Government

Russian

died

the

out

old

in

spiritof
Bulgaria.

The

Russophilparty in the Sobranye, after various

vicissitudes,was
completely defeated at the last
elections, in the

autumn

of

politicalinstinct

of

Bulgarian people

the

1903, for

the

keen
has

THE

VIII.]

them

taught

and

is

that

ATROCITIES

the

Russia

of

the

what

they

have

to

they have come

bringinggifts.
Meanwhile

revived

Powers

^p

They

her

now,

when

she

rayahs
of

despoticsystem

bad

in
to

personal

Muhamedans

vated
aggra-

condition
of
already wretched
subjects. Revolutionary movements

repressedin

the

usual

outrage, and devastation.

did
protested a great deal, and

England

measures,

but

alone

the

Power

only

Italy,and

disposedto

was

his

Turkish

massacre,

little.

her

of

no

corruption and delation,

life,and the
plots against his own

in Armenia,
"

liberator.

expect from
fear her, even

fanaticism, of the

Christian

fashion

Tsar

is

to-day

in

rooted

of

the

of

condition

Sultan's

government,
his terror

255

bejen steadily.,
going .from

The

worse.

to

the

had

Turkey

arose

Russia

the

longer
know

ARMENIAN

The
very

take forcible

inclined

to

support

Lord

Sahsbury flinched from

the risk of international complications
in presence
of
of the indifference, or
worse,
Germany and
of Russia, to
Austria, and of the covert hostility
France
bound
whom
was
by her alliance. The
and
the insurrectionary
rebellion in Crete
ment
movefrontiers (somewhat
the Turco- Greek
on
action of the Bulgarianbands
similar to the recent
War
of 1897.
Its
in Macedonia) led to the Greek
was

results

disastrous

than
Powers

in

to

ever

favour

prestigeamong

rendered

of
the

the

the

Sultan

more

of
representations

reforms, and
Muhamedans,

increased
for

he

tractable
in-

the
his
had

ATTITUDE

THE

256

now

claim

some

The

aU

of

poUcy

change.

England,
been

once

Ghazi,"

the

whom

to

of

matters

In
responsible.

towards

slowly undergone

indifferent.

becoming

Powers

the

Question had

Eastern

had

"

"Victorious."

the

or

[chap.

of

title

the

bear

to

POWERS

THE

OF

the

Turkey
importance,was

this

first

great

affairs of

vital

For

the

various

facts

the

fear

place,

expansion at the expense of Turkey

been
largely prompted by apprehensionsfor
India ;
but
to
after
safety of the road
in 1882, it was
British occupation of Egypt
Russian

that

Russians

arisen

the

British

situation

the

the
Far

the

public

from

Near

even

East,

loss and

the

the

since
the

first

felt

would

the
no

East.

other

The
grown

War

Boer

colonial

of

problems,

and

looming in
threateningin the
were

stillmore

East, and

had

of

re-conquest of the Sudan,

complicationswhich
successivelyabsorbed
The

affairs of
serious

the

attention

.Africa, which

South

in

considerable

the
of

Middle

home.

at
a

new

the

engrossingquestions

distracted

African, and

West

with

even

which

steadily worse
1881,

that

other

time

same

had

had

serious.

so

the

At

of

great dependency

Constantinoplethe danger

at

longer be

the

vulnerable, and

less

were

the

with

communications

are

idea

section

of

Turkey

had

concern

if Russia

began

were

to

the

public interest
gain ground among
British

ceased

to

this

to

absorb

to

people
be

country,
the

matter

and

whole

that

that
of

the

258

THE

by

various

ATTITUDE

adopted

for

but

tendency

become

to

than

time

more

East,

of

so

and

Germany's

more

This

also

to

remote

rather

the

German

Austria
her

towards
the

to

the

schemes

of

idea

German

remaining

prepare

was

for

way

expansion.

origin of the famous

Drang nach Osten policy. Ever since the days
of Prince
Eugene of Savoy, Austria had aspired
the Herzegovina.
to the conquest of Bosnia and
This

The

brief

of

reconcile

her

lias ~been

tendency

drive

to

eventually losing

provinces,

it

recueillement ;

Slavonic

pressure

to

as

Germany,

date
a

Power.

strengthened by the
Empire, which wished
the

its Italian

"

that

since

Germanic

of

policyof

and

more

Hapsburg

in

"its' hegemony'

[chap.

the

bulk

the

lost

in 1866,
and

provinces
its

When

considerations.

Monarchy,

POWERS

THE

OF

in

is

of

annexation

occupation

in 1814,

Dahnatia,

almost

Austrian

years

the

necessity,and

prepared the ground.

The

as

have

those

we

seen,

the

over

gave

Austria,

and

of

KaUay and his

her
have
justified

held

to

amongst

influential

an

her
politicians,

stop there,
to
were

to

be

means

ambitions

Bosnia
to

and
an

the

many

Franciscan

Berlin

Treaty,

provincesto

administrative

admirable

de

M.

for

the
agents, ^specially

monks,

subordinates
claim

to

school
were

may

as

intended

soon

be
But

Austrian

Herzegovina were

end, and

work

them.
of

not

that

made

as

to

only
they

in Austria began
pacifiedthe eyes of many
look longinglytowards
Macedonia
and Albania.

AUSTRIAN

vm.]
The

Berlin

Convention

right

POLICY

Treaty,

followed

which

the

maintain

their

Austrian

troops. Austria

curious

arrangement

where

the

as

borders

far

Plevlje,Priepolje,and

at

Turkish

troops

be

can

side

herself

to

of the
of

this
the

concerns

Bosnia

on

the

allowed

the

as

of

retain

also

availed

the

Sanjak
to

were

were

only

district,which

Lim

in

garrisonsby

own

Austria

it, gave

Turks

administration, and

civU

Austro-Turkish

the

place garrisons

to

NovibaaaTi,where

and

and

259

proper,

Priboj Austrian

seen

quartered side

rightstillremains vahd for the

far as Mitrovitza.
whole
of the Sanjak, i.e.,as
forward
school
What
the
that
proposed was,
she should graduallystrengthenher influence in
the border districts by a strenuous
propaganda
and other methods, perhaps,of a less avowable
character
and at the same
time build a railway
from
Sarajevo to Priepolje,the furthest point
occupied by Austrian
troops, and eventually to
the
would
line
Mitrovitza, where
join the
Salonica.
Oriental Railway from
Nish
to
Any
disturbance
in the Kossovo
vilayetwould
provide
by

side.

the

But

"

"

an

for further

excuse

of the

Vardar

might

soon

But
execution

action, and

valleywas

flyingat

be

various
of

the

once

head

occupied,the Doppelaar
Salonica.

circumstances

this ambitious

have

delayed

programme.

In

the
the

personalinfluence of the venerable

Emperor Francis Joseph has always been opposed
to a policyof adventure.
Moreover, neither the
first place the

260

ATTITUDE

THE

OF

POWERS

THE

[chap.

have
viewed
Hungarians would
the
Slavs
more
incorporation of a million
those already
to
without
apprehension,as added
within the Monarchy, they would
become
the predominant

Germans

the

nor

element.^
Slavs

all Orthodox

are

which

both

in the

these

Moreover,

Macedonian

Christians,a

community

itself and

Monarchy

in Bosnia

has

intractable, and
inchned
proved somewhat
towards
pohtical aspirationsincompatiblewith
the existence
of Austria-Hungary. Then
there
financial

were

for
difficulties,

the

execution

of

grandiose~^rqjectsinvolves very heavy

above
all, the
expenditure. But
responsible
of the Monarchy dreaded
statesmen
international
hostile to any movement
complications.Russia was
which
might have jeopardized her own
such

in

schemes

Balkans,

the

capable of mobilizingin
and
the
Montenegrins
advance.

resist

to

Dalmatia

revolutionaryagents. At the
resented the idea
Italy,Austria's ally,
Albania, a
day occupy
might one
conquest

inevitable.
there

The

Macedonia

of

addition

In

the

were

Germans

of

would
to

internal

are

little

more

time,

same

that Austria
move

which

render

almost

these

difficulties

3,000,000, and

The inhabitants of Bosnia and the

all Slavs,are

in Bosnia

obstacles
of

the

Austria-Hungaryare about 11,000,000,the

Magyars 8,000,000, the Rumanians

20,000,000.

aU

Serbs

Austrian

an

often

than

the

the

consuls

were

quite

was

of need

case

fact, the Russian

In

Southern

and

she

and

1,600,000.

the Slavs

who
Herzegovina,

GERMAN

VIII.]

which

Monarchy,

POLICY

261

becoming yearly more

serious,both in Austria and in Hungary. Thus
all schemes
of expansion were,
at least,kept in
the
Austrian
background, and
activity was
Umited

to

secret

were

propaganda.
policy, apart

from
Germany's
furthering
Austria's
Drang nach Osten, has been mainly
dictated by two considerations
one, the reluctance
would
oflfend Russia; the
to do anything which
other, the~desireT;o strengthenher political
position
at
Constantinopleand to preserve the Turkish
field of
Empire, where she had discovered a new
economic
these
exploitation.With
objects in
view
the Emperor
William
did not
hesitate to
"

call Abdul
hands

Hamid

still red

were

Armenians,
divert
In

him

the

with

the

the

blood

sufferingsof the
European Turkey were

and

populationsof
to

his friend, when

Question Germany

the

not

likely

his purpose.

phases

recent

of

Christian

the

from

latter's

has

been

of

the

Near

Eastern

play,as
the part of a drag upon
unobtrusivelyas possible,
any policycalculated to offend the susceptibilities
of the

Sultan

or

to

run

content

counter

to

to

the wishes

of

policyof France and Italy will be

dealt with fuUy elsewhere.
The
beginnings of the present Macedonian
risingdate from about the year 1895, when the
firstfounded,
were
BulgarianinsurgentCommittees
but for some
time they attracted little attention,
Russia.

owing

The

to

the

Armenian

massacres

and

the Greek

262

THE

War

of

OF

ATTITUDE

1897.

in

the

movement

better understood, and

been

growing

consummated

policyin

the

Russia

those

the

probably

were

Powers

two

of 1898.

Agreement

Balkans

and

[chap.

rapprochementwhich

between

up

in the

the

Austria

But

of
potentialities

POWERS

THE

had
was

Russia's

had

undergone a complete
transformation
since 1878.
The
unexpected and
inconveniently independent spiritshown
by the
Bulgarians had disconcerted her plans, and she
had

resolved

policy

which

elsewhere
Oriental
them

apply

to

she

in

has

dealing

monarchies.

by

purposes,

with

bolster

to

and

corrupt

seekingto subdue
object of Russian

them

up

for her

securing their
judiciouscombination

blandishments,

weak

of

whilst

and

subserviencyby
and

so

Instead

to

now

Turkey the
successfullypursued

conquest, the

overt

policy is

henceforth

leave them

own

complete
of threats

complete the
of internal disintegratioiT
work
pending the time
when
they shall be "deemed ripefor final absorption.
have no better allythan
To such an end she can
hence

Sultan, and

the

to

to

the lukewarmness

with

suggestionof serious
in Turkey which, by improving
internal reforms
the lot of the inhabitants, might ultimatelyrestore
which

she

handles

every

of the Ottoman
vitality
Empire, or, at least,
the vigorous development of the
rising
secure

the

nationaUties
Parallel

policy
come

within
with

towards

over

its present frontiers.

this transformation

Turkey,

the whole

of

Russia's

profound change has

spiritof her national policy.
a

CHANGES

vin.]
Within

the

towards
and

OF

last quarter of

centralization

aU

kind

severity.

have

Above

old Panslavist
become

every form
and

in

for its

to

ideals.

countries

The

in

point. At the same

the reactionaryparty
towards

any

movement

methods

have

the
the
was

Government

hostile to

both

which

the

it has

ear-marked

the

Empire

Finns, of the

Caucasus,

cases

are

ascendency of
indisposeRussia

time, the
tends

to

of

which

the

aims

revolutionary flavour.

Just

"

"

and

any

within

of

in the

of

displacedthe

extent

more

days Metternich
Independence at

in the old

as

scheme

Russian

Its treatment

own.

Jews, of the Armenians

War

cast-iron

great

of nationalism

those

been

and

more

26S

growing steadily,
of self-government
favour
repressedwith increasing

all,

Russification has

has

been

POLICY

century the tendency

has

in

movements

of any

RUSSIAN

the

condemned

or
as

Greek

Congress of Verona
of
violation of the Conservative
a
principles
Holy Alliance, Russian diplomacy abandoned
of

Armenians

tainted

to

with

the Macedonians

the

their fate
the

have

their

because

cause

and
"revolutionaryspirit,"
been

denounced

on

the

same

grounds. In fact, all the newly-createdBalkan

States, with the exception of Montenegro, are
of
an
Constitutions
endowed
with
extremely
and popularcharacter, and the people
democratic
in Bulgaria,have
themselves, especially

strong aversion to automatic

more
they have all become
at St Petersburg.

methods.
or

Less

shown

Hence

"suspect"

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

264

[chap.

War
earlydays after the Russo-Turkish
the Balkan
favourablydisposed,if
peoples were
annexation
not towards
by Russia, at least towards
a
general acceptance of the overlordshipof the
Great White
Tsar, whom
they looked upon as the
In

the

natural
A

confederation

Panslavonic
seemed

at

that time

under

by

of their

while conscious

But

protector of

benevolent

and

no

all the

Slavs.

Russian

hegemony
impossible.

means

Slavonic stock,

common

individual
they are keenly attached to their own
nationalityand_language,and they have begun
to realize that absorptionby Russia
to-day would
be tantamount

When
last

the

obscure

confided

the

between

if

themselves,
Russian

steps

we

are

the

which

the

this story be true

that

in
the

Russia

has

thi" phase of
one

or

consuls

been
the

to

playing

in

them

the

assistance; but
information
Turkish

be

can

hand, the old Panslavist

very

friends, and

ceased.

Hacedonian

yet

regarded the

as

aims

not, there

as

komitadjileaders
first

confidences

The

Government
is

insurgents at

these

take.

Russian

to believe

diplomats and
their plans and

somewhat

was

it should

hope of obtaining sympathy and

discovered
that all the
they soon
communicated
to the
given was
after

in the Balkans

out

Committees

Macedonian

the

broke

diplomacy

what

to

as

connection
and

revolution

Russian

year,

uncertain

the loss of all national individuality.

to

thus

police,
Whether

littledoubt

dquble_^me
Question.

On

ideals in Russia

dictorytendencies

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

266

POWERS

nevertheless

seem

[chap.

have

to

had

objectin view, viz.,to keep the sore open

The
until Russia's policyhas matured.
AustroRussian
proof of this.
agreement is another

one

main

ideal,of

Russia's
of Russia

of the Macedonian

in the settlement

alone
but

Question;

be the intervention

would

course,

would

this

as

too

arouse

many

both in the Balkans

and elsewhere, the
suspicions
joint intervention of Austria and Russia has to
be
accepted as a temporary alternative. For it
has at any
the advantage of giving rise to
rate
the one
Power
be assumed
less jealousy,
as
may
to

act

But

as

as

check

of

matter

dissensions,and

Russia

such
have

likely to

the recent

indeed

the

the

break-up

two

of the
make

them

of

thing
any-

lands the

the

most

one

in

that

Russia

ItaUan

and

of Austrian

mutual

some

this delicate

point.

and

and

to

leave

In

Austria

directlyinterested

most

Turkey,

in

the

ment
settleis to

Macedonian

Question

to

them

and

partiesin

the

same

judges

This would

Balkan
and

of

event

with

give her.

resulted

on

Powers

are

they have

unless
susceptibiUties"

has

it is obvious

case

content

conquer,

pact of "reinsurance"
any

be

of all the

meeting

at Abbazia

Ministers

in the

to

ItaMan

arouse

that
to

chose

difficult to

most

of the other.

the difficulties in which

probablybe Albania,
one

ambitions

fact,Austria- Hungary's internal

placed her army, are

partitionshe would
that

the

on

suit.

policyin this case, unless strong pressure is

brought to bear upon them, can hardly be other
Their

RUSSIAN

vni.]
than

to
been, i.e.,

of reform

schemes
but

it has

what

will

and

influence

which

the

open

AGENTS

present ineffective

will not
for

way

future

some

reform

anything,
their own
increasing

furtheringtheir

ascendency at

267

schemes

own

and

of

convenient

more

date.

second

The

Austro-Russian

project,with its
Civil Assessors," is obviouslydesigned with this
object,and although it contains some
provisions
which would
improve the conditions of Macedonia
"

if

they

Austria
to

were

meant

have

given

little

Russian

meantime

the

swarming

secret, are

but

and

proof that they wish

it.

enforce
In

executed, Russia

be

to

all

agents, avowed

the Balkans

over

further move.
publicopinionfor some
M. Missirkoff,formerly Secretaryto
Consulate

Monastir,

at

have

to

quote

or

to prepare

A
the

certain
Russian

instance,

one

recently on a lecturing
tour through Servia and
Bulgaria,denouncing the
action of the komitadjis,and
advisingboth the
and
the
Servians
Bulgarians to do everything

is stated

to

been

stop further insurrectionarymovements

said, Bulgaria
Macedonia; otherwise, he

to

Servia, as
Slavonic

well

as

for

cause

of the

Balkans

hands

of

the

Macedonia,

should

could

the Germans.

save

them
Colonel

urged

place their

Tsar, and

with
as possible
closely
alone

He

ever.

will be

connect

the
from

lost to

that

in
and

the

the Slavs

destinies in the
themselves

as

Empire, which
being subjugatedby

Russian

Bendereff, who

was

one

268

THE

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

[chap.

ringleadersin the kidnapping of Prince

in Sofia a short
Alexander
of Battenberg, was
time ago, and he told the Bulgarianswith whom
he came
in contact
that they were
all fools if they
of the existence
reallybelieved in the possibility
of an
independent Bulgaria. Russia and Austria
had
Peninsula
agreed to divide the Balkan
of

the

between

and

them,
All

prevent it.
for themselves

the

they
small

Bulgarians could

could

do
of

amount

but even
suzerainty,
only obtain if they accepted the
good grace, recognizedthe Tsar
and
at once,
placed their army

secure

self-government
this they could

Russian

under

to

was

not

inevitable with
as

their master

under

his direct

small

incidents,

orders.
of

These,
but

they

way

the

are

the

wind

straws

is

only

that

serve

blowing.

that

signs

many

are

course,

this

to

There

is the

real

show
are,

which

in

fact,

tendency of

policyin the Balkans, whereas there has

as
yet been nothing to show any earnest desire for
reforms on the part of Russia.
The
existingstate
of chaos is far more
likelyto prepare the way for
the realization of her ambitions.
the wiping
Even
of the Macedonian
out of the whole
peoplewould
Russian

advantages from the Russian

point of view, for it would
permanently weaken
the
which
has
Bulgarian element
proved so
not

be

stubborn
Balkan
went

without

an

its

obstacle

peninsula,just
a

long

way

to

the

as

the

towards

Russification

of the

Armenian massacres
destroyingthe only

ENGLISH

viii.]

Christian
stood

AND

RUSSIAN

which
nationality

in the

OPINION

269

might ultimatelyhave

way

of

Russian

phase

of

the

ambitions

in Asia

Minor.
The
has to

last

its former

from

Eastern

problem

aroused

English pubhc opinion

indifference.
In deahng with this

extent

some

Near

the essential difference

pointit is well to remember
between
the expressions,
"Enghsh opinion" and
Russian
former
opinion." The
signifiesthe
ideas of a large section of the population,which
British
Government
afford to ignore.
no
can
When
publicopinion expresses itself stronglyin
is bound
particularsense, the Government
any
later to shape its action in that sense.
sooner
or
Russian
simply
opinion,on the other hand, means
"

the views

of

ment
powerfulGovernofficials in favour of a policy which
they
believe to be advantageousto Russia.
Expressions
of feeling
the part of the people have but little
on
indeed
influence on
the governing class, and
are
hardlyallowed to manifest themselves at all,unless
the
its

certain number

Government
own

purposes.

national
fostered
carries

wishes

even

sentiment,
for

to

of

make

use

of them

Occasionallya great
sprung

generationsby

the autocracy with

out

the

of

wave

for

of

traditions

Government,

it,as in 1877, when

II. felt himself

powerlessto
resist the popular cry for war
against Turkey.
But
these are
rare
exceptionswhich only prove
the rule, and during the later phases of the Near
Eastern
Question such
pubhc opinion as exists
the

Tsar

Alexander

in

Russia

The

has

British

been

POWERS

THE

OF

ATTITUDE

THE

270

rigid restraint.

under

kept

[chap.

been, for

has

variety
been
of causes
which
have
aheady indicated,
into the foreground
of
reluctant to step once
more
Balkan
politics.But the daily tales of horror
Government

reached

Macedonia
last
England from
made
autumn
a
deep and widespreadimpression.
The
altered tone
of many
of the more
important
have
which
urged the necessityof
newspapers,
in Macedonia,
enforcinggenuine remedial measures
was
symptomatic of the generalchange of feeling

which

in the country.
The

Lord

term.

he

brought

has

them

and

alternative schemes,
Governor

European
of

civil assessors.^

naturallychose
Pasha

Reforms,
adlatus.

they

have

the scheme

The

far

which

to

modifications

appointment of

tenance
the main-

or

assisted by
in

Powers

two

question

and Hussein
alternative,

General
Inspector-

still remains

by

and

pressure

Governor, but

Russian

It is difficultto
so

certain

for Macedonia,

the second

assisted

constant

viz., the

Turkish

Austria

to

in its
greater energy
had
suggested two

of

Originally he

execution.

Hilmi

of

in favour

scheme

their

to

reform

Macedonian

Russia, but
on

adopted a mean
agreed to leave the

Lansdowne

initiative of

bear

have

British Government

and

an

discover what

rendered.

promises

The
any

one

of

Austrian
assistance
feature of

substantial

results

Dispatch of September 29th, 1903, in the Blue Book

"Turkey, No. 3, 1903."
'

See

PROSPECTS

viiL]

OF

REFORM

271

is the

appointment of European ofl"eers to organize

the gendarmerie. Last
ment
year the British Governthe
vainly urged upon the other Powers
pany
expediencyof sending militaryattaches to accomTurkish

the

would

presence

Russia

they would

at

allowed

the

the

and

Porte

Yet

these

the

British

prove

that
a

be

must

the

the

down

last started

at

the

Ambassador.

one

Powers

same

numbers

But

very

for the

their

on

efforts
persistent
in

these

sanguine

troubles

indeed

of the

of

stances
circum-

will

Miirzstegprogramme

panacea

have

proposed gendarmerie
of futile wrangling at

if after months

Constantinople,
they have
work, it is mainly due to

believe

Their

done

whittle

to

authorityof

and
officers,

the

Macedonia.

least have

useful purpose.

any

in

something to
ferocityof Turkish repressive
measures.
and Austria objected,
the plea that
on
be sufficiently
not
to effect
numerous

restrain the
But

forces

to

reaUy

Balkan

peninsula.
Should
like the

the second

first,the

Austro-Russian

British

for themselves

their

scheme

Government
full

little doubt

have

faU
served
re-

libertyof action,
that

they would
have the support of the
country in taking the
drastic proposals
far more
initiative of fresh and
Continental
which
than
those
diplomacy has
The
hitherto
favoured.
imposed
responsibilities
tion
Great
Britain, not only by the administraupon
which
brought about the Berhn Treaty, but
and there

also

by

can

the

be very

administration

which

two

years

later

%n

THE

reversed

ATTITUDE

its

THE

OF

POWERS

predecessor's
policy,and

of its most

defeated

without

salutaryresults

[chap.

some

providingany

remedy .for its .djefects,are beginning

to be realized alike by Conservatives
and Liberals.
Most
that in taking
Englishmen recognizenow,
the cause
of the Christians
of Turkey, they
up
need
be afraid of playing into the hands of
not

permanent

Russia

of any

or

Sir

WiUiam

pleadingthe
her

then

other

Power.

White,

he

engaged in
BulgariaagainstRussia and

of

cause

when

alUes, Austria

wrote
Constantinople,
colleagueSir Robert
at St Petersburg:

and
as

was

Germany,

follows

in 1885, at

his friend and

to

Morier, H.M.'s

Ambassador

"

"

you

for the

As
must

line

have

we

of

approve

adopted,I am sure
The
future European

it.

Adrianople,at any rate must sooner

later belong to Christian
is no
There
races.
or
since the siegeof Vienna two
example in history,
centuries ago, of the Turk's
having regainedany
inch
of soil that he has once
yielded to native
Turkey

to

"

"

Is Eastern

races.

accused

to

this

by

Russia

Rumelia
rule ?
and

have

We
her

constitute

to

agents

an

always
in the

ception
ex-

been

East

of

emancipationof
in European Turkey.
The reasons
Christian races
line of policy on
for a particular
our
part have
free to
are
fortunately ceased to exist, and we
and
take
to
act
impartially,
gradually,with
up
:
'

chief obstacles

being

the

proper
famous

restraints,the

Russians

in

regard

have

made

to

hne

to

the

which

Palmerston
Italy,etc. The

made

Belgium,
sacrifices to

liberate Greece,
But
\ Servia, and the Principalities.
they have
5 lost
all their
influence
in Greece, Servia, and

IX

CHAPTER
ATTITUDE

THE

OF

BERABD

victor

By

Chroniqueur of the

policyin
always followed

French
not

Whatever

deny

that

on

de Paris

may

parts of

the

consistent line.

say,

no

one

French

occasions

many

Question has

and

uniform

detractors

our

iJemte

Macedonian

the
a

FRANCE

world

has

can

influence

been

highly
for liberty
beneficial to peoplesstruggling
against
has,,instilled the spiritof
oppression. France
in many
lands ground down
freedom
by tyranny,
and has again and
again taken an active part in
If the people of France
their liberation.
were
in

various

to

reahze

to

attempt

actual

to

put

an

is for
it is, in my

in

Turkish

misgoverncountry, they would only

to

acting in conformity with

glorious traditions.

to

end

avert

us

have, in

past times, more

274

not

dangers
to

their

both
our

to
own

once

in

most

donia
Mace-

duty ;

necessity,
pohtical

of

the

and

sentimental

of the world

peace

interests in

dealingwith
than

best

intervention

merely
opinion,an act

generaland
We

But

Macedonia, and

in

situation

in that unfortunate

ment

be

the

acted

particular.

Eastern
as

the

affairs in

supporters

of

THE

IX.]

CHAP.

Turkish

nations

EUROPEAN

CONCERT

misrule, from

should

step in

fear

and

276

lest

upset the

other

rival

balance

of

by annexing some
portion of the Turkish
Empire. If we must plead guiltyto this charge,
the only offenders in this respect. At
not
we
are
power

the

time

further

of

with

Armenian

back, the

made

war

the

the

the
whole

fear

atrocities,to

of

of

Concert

no

general European

Government

go

France, together

of

Europe,

the

complice
ac-

of_AbdulHamid's crimes. It seemed

as
though European diplomacy were
passing
This crisis is
through a "crisis of intelligence."
repeatingitself with regard to Macedonia
to-day.
The
Armenian
precedent has created a delusion.
that they
Diplomats flatter themselves once more
can
put the evil to sleep and hold the patient
under

more

once

the

knife

of

the

operator. But

Circumstances
deceiving themselves.
have
undergone a great change within the last
six years.
At
that time the European Concert,
i.e. the Governments
of Europe, might, owing
the peoples,co-operate in
to the ignorance of
the abominations
of the Sultan.
To-day the
If the diplotruth is beginning to be known.
mats
French
above
all, our
diplomats have a
true
future; if they desire to
regard for our
maintain
the alliances and
understandingswhich
they have created for us in Europe to the greatest

they

are

"

"

benefit

of

they must
realize,the

peace

and

realize,and
consequences

of

our

make

national

our

of such

interests,

friends and
a

pohcy.

allies
The

276

ATTITUDE

THE

diminish

to

the

really desire

Russians
lead

not

back

us

complications which

owing

to

the

are

call the

dangerous

follow

Peninsula

felt

grave.

They

last

render

on

every

yet
may
this matter
"

feel in

cannot

which

optimism

symptoms

But

averted.

be

Balkan

the

in

this

even

so

which

consequences

bassador
Am-

dispatch,

that

are

"

disturbance

must

our

recent

hope

to

try

time

the

if the

friendship,
they
paths of massacre.

eventualities,"wrote

feared.

be

to

sympathy which

Alliance; but

Constantinoplein

at

late

too

us

our

the

to

"Redoubtable

"are

Dual

the

[chap,
to

the

and

esteem

still feel for

we

FRANCE

known

became

of Armenia

events

OF

year.

The

it my

duty

of your

attention

Excellencyto these
Empire, which may
provinces of the Ottoman
more
barrassments
surprisesand emyet be preparing many
for Europe until the day of the
to

final solution

France

should

remains

then

What

follow

present is

The

no

solution, the
in

European

ripe

for

absolute

for

European

definite

the

the

day,

solution, but

it

the

is

is for

?
policy

the

out

is not

she

is

perhaps not
the

for
true

this Ues

and

Macedonia

That

hne

panaceas,

but
independence,

control.

policyof

What

Eastern

seek

control.

only prompt and effective

to note
It is interesting
in

done?

archaic

must

of

their fate."

Near

for

time

solution

only

be

to

in her

We

remedies.

ideal

shall decide

which

yet

ripe
the

present the

one.

the

various

constant

European

changes
Powers

THE

IX.]

the

towards
What

is

Power

or

POLICY

OF

rebellious

still

FRANCE

subjects of
curious

more

of

277

the

is that

Sultan,

when

any

happens to be in a
us
Turcophil mood, it not infrequentlyaccuses
French
of fomenting revolutionary agitationin
group

Sublime

the

back

Ottoman

Greek

of the

of

seeds

War

her

on

of

1770, which
the

"the

hasten
and

the

in

its centre

to obtain

wished

not

to

help the Italians,

remained
common
only one
sovereigns that of combating

there
all

to

the

Alexander

gone

he

Paris, had

explosionso

that

interest

in

went

sown

Tsar

have

France, that Ypsilantiwould

his instructions

had

had

movement

time

the

Independence,Russia

revolution, and

that

At

dominions.

policyof

the

declared

Powers

to

as

"

is admirable
revolutionary spirit." This
who
had
of an
autocrat
language in the mouth
made
Ypsilantihis aide-de-camp, his friend, and
the

his

favourite, and

Capo d'Istria, the

ministers
the

up

Hellenic

Government

Foreign

newspapers

are

these

French
to

counted

who

the

intrigues.I
But

rich.

know

before

history,and

the

our

imitators,

glory
share

not

which

shall

we

want

to

is

due

taking

more

once

gratitude of the human

time comes
for measuring the
during the past century by
of

presidentof

future

and
against France
that
one
only gives

accusations

same

his

among

be

race,

in the

face

when

the

accomplished
our
disciplesand
sufficientlyrich in
work

to

deprive

others

to

them.

In

of

the

Macedonia

278

we

THE

have

hour.

been

Until

the

quite

slave

market,

and

people inhabitinga remote

We
were
ignorantof them,
only through the diatribes
ancient

and

modern.

justlyaccused
by stirringup
revolt.
the
of

The

first
the

of

Austria

or

of

the

land.
of them

Greeks, both
therefore

peace

of

arousing

the

atrocious

them

be

Europe

Macedonians"

of

of

the

mythical

knew

we

as

for

unknown

cannot

secondly, to

involuntaryaction
of

and

"contented

merit

almost

disturbingthe

place to

Turks

We

the

them

Slavonians, slaves

savage

eleventh

ignored

regarded

We

Thracians, Peonians,

the

years, France

recent

Macedonians.

[chap.

of

workers

the

but

FRANCE

OF

ATTITUDE

to

is due

in

.juisgovernment
the
voluntaryor

Russia, and

to
lastly

that

and

In
the past our
Germany.
shared
by the rest of Europe.
ignorance was
It was
Russia
who, partly for her own
political
ends
and
partlyout of a feelingof race kinship,
first declared

that

these

beings.Throughout

the

the

and

of

Crimean

War

Macedonians

were

twenty-five
years
the

Russo-Turkish

human
between
War

and privately,
officially
worked
these resignedand brutalized
to
arouse
ment
peasants. She supported the revolutionarymoveand
procured^the creation of the Bulgarian
State,
Exarchate, and eventuallyof the JBulgarian
albeit the latter was
in size by the Berlin
reduced
Treaty. But since 1878 her sympathy for the
Macedonians
has gi-aduallybeen
declining,and
although she still aspu:es to eventual
expansion

1877,

Russia,

both

THE

IX.]
in the

REVOLUTIONARY

Balkans, she

protecting

by

Between

no

the

and

1878

279

SPIRIT

longer pursues her policy

raydKs from
persecution.
it is the

1903

influence

of

Ajistriathat is to a gi*eat extent

responsible
for the revolutionaryspiritin
not
Macedonia,
of her agents and
consuls, but
only by means
by the railwayswhich she has built or promoted
the

in

and

country,
and

universities

youth

to the

It is therefore

in

;
'

'

Turkish
than
until

on

as

Macedonian
are

her

rightsand

her

of

Austria

the Turk
when

and
it

Austria,

are

sore

ready
Europe

to

be

open

intervene
content

interests in the
Russia?

and

Powers

two

Sultan.

the
and

Russia

that

Will

those

submissive

of

that

is

revolutionaryspiriton the one

maintaining the country under
other
the other, have
no
object

very

We

active

keeping
safeknow

and

very

question of despoiling
of reducing a people to subjection
;
is a question of reforming Turkey

energeticwhenever
but

remain

to

ends.

own

given

them

keeping the
time
as
they

such

have

her

education

of

that

leave

that

in

rule

for theilr
to

and

which

Bulgaria. When
and
railways,it

obvious

excitingthe
and

Germany

government

"*

hand,

of

of Macedonia

people are given

hopelessto expect
such

education

those

under

the

it is

Uberating persecuted peoples, Russia

do anything. Our
and
Austria
diplomats
never
have
Powers
tell us
that those
two
"superior
that therefore they
and
interests" in Macedonia,
and

must

of

have

the

mandate

to

reform

that

country.

ATTITUDE

THE

280

Austria's
the

Macedonians

herself

and

her

from

and

Salonica,

In

superiorto

those of

the

present

affairs to

be

wishes

too

extend

can

We
be

the

to

deal

time

to

with

hands

of

"interested
for

all will

the

after

all

would

have

constitute

interests

of

France

influence

in

which
loss of
of the

between

would

the

natives

right to

grave
and

has

be

could

not

prestige and
Ottoman
Russia

and

moment

advance

Peninsula

themselves,

who
it

consulted, but

other

the

political

the

of

Western

positionof
Mediterranean, a position

long

renounce

power.

dominions

two

only be contrary

to

moral, commercial, and

she

the

menace

Eastern

a
fortunate
un-

the

Balkan

riot

For

suffer at

when

that

alone

the

arrived, they will

the

France

Powers.

of

of

likelyto

Russia

left to

Then

think

This

wishes

is

done, and
be

Turks.

has

them.

the

be

wiU

Powers"

Balkans.

problem.

object of dividingthe

between
to

the

intervention

with

and

that she

until she

are

what

consider

Macedonian

at

and

interests

so

throughout the

Macedonians
the

they

leaving Austria

the

nothing

Macedonia,

in

act

therefore

effect of

Uskiib

to

England, and Italy?

busy with Far Eastern

is too

her influence

must

Sarajevo to

France,

keep things as

to

intervene

Russia's

are

w^ay

she

ready

from

action

reduce

to

then

and

Mitrovitza

what

[chap.

to be

seems

extremities

to

extend

Mitrovitza,

For

"

superiorinterest

"

FRANCE

OF

and

Austria

held

influence,
political
without
a
great
Now
the partition
the

Balkan

would

mean

States
the

282

THE

they

ATTITUDE

OF

acquiesce,and

must

FRANCE

their

see

[chap.

influence

own

and

there
will
prestigegravely curtailed, or
follow an
for the fragments
unseemly scramble
of the
Ottoman
Empire, each Power
trying to
seize as large a slice as possible.The
Russians
will make
for Constantinople,
the Austrians
for
Salonica
and
the
Uskiib,
Enghsh for the
for Rhodes
Dardanelles, the French
or
Mitylene
or
Syria,the Italians for Albania, all co-operating
for

the

ruin

outcome

cannot

European war
will Europe
her duty and
I

their

of

of
be

interests.

common

be

anything

the

most

punished

violated

her

interests

nothing

general

terrible kind.

Thus

for

having neglected
obligations.

convinced, moreover,

am

but

The

that these

ate
immedi-

in

comparison with a
should, in my
superiorinterest, which
opinion,
all our
dominate
policy. The English Radicals,
who
utilitarians and
base their policy on
are
are

interest alone, declare

tion

is

trade.
be

How

demonstrated

country I
wares

and

never

to

with

the

human
under

net

that

all progress

British

profit for
much

if you

industry and

easilythis

more

transfer

of civihza-

it to

truth
our

can
own

producersof expensive
articles of luxury, we
Frenchmen
ought
forget that our
prosperityis bound up
development and wealth of the whole

race.

Artistic workers,

Whenever

land,

near

or

far,

flag or that of our neighbours,passes

from
barbarism
to
misery to prosperity, from
should
civilization,from
slavery to freedom, we
our

THE

IS.]

rejoice: it
and

INTERESTS

is

OF

much

so

FRANCE

283

gained

for

line

of

trade

our

benefit.
There

remains

but

policy for
The
France.
not
variousjf^alkan peoples are
of them
developed for any one
yet sufficiently
one

charge of Macedonia
hegemony of the Peninsula.

to

take

of the

and

obtain

The

the

maintenance

Ottoman

Empire in some
shape is still
a
necessity;but its integrityis only possible
it
of
Without
by means
European control.
the continued
existence
of Turkey is not
only
an
iniquity,it is a sheer impossibility.The
Sultan's
unruly
only idea of governing an
and
in
pillage
province is by massacre
; but
has
this
method
failed
Macedonia
utterly.
of
That
Macedonia
be
can
pacifiedby means
control

European
convince
as

The

us.

difficult

Macedonia

the

as

the

In

Christians

Macedonian
of

much

Crete

it

to

hatred

as

there

is

told

must

was

continue

because

one

could

be
not

bring

the

that

by
the

diffi2rent

Macedonian
the

that

massacred

their

rivalryand

the

us

of

Greek

to

the

much

as

the

some

between

insoluble, and
to

racial

thing.

same

to

and

between

now

In

Christians, and

autonomy,

parties. Diplomats
problem

the

devoted

personalinterests,and
Christian partiesthere was

least

at

was

and
religious

and

own

should

Question.

was

were

some

dynasty, some

Crete

Question

Musulmans

were

of

case

Cretan

hear

we

problems.
There

the

the

island

Cretan
Cretans

Turks,
out

of

THE

284

its

OF

ATTITUDE

without

hopeless condition

And

FRANCE

[chap.

European

war.

Cretan

It
problem was^ solved.
solved through the joint action of the three
was
Liberal
Powers
France,
Italy, and
England.
the

yet

"

That
than

it is now;

sides of

the

said that

by

Channel

could

and

there

were

their

action

the

in

hands

of

their

Gordian

the

and

that

of

the

end

due.

wholly

contrary,

in

the

task

and

should
we

are

better

Let

proof

cordiale could

that

of

the

there

The

only
trust

in the

than

be

the
been

Italy,

Macedonians

three

Liberal

justified. What

realityof
be

and

by

faith in Austria

no

be

is

Crete

cordiale has

told, have

trust

Crete

in
in

them

to

surely not
to-day. Op

far easier.

"

Admirals

is

misrule

entente

the

humanity

England, France,

be

Russia, but

Powers.

It

should

forced
in

were

achieved

was

an

quarrelling,
who
by

they
of

men

Turkish

between

themselves,

peoplesand

Canevaro.

that

men

ments
Govern-

Governments

Macedonia

now

established

which

These

Admirals

impossible

in

own

What

three

the

three

knot.

Pottier, Noel,

created

the

were

waters

of their

higherinterests

been

while

But

action

an

people who

of

newspapers

Cretan

"

both

on

detestingeach
sides of the Alps there
said that Italy and France

friends.

the

had

purpose

both

be

never

were

virtuous

France

people who

also

there

many

for the
on

difficult then

more

time

and

England

Providence

were

that

at

other, while

cut

far

co-operationwas

the

the

high

execution

entente

of

IX.]

AIMS

OF

plain

duty

towards

with

accordance
all
and

concerned

which

outlast

moment

are

peace.

If

for

the

are

only
of

expediency
which

above

based

thing
every-

friendships
a

upon

in
of

substantial

must

the

also

interests

desire
it

cordiale,

is

poUtical

reaUy

we

285

which

highest

entente

those

CQRDIALE

humanity,

humanity;

serye

and

ENTENTE

the
?

lasting

THE

particular
honesty

CHAPTER
THE

By

Recent

serious

Government

in

order

to

What
these

is the

the

seen

of

on

more

necessary
of

principalcauses
have

the

the interests of

most

Europe

relations.

positionof Italy with regard to

considerable

_iiitgr,ests..Qf_her.
own

politicaland

both

Empire,

protect, and these interests,which

the general interests of peace and

international

of

balance

inspire

must

power,

poUcy.
Since

of

to

with

coincide

her

have
are

troubles, which

Ottoman

economic,

the

the

again

out

the Turkish

Therefore

which

hope

to

us

problems ?

Italy has
in

break

not

measures

the international

on

allows

great Powers

counter-effect

dangerous
and

will

attenuate

and

disaffection

the Balkans

the

the

ITALY

DEPUTY

Macedonia.

and
take

to

OF

ITALIAN

troubles

immediatelyin
time

AN

from

news

that

POLICY

her

achievement,

but

independence
political

the
the

the

international

great

trade

short time

and

strugglefor

markets

at
giganticproportions,

of

time

back,

unity, she
the

the
when

has

possession

world
she

assume

herself

ITALIAN

X.]

CHAP.

INTERESTS

287

still unprepared both

materiallyand morally
to take part in it. She then began to reahze two
contradictorynecessities,manifestingthemselves
in two
opposite tendencies, which, instead of
towards
moderating each other and co-operating
end, have each alternatelygained
one
political
was

the upper
into

two

the

one

the

the

of

of internal

look

own

reforms, while

French
end"*15y"a

of

other

from

all

which

both

To

of

quote

object of

she

this

dominions,

expansionin

the

at

emigrants

and

of

the

equality
proportion
other
to

fall

like Austria
Powers
protectienist
even
perhapsof independentBalkan

the rule of

Russia, and

States, Itahan
the

with
in

tariffs,is in
existingcustoms
expanding more
rapidly than that of any
if these provinceswere
country; whereas

or

her

the

the

under

an

exits to

trade

by

one

by

connected

article, Itahan
favoured

at

other

close the

instance

an

of

trap, blocked

would

her

afford to

cannot

hope

Bizerta, and

Avlona,

streams

Ottoman

revival and. internal

and

to fall into

the future, nor

the

economic

on

the

on

seeTierself excluded

exports.

the

they are exclusive

expansion.
hand
one
Italy must

words,

after her

the

themselves

State:

new

development

other

Austrian

materiahzed

of public opinion,
diverging currents
prevailingin the North, the other in

South

In

have

hand, and

Near

trade would

Eastern

greatlyreduced.
be inspiredby

markets,
Itahan

be

soon
or

at

poHcy

conservative

driven from

all events
should

very

therefore

tendencies, avoiding

POLICY

THE

288

all

violent

would

OF

ITALY

of

rearrangements

likelyprove

[chap.

the

which

map

advantageous to

more

ful
power-

States.
If

these

apply

we

theories to the

Question, the consequences

Austria
and

and

obvious.

are

in

preventing

Russia

in Macedonia

interest

every

condominium.

It

the

Italyhas

influence

from

into

being graduallyconverted

effective

Macedonian

is

of

extending

more

or

therefore

to

less
her

in theory, the
advantage that, at all events
suzeraintyof the Porte should be maintained as
long as possible.This policy,if we look beyond
the

present, is

immediate

interests of the
because

constitute

of" the
as

be

put

better

but

it will

future, for
all

for

the

that

when

to the

are

the

chief, if

once

conditions

some

of

abuses

disturbances

are,

not

and misthe

only,

in Macedonia.

questionof

the exact

shape

take,

they are

dealt

should

in this

Sultan

form, it will

in any

end

into the

reforms

the

an

constant

enter

elsewhere

authorityof

maintained

which

with

in the

be
to

of the

the

the

and

to

government

which

Porte

hand, however, if the suzerainty

other

Porte

I shall not

of the

ideas, above

national

necessary

cause

Macedonians

really

cause.

the

think,

becomes

for their national

danger

various

Bulgarian

that

than

the

to

of Macedonia,

control

the

give

may

administration

On

nationahties

if Austro-Russian

effective,it

the

various

favourable

as

volume, but there is no

real

the

material

Macedonians

doubt

improvement
has

been

290

POLICY

THE

ITALY

OF

[chap.

stitute
ensuring the future of Albanians, who may conboth
a
against Panpotentialbulwark
slavism and Pangermanism.
Italymust insist that
and
Monastir
the vilayetsof Kossovo
from
the
districts shall be separated,and
purely Albanian
that a special
regime shall be appliedto Albania,
and different from that Which
suitable to its needs,'

might

the

seem

itself, the

the

In the

remain,

should
The

be

chief

reform

of

the

Porte,

to

have

defect

of

the

that

was

the

and

the

Servia

the

direct

this kind
a

definite

there
no

be

to

not

influence.

exclusive

first Austro-Russian
of

having disregarded

serious

from

Albania

disturbances

in

of this

consequence

second

scheme

difficulties in

fundamental
appear
of

all events

Old
sight.
over-

the

way,

in

interests of

harmony

the

more

there

are

of
act

wish

the
in

not

with

to

absorbed

see

by

great Powers.

Her

with

those

harmony

Italymay not
the
aspirations,
revolutionists,

extreme

she desires nevertheless

preserved,and
any

Power

insuperableobstacles.

perhaps
but

which

suggestionof
is made
in somewhat
language;
vague
arrangement is necessary, and although
the

may

These

at

utterly

so

other

no

separationof

Macedonia,

In

are

for the present,under

allowed

scheme

were

which

Macedonia

of Albania,
reorganization

necessityfor

the

of

at all events

suzerainty

for

opportune

conditions

different.
should

most

their
the

nationality

influence

of

policy must

be

who

do

Powers

for radical alterations in the international

THE

x]

status

of

Macedonia,

which

of

absorption

be

only

satisfactory

that

it

which

have

well
with

civilization,
its

different

fitted
the
and

for

this

annex

also

nationahties

any

of

of
the

of

which

Ottoman

Powers
of

the

ably
unquestionis

European

all

seeing

part

are

task,

interests

and

Those

themselves,

for

This

reasonable

out.

to

eventual

reforms,

carried

desire

Empire

Ottoman

of

an

question.

applying

scheme

thing
any-

with

and

in

by

effectively
no

Power

any

provinces

avoid

to

occupation

ensured

and

is

furnish

the

291

anxious

are

military

ITALY

OF

and

may

for

excuse

can

POLICY

in

ance
accord-

of

peace,

Empire

religions.

and

CHAPTER
SUGGESTED

SCHEME

By

The

of

story

XI
OF

HILTON

E.

YOUNG

Macedonian

previouschapters may

seem

difficulties involved

in

to

any

To

try

the

solution

even

present

of

REFORMS

reform

as

of

mass

cloud

would,

in fact, be

subjectin

able
inextric-

obscurity.

for
suggestions
so
enced
experimany
have
politicians
be thought rash.

skilful
diplomatistsand
alreadyfailed to solve, may well
It

in

fresh

question,which

of

told

approach

to

presumptuous

confident

but it would
spirit;
be futile to reiterate that something in general
without
be done
must
being prepared to suggest
in addition
remedy. There should
some*particular
indeed be no
discouragementin the fact that the
the

past

contains

least

at

the

so

eliminate

to

failures.

many

Each

may

failure in

of
possibility

one

serve

future.
All

the

efforts that

Macedonians
combine
is

any

no

to

some

teach

have

been

securityand
would-be

made

might
292

of actual

have

been

and

givethe

prosperityin

reformers

of theorizingmore
possibility

step in advance

to

that

than

present fact.

gained

had

others

life

there

single
thing
Somelearnt

REFORM

XI.]

CHAP.

this

OR

RECONSTRUCTION

from
has, who
thoroughly as the Turk
time to time has skilfully
countered
his reformers
schemes
into the shade
by castingtheir modest
as

with

briUiant

Parish

Councils

exotics

could

of

soil

Turk

and

School

actual

Such

and

strange

the

inhospitable
perished, as the

effort to

an

facts of the

hard

in

have

but

foresaw, without

Parliaments

Boards,

thrive

never

Macedonia,

The

of

programmes

take

present

root.

situation

are,

Externally racial
and ecclesiastical propagandistsobscure the issues
is material,
on~~eve^'^ side, concealing what
is immaterial, and
painting
exaggeratingwhat
and
in
for
themselves
the
world
general
they wish to be.
imaginary pictures of what
the great forces of inactivity,
Internally
waiting
be more
for a time when
action may
completely
the obscurity with
under
their control, add
to
desert mirages of reform.
But
in the light of
experienceit is perhaps possible to grasp the
however,

ascertain.

to

essential facts of the

situation, to

the various

of reform

measures

select between

which

proposed, and aided by the record

and the opinionsof experienced
men
which

of them

effective
A

of

the

been

past

indicate

to

would

not, be

guarantees of good government.

year

control,

poison

which

would, and

have

at

ago,

while

small

dose

work

of

almost

of control, and

is

still under

antidote
would

of this the

For

want

were

the

in Macedonia

sufficient.
out

events

to

running

been

have

malady
its

the

is

course

now

to

294

an

SUGGESTED

inevitable

SCHEME

REFORMS

OF

with
crisis,

[chap.

all its manifold

risks of

European complications.
before Europe:
There
two
are
policiesnow
last effort^
at
reform, the other a first
one
a
By reform we
attempt"at reconstruction.
may
understand
such provisional
patching up of the
be
effected immediately
present regime as can
while by reconstruction
by ordinarydiplomaticmeans;
is implied the best possiblepermanent
of some
settlement, requiring the intervention
extraordinaryinternational authority,such as a
Conference

be

reach

the

should

end, before

calculated
of

some

entailed

the annals
wilful

It

the

is

the

these

time

time,

involved

which

misery

words

indeed, that

its well-intentioned

futilities have

upon

There

or

reader.

nearly closed, and

is

chapter of reform
so
altogetherby

The
may

Powers.

of the

or

weU-

Europe

they

have

it

in

long

Macedonia.

is, indeed,
of Macedonian

nothing

than

reform

neglect to profitby

in
striking

more

the

the witless

experienceof

provement
the imhas
been
as
previous failure. Great
during the past century in the moral
which
has charge of the
of the profession
tone
of
welfare
Europe, its realization of
political
is still inferior to that, for
public responsibility
has charge of
instance, of the professionwhich
What
be
would
the
thought
public health.
out
consented
of a
sanitary authority which

of

opportunism

to

conceal

the

real

condition

XI]

CENTRALIZATION

of

plague-spotas

health

Macedonia

as

the

to

years
trouble

and

295

dangerous
has

been

the

to

for

public

the

last ten

public peace? or which, to avoid

allayanxiety,ostentatiously
applied

preventative measures

repeatedlyproved

to

be

State

has

quackeries?
The
been

the
history^of

recent

of

one

such

in the

without
or

any

moral

even

of

introduction

the

twenties, the

results in the

measures

as

tried,

new

provincesof
and

the

in

of

feudal

the

of

the

tax-farms

Derrebeys

Such
for

creating a
prosperity of

course,

Since
the

the

depredations

tax-farmers.

hope

bad

suppressionof

unrestrained

granting of
the

means,

rhglements,

reaUzed

the

officials and
the

all

prosperity.Soon after
centralized regime in

first financial pressure.

known

material

of

efficient administration,

Government

authority interested in
provinces;but these, of
the

of

return

of the

system

Stambuli

were

Palace, by

material

the

of

centralization

and
rifles,
telegraphs,
railways,

as

feudal

'

centralization"

poUticalpovsrer

Ottoman

did

not

life
local
the

survive

the

disappearance
provinces have

humane
than
that
authority more
of the professional
official bent
on
extortingas
much
as
possiblein as short a time as possible.
Centralization reached its fullest legislative
sion
expresin the
'sixties; its subsequent exaggerated
developments have been mostly administrative.
The
'sixties were
an
epoch of foreign,and
at
French, ascendency. The reformers
especially
no

the

Porte

it

allowed

experiment

to

vilayet of

empire

an

the
the

in
of

based

reformer

of

was

to
application

French

the

This

administration.

origin in

thinking that

to
prosperity seemed
of foreign capital.Thus

Danube

the

[chap.

introduction

the

in

Midhat

that

about

came

influx

the

under

REFORMS

for

excused

be

may

politicalsalvation lay
foreign codes, just as
revive

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

296

on

mental
departshows

system

revolution

his

its

by

counterpoiseof popular representative

institutions againsta highly centralized executive.
such
of
elaborate
The
substitution
pohtical
its delicate

simple personal government

Padishah
the
Pasha
under
of
was
doubly
a
that the provinces
dangerous; but the possibility
democratic
be
would
disintegrated by the
that they would
than
obvious
element
more
was
be

devitalized
its

pursued
the

of

poUcy

Palace

providing

all

for

government.
become

consulted

to

say

Under

has

The

no;

is

these

to

its reductio

ah

bu J, since

of 1877;
with

poUcy
Ted "to "BKe' practical
suppression
in power

authority of
in the

circumlocution

be

it

reform

Porte

privileges,
legal or customary,
provincial participationin the

centralized

merely

of

has been

reaction, which
of

The

over-centraUzation.

by

in the Constitution

absurdum
1880

the

for

machinery

Palace.

the

Porte

It has

office; a Mr

has

become

Jorkins

to

it is difficult
length whenever
ever
evet
an
effendito be quoted whenparticularlyiniquitous to say yes.
at

conditions

the

fate

of

the

delicate

298

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

admirably observed,

ments,

so

in

administration

our

the

OF

of

REFORMS

mutatis

India,

for the

of the

enforcement

for

local

divided

of

of

members

The

been

made

law, protectionis

the

officio
overwhelming majorityjto
important of the councils

an
more

and

faiths, but the

two

officials

numerous

secures

Islam.

doubt

against Musulman
by
with
The
small
advisory powers.
elective members
they contain is

equallybetween

inclusion

present law;

Christian

councils

proportion

secured

restrictions.

Thus, by the letter of the

provided

mutandis,

not

are

the

Rumelian

vilayetsby
though ample provisionhas no
to

[ohap.

the

are

extinct,

are

seriouslycurtailed.

of

powers
The

as

law

ex

the

smaller

provides,for

villageshall elect its own

hekji(field-guard)
applied,however, in many
; as
are
mostly Musulplaces,only landowners, who

instance, that

mans,

in

to

vote.

peasa-ntry in general, and

Christians

the

require protection againstexcessive

particular,

and

abusive

Even
the
a

allowed

are

The

each

with

councils

power

for

abuse.

But

strong,

and

to

the

taxation

the

reform,
the

or

into

least

at

check

forces of centralization

from

the

still active

Councils

extinct

the

council

Parliament
of

the

on

_too

were

Parliament

commune,

importance of
importance. The

General

official

corruption.
the meagre
assignedto them
powers
have
might by now
developed inta

nominal
real

and

down

greater the

the

less
met

vilayetsmet

is its
once;
a

few

LOCAL

XI]
times.

The

one-third

COUNCILS

Sanjak Council,

of the members

but

is

299

of which

only

is still workelective,
ing,

are

quite uninfluential.

The

applies

same

to

the

the

of the representation,
insignificance
the

Kaza

of

the

electors
of

of

kaza

candidates
half

Kaza

the

Vali, who

of

They

sanction

by

have

In

double
the

submit

the

The

number

Kaza

half

repeat the

then

Council.

shnilar

of

tions
precau-

Mutessarif

the

to

view

excessive.

are

nominates

nominates

which

them

Councillors

Councillors.

to

choose

required;

The

Vah

Councils.

electoral system
a

nominates

Nahie

and

about

of

hst

it

Sanjak

and

process,

to

the

the

General

Councillors, subject

the

Porte.

Municipal Councils,

much

ancient

origin,have
a
rational
more
system of election, but
they
have also been
reduced
their
to impotence, and
ment
authorityassumed
by the president,a Governa

more

nominee.
Two

institutions retain

the Administrative

little importance,

some

Council, to which

heads' of "tliie
communities
religious
and

the

originof

both

based

the

It is to

commune.

on

these
division

be

admitted,^

noticed

that the

Ottoman

The Administrative Council,in

spiritual

are

institutions
of

the

is

social,and

society into

spiteof itsmodem

name,

is in

truth the old

divan of the Islamic regime. Its composition

provincial
and powers are stillpractically
the same.
The Kodja-baehi
representingthe bishops or rabbi had the right to sit in it.

Savas

Pasha

says

of this office:

"

On

le consid^rait

comme

le

(TribunalMitmlman, p. 46). This isstill

the onlyrepresentation
enjoyedby non-Musulmans.
practically
Trihunus

Ghristianorum"

300

SUGGESTED

REFORMS

OF

SCHEME

[chap.

based
or
religiouscommunities, and not political,
on
equal ci\dl rightsfor all. Their existence is
due
to the
same
principlethat led the Porte
in 1870
concede
and
1890
to
to the
Bulgars
privilegesas a separate religiouscommunity,
while
refusing them
rights which
they would
share
their
Musulman
fellowequally with
subjects.They provide politicalevidence of a
fact

which

to

there

that
ideas
the

of civil
Islamic

Rumelia

it

as

This

in

this relation

for

abuse

of

of

government

reform, becomes

the relations of the

laws

the

fiscal

this

is

situation, of fundamental

of

are

the

system

over

province

examined.

vilayetsare

unregulatedand

authorityof the. Palace

and

individual,and

an

Government

the

of

government

character, a government

consideringfuture

central

screen

by

of the

clear when

the

the

in

its French

reallyreplaced

never

that

Oriental

feature

still more

with

might appear to be,

by the community.

importance

and

communities

individuals

to

has
equality,

law;

mony,
practicaltesti-

law,

statute

remains

of
not,

the

is abundant

the

of the

entire

In

merely

unlimited
trative
adminis-

provinces. The

authorityby the Sultan and his

satellites has ruined
the provinces morally and
not
materially,
only by direct exhaustion, but
by rendering all economy
and
even
system
impossible.The Vali is the proper delegateof
Imperial authority,and
he
should
legallybe
responsiblefor the government
of the province.

LIMITED

XI.]

under

But

POWERS

the

law

OF

as

THE

VALIS

301

applied his

now

powers

chieflysupervisory. His subordinates

the most
part independent positions,and

are

for

relations with
This

is the

in the

case

pohce, justice,and

of

under

his orders, but

Irade

by
War

of the

Minister.

He

central

finance.

the

Government.

The

poUce

officers hold

responsibleto

are

providesthat
compromising pubhc safety" the
orders

from

without

jpara

are

their posts

law

The

controlled
un-

important departments

Sultan, and

nothing without
cannot
spend a

do

the

have

"in

the

tions
situa-

Vali

may

Constantinople.^
permission,and

the

provincial
treasury department is independent
subordinated
the
of him, and
to
Ministry of
the other hand, he is responsible
Finance,
On
for raisingthe revenues
required for the annual
budget of the province,and for the fluctuating
drain of drafts on
the provincial
but never-ceasing
mission,
treasury issued by the Palace, the Tophane Comthe Finance
Ministry,and other central
The
authorities.
total of these
drafts generally
of
the surplus available after payment
exceeds
and sometimes
salaries and expenditure,
provincial
the

even

total gross

This

revenues.

ruinous

last
nominally illegal. The
obtained by the ex-Grand
it was
prohibiting
is

Article 14

which
Vilayets,

of
gave

the
the

was
troops in emergencies,

Law

on

the

Administration

Irade
Vizier
of the

Vali

the
discretionary
over
powers
repealedby Irad^ in 1886, requiring

militaryauthorities to refer his request

of Macedonia
Government.
The Inspector-General
nominallyhas this power.
now
the

ceeding
pro-

to

the Central

(HUmi Pasha)

Said Pasha,

himself

Sultan

fifteen

some

has

who

REFORMS

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

302

years

ago.

always

been

[chap.

it is the

But

is stillthe

and

offender.

worst

The
;

show

that

the

it is not

but

reform

administrative

said to

be

law, therefore, cannot

objectof
take

be

factory
satis-

the argument to

shape of new
Quid legessine moribus

should

enactments.

the

There
?
are
alreadytoo many of
prqficiunt
them.
plurimcBleges.
repuhlica
Corruptissima
Reform, as distinct from reconstruction,
requires
M. Steeg,the able French
elaborate legislation.
no

vancB

Consul-General

Salonica, sums

at

realization of the powers

(1) effective

Valis^by the LawsoT

the

in two

it up

establishment

of

of
complete separation

on

the

of

based

finance

provincial
budget

on

from

authority.

the central financial

(Turkey,No. 680, p. 18) :"

"No
effectual reforms are
possibleif the positionof the
Unless the
is not
Governor-General
radicallychanged.
and responsibility
to a
which is absolutely
indispensable
power
proper dischargeof the duties of Governors-General is clearly
1

Mr

Gosohen

conferred

the"'VilayetsT''~(2"y"

system

lines:

in 1880

wrote

defined,as also the guarantees which will relieve them from the
of constant dismissal,
no
opinioncan be formed of
apprehension
the

efficacyof

General

should

the

have

reforms.

It is clear that the Governors-

clear

some

understandingas

and
duringwhich they will hold office,
constant

must

to the

period

be set free from the

interference with the minutest details of their admini^

tration which has hitherto

And

Sir

780, p. 7) :"
"
There is
can

save

Valis."

Henry

paralysedtheir action."
Layard in the same
(Turkey,No.
year

generalconviction that the only measures

the extension of the powers
Turkey are
a

that

of the

THE

XI.]

The

of

local

decentralization
been

autonomy
that

CONFERENCE

question is, why

next

measure

for

CONSTANTINOPLE

it

could

tried

in

303

has
the

not

some

direction

of

by foreign reformers?

only

from

come

outside

is

obvious.
sufficiently
In
to

1876
to

try

Conference

the

save

between
It

the

failed in its

to follow.

was

Turk

Great

of

Rumelian

with

Britain

Vali

of

scheme

the

Turkish

it

series that

be noted,

the

rayah.

not

as

gether
alto-

declininginfluence
that schemes
affairs,

have

steadily deteriorated

renewal.

the

Rumelia

with
in

reform

any

fact to

reform

every

By

the

than

unconnected
of

the rebeUious

and

object,but
It is

at

of

peace

better

suggestedwas

Constantinople
ating
Europe by medi-

met

scheme
be

to

was

of

placed
the

appointed by

each

1876

vilayet of

under

Powers.

Christian

The

vilayets

divided into

be

sanjaks and nahies, in

charge respectivelyof governors
appointed by
the Vali, and
each elected by his nahie.
mayors
to

were

In

each

Council
and

nahie

these

have

Provincial

members

as

the

revenues

Ottoman

of the Ottoman

control

an

elect

to

was

not

sum

of the

Bank,

be

village,

Provincial

Commission

exceeding30
to

devoted

Public Debt, and

of its

elect ten

provincewas
to

each

financial matters.

over

Administrative

an

Administrative

by

one

to

were

Assembly

assist the Vali.

of the

elected

councils
to

be

to

was

of members,

Assembly
The

there

be
to

to

per cent,

paid

to

payment

the remainder

of

304

SUGGESTED

the

revenues

needs.

troops

Christian sects, in

an

for

assisted

by

and

in
be

to

the
the

proportionto

watch

to

year

gendarmerie was

Commission

International

provincial

various

numbers

of

order to enforce these measures,

religion.In

each

for

concentrated

Musulmans

from

recruited

the

[chap.

prohibited.The

be

to

and

garrisontowns,

be

to

was

were

REFORMS

retained

be

to

was

Tax-farming

Turkish

OF

SCHEME

be

to

was

their

over

appointed
execution,

special gendarmerie recruited

armies
of Europe.
These
from
the
hensive
compreadmirable
and
proposals were
swept
Turkish
of sight by the Russo
out
and
War,
found
only a faint echo in the notorious 23rd
Article
of the Treaty of Berlin.
a

In

Commission,

the

1880

ably representedby Lord

at
Constantinopleto carry
the
Berlin Treaty relative
stated
Their
objectswere
greater administrative

damaging

the

Empire,"

and

or

power

which

on

Fitzmaurice,

out

the

be

to

The
took

of the

Law
and

scheme

the

the

without

the

Turkish

unity of

elaborate

form

of

Laws

organization of

absorption

State."
sound

they

codification

modern
for
of

the

entire

scheme

specialarrangement
the

decentralization

Vilayets with

followed

reform.
establish

"to

the

programme.

met

provisionsof

RumeUan

to

provincialrevenues
by the
procedure was
unfortunatelynot so
of

were

E.

prevent the

"to

we

the

Their
as

their

mended
recom-

of the

improvements,
Albania.

The

Vilayetsas

to

provincial administration

306

these

with

Committees

their

OF

REFORMS

provisionshave

democratic

Bulgar
for

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

of

scheme

provided

convenient

[chap.

text-book

first

autonomy,

the

pubhshed

numerous
Bulgar being the most
element, popular government
by the majority
of
not
a
naturally has attractions
exclusively

in

1896

the

liberal character.
scheme

The
time

was

no

The

cared.

have

to

seems

dropped, but

the

at

one

reforming

England and France, being at the time

of the money
some
occupied in trying to save
horse, neglectedto
they had put on the wrong
had again
By 1885, Macedonia
press the matter.
Powers,

under

settled down
Ottoman

rule

Berlin.
considered

Europe,

re-established

as

That

settlement
durable

as

of

weary

and

uncontrolled

Treaty

of

generally

definitive, and

not

years

the

then

was

if

ten

by

unreformed

of

Eastern

crises,

Empire to work out

For
its own
salvation.
Bulgaria,occupied with
and
Rumelia,
digesting Eastern
disengaging
herself fi-om Russia, good relations with
Turkey
had
in
obtained
were
indispensable. Greece
for
Thessaly a rational frontier,and her demands
more
were
being severelysnubbed
by the Powers :
Russia, disgusted at
Bulgaria's "ingratitude,"
had dropped the Panslavist propaganda : England
was

disposed to

had

salved

Rumehan
Bosnia
of

her

leave

conscience

reforms:
and

the

the

the

and

by

Austria

the
had

Herzegovina,The

province

was

so

elaboration

of

her hands fuU of

internal

tranquil,that

tion
condieven

RIFAAT

XI.]

AT

public works

some

been

had

were

brought
confined

MONASTIR

within

307

attempted. Brigandage
bounds, and the propaganda

educational

activity.During
the troubles of 1875-85
the Bulgar peasantry had
to a large extent
sought refuge from persecution
by professingHellenism, and consequently the
still fairly
Hellene
were
partiesof Slav and
evenlybalanced. ^ During this decade the Turkish
Government
free hand
its

to

to

seems

for the

vindication

yet it

rule, and

had

have

is

and

fair field and

that

had
which
brigandage,
Monastir
Eyub
by Ahmed

down

in

help of
Rifaat
to

1887,

martial

began

put

it

the

law, under

to

down,

gather
the

head

been

latter,instead

with

kept
the

regime

milder

again.

the

reform

only spontaneous and

crushed by centralization.
was
About

of

consolidation

during this decade

practicalOttoman

of

Determined
of

reviving
professional

simply replaced the

rural guards,by a rural militia recruited
or
hekjis,
that is to say, he deprived
the villagers;
among
of their monopoly in weapons,
the Musulmans
martial

law,

allowed

and

number

certain

of

Christian

to-day called
Bulgars were
"Supposing that Macedonian
to declare their Bulgarism,it is a humiliatingadmission,
on
that the greater part have as yet
but it must
be confessed,
and
that if Macedonia
were
now
national consciousness,
no
The
to choose a nationality
the majoritywould be lost to us.
rural districts are Bulgar,but they follow the towns, and these,
except in the north,are Hellene." Expose de I'itat present du
1885.
Public k Philippopolis,
Bulgarmne dans la Maeedoine.
'

"

Traduction gi-ecque de Koumariamos.

villagersto
in

the

the

it

there

peasantry
effective

of

support

of

law

districts

months

the

the

burden

order

and

of

Such

brigands.

1000

and

effect of

the

few

relieved

were

bekjis and

2000

some

in

in

applied,and

was

The

immediate

was

[chap.

defence

own

public order.

of

interests

REFORMS

in their

arms

carry

innovation

where

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

308

argues

peaceably disposed population,hostile only to

those
who
gravely injure its material interests.
had
the
Moreover,
measure
obviously made
internal pohtical
both in the external and
peace
offered anything to
situations, neither of which
the

arouse

fears
But

minority.

or

the

material

valuable

own

humihated

of power

fearful
the

dishonouring death, and

guard with an honest
of

was

influences

by
and

at

space
of

measure

Musulman,

been

Ottoman

in which
essential

has

was

the

the

with

his

rural
the

admitted

its

demnation
con-

public opinion,
recalled
to

and

it failed,because
of

safety

Though

devoted

reform

subjection
and

and

secure

Musulman
Rifaat

Palace.

the

Some

local

felt

beneficial, these

be
to

of their

their

origin, and

sufficient

were

Christians,

menaced

Bey

to

moral

fanatical

livelihood.

Turkish

the

loss

was

the

Musulmans

by leadmg

the

to

considered

brigand

Musulman

only

disadvantagesof
prerogatives. The

compromised;

reform

the

of

minority saw

access

the

fanaticism

that

of any

dangers

or

this

the

any

small

stances
circum-

it proves

Christian

of
impossibility

in 1890.

to

the
the

practical

THE

XI.]

REFORMS

of reform

measure

OF

1896

from

coming

ever

309

Turkish

source.

By
fast
from

the

1890

respite given

Turkey

to

was

A
semi-educated
class issuing
running out.
the
Bulgar propagandist schools, which

between
found

1890

had

trebled

prospect of making

no

social

and

1885

in

number,

liveUhood

in the

and

the
politicalbondage imposed on
province; accordinglythe propaganda, hitherto
character.
Active
educational,assumed
a political
inroads
of
agitationbegan with the abortive
in
The
raids failed, being conbands
1895.
ducted
by inexperienced students, and meeting
with

little

or

no

peasantry. The

from

encouragement

central

Government

the
ever,
how-

were,

seriouslyalarmed, and the Bulgar peasantry

began again to feel the heavy weight of the
their other
Government's
added
to
displeasure,
burdens.
The
judicialand administrative
cution
persewhich
as

is

usual

followed
in

of

raids

the

1895

was,

Turkey, accompanied by

paper

reforms.
The

reform

scheme

of

in Anatolia,
application
Britain in consequence
extended

was

ftilfilment of
to

provide

to
a

under

pressure

of the Armenian

Rumelia.

of
principle

basis for

drawn

1896,

This

subsequent

however
locality,

scheme

was

not

vague.

The

decentx'alization

Great

done

in

policy never

decentralization

however
by assigning
special
privileges,
to

of

massacres,
was

Turkish

for

up

as

unimportant,
basis of this
in

1877,

nor

this

to

of

REFORMS

in 1880, but

[chap.

the admission

Christians

ment
employ-

to

officials.

Government

as

As

as

proportionof

certain

OF

SCHEME

democratization

even

of

SUGGESTED

310

the pseudonymous author

principle,
of formmg
means
Europe, whose
generallysupposed to have been

Turkey in
an
opinion are
writes :
It is often asserted that the
exceptional,
.only effective protectionto Christians lies in the
as
possible.This would
appointment of as many
if it were
be true
doubt
no
possibleto choose
and
the
functionaries
to
sufficient
give them
their independence ; but this the
authorityto secure
Muhamedans
always succeed in preventing."In
this scheme
fact, if we
againstthe three
gauge
already laid down, we find
postulatesof reform
it is reforming from
the wrong
end, by attempting
to provide protectionfor Christians
against
"

Musulmans

before

providingprotectionfor the
fore,
province againstthe capital.It contained, thereno

back

to

essential

the

true

basis for reform.

the

scheme

of

of

decentralization

province against the

stable

the

ensure

1876

other

basis
two

for

We
to

have
find

sufficient

capital,and
reforms

to

first

the
to

protect

thus

which

go

viding
pro-

would

speciesof protection.

Bearing this well in mind, there will be

danger of being imposed on by the verbosities
subsequent paper reforms.
Poor
reading as
is,

some

space

must

nevertheless

be

devoted

indicatingtheir less insignificantclauses

their
more
in
important failings. Thus

no

of
it
to

and
the

THE

XI.]
scheme

of

1896

that
assistant
writes

311

revived

was

the

MUAVINS

Vali

obsolete
have

to

was

Of

{muavin).

the

Christian

this institution

"

ment
arrange-

Odysseus

"

"

priving
shown
in de"Extraordinary ingenuitywas
these 'appointments' of all importance.
The
Christian appointed was
of the same
never
the
sect
race
or
as
population of the province
his post the
at
as
long as the Vali was
allowed
not
to do
anything.
deputy was
If the Vali went
he
was
replaced not by
away
the deputy but
highest in
by the official next
...

rank

which
.

was."

never

M.

to

the

say

Christian

'

Bdrard, another

describes
thus

needless

the

authorityon

position of

the

Macedonia,

Christian

muavins

:
"

"Sans

prerogatives certaines, sans

definis ils

furent

ne

passifs
auxquels on
Monastir,
bureau

du

des

que
soumit
ne
Konak

le

dans

Mouavin

the enrolment

revival
of

du

of
fixed

' '

the

Gouverneur,
'

le

installs k

.a*

.1

^v

character

same

number

pouvoirs
aveugles et
affaire.

aucune

Chretienfut

porte des lieux d'aisance."

Another

temoins

of Christians

la
'

was

in

gendarmerie. This is also an old story. In

to be employed
1876, Christian gendarmes were
in proportionto the total Christian
population,
in
in 1880
proportion to that of the vilayet;

the

Turkey

La

in

Europe, p. 159.
Macedoine, p. 229.

312

REFORMS

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

[chap.

reduced
to 10 per cent.,
now
proportionwas
was
recently, in February 1903, raised to
in the latest scheme
per cent,, to be replaced

the
and
20

the

by
the

of

wording

those

of

number

the

and
insignificant,

attempt

no

the

parurent

still

more

fair

satisfactory.
un-

to

say

provide

to

the

attained
"Des

thus

are

inspecteurs

grands jours k tous

vilayet et de prefecture;tous

tinrent

et

results
Bdrard

M.

by

lieux

"

TEe

purpose.

indicated

chef

been

always

stitution
protectionagainst the official;the inrevived
of judicialinspectorships
was

peasant
for

made

was

has

be

not

of fact,

matter

employed
quahty

would

It

that

As

1876.

de

de

les
les

deposer contre les fonctionnaires furent emprisonn^s."

in
The
one
period fi-om 1895 to 1900 was
the prowhich
the agitationoriginatingamong
letariat
of the
schools
was
developing into a
peasant rising. The
dangers of the situation
far from
increased
so
yearly, but
drawing a
warning from the regularly recurringtrouble in
the
consider a
to
spring,the authorities came
state of semi-suppressed
guerillain the summer,
rayahs qui

and

of

vinrent

in the winter, the

semi-starvation^

condition

of

the
not

was

imminent
were

the
The

1902

was

the

Macedonian

suggested,

crisis became,

Turks

of any

Turkish
not

status

the

the

result

scheme
of

the

and

vention
Intermore

incapable

more

spontaneous

reform

quo.

normal

concession.
of

December

intervention,but

it

314

that
of

the

centralized

official of

the executive

fallacyby

such

appointment
to

VaUs,

the

remains

to

be

an

mere

those

giving him

that

he

as

to

the power
his orders

reaUzes

financial decentralization

especiallyessential was
equally specious manner

the

muster

himself

nothing more.

The
as

emissary

nevertheless
Inspector-General
delegateof the Sultan, and

consistentlyshown

has

was

as

years,

The

etc.

feared

independent
given to this
securing his

troops, enjoiningobedience

move

on

for three

this

pass

Colour

clauses

be

local power

some

Palace.

the

[ch4p.

to

that

hoped
authoritywould

Powers

two

of

REFORMS

their reforms, it is much

of

feature

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

claimed

also

above

provided for in
the

by

scheme

of

Each

Powers.

to have
a
vilayetwas
budget; a provisionwhich had
separate annual
of the
appeared already in the Law
Vilayets
ever
(Art, 10) and
popular with the Central
for it is one
of the means
Government,
by which
it learns
far the .province can
how
be
bled.
Provincial
be a first charge
to
expenditure was
on
also was
provincial revenues
already
; that
the law; the only difficulty
in securingits
was
two

execution.

that

The

the

The

been
of

of the

ago

by

method

Ottoman
the

by
nullified by

the

central

paid

Bank
Bank

which
the

this

meets

shall be

revenues

branches

long

scheme

"

by providing

into

provincial
made
provision

Charter

of

1875.

these

safeguards have
exchequer drafts (haval^

Government

has

already

been

THE

XI.]

MURZSTEG

indicated, and

is

in

REFORMS

no

315

touched

way

by

these

"reforms."
The
of

terrible events

interest

of

the

and

1903,

renewal

in the

question evinced in England

and expressedby the Foreign Office,produced a
fresh crop
of similar provisions,
known
the
as
had
become
evident
It
Miirzstegprogxamme.
that not
of decentralization
a
measure
only was
but
that
some
European guarantee
necessary,
for its execution
two
was
indispensable. The
Powers
accordinglyprovided a foreign control
as

ineffective

control

Foreign
These

effected

be

is to

in the

are,

of decentralization.

their scheme

as

first

to

in fact

advise

him

and

consuls, and,
advice

is

as

the

to

Porte.

and

two

means.

assessors,"who

accredited
VaU.

case

of

They

their interests

are

like

consuls, if their

Embassy

have

They

the

to

their Embassies

followed, their

not

complainto the
powers,

report
in

"

place,two

nothing but Consuls

instead of to
Inspector-General

are

by

are

no

may

tive
administra-

those

of their

In
the second
place,
respectiveGovernments.
foreign control is to be exercised through the
local gendarmerie. Here
again it is evident that
to
the authors
of the programme
merely meant

provideforeigninspectorsand
conveying

the

be

under

effective

are

not

presence
executive

idea

that

the

while
reorganizers,
to
gendarmerie was

foreign control.

Precedents

wanting as to the small value of the

of foreign gendarmerie officers without
functions
or
security against the

316

Such

Palace.

the

intriguesof

REFOHMS

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

[chap.

task

was

by England in 1880,'
of foreigners
and
may
though the mere
presence
have
a
restraining effect during the coming
the
over
gendarmerie
troubles, their influence
itself will very
probably be extremely limited.
undertaken

fruitless when

Had
events

in

actual

department

would

been

they
one

put
could

and
work

for future
starting-point
for
devices
countering

their

both

reforms

applicationis

at

are

the

are

for want

execution,
1896,

and

tion.

Yet

as

made

such

But

measures.

has

Sultan

to

valuable
the

old

have

reforms

limited

of

ceeded
suc-

secured

to

of
did

also

an

that

shall

be

Control;

three years, and

fail of their

they
object

effisctive guarantee of

the

for want

other

Dual

the

palliatives.They

most

been

centraliz
de-

executive.

advisory,not
Such

been

formed

have

all

at

have

Jhe...foreign officers

of

functions

the

The

more.

once

have

it

isolated,would

thus

command,

schemes

of

1876, 1880,

their
and

of" sufficientdecentraliza-

provinces of

the

Empire

have

"They (the reforms accepted by the Sultan) include a

the appointment
gendarmerie organizedby European officers,
of Europeans as financial and judicial
in the provinces
inspectors
of the Valis for five years.
Not one
of them has been loyally
entered
into by the
put into execution, and the obligations
Sultan have been systematically
evaded.
The English officers
brought out to reorganizethe gendarmerie have been treated
with the most
marked
discourtesyand neglect. Only three
have been employed, and
has been thrown in
difficulty
every
their way.
.""Sir H. Layard,April27th,1880.
'

THE

XL]

been

CONSTITUTION

fortunate, and

more

by

successful

because
the

it
An

in

under

autonomy

by the Sultan.
only link between
which
and

has

both

rendered

essentials.

the

stationed

does

at

Prince

This

the

by

the

'sixties

Vathy.

and

way,

is

that

character

modified
But

nominated

the
practically
the

and

regime

Turkish

Statute, but

since

The

curious
the

as

seem

in
was

in 1900

troops
ances
disturb-

garrison has

small

island,

customs

tribute.

arrangement

the islanders,but
democratic

Governor

Prince

annual

greater part

amicable

the

is that, short

matter

by

fixed

excluded
in

of

Empire
separate flag and

pays

were

been

Independence Samos
restored to the Ottoman
nately
Empire, but fortuthe necessitywas
realized of securingfor
a
guaranteed by the Powers.
government
international
Act
to this effect was
signed
1832,
providing very shortly for complete

was

War

317

foreign intervention,

it included

Greek

SAMOS

have

successful

prosperous

After

OF

feature

Statute
have

to

between
1852

been

the

only

modified

Sultan

and

Constitution

obtained
in

of

is, not

the
a

been

in the

still more

of

same

cratic
demo-

it is

perfectlyexphcable that
be
the Sultan
should
as
good as a suzerain as
he is bad as a sovereign. The institutions which
have
instructive
this very
origin consist of a
sense.

of

CouncU
years

by

to have

and

the

an

been

elected
representatives,
Assembly of delegates. There
four

frequent friction

islanders,in which

between

the

Sultan

the

for

two

appears
Princes

has

inter-

318

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

REFORMS

OF

of the
generallyin favour
gives ample scope
system, which

latter.

vened

appears
better

the whole

on

than

In

suit the

to

to

providingfor

the

of

6000

the

the

on

Statute

of

Samos,

it

the

spot.

In

1864.

the

Druses

This

Powers.

that

is nominated

first "to

come

took

the

The

has control

divided

finallythe

not

of

that

unUke

and

the

Porte

popular

decentralized

foreign guarantee.
by the Sultan, who

local
This
has

an

This

unanimous
of

case,

mitted
sub-

understanding" with the

tion
to selecamounts
practically

to

Ambassadors.

term

this

represents the

Governor

by

Commission

The

Governor

the

is

authority, with

are

who

ment
improve-

the

by

and
proposals,
the
negotiated with

Ambassadors

years.

No

alternative

two

The

conference

the

resettlement

body

Maronite

despatch of a French expedition

the summoning of a Conference,
men,
to study
appointment of a Commission
of

form

and

by

C5rprus.

length, in 1860,

at

Christians

action

joint

of

without, however,

peace

5000

intrigue,

Powers,

five

the

The

character

the

decentralization.

any

of

massacre

caused

secure

effected, and

was

of

occasioned

of

Ambassadors

endeavoured

Greek

ill-treatment

the

1842,

the

for

cast-iron administration

our

Christians of the Lebanon

of

[chap.

vote

of

the

Ambassadors.

appointment is five
ministrativ
only representative
body is an Adwith
Council
advisory powers which

over

the

Governor's

the finances.

between

Its twelve

the different

races

and

members

religions

XI.]

THE

in

their

proportionto

as

juges

aiFords

319

importance. The
by the villageSheikhs, who
paix. The judicatureof the

elected

are

LEBANON

de

almost

of

also act
Lebanon

evidence
satisfactory

as

advantages of decentralization,
institutions

members

Samos.

as

Under

the

of

the

democratic

the

Statute

an

provided, but the

his own
first Governor, on
replaced
responsibility,
duced
this by the judicialinstitutions then
being introinto the Empire.
The
present state of
independent judicature was

administration

the

of

justicein

institutions in the

well
of

that

the

the

make

good a
budget,which
This

does

every

each

that

as

his

and

to

the Powers
introduce

of

is

Lebanon

is

not

Samos,

although
half

which

it

century

guerillawarfare

occupation by

on

in

army

1830,

Mehemet

Ali

remained

turmoil, injuJxadtion"..
breaking

1833, 1840,"1859,
year

This

authorities.

the

Egyptian

continuous

taken

satisfactoryin

continual

Crete, after the

and

been

so

as

is

factions

waging

other

worked

Statute.

the

condition

and

races

were

ago

have

to

the

that

mean

its

respect

includes

have

the

but

conferred

benefit

not

prosperous

of

in

by the suzerain,
Statute the Empire has annually to
considerable
deficit in the provincial
actuallyto be paid.
moreover,
seems,

only

for under

Lebanon

appears

arbitrarychange

the

not

notice

no

Empire,

is notorious

spiteof subsequent reforms,

same

the

and

1866-68.

intervened
certain

and

reforms

in

out

Finally,in

in

that

forced

the Sultan

embodied

in

the

320

of

Crete

for

Organic Law
authorityin

REFORMS

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

[chap.

The

1868.

supreme

placed in the hands

and
of a Muslim
Vali, advised by a Muslim
a
of the
Councillor. ~~~TKe""" of gahizationChristian
Laws

the

the

of

island

was

concession

that

Mutessarifs

were

appointed by

the

Councils
three

members,
was

about

was

also

elected

of

empowered

scheme

the

demand

were

of

if

the

and

Samos

Constantinople was

such

effective

Christian

further

The

remedy

providing that
the

island

be
not

paid

to

and

cost

those

separation
WitHoiit

of

Berlin

tried

financial

the

and

disturbances
as

first

charge

half

only

of the

on

excess

the

of
local

should

Imperial Treasury. Still,this

more

blood

had

to

be

separation,

administration

be

that

of

of

measure

the

the

enough,

that

in

not

from

valueless,and

Congress

should
and

revenues,

but

effective.

not

might

separation,popular institutions

officials were

continued.

in

the

original

Sultan

differed

Lebanon

from

this

nature,

thus

scheme

Kaza,

authorize

might

the

in

There

promote

Under

which

limited

Christians,

each

to

the Sultan

six

island, composed

from

two

chose.

he

taxes

This

amount.

the

suggest works

to

for

pay

of

members,

popular welfare, which

and

three

ministrati
Ad-

of

official element.

the

Council

General

the

element

elective
and

were

On

Sultan.

Musulmans,

equalledby
a

the

Vali,

Kaimakams

Councillors, Mutessarifs, and

all alike

and

but

Christians;

be

to

the

Kaimakams

the

half

with

introduced

Vilayets was

shed

was

and

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

322

missions

of every

OF

sort, and

constant
correspondence,

time

whose

the

has

distinction

been

drawn

reconstruction, but

the

basis of reconstruction.

and

foreigncontrol
sound

for those

perpetual

between

reform
practical
It has

reform

might

been

step in advance.
lies in

would

command,
The
this

extending

hne

be

shown

reorganized gendarmerie, placed

of

Europe.

and

that

of time

waste

of

peace

[chap.

relief,volumes

valuable, and

is most

to

menace

in

REFORMS

have

under
been

of least resistance

the

to

system

other

departments,by placingat all events the financial,

and
preferablyalso the judicialand public works
the full exeautive control of
departments, under
foreign administrators nomijiated by ttie Powers.
AU

relations with
the

by

pass
would

have
in

meet

as

channel
the

their

the

to

measure

reform
would

of^appointment

r^ort"within
required in

would

pacify

no

international

status

quo,

and

the

patch

would

permanent
up

rotten

pave

missal
disalso

should
fixed

be

period

law.

Such

requirements

the

insurrection

questions by

it would

the

settlement.

and

would

Control, which

fulfil the

it

would

administrators, who

ensured
oLdecentralizatian.

and

these

would

guarantee which

on

of

alterations

arouse

measure

to

of

Government

departments. They

to

the

central

power

Board

commissioned
as

the

way
In

ot

it

turbing
dis-

provide a
by a foreign
to
an

able
peace-

attempt

superstructure of good government

foundation,the foreign
administrators

PROPOSALS

XI.]

form

would

the

administration

they would take the

of the
foreignguaranteed Governor
of the indirectly
foreignguaranteed

the

place of
Lebanon,

or

democracy

this sort

of

but
provisi^ial,

it would

stable ; and

started

once

might

be left to work

Under

if the

report of the

arrangements, as

body

succeed

easy

the

under

an

their

to

await

the

would

experiencehad
new

conditions,

general representative
This
body would

some

of the Board

of Administrators

safe Jo_ withdraw

privilegesof

The

by

recommended

reconstruction would
and

settle down

it should jeem^

guaranteed by

reconstruction.

own

alterations in the financial

foreign control.

as
proviiJce

province

Administrators, who

necessary

be

progressiveand

their administrative

the powers

to

whenever
direct

its

advisory powers.

with

course

these lines,the

on

such

institution of

the

of

would
politicians

of

perhapsrecommend

and

also be

out

the

Board

be

would

peasants would

and
occupations,

to

of Samos.

settlement

shown

323

an

reformed

MACEDONIA

and
impervious damp course,
corruption of Yildiz from again ruining

the

keep

FOR

Board

the

would

the
the
be

Aci_.mUL.

tk^^Porte, and

-have

attained

been

l^

safe

stages.

to be
course
consideringthe immediate
adopted,circumstances compel one who would not
travel beyond the sphere of practicalpohtics to

"In

for present advocacy

reject

minimum
the Balkan

of reform.

Peninsula

But

all but

the

contains

the

irreducible

situation in
politicaT
a constant
possibility

324

of

most

At

features.

permanent

[chap.

important and apparently

in its most

change,even

REFORMS

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

the

present time the

politicalinterests and
the point of a sudden
influences
arrangement.
reon
seems
betw^een
The event of wax
Turkey
the
and
on
conspicuous success
Bulgaria,some
part of the insurgentsor atrocityon the part of
the Turks, or the indirect action of political
upheavals
existing configurationof

in another

Macedonian

the whole

the

from
the

away
those

to

of the whole

Were

reform,

to

with

this

the

which

be

Slav

demands
and

of

the

with

by

insurgentsmight
suggestionsof the scheme

to act

as

the

creation

temporary

of

The

1875-76.

made

would

of

design

regime.

new

the

of

of

massacres

outline

the

1876-77

to

Conferences

as

has been

the

construct

of

Powers

vulsion
conpolitical

Druse

insurrections

Conference
effect

just

the

reference

the

by

created

summoned,

followed

to

of

Conference

precedentsto which
provide this body
upon

offer this

to

situation

the

nature

and

1861

beyond hope of recall,enable

only object is to benefit the
effect a final and complete solution

golden opportunity,
would
be no further need, in suggesting
approach the subject with anxious

might
of

by sweeping

question.

reservations.
deal

tion
reconsidera-

to

beginning, and

circumstances
there

throw

world, may

quo

whose

Macedonians

the

Question open

very

status

of

part

be
of

The

conceded,
the

stantinopl
Con-

carried

into

European Commission,

rulers of the

provincefor

the

THE

XI.]

GOVERNOR

325

of

reforms.
Crete and
the
establishing
were
by landingEuropean troops;
pacified

purpose
Lebanon
so

CHRISTIAN

in Macedonia

be

might

peace

of the

particular
prayers of the
Organizationgranted,by the

restored, and

Macedonian
creation

one

Internal

of

national
inter-

an

force of

by

similar to that suggested

occupation,
ConstantinopleConference, whose existence

the

should

terminate

force

with

of this nature

that of the

Commission.

make

would

it

by
possible,
the provincefrom its neighboursand its
protecting
factions during the critical period of weakness,
own
to
exclude Turkish
they have
troops, as
Samos
excluded
and
been
from
Crete, replacing
of the
them
task
levies.
The
by Macedonian
Commission
of

would

Home

Rule

be
under

to

institute

Christian

Complete^ provincialautonomy
it must

be

of
wiQ

hmits

as

under

the

such

place

pressure

nature

of

it

in

the

of which

nature

previouschapters. The

and

indicated,the Board

is known

such

within

stable

interests

measures

Governor.

being postulated,
equilibrium
of Bulgaria,

Turkey,the Albanians, Austria,Russia,

Servia, the

system

and

Greece

to

readers

of reform

of Administrators, the

of

already

Advisory

are
required
Assembly, and the Christian Governor
by the internal interests of the province,and do not

into conflict with

come

above
as

mentioned.

the

basis of

later of

only to

a
a

any of the external

They

may

reconstruction.

be

therefore

By

council with
legislative
restrictive rightof veto by

the

powers
the

interests

taken

addition

subject

Governor,

326

OF

SCHEME

SUGGESTED

REFORMS

[chap.

be placed
provincewould finally
hands
for good or evil.
in its own
be
this
But
it would
impossible to extend
of Turkey in Europe, or
the whole
scheme
to
of any such self-governto arrange the boundaries
ing
province, if those of the present vilayets
the destinies of the

are

It

followed.

the

is in

direction

of

arrangement
re-

pohticaldivisions, and perhaps

frontiers, that the opportunityof reconstruction
of

even

of

would

of the

be

greatest value.

AdrianopleVilayetis not part of Macedonia

and
either geographicallyor
politically,
yet to
abandon
the
Bulgar districts of that provinceis
scarcelypossibleif the settlement is to be general,
complete,and permanent. A natural and simple
The

solution

does

methods

of

not

to

seem

Of

exist.

the

various

cutting the knot, the followingis as

little violent
as
possible: that Bulgaria should
of Adrianople,
buy from Turkey the Bulgar districts"
the new
frontier running from Iniada on the Black
Sea inland to include Kirk-kilisse,and to join the
present frontier
be
and

affected

perhaps

international
Albania
the

to

Ak

near

the

Bunar.

The

Macedonian

new

obviate

the

loan

in

as

money

would

administration,

necessityof raisingan
the

of

case

jwjould,of_i;aurse^_be

Crete.

excluded

from

above

stances
suggested. Its circumare
of the
pecuhar, with the peculiarity
untameable
To
dispositionof its inhabitants.
include these impassablemountains
and
turbulent

arrangement

mountaineers

under

government

weak
necessarily

BOUNDARIES

XI.]
at

first in

OF

THE

would

physicalforce,

disaster for any

To

scheme
the

327

PROVINCE

whether

be

of reform

Albanians

reform

invite

to
or

struction.
recon-

less

means

and
foreignbrigandage and familythroat-cutting,
is accordinglyunpopular. They might well be

make

left to

of

off

Cut

arrangements.

own

perniciousinfluence of Constantinople,
negro,
Montedistrict might become
as
as prosperous
of itself.
and quiteas capableof taking care
In this connection, and to complete the circuit
be
the new
province,a specialproviso must
the

from
the

their

for

made

the

populationis

Greek.

the

Peninsula, of which

Chalcidic

of

One

its three

tories,
promon-

ministra
already possesses a privilegedadthat of local government by monks
kaimakam
Turkish
paying an annual
This
arrangement might be extended

Athos,

under

tribute.
to

the

of the

rest

independent mutessariflik
now

limited
and

to

f c

provinceof

workable
perfectly
details

as

the

with

Macedonia

nally
inter-

future
be

would

the solution

of such

contribution

of the

an

privileges

the
externally,

pol^,and

amount

all the

form

constituted

Thus

Athos.

circumstanced

autonomous

would

district,which

to

the

Imperial Exchequer, the regulation of railway

guarantees,the disposalof the lands in charitable
of
trusts, etc., might be safelyleft to the Board
out
on
Control to work
previousprecedent.
The

boundaries

of

the

present Macedonian

vilayetsof Monastir, Kossovo,

and

Salonica,

the
drawn^^TKF^purpoiiForTmHing

races

are

and

828

SUGGESTED

SCHEME

promoting dissension.

REFORMS

OF

[chap.

Were

they preservedunder
the above
Constitution, local friction might stop
the wheels of the machine.
But, as it is pointedout
in a previouschapter,
it is possible
so to redistribute
the vilayetsas to produce a very fair degree of
homogeneity in the populationof each : and this
be
labour
also would
mission.
appropriatefor the ComAs

regards the

have

addition

in

government,

finances

the

provisionswhich
and over
again in

over

suggestionfor reform, and

the
Lebanon
rhglement, the

best

every
in
been
be

transferred

Debt,

to

be

to

The

that
inequitable

contribute

towards

of the National
may

have

loans,they were
of the

the

of the Ottoman
for
security

as

Macedonia

Debt

advanced

province should
the

Conference.
Constantinople

the

enjoyed

them

has

of this idea is contained

germ

proposalsof

It is not

Controllers

managed by

bondholders.
in the

the

to

formulated

suggestion

that the finances of the

made

autonomous

the

to

insisted upon

been

of

should

continue

spect
Imperialliabihties in reof the Empire ; for whoever

the
as

benefit
much

of the

upon

the

various

security

of

Turkey in Europe, as of any other

the revenues
part of the Empire. Were
collected
under
the supervisionof the European officials of
the Debt, the province would
in return
for
secure
its

revenues

contribution,economy

and

iETfinancial
efficiency

matters.

As

there

the
suzerainty,

is

no

question

interests of

of

attacking her
Turkey chieflylie in

SUGGESTED

distinct

SCHEME

of

arena

of

Bulgarian,

is

possible

Greek,
for

grow
be

may

have
in

common

but

popular

the

fast

in

dream,

happened,
bond.

Servian,

and

more

of

the

hostile

the

Should

that

prove

of

yet

in

home

to

seeds
soil

the

only

common

nationalities

these

[chap.xi.

assembly.
the

and

together,
might

REFORMS

meeting

Macedonia,

independent

an

units,

administrative

common

OF

work

it
moniously
har-

confederation
Balkans.

stranger
elements

This
tions
combinaunited

CHAPTER
OF

EXECUTION

THE

XII
REFORMS

BRITISH

By

various

The

from

and

been

have

Turkey

the

PLEA

FOR

POLICY

ARTHUR

attempts

PONSONBY

to

introduce

reviewed

in

effect of those

reforms

another

attempts

that

only when they are executed

auspicesof the European Powers

into

chapter,
it is clear

by orjunder^the
have they been

Throughout the nineteenth

century
the Turkish
Empire has lived on with a greatly
restricted territory
and an
increasingly
degenerate
although its break-up has often
government,
successful.

seemed

At

imminent.

the

time

same

of
subjects,especially
become
day more
every

of its
has
subjects,
and

the

Powers, whose

regardto

the Near

continue

to

to

when

take

and

the

watch

and

of

shrink

in
the

how

place,and

shores

East

the

what

cataclysm.

the

ditions
con-

its Christian

unbearable

ambitions

with

selfish,
generally
as
uiicei:taihty
apprehensive'
been

have

final

flag is

Golden

from

policyand

the

Horn.

dismemberment

destined
But

will

flyon the
they hesitate
to

of hastening
responsibility

EXECUTION

THE

332

REFORMS

OF

[chap.

During the past thirty years, that is to

in 1876, the
since the Bulgarian massacres
deterrent to decisive action in dealing with
have

which

great crises

has

been

from

arisen

say,
chief
the

Ottoman

this natural,

though not
always reasonable, fear of plunging Europe into
and fostered7it"ls
to be^^regretted,
a fear bred
war,
by mutual mistrvist of motive amongst the great
misgovernment

Powers

themselves.

At

the time

when

Great

of the Cretan

Britain

initiative in

it

formed

many-sided
with

was

could

and

only

complex
of

character

of British action.

the press

and

themselves
intention

"

the

to occupy

British

mistrust.

very

confined

rehes

on

instant

and
its

every

formidable

of the

fully realized
weapon,

Germany

wholly disinterested
They ^that is to say,

with
with

is

to
an

convert

example

feelingof jealousy
prejudicialeffect, however, is

Powers, for, as
hands

part

Question,

and

possession. This

Its

not
unfortunately

the

Eastern

island in order

apparently unavoidable

small

very

people if not the Governments

believe that it was
to
^preferred
our

of this

forms

of that

the

the

the

"

it into

and

take

to

Bussia

the

in 1897,

settlement

that
difficulty

convinced

be

inclined

was

bringing about

controversy,which
of the

disturbances

Sultan.
what
what

to

intercourse
knows

one

and

by

between
now,

effective weapon

But
skUl

it is not
he

absolute

it
in

perhaps

handles

this

confidence

he

being placed in his hands

when
negotiationsof any sort

at
are

the very
set

on

THE

XII.]

foot.

The

reforms

SULTAN'S

conferences
mooted

are

DIPLOMACY

of

and

the

Concert

assemble,

discussed,Abdul_Hamid

waits, knowing that

interests

the

"

-,

soon

Ambassadorial

Councils.

Then

he

seizes his

this dangerous
opportunity and
deftly throws
missile for exciting international
jealousiesinto
the heart of the machinery, thereby impeding its
action,and frequentlyarrestingits progress.
And
when
after long-drawn-outproceedings
and interminable
interchangesof Notes, a scheme
of which
of reforms
is evolved, the only merit
is
that

',

will

the^^vergenceof_aims_and
difference of opinionin
create

it has

Powers,
the

received

of those

ambitions

I break-up of
very

which

scheme

short

the

the

must

not

all the

hopes

Empire, and
of those

six

interfere with

directlyinterested

Ottoman

of the

of

consent

who

in

which
are,

the

falls

for the

receives
being, disinterested, the Sultan
it, and a further prolongedperiod of procrastination
With "infinite
and
bargaining commences.
and cunning,
with unfathomable
duplicity
patience^
he alters,he amends, he bargainsUke the carpet
vendor
in the Stambul
bazaars, being determined

time

"

that

the

entail any

ultimate
loss

great machine

to

price decided
himself.

And

upon

then

shall

not

when

the

shows
by ponderous representations

of
signs of impatience,he accepts what remains
the original
projectwith a great displayof friendly
magnanimity, the Concert after an exchange of
breaks
from
mutual
congratulations
up, exhausted
its labours,and Europe is satisfiedwith the work

her

of

paid

the

to

the

and

executed

attention

which

to

extent

is

reforms

the

which

in

manner

[chap.

insufficient

But

delegates.

REFORMS

OF

EXECUTION

THE

334.

are

they

are

adopted. The craftydiplomatistat Yildiz takes

precaution that they shall not operate in
every
his ideas
to interfere unduly with
such a way
as
of

government,

inadequate

control

short, the
in

diminutive

and

real

any

In

hands.

his

of

out

allow

or

to

pass

result

net

comparison

is

the

to

expenditureof united effort and the loudness

the first indignantremonstrance.
of procedurewith regard
the method
This was

vast

of

the

to

Settlement

Cretan

problem

favourable, the

and

effective

The

result

therefore

was

bears

problem

other

the

position of

fleetless

satisfactory
new
regime.

in Macedonia

it

have

we

resemblance

more

but

quarter of the

successful.

more

with
comphcated and fi-aught
which
would
not
diffi(julties
any

enforcingthe

present moment

question which

Armenian

of

means

to

more

distant,

dispute was

joint occupation was

and

the

in

The

were

valueless
strategically

isolated, and

At

district

the

effected.

was

more

of

case

easier, circumstances

was

Power,

the

In

reforms.

Armenian,

to

the

is

more
infinitely
specialethngiogical

be

encountered

in

globe. Moreover, owing

the

territoryin question,the
discussion
of a settlement
is likelyto engender a
greater degree of suspicionamongst the Powers
and
of obstinacyin the Sultan; because, unlike

to

Armenia,

unhke

Crete, the question of Macedonia,

xn.]

AUSTRO-RUSSIAN

if treated

affects vitallynothing
radically,

less than

nor

in

the continued

Europe. The

on

the

ACTION

335

existence

more

of the

Turk

Powers, therefore,will be doubly

alert,

the

and

Sultan, foreseeingthe

of
considerable
restriction of his
a
possibility
Sovereignty,will clothe his resolute obstinacy
with ingratiating
he
as
complacency as skilfiilly

has

done.

ever

The

modus

occasion has

operandi determined

this

on

in
negotiations
neighbouring Powers who

been

of the

hands

upon

to

two

leave

the

the
are

and
interested in the dissolution
particularly
directly
of Turkey
Powers
between
whom
two
there must
exist on
this point the
maximum
of rivalry,
amount
3.nd whose
genuine desire for
reform in a region,
the ultimate
destinyof which
must
they both of them believe to be partition,
Newton
be very questionable. As
Lord
said in
"

the House

of

Lords, in the

(Feb. 15th, 1904),

Under
Peninsula
are

at

choice

they

rule the

fact,

in

would

to

in
be

as

the

peoplesof
off

better

the Balkan
than

they

they given

were

the

probably prefer Turkish

to

instances

the

misrule, iust

Armenians

ever

"

"called

themselves

haTdly be

would

Macedonia

Man."

Russia's

present

Russian

of

Sick

on

Powers

considered

physiciansalso
heirs of the

the

debate

did whenever

as

ih~"maiw

they

had

an

opportunity

expressingan opinion. Austria's hands are

fully occupied with internal disputes, and

her clouded

horizon

promisesmore

storms

in

the

REFORMS

OF

EXECUTION

THE

[chap.

This, then, of all possiblemethods

future.

the

be

to

appear

most

Theoretically,
perhaps,

failure.

to

the

short-sightedand

most

doomed
certainly

would

the superficial
and calculated
to satisfy
plausible
demands
that at all
indignationof Europe, which

it is

to

those

who

be

taken

at

these

two

and

desire

evU,

Powers

must

tidingover

be
to

amount

the

regretted as

sufiiciently
speedy

intervention.

regard

Also

the

to

cons^m^Bpes

the

wake

if

we

Austria

be
not

may

justifyserious
what

content

are

and

to

fiiUy consider

must

present arrangement

the

of

to

ing
creat-

more

reforms

obvious

we

of

for

Besides

this is the

of the

or

part

flimsy makeshift

situation.

failure

the

on

ineffective,
hopelessly^
a

prospectivedanger,

practically,

opportunity should

action

any

awkward

an

this

but

attackingfundamentally the

the

only

can

be done

that

for

last

of

core

very

be

should

something

events

may

foUow

to

Russia.

with

It

is

by

be
in
no

impossible that if they were

sufficiently
to
provoked their present inability
cope with the
situation
in spite
might turn into active hostility,
of stipulationsto the
exist
contrary which
may
means

in

agreement

some

in

which

nothing.
might mean
points
to

our

Near

the

face

An

advance

which

the

of

the

would

the

on

for
the

other

Powers,

crisis would

occupation

interests in
East.

with

ever

of

part
various

be

matters

Russia

strategical

grave

Mediterranean,

Nevertheless, as

for

count

of

but

now

menace

and

the

stand,

abandoned

REFORMS

OF

for

and

once

all that

[chap.

we

stiU

are

to

antiquatedusages and precedentsand

of
early nineteenth
century traditions
officials for at
as
a
training for our
this is as
outset
good as castingsand

depend

on

preserve

business
the

EXECUTION

THE

338

"

very

instead

of

oil

into

the

wheels

of

diplomatic

intercourse.
and

Fully prepared
decided

on

minimum
the

scheme

our

as

the

bearjon
are

to

Sultan

interpretedand
carried

taking

in

public

attention

Foreign

inaction

far
will

be

to

considers

that

assumed

keenly

of

the

matter

possible the

people

instructed

to

as

the

what

real

to

of

this

can

This, therefore,is the real

The

idea

that

reform

see

this

at

because

the

present

an

little.

If

attitude

of

attracting

lies with
and

cussion
dis-

absorb

without

few

truly

that

very

then
responsibility

feel

to

effectually

done,

deeply

more

is

confine

attention, the
who

in

him

reform

reform

to

amount

Office

induce

questions

many

safelybe

can

of

likelyto

the

that

moment,
the

view

letter

is

to

spiritof

is useless

what

to

is shown

as

how
it"Ts"accepted

once

the

the
It

out.

in order

and

that

see

irreducible

principle_jQL-ideall-importantquestion of pohcy
to how
to bring prgssure
we
are

accept our^ scheme,

we

having

the

previous chapter, on

presents itself
to

reform, the

of

being fixed, founded,

centralization,the

and

equipped,

those

pressing

that

far

so

country

should

as

portance
imis
be

and

ought to be done.
subjectfor discussion.

can

come

from

within.

DILATORINESS

XII.]
as

have

seen,

because

of

we

only

Ottoman
of

THE

be

dismissed

must

the

Muhamedanism,

the

but

339

at

not

once,

the

of

nature

reactionaryinfluence

because

of

the

Turks'

accurately,
contempt for reform
for
general except perhaps militaryreform
more

"

they

"

shrewd

enough
..hold.
Jon
only weakenjbheir
the

are

Christians

the

the

to

it would

country by giving
A

hand.

upper

that

see

the

lies in the

pitiouselement

further

mutual

unpro-

j^ipathjes-jof

Macedonia,
difFerentjChristian-xace".jQf,

have

able

been

never

againstTurkish

organize and

to

Reform

rule.

tion, therefore, must

effective and

ioint

six great Powers

advisable

almost
and

the

the

very

fact

slow

so

be

can

no

time

in

doubt
to

day

this

that

occupy

the

did not

seems

from

deal

with

adoption of
difficult.

more

immediate

various

of autonomous

has

case

deUberations,

the

much

the

always

conjointlyto

crisis makes

of the

part

abstract

speedilysolve
beyond the bounds

estabhshed, would

in

trust

zones

district until order is restored,and

satisfactory
system
it

the

international

late in the

of the Powers

disturbed

but
selves
them-

to

the

on

that the entire Concert

the last Macedonian

There

ready

are

the

course,

first undertake

this method

adrrmiistra-

Macedonians

action

is in

passedfor

combine

foreign intervention.

concerted

Although

who

only beelaborated

not

this,and
"appreciate

most

in the

"from outsidg. The

enforced

but

CONCERT

unprogressive

character,and

mistfust, or,
in

OF

solve
re-

in the

until

government
the
of

is

difficulty;
probability

that
taken

of
as

by

the

under

in

oppositionto
suggested that
lead

in

France, and

in the

Russia

and

the

definite

advance,

to, and

further

to

pillageand

alternative,or

the

should
the

to

If

same

time

in the

are

would
to

be

give

acting,not^om

and

sincere

and

earnest

inevitable

massacre,

Britain,

pfess"Turkey

to

Powers

they

take

extreme

Great

other

the

that

prevent

owing

the

at

assurance

Powers

resolved

Italy are

it

degree offered
Austria; it is merely

action.

selfish motive, but

desire"

juggests

least

Western

resolutelythan

inclined

any

not

immediate

of

urgency

more

therefore, the

tKeJBest
expedient. This proposal,let

as

understood, is

the

the

question.
Powers

of the three Western

intervention

be

in

Powers

with

up

existing circumstances,

Under

itself

of the

of two

interests

closely bound

is

dispute

where

in this case,

result
satisfactory

"delay,
by any reaUy
the territory

attended

be

likelyto

is not

action

endless

entails

already indicated,

and

be

six,^iJXC^ean-iPow^reV
..tJifi,,

of

Concert

The

Concert.

united
cordially

[chap.

efficacywill

direct

such

of

course

REFORMS

OF

EXECUTION

THE

340

of

recurrence

to

the

obviate

probablyadditional,eventuality
of war
between
Turkey and Bulgaria,this attitude
of the
Western
Powers, if clearly explained,
would
not
the
combined
necessarilyexclude
action

of

the

interpretedas
other

three

sympathy,

more

entire

not

nor

unfriendlyact

an

Powers.
if

Concert,

the

To

make

need

it

the

towards
sure

co-operation,of

be

of

the

Russia

ENGLAND

xn.]

would

NEGOTIATE

341

certainlybe
holds

she

TO

politic,consideringthat
position of such
predominant

and
politically

her

Europe,

jmmediate

interests

aflfected,and

be

way

in
geographically,

consequently

ignored. Nevertheless, she may not

the right moment:
her attention is
to

fixed

be

portion of
of
as

Germany
of

Russia, therefore,

qud

non

considers
of

in

active

can

be

them
to

reform, nor

degree the

to

bolder
the

be

ready at
most
likely

must

agree

full

what

of the

necessary,

the

in

the

complete
participate

it become

handicap

of

tion
disinclina-

to

and

hesion
ad-

taken

that

the

their refusal to

action

be

not

than

to

another

absolute

neither

should

pressure,
allowed

and

be

cannot

on

The

some

be

come

more

any

of

one

any

measure

to

frontier.

vast

and^ustria,

alliance

As

time

some

her

sine

for

portance,
im-

Eastern
in

must

as

Western

slightest
Powers.

actual

negotiations,
judging by the
experience of past dealings with the Sublime
Porte, it might perhaps seem
at
advisable, and
the

to

time

same

successful

management
would

more

issue,

were

entrusted

strike the

conducive
their
\to

one

old-fasioned

and

such
Power

but

there

consequences,
in

need

be

no

prompt

and

manipulation and
Power
only. This
diplomatistas novel
all precedent,and

dangerous, contrary to
warranted
inevitablyto excite
;

to

international

cord
dis-

whatever

of

that

the

risk

provided always

question is in constant
consultation jKJth-^eFassociates,on

and

whose

intimate

support

REFORMS

OF

EXECUTION

THE

342

[chap.

arise.
The
rely should the emergency
singlefor
advantage to be gained by substituting
representation,
widely combined
tripleor more
the spokesman and
Power
and making one
agent
for the others is clear ; for with a singleadversary

she

may

deal with, the

disadvantage, he

opportunity

for

finds

Sultan

to

delay

unnecessary

probabiHty his first step

around
for friendly support,
aU

But
was

if

his

usual

off

Power

one

at

once

against

another, and

Germany

knew

supported by

two

be

there

and

would

he

the

to
can

be

seek

it.

who

Power

one

look

in complete agreereality
ment
actually,though not ostensibly,
in

negotiatingwas
with, and

that

In

is avoided.

would

direction

in which

little doubt

at

vain

in

awaits

playing

himself

others, and

that

the

Western

idea
of
openly repudiated any
partitionor the grabbing of territory,but on
the contrary was
acting vigorouslyin the name
in the interests of peace, it is
of humanity and
Alliance

had

highly improbable that she would

support the
Sultan in his opposition.
take
In developinga plan of action we
must
the conditions existing
to-day in Turkey, permeated
as

it is in every

government

both
and

civil and

religious
by
malignant influence

one
Sovereign. No
authoritywill have to

It is not
will be.

of its administration

branch

be

foretell what
dealt with

on

conjecturewho
Conceivablya Constitutional

even

safe to

can

the

and

dominating
pre-

of

its

kind

of

his death.

his

successor

party may

ENGLAND

XII.]

whose

emerge
enlisted

the

it is

brought
thereby
Power
the

bear,

to

that it

reform,

enfeebled

of

protest, but

forcible

demands

waste-paper basket.
for the

is,to which

has

for

the

the

of

isolated

single

others.

we

be

may

point

Oriental

settled

be

to

sure

substitute

to

now

Of
been

hitherto

escaped the

is the Sultan

be
and

one

the

have

The

skill,

must

the

of

It is time

many.

be

concerted

by

Porte,

could

but

civilization

through

not

by the Subhme
is only one
that

one

343

assistance

speaking in the name

six J3tStes identiquesthat

received

the

EAST

Abdul_ JIa"ftid that

diplomacy

therefore

and

of

cause

on

strategy, and

THE

and

sympathy

in

present

IN

likelyto give
need
be
This difficulty
attention?
not
proper
so
degree as insuperable,
regarded in the slightest
long
and

not

therefore

purely

clearlyborne
spoUation is the

in

the

of

disinterested
the

country is said
various

l^t
to

Empire.

reform

whole

the

should

that

be

project
inspiredby

motives.
few
have

years

been

The

which

reasons

that

mind

objective,and

essence

very

acting Power

the

During
Ottoman

most

it is

as

is that

one

most

the

prestigeof
the

on

noticeable

given

have

wane

rise

this

in the

of
to

the
this

suppositionis the growing influence of Germany,

who
on
a
has placed herself 'aEnost
par with
ency,
Turkey's great neighbour in her military ascendin general
and higher than any other Power
favour

with

the

Sultan.

Nevertheless

is still considerable,

our

our

fluence
in-

reputationfor

OF

EXECUTION

THE

344

REFORMS

[chap.

the

destroyed, and
politicalintegrity is not
assistance
weight of England's material
is

opposition
when

under-estimated.

not

consideration

due

the

of

and

Sick

up

the

to

insist at

status

quo

power

of

of

that

have

Man,

as

we

are

all costs

on

the

progressingor
only a mistaken

is not

it not

that

it would

for

be

the

inherent

no

reforming themselves,

but

dangerous policy,
without
presumption
undertake
the-rqZe"of

to

us

Western

the

spokesrnanfor

have

of

of

concluded

be

may

finallyand

maintenance

which

countries

in

we

bilities,
responsi-

our

policy of bolstering
realizingat last that

the

irrevocably abandoned

Therefore,

is taken

fact

or

Alliance, abandoning

precariousopportunism which we
have
adopted of late, and assuming an intrepid
France
and
initiative in conjunction with
Italy?
timid

the

and

suggestion does

The

for it is

one,

accepted,

to

aggravate

the

great

not

seem

and

error,

that

suppose

situation.

crisis arises
warded

that

one

the

the

eventual

popularly

very

resolute

On

only by dealing promptly

extravagant

an

action

wUl

contrary, it is

very

the

instant

catastrophe can

be

Press

has

off.

The

Sultan's

fear

become

traditional.

natural

aversion

of
It

the

English

is based

not

only

on

having disagreeablethings
published about himself and his Empire, but on
the apprehension that the
popular feelingwhich
the

which

Press
he

kindles
stands

to

may
in

set

mortal

in motion

terror, and

force
which

of
he

THE

346

rather

but
stand

EXECUTION

whether

but in the

for the

sake of material

justiceand

to
obligations

moral

our
by fulfilling

[chap.

got J^be^^
cojurage

of international

cause

people,and

have

we

boldly,not

up

REFORMS

OF

to

gain,
equity,

Christian

Treaty obligationsto an oppressed

at
The
is that the
race.
point to be aimed
should
be
pressed through
approved scheme
our

direction

taken

be

should

unweakened

that

modifications, and

usual

the

its essentials,and

in

unaltered

by

steps in this

enough

soon

to

which
the inevitable outbreak
in their
anticipate
despairthese exasperated subjectsof the Sultan
most
certainlymeditate, and not to await a
fresh series of hideous
action.

our

of
in

obstacle

The

inherent

nature

the

decidingon

in

project does

any

the

outrages in order

justify

to

securingthe acceptance
consist

not

of

the

exactly suitable

much

so

reforms

method

as

of

in

urging

them.
On

the

of_the

neither
risen
the

the

such

to

the

deter

wishes
her

in

might

in her

the

Turk

as

has

publicopinion
indignationagainst
it has in England.

France, the fear of running counter

of the

fi-om
fact

countries

high pitch of

of

case

better

seems

the

two

brutalityof

In

not

of those

to

Britain

part of negoEalof'than
otfier'"two Western
Powers.
In

take

to
qualified^

either

Great

whole.

one

"

nation amie

undertaking a
of

isolated

alliee

"

might
part which, though

or

et

separate action,

opinionexcite suspicion.She would

unquestionablybe prepared to co-operate loyally

ENGLAND'S

XII.]
with

England

INTERESTS

and

with

to espouse

AT

Italy,she

enthusiasm

be

can

STAKE

347

depended
that

cause

rests

on
on

and
not
material gain,but she would
on
principle
probably not think herself justifiedin taking the
prominent leading share.
Italy has
hardly
sufficient prestige
It
or
weight with Turkey.

would
her

seem

powerful allies

their

behalf.

for

natural

more

than

The

to

act

choice

her
as

to

support

negotiator on

therefore

falls

on

England,who

through her position and

good
in Europe may
name
rightlyclaim to be the
active champion of international justice. (^
The
practicalobjection that will be made
"

is

does

"

England really

Macedonia

to

go

such

enough

care

lengths,and

about

would

any

undertake
serious a
so
Foreign Minister
step?
The question of England'sresponsibihty
has been
fullydiscussed in this volume ; it is sufficient here

the

who

those

remind

to

fate

care

about

the

of

council

of

nations,

her

power

and

make
But

Macedonia

to

purely material
aspect, namely, that there are signs in this crisis
of
far more
extensive
issue, possibly even
a
and
the long-expected European
conflagration,
she is to
England wUl have to decide whether
be an
apatheticspectator,losing her positionin
the

of

unable

are

the

made

decision

she

is

to

strongly felt.
be
delayed : it must

influence
be

now.

After
is not

cannot

whether

or

all,the arrangement of

point

that

need

be

singlenegotiator
obstinatelyinsisted
a

if

on,

of

[chap.

perhaps
occupation

expedient if armed
"method
be the only satisfactory

be

found

were

REFORMS

strong opposition,nor

by

met

it

would

OF

EXECUTION

THE

348

to

of reforms

execution

enforcingthe

but

none

suggestion worthy of serious

consideration
as
as
yet untried,
being a means,
of proof facihtating very
largely the course
ceedings.
less it

the

is

In

Western
is

fail

cannot

the

Conference

of

is

return

can

that
But
and

only

without

Do

to

of

this

action

about

by

the

of

proposal, a

be

summoned

this, which

Even

delay.

the

the

of

Concert,

strong initiative,
of

invitation

the

arrangement,

let
has

world

the

off

home

us

us

is

which

of

week

every

been

Far

East

crisis in

and

from

prevented
or

for
and

that

suppose

case.

good

to

failure

by

the

Macedonia.

not

in

on

say,

contrary is the
for

solution

must

slow

brought

be

from

news

ward

the

to

being brought

war

Powers

by ^England,
pohcy which

of

the

England.
such
alternative, although disappointing
an
be infinitely
preferableto the
elumsy, would
is

present

the

acceptance
the

convened
a

accelerate

to

problem.
Failing
and

led

and
prompted^

practicableline

and

of

intervention

the

case

any

Powers,

clear

that

the

this

East.

Near

Russia

fact

of

attention

greatly distracted

so

will
The

by

the

help

to

exact

being fullyoccupied

acting in

evil, the
very

the

the

Balkans

either

opportunity will
naturally,be counted

doubtedly,
unas

DANGERS

xiL]

OF

INACTION

Bulgarians,and
favourable^^^
between

war

spiteof
likely.
Far

that

East

The

lull

becomes
of

taken

a_ strong

be

action

in

proved the

Turkey,

existence

serious

more

and
Principality

fact, the
should

as

in

nature

the

in

war

Balkan

in

more

the

reason

prevent eventuahties

to

of

prospect

agreement,

for immediate
far

the

paper

any
In

349

of

Peninsula.

hostilities""Hiirihg
1904

readiness

Austro-Russian

of the

scheme

sufficiently
insurgentsto give the

fair trial.

There

is full

for vigorous dij^lomatic

action, and it
justification
would
be follyto await the breakingof the storm.
is not

It
a

solution

be
not

for

of this

attempted without
only of the facts

present, but

of

nation

every

Minister
it

case

whether

must

that
And
with

of

the

case

attitude

the

lack

from

indecision,or
have

of

detailed

very

information,
it stands

as

and

intentions

we

of
the

failed

are

on

initiative,from
weakness

of

passiveand
that

course

of

will do.

the
action
British

on

every

vacillating

our

signallyto stop

tion,
co-opera-

the

tion
persecu-

Euifope,and

the road to court

further failure.

taught to be content
and are
sentimental
indignation,
most
far-sighted
sagaciousand

this because

told

of

as

ChrisT;ians in South-Eastern

now

at

only a Foreign
Tiave^at his disposal.But
in any
be
openly acknowledged that

from

we

to

concerned, such

can

be

supposed that
intenselyintricate problem can
moment

we

is to

are

wait

citizens

and

shoxild

see

be

what

others

minded
vividlyre-

opportunitythat presents

itself

350

THE

what
it

this

inaction

it

simply,

fellow-

our

of

an

war

outbreak
for

of

the

aggrandizement

Imperial

each

creatures,

impelled
greed.

REFORMS

failure

the

and

in

by

the

war

involving

scramble

every
very

worst

xii.]

put

less
numberof

scores

perpetual

menace

all
of

which
the

of

torture

and

hideous

To

of

loss

dismemberment

[chap,

signifies.

time

suffering

Empire,

join,

and

means

the

lives,

OF

EXECUTION

Europe,
the

man
Otto-

territorial

for

Power

instincts

would

of

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INDEX

352

84
112
Bratiano,his policy,
Bribery, system of, in
Confederation,scheme of a, 88
179
attitude
wards
toStates, their

Balfour,Mr,
Balkan

the
44

question, Brigandage, 167

Macedonian
of

mixture

language,

122

120

religion,123

races,

character

165 ;
migratory instinct,
of the constitutions,
263 ; result
of partitionbetween
and
Austria
Russia, 280
Banitza, 130
Barovitsa,failure of the attack on,

220

Batak,

57

Alexander

Battenberg,Prince
elected
246

Prince

under

of

of,

Bulgaria,62,

Russian

influence,

enters
Philippopolis,63 ;
;
of
recognized Governor-General
62

Eastern

ported
Eumelia, 64, 249 ; trans252
Russia, 65,
; his
252
return, 65,
; abdication,65,
to

253

Brusa, 128
Bryce, James,

Bulgaria,3

307

the Macedonian

Union

national

50
spirit,

62, 246

Question,

274

of the Christian

on

the

position

muavins,

184, 241, 306

territorial

changes,

schemes, 93 ;
; result of reform
article 62, 94 ; article 61, 95 ;

91

article,23, 61, 103, 108 ; defects

of,242
Bessarabia,3 ; annexed by Russia,
58, 79, 246 ; retroceded,236
Bitlis,100 ; massacre
at, 101
Black Drin, 240
Sea, 58, 240
Boer War, the first in 1881, 256
Bogomils or Paulicians,163
by AustriaBosnia, 3 ; annexed
tions,
Hungary, 10, 45, 242 ; insurrec56, 91,
number

238

of Slavs

Boukovo, 223
Bourchier, James

conquest, 129

in,260

Balkan
their attitude towards the
Macedonian
Question,"44
States"

D., " The

note

the

San

of

Battenberg,

with Servia,64, 81,

abdication of Prince

war

250

82,

Alexander, 65, 253 ; Regency

under
M. Stamboloff, 65, 254;
his resignation
and assassination,
254

66,

311

Berat,or exsequatur, 83
Berlin,Treaty of,7, 60, 90, 143, 146,

of
ascendency

Treaty,58,240 ; division,
; watchword, 62 ; election

60, 241

Macedonian

under
Principality

the
Bendereff, Colonel, 267 ; on
Balkan
2
68
situation,
Berard, Victor, on the attitude of
the

Eastern

Church, 53-56, 237 ; creation of

the Exarchate, 54, 139, 143, 238 ;
massacre, 56, 238 ; reorganization
of the provinces,57 ; extent
of

of Prince Alexander

in

34 ;

the Greeks, 50-53 ; initiation of

the educational movement, 52 ;
revolt
against the Orthodox

Belgrade,33

France

with

of,

Eumelia, 45, 63, 137 ; opposition

against expansion, 48 ; cnaracter
of the people,49, 53, 58, 69,147,
242 ; position,49 ; extinction of

Stefano

guards,26, 298,

on

Bucarest, 33 ; progress
Treaty of,in 1809, 231

the

rural

pressing,
re-

Question,1

Bedel

Behjisor

of

307

Beaconsfield,
Lord, 60
tax, 178

method

Turkey,

election

of

Prince

; policyof the
M. Stamboloff,
relations with Turkey, 67,

Ferdinand, 65,253
Exarch
Joseph and
66-68

226

progress,

the Macedonian
relations
with
196

69 ; influence

of

71 ;
immigration,

Rumania, 84-86,

negotiationswith

Greece,

of
91 ; number
insurrection,
Macedonians, 173 ; newspapers,
181 ; formation
of committees,
87 ;

186,
190

under

261

Russian
loss

organisation,
226 ;
refugees,
227,
protection,

external

number

of

the Dobruja, 242 ;

248 ;
reaction againstRussian rule,
hostile attitude of Austria,249 ;
with
agitation against union
Eastern Rumelia, 249, 251 ; jjioof Bulgar districts
posed purchase
246

of

of

Adnanople,326
Prince

Alexander

Battenberg

of,62.

See

INDEX

Prince
Bulgaria,

Boris of,his

S53

by propaganda, 122
of, in Macedonia,

sion,
conver-

66, 254
Prince Ferdinand

of,65.

See

135

Saxe-Coburg
Bulgarians or Exarchists,13, 142,
151

58,

note ; their
69, 147, 242

Macedonia,

division,135

ecclesiastical

condition,167

persecutions, 167,

character,49, 53,
of, in
; number

of
of

; number
133 ; communities,

182

171

women,

ment
treat-

collection

position of

taxes, 174-178;

the mvavins, 311 ; massacres,

note ;
318
religion,
Crete, Island of, 3 ; autonomy, 45,
Macedonia,124 ;
tional
93 ; Organic Statute
of 1868, 61,
Slavs,124 ; educa-

79

123 ; invasion

of

union with the

settlements

146
Bulgaro-Macedonians,

75, 76, 105,

; insuiTections,
106, 156, 255 ; "Pact of Halipa"
signed, 104 ; annulled, 105 ;
martial
law
proclaimed, 105 ;

Burgas,60

Convention

Bushat, Mehemet
of,44
Buxton, Miss Victoria,"A

George

system,

of, in

144

Adrianople,163

103

; persecutions,

171, 182

of

Reforms

Turkish

Treaty

of

107 ; result of the

of the Powers, 108 ;
to the Porte,234 ; settlement,

restored

283

Candia, occupied by

Powers,

Canea, occupiedby the Greeks, 107

Canevaro,Admiral, 284
37
or idolaters,
Gaffers
See
Canning, Sir Stratford,31.
Stratford
Chalcidic peninsula,72, 138, 165,

319administration,

massacres,

Herbert, Consul

General

Sir

Sivsis,on
for Armenia,

at

scheme

97

Chios,massacre

of,73
Attitude
Chirol, Valentine, "The
of the Powers," 228
Comnenus, Emperor Manuel, death
of,3
Constantinople,
capture,3,128, 136 ;
under
condition
Turkish
rule,
33
21,
73, 101, 102 ;
; massacres,
Christian officials,
94 note
Conferences

of the

Powers

at,

57, 91, 239, 251, 303; reform

scheme of 1876, 303 ; Commission
of 1880, 304-306

Corinth,Gulf of,153
Gorvdes or

235

the Armenian

102

ALM

ATI

A, annexation

of,to Austria

1814, 258

Danube, 58, 60, 240

Chermside, Major
reform

73 ;

Cyprus, 3 ; Convention, 92, 243

Cyril,St,anniversaryof,143

in

Chazars,128

of the war,

cause

by Russia,

on
Currie,Sir Philip,

327

Charles II.,22

the

321

Crimea, annexed

107

Prince

intervention

the

Berlin,"90
the

appointedHigh

Commissioner,

History
since

of 1896, 106

of Greece

forced labour, 168

200
Darvingoff,

Delchetf,revolutionaryleader,190 ;
kiUed, 191
Demir-Hissar, encounter
at, 226
Derrebeys or landowners, 21
Demdeshiluk, the tax, 169
Dervish
Pasha, the father of bribery,
179

Diabekr, 100
of
Dibra, 145, 169 ; invasion
Albanians, 170
collection of,23
Dims
or tithe,
Dobruja, given to Rumania, 45, 58,
242

Doiran, 216
Domenitza, 130
Doncho, 224
Dondukoff-Korsakoff, Prince, the
Russian

Governor

General

of

Bulgaria, 62, 246

M. Stambolofif,
65
on
Driault,M.,
135
Christians,
the, 9,
; inequality
of Christiana,
318
between Muslims, 19, 41, 47, 174 ;
Druses, massacre
awarded
to
Turkish
Montenegro,
under
treatment
rule, Duloigno,
245
33-35, 94 et seqq.; classification

Councils,
system

of

election,299

354.

INDEX

Durazzo, 153
Dushan, Tsar,84

297

the Constantinople
mission
Comof 1880, 304

; at

Fiorina,55
Eastern

Qxtbstion, solution

of,

Bey, 219
Effendi,Niko, 224.

Egin, massacre

Egypt,3

France,

274-285

54; Treaty with

Turkey,

of
organizes the Concert
Europe, 233 ; attitude towards
Turkey, 238, 256 ; checks advance
of Russia, 241 ; policy in Asia

Minor,

; reversal,245, 247
disinterested action in Crete,332

243

;
;

elements
;

of successful diplomacy,
negotiationswith Turkey,

entrusted

to, 341-347

dangers

of inaction,349
Epirus, 75
Ermeni
151

of

Minister

100

Erzinghian,99

Turkey, 228,

239

jealousy between,
;
of their action,339 ; proposed
ness
Conference, 348
Ezertse,engagement at,217
dilatori-

332

result

of

297
Vilayets,"
with
England
Italy,againstTurkey, 346

Fuad,

the
operation
; co-

and

41

Gabrovo,

of
school
at, 52
Bulgarian

opening

the

first

Galitchnik,169
Gardes

or
Ghcmvpitres

Field

Guards,

180

Gerjikoflf,
Michael, arrested,191

movement,
revolutionary

191, 218
Germans, number

the union

Powers, Conferences of,

57, 91, 239, 251, 303 ; CoUective
Note
to the Sultan, 97 ; result of
tude
a
joint action, 202 ; their atti-

European

towards

policy

260

of, in Austrianote

withdraws
from
the
Germany,
107
attitude
towards
Concert,
;
Turkey, 239, 261 ; oppositionto

Bulgaria,247

Erzeroum, 56,

towards

274-285

of the

Hungary,

note

Ernroth, General, appointed Prime

Faveteal

Pi:EE,156
of Konia, appointed to
in Macedonia,
reforms
supervise

Ferid

"Laws

directs the

Gregorian Armenians,

or

239,

276, 283;

Bulgarian

Bulgarian

attitude

the Macedonian
Question,
; need for European control,

towards

Ekshisu, 212
Elassona, 130
England, supports the
cause,
92 ;

54

Turkey,

256

the

supports

cause,

tration,
English Adminis-

10, 248,

from,

116

at, 102

under

counter
; en-

at, 226

Fortnightly Meview, extract

Edhem

337

212
insurrection,

Pasha

111

Feruh

of

Bulgariaand

Eastern

250 ;
influence
in
Rumelia,
Turkey, 281, 343
Ghegs, the, 158
turn
Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W. E., his reto oJffice,
247
Goluchowsky, Count, on uniting
Greece and Rumania, 86
und
Alt
Gopohevich, Mahedonien
Serbien,83 note,265 note ; on the
of Serbs in Macedonia,
number

149

of the
Goschen, Mr, on the position
note
302
Governors-General,
Grammos, 80
Granville, Earl, 109 ; on Turkish
reform
schemes, 98
quisition
Greece, 3 ; independence,44 ; acof Thessaly, 45, 76 ;

Bey, Turkish Commissioner

at Sofia,206
Fetvas,meaning of the term, 19
Firmilian, Mgr., Archbishop of
receives the berat,83
tiskiib,
ecclesiastical ascendency, 60 ;
dictment aspirations,
donia,
71 ; claims to MaceFitzmaurice,Lord Edmond, his inof the Turkish
102 ;

the
on

ment,
Govern-

appointedto

serve

European Commission,
the

"Laws

of the

on

109

Vilayets,"

72 ; influence of Russia in
the revolts against Turkey, 73 ;
intervention of the three Powers,
74 ; number
of Constitutions,
75 j

INDEX
Continued.
of 1897, Ib-ll, 255, 262, 317;
relationa with Bulgaria,87 ; occupies

Greece

"

war

Canea,
result

129;

107 ; conquest of,

of the
with
war

Turkey,

141 ; independence of,

recognized by the Porte, 232 ;

settlement of claims,245
King George of, his accession
in 1863, 75 ; meeting with
King
Charles at Abbazia,86

George of, appointed

Prince

355

the

Yemen, appointed
Inspector-

General

of reforms

111, 270

in Macedonia,
persecutionsunder, 204,

211

Iannina,

44

Ibrahim

Pasha, 233
Ignatieff,General, Russian
at

bassador
Am-

54
Constantinople,

lUyrians,the, 123, 125

Iniada Bay, 326 ; Russian

fleet at,

218

of Crete, 107
High Commissioner
Ipek, 84, 131 ; suppression of
Servian
Patriarchate,51, 139 note,
King Otho of, his deposition,
75

151

of, in
Greeks, 13, 136 ; number
Macedonia, 79 Tiote, 137, 142 ;

religion,123

settlements

in

antagonism with

Macedonia, 124;
the
Slavs, 125, 164, 171, 237;
influence,136 ; their claim to
Macedonia, 137 ; (Ecumenical
Patriarchate,139 ; the schools,
140

settlements

in

Adrianople,

Islam, religion
of,36, 115
or
Muhamedans, 151 note
Italy,attitude towards Turkey, 239,
286 ; trade, 287 ; policy in the
Macedonian
Question, 288-291 ;
support of England and

againstTurkey,

France

347

Ivan Asen

II.,49
Izett,Pasha, 180

163

Grueff,

revolutionary

Damian,

leader in Monastir, 190

exiled,

190

Guadalquivir,
explosion on

board,

207

Gumenja, 216

of the, 4
Janizaries, massacre
Jassy, Peace of,in 1792, 230
Jews, the, of Macedonia, 162 ; their
language,162 ; character,162
Jews, Spanish,number
of,79 note
his
garia,
Joseph,Exarch,
policyin Bul-

Gusinje,245

66

Gyevgeli,216
Haiddks,

"Halepa,

the, 44
Pact
of,"

61, 104;

nulled,
an-

105

Hamidiyeh

or

Kurdish

cavalry,96,

99

Hassan

Fehmi

Pasha,

Vali

of

Salonica,118
"

Kachanlik, 137
river,76
Kallay, M. de, 258
Karadjovamountains, 212
Karasmak
river,130
Karatheodori
Pasha, GovernorGeneral
of Crete, 105
Karaveloff,62
tion,
Kastoria,57, 72, 131, 138 ; insurrec-

Kalamas

Hatt-i-Humayun," the Charter,20

42, 90, 236

"Hatt-i-Sherif,"
42, 90,
Hellenes or Greeks, 136

212

or
Catholics,151 note
Katsoyanni, Mikhail, 223
by AustriaKaulbars, General, 63, 253
Herzegovina,annexed
242
insurrections,
Kavala, 58
Hungary, 45,
;
of
Slavs
number
238
in,
Kharput, massacres
at, 101, 102
56, 91,
;
Khouloussi
of the
President
260 note
Bey,
Salonica
223
73
founded by Greeks,
Municipality,
Hetaeria,
Kiostendil,60
HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, Prince
Charles of, proclaimedKing of
Kirk-kilisse,
57, 326
Kitancheff,Traiko,elected President
Rumania, 78
of the " Macedonia
Adrianople
Hungary, 3. See Austria-Hungary
189 ; his death,189
Hussein
Hilmi
Organization,"
Pasha, ex- Vali of

234

Katoliks

356

INDEX

Kitchevo, 169

123

57
Kizil-Agatoh,

Eoman

Greek

settlements,124 ;
conquest,124 ; Bulgarians,
124, 142-148; Slavs, 124; the

Kjustendil,137
Kleplits,
the, 44

Turkish

Klisaura,captured by
218 ; reoccupied,
219

Komittadji,meaning

the

rebels,

oE the

word,

conquest, 126, 128 ;

128-135 ; converMuhamedans,
sions
to Islam, 129; Christians,
135 ; Greeks, 136-142
; influence
of the

184

Konia, ruin of,32

Koran, the, 19, 115
Koritza, 153
Kossovo

Albanians

vilayet,120;

of,150,

157 ;

battle,128

44
Krjalis,

Krushevo, 153; revolutionists enter,

212 ; attacked and plundered by
Turks, 213-216
Kumanova, 130, 144
Kumans, 128
Kurds, 13
Kutchuk-Kainardji,Treaty of,229
Kutzo-Vlachs
or
Rumans, 123, 135,
152.

Hellenic

of the beys, 168; the

169 ; houses,
derudeshiluk,
impositionof taxes, 174-

174

178 ;
Ga/rde

of

personal taxes, 178

committees,

influence

Austro

Eussian

his
;

279

Reform

H., his efforts to

reform
Turkey, 31 93 ; on its
the
financial condition, 116 ; on
Sir

extension

Valis, 302
scheme

A.

of

the

note

powers
the

on

of 1880, 316

of

note

Lazaro-Polje,169
Lebanon, the, 117

judicature of,

318

Lim

259
district,

Macedonia, 6 ; under Turkish rule,

of the
7, 60, 241, 306 ; treatment
23
the
152Vlachs,79,
peasants, ;
157 ;

the

Servian

propaganda,

condition, 93, 110,

;
schemes, 108, 111, 113,
202, 292, 309, 312; the "Projet
de loi " approved by the European
Commission, 110 ; the AustroEussian schemes, 113, 202, 262,
82

reform

335
"

306

Internal

and

velopment
de-

198
policy,

new

proposed

190
leaders,

191-194

of Austria

Euesia,

creation

of

British

diplomacy,337
Adrianople Organization,

Macedonia-

the

reform

the

European Commission, 324 ; basis

of reconstruction,
325 ; finances,
328 ; position,334 ; inadequacy
of the
Austro-Russian
scheme,

on

Scheme, 270

Layard,

methods,
of

the

186

Organization,190

130

180 ; formation
Chcmi/pitre,

drastic

Marquis of, 112 ;

proposalsfor Macedonia, 114

141 ;

exactions
tax

See Vlachs

Labanitza,
Lansdowne,

kingdom,

Serbs, 148-152 ; Albanians, 157162 ; Jews, 162 ; review

of the
conditions, 164; division into
three
provinces, 165 ; need for
European control,166, 276, 283,
322, 339; persecutions of the
Christians,167 ; brigandage,
168 ;

Statutes

of

the,"186-188

229
Magnesia,insurrection,
of, in
Magyars, number
Hungary, 260 note

Austria-

Mahmud, Sultan, 4
Malko-Tirnovo, 218
Mamuret-ul-Aziz, 100
Marash, massacre
at, 102
Margariti, Apostolo, of Monastir,
his

propaganda,154-156
60
valley,

Maritza

Maronite

Christians of the Lebanon,

318
iU-treatment,
M'Gregor, James, his

letter

on

the

reforms
Monastir,222-224
Mehemet
Ali, revolt of,233
in

Mekiik,

225

captured by

surgents,
in-

189

the rule of
from
forms
Memorandum
and Project of Re; severance
Sultan,114 ; mixture of races,
presented to the Porte by
the three Powers, 100
120 ; boundaries, 120, 327 ; the
120
three
language,
Menchikoff,Prince,235
vilayets,
;
122 ; theThracians,
122 ; religion,
Methodius,St, anniversaryof,143
267

the

357

INDEX

Metsovo, 153
Metternich, Prince,231
leader
Michailoffsky,
197
Organization,
Midhat

Mush, massacre
at, 102
Muslims, 123 ; Sacred
the, 19 ; inequality
Christians,19
Mustafa-Pasha, 57
Musulmans, the, 9

of the External

Pasha, Constitution

of, in

1875, 90
Mihaileanu, Prof.,

his

between

tion,
assassina-

196

Millet

of

Law

Nahib

99
district,

or

community, 136
Napoleon III.,Emperor, 53
MissirkofF,M., Secretary to the
fleet
Navarino, Bay of, Turkish
Russian
Consulate
at
Monastir,
annihilated,232
the Balkan
267 ; on
situation, Nazir Pasha, military governor of
or

267

Mitrovitza,84, 259
river,130
Moglenitza
Mohair, productionof,28
Mohajirs or emigrants,129
Mohammed, XL, conqueror

Monastir, 219
Neophyt, the monk, 52
Nesselrode,on the poUcy of Russia
in Greece, 74
Neveska, garrisonof,captured,218 ;

of Constantinople,

219
reoccupied,

18

Newspapers, Bulgarian,181
of
Moldavia
and "Wallaohia,union
Newton, Lord, on the Macedonian
the principalities,
quire
45, 236 ; acQuestion, 335
the Dobruja, 45 ; invasion
Nicsea,ruin of,32
of,in 1821, 73
Nikaroushi, Naoum, 223
Monastir vilayet,
57, 120, 130, 138,
Nish, 54, 57
surrection,
153 ; Albanians
of, 157 ; inNimnieh
or militarycourts,112
of
204, 212 ; number
Noel, Admiral, 284
villagesrazed to the ground, Notes, verbal,identic and collective,
220 ; official proclamation, 220presentedto the Porte, 97
British
222 ; letter
the
from
181, 182
Novini, newspaper,
Vice-Consul

at,

222-224

; revival

of

brigandage,307
Montenegro, 45 ;

of
settlement
claims, 245 ; awarded
Dulcigno,
245

"The
and

Moore, Frederick,
Committees

range, 219

encounter

Moscow, "Slavophil"

139

note

suppression

Patriarchate

insurrection,

congress

scheme

the
on
Macefor donia,

from

Turkey in

Nicholas,

reform
112

at

Odysseus, extracts
at,
at,

54

Christian vice-governors

94 note,101, 104
vilayets,
311
position,

Muhamedanism,

165

Bulgarian

Sir

Turkish

226

or

of, 51,

O'Conor,

272
Petersburg,

Muavins
of the

the

donian
Macelake of,145
the Insurrection,"

Morea, insurrections,
73, 229
Morier, Sir Robert, Ambassador
Morihovo

of
212

184

St

OCHBIDA, 54, 131,

characteristics of,

Europe, 117, 122,

140

mte,

310,

311

CEcumenical

Patriarchate,139

Organic Statute

of

1868

grantedto

Crete, 61, 103

of the
Admiral, in command
Orloflf,
229
Russian fleet,
donia,
Osmanli
colony, the first in Mace128

37-40

Muhamedans,
123, 128 ; number
133
character, 131
of, 130,
;
to
decrease, 133
tendency
134
aspirations,
political

Miirzstegprogramme,
Musevi

or

Jews,

151

315
note

;
;

Paisii, the monk, his Istoria Slavmo

52
Bolgarski,

Pajik mountain, 130

Pahnerston, Lord, his
the Lebanon, 117

warning

to

INDEX

Panhellenism

and

between,

flict
Panslaviam, con-

73

Pansla-dst movement, 237, 239

Paris. Treaty of (1856),91, 235

Pasvanoglu,44
Patzinaks,128
Paiilicians or Bogomila,163
Duke
"A

Constantine,

Descriptionof

Government," 16
Peasants,treatment
of,23, 30
Perim
mountains, risingin, 224
212
Perlepe,insurrection,
Persian Gulf, 8
Peto, a komittadjileader,216
revolution,56, 63, 76,
Philippopolis,
249

Photiades

Pasha, Governor-General
the duties of
Crete, 105 ; on
the Assembly, 105
Pindus
range, 80, 153
Piraeus,occupied by French troops,
of

75

Pirot,54, 58, 242 ; captured,64

Plevlje,259
Plevna, 240 ; meeting of King
and Prince

Ferdinand

at,

86

Pobiedonostzefif,
M.,
Pomaks
131

or

82

Muhamedan

number

Bulgarians,

of, 79 note;

ments
settle-

of,in Adrianople,163
Ponsonby, Arthur, " The Execution
of Reforms

Plea

for

British

Policy,"331
Porte,meaning
Pettier,Admiral,

284

at, 226

Priboj,259
Priepolje, 259 ; proposed railway
from Sarajevo,259
Prilip,131
Prishtina,84, 131
Prizren,84, 131
Prodesdan
or
Protestants,151 note
Rayahs

or

cattle,37

Eazlog,risingin, 200
Reslud, 41
Eesna, 172
Ehodope mountains, 60, 120
Eicaud, his history of Turkey,
22

quest
; con-

Macedonia, 124
Rosebery, Lord, 100
Rostkovski, M., Russian Consul at
Monastir,assassinated,
217, 265
Rtim
151 note
or Patriarohists,
RAm-milleti, meaning of the term,
50

Rumania, kingdom of,3, 45

71 ; progress,
with

Russiaand

79 ;

the

tions,
aspira-

78 ; relations

Austria-Hungary,

Vlaohs

Maoedo-

or

79 ;
relations
with
Rumans,
loss
of
Bulgaria, 84-86, 196;
the
240
Bessarabia,
acquires
;
Dobruja, 242
King Charles of, 78 ; hia
meeting with King George at
Abbazia, 86
123 ; number
Rumanians, religion,
of,in Austria-Hungary,260 note
Rumans
or
Kutzo-Vlachs, 123, 135 ;

See Vlachs

152.

Rumelia, meaning of the term,

132

tration,
adminisnote ; system of provincial
298 ;
297 ; local councils,
Sanjak Council, 299 ; Kaza and
Nahi6

Councils, 299 ; Municipal

Councils, 299 ; Administrative
Council and the Commune, 299 ;
of the \^ali,
300 ; reform
powers
304
schemes, 303,
306, 309 ;
-

of the term, 19

Presba,encounter

Empire, decline of,3

of

the Turkish

Charles

repressing

Robeff,Nikola, 223
Rogene Chiflik,225
Roman

230

Pears, Edwin,

of

Eilo monastery, 52
of

(1858),236

Pavlovich,Grand

Eifaat,his method
brigandage,307

of

a
appointment
General, 313
Inspector-

Eastern,

Bulgaria,45, 63,
of,60
statute

Musulman

reforms,110

of 1879

with

union

tion
137 ; Constitu-

drawn

organic

up,

agitationagainstunion, 249,
Prince

of

243

251

Bulgaria appointed

Governor, 252
Russia, advance
of, 3 ; proposed
partitionof Turkey, 9 ; Panslavist movement,
54, 237 ; supports
the
Bulgarian cause, 54, 237 ;
with
war
Turkey, 58, 91, 229,
Bessarabia,58,
232, 240 ; annexes
79 ; forces

Prince

Battenberg to
conditions

Alexander

of

abdicate,65,
;
imposed on Bulgaria,
252

360

INDEX

Skanderbeg,

"

the

Athlete

of

Christendom," 158
Skodra, 44
Slavs, the, 145 ; number
of, in
79
note ; invasion,
Macedonia,
124

124

125,

union

with

the
with

antagonism

the

number

164, 237;

Bulgars,
Greeks,
of, in

Austria-Hungary,260 note
defeat of Servians
Slivnitza,
at,64,
250

Smilevo, engagements at,212, 218

Sobieski,John, the Polish King,
3

Soboleff,General, 63
Sofia, 34, 57, 60 ; congress of the
"
Macedonia- AdrianopleOrganization"
at, 186

Sottas,meaning of

the term, 17

consecrated

Sokolski,Mgr.,
of the Biilgarian
Uniate
53

his

Bishop

acquired by Greece,

invasion

"

Thracians,the, 123, 125

Tikvesh, 57
and

Timars

aiamiets,
system

of,

129

Times, extract from the, 70

or
dime, collection of,23
Top-khan6, Convention of,64
Tosks, the, 158
Transylvania,3
Trebizond, massacre
at, 101
for
Triconpis, M., his scheme

88
Confederation,
Trnovo, 57, 130; "Assembly

of

Tithe

Balkan

notables

"

at, 62
Tsilka,Madame, her

capture,195

Tsoncheff, General,

elected

President

of the External
197

Internal

his

jealousy,198

Sredna

of,in 1877,

75

Church,

54
disappearance,

Gora, 56
Stamboloff, M.,

Thessaly, 3
45, 76, 245

Vice-

ization,
Organ-

ambition

oppositionto
199
Organization,
;

and
the

administration

his

Tunja valley,60
of Bulgaria,
65, 67, 254 ; tion
resigna- Turco-Bulgarian Treaty,227, 252
and
assassination,
66, 254 ;
Turkey, decline of power, 2-5, 44
67
67
loss of provinces,3 ; corruption
note
to
Turkey,
policy, ;
;
visit to Constantinople,
of the administration,4, 22-33
tions
67 ; relawith Rumania, 85
8 ; division
extent, 8 ; population,
his
of
the
assassination,
Stcherbina,M.,
territory, 9, 235
265
sovereignty of the Sultan, 16
General
at
Constitution
promulgated, 16
Steeg, M., Consul
rule of succession,18 ; ministers,
302 ; on reform, 302
Salonica,
18 ; dual system of government,
Stoilofif,
M., his Kuasophilministry,
85
19.
19, 46 ; provinces or vilayets,
"
" Sheri
the
her
Sacred
195
Lawj
159
or
Stone, Miss,
capture,
;
Stratford de Redcliffe,Lord, his
19 ; Civil and Commercial
Law,
efforts to
reform
20 ; Municipal government, 21
Turkey, 31 ;
-

British Ambassador

nople,
to Constanti-

method

of

taxes,23-29
collecting
of the

peasants, 23
29
officials,
Christians,33-

policy,234
Struga,131, 137, 165
Struma, 145

treatment

Strumnitza,57

of
35, 42, 46, 94, 167 ; religion
of
characteristics
115
Islam, 36,
;
37-40
Muhamedanism,
; position
of women,
39, 46 ; influence of
forms,
fatalism, 40 ; resistance to re-

234

of the, in

1790,

73

Sunna, the, 115

Syria,restored

to the

Porte, 234

TATAEOHEFr,DrBogirade, "Turkish
Misrule

in

Macedonia," 167
of collecting,
23-29 ;
174-178
impositionof, 169,
; the
the
178
1
69
derudeshiluk,
bedel,
;
Tepelen,Ali of,44
Taxes, method

of the

treatment

Sturdza, Dimitri,79, 86
Suliotes,outbreak

of

appointment

41

44
disintegration,

establishment
of pashaliks or
44 ; character of the people,
fiefs,
45

; relations

with

Bulgaria,67,

of the Greeks, 73 ;
; revolts
retains
with
Epirus, 76 ; war
reform
81
Servia,
schemes, 90,
;
226

93, 309, 312;

revolutions, 91;

INDEX

Turkey

361

continued.
with Russia,91, 232, 240;
Treaty of San Stefano,91 ; Treaty
of Berlin, 91
with
; agreement

Tzaribrod, 64

England, 92, 243

for Armenia, 95

Urfa, massacres
at, 102
Usktib, 54, 57, 130, 170

"

war

Notes
into

reform

presented,
the

97, 108, 111 ;

97 ; inquiry

of the

case

schemes

"Armenian

99 ; Memorandum
brigands,"
of
Reforms
from
Project

three

Powers, 100 ;
Armenians, 101, 113

the

massacres

under
116 ; reform
European
of the
character
117
;
pressure,
118 ; conquest of Macedonia,
officials,
126, 128 ; war with Greece,
141

of

brigandage, 167-170

bribery,

of

and

Bulgarian
method

174-179

censorship

of

taxes,

179 ;

181

newspapers,

Propagandas,"120

Vistritza,120, 145, 165

Vlachs or Macedo-Rumans, 79, 152;
number
of, 79 note, 154 ; chief
153 ;
settlements,153 ; character,

nomadic

of

governing by repression,
tion,
204, 255 ; Cyprus Conven243

centralization

in

of
or
Governor, 19 ; powers
the, 300, 302
Van, 100
Vardar river,130, 137, 145
Vathy, Turkish garrisonat, 317
Veles, 54, 57, 130
Vidin, 44, 57
Vienna, retreat of the Turkish army
from, in 1683, 44
Vjlayets or provinces,19
"Vilayets,Law of the,"61, 297
Villari, Lingi, "Races, Religions,

the

169 ; persecution
derudeshiluk,
Bulgarians, 171, 182, 238;

collection

1833,

Treaty of,

233

Vali

and

of
undertakes
to apply the Organic Statute of
to
1868
Crete, 103 ; theocratic
tion,
government, 115 ; financial condi-

tax

Unkiar-Skelbssi,

of

habits,153
154

Church,
Vodena, 130,
Voltaire,229

their

efforts for

an

propaganda,
dependent
in-

155

153

of
295 ;
system
government,
313
provincialgovernment,
Vranja,58, 242
Abdul
Sultan
dethroned,
of,
Aziz,
17
Waddington,
M., 93
Abdul
Wallachia
and Moldavia, union
of
Hamid, Sultan of, his
diplomacy,4, 203, 243, 248, 33245, 236 ; acquire
principalities,
the Dobruja, 45
334 ; sovereignty, 16 ; claims to
be Khalif, 17 ; succession to the
Weigand, his estimate of the Vlachs
of Macedonia, 79
ing
establishhis
Arom"ni
firman
18
or
throne,
;
of Servia,
the claim
the Bulgarian Church, 54 ;
note ; on
83
to European interference,
hostility
Western
93 ;
Powers, the three,proposed
organizes the Hamidiyeh
intervention
of,340 ; negotiations
cavalry,96, 99 ; proclaimsmartial
entrusted to one
in
law
Power, 341
Crete, 105 ; obstructs
stantinopl
of
scheme
White, Sir WiUiam, at the Conreform, 107 ; his
251
Conference,
243
system
; on
character,
; despotic
fear
the
272
of
283
Bulgarian
of government, 255,
cause,
;
in
naval
Wilson, Sir Charles, his work
the
English Press, 344:
245
Asia
345
Minor,
demonstration
against,
Winchelsea, Lord, 22
Murad
V., 18
Wolff, Sir Henry Drummond, serves
of, in Macedonia,
Turks, number
the
on
European Commission,
130, 133 ; characteristics,131,
134 ;
aspirations,
political
in
of,
Adrianople,
settlements

132
163

109

; their

horror
63

the laws

dynamite,
Yankofp,

216

Tzanikoff,62,

of

; on

297
200

Yenidje-Vardar, 130

of the

Vilayets,

362

INDEX

Young,

E.

scheme

Hilton,
of

"

on

reform

for

suggested

Macedonia,"

292

Zarnitza

Zeki

Ypsilanti,

Alexander,

73,

277

181

newspaper,

Zeitun,

at,

massacre

Pasha,

Zia/mets

and

timars,

129
Zaptiee

or

policemen,

25

Zinovieff,

101

99

M.,

Ill

system

of,

PRESS,
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AT

THE

PRINTED

11

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AND

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