Source Sheet and Time Period

Question IV:
Links:

http://www.dannex.se/theory/2.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations
http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/em/lectures/node40.
html

Date and Time:

15th March 2016

from 6:00pm to 8:30pm

Question II:
Divergence:
Links:

http://www.math.harvard.edu/archive/21a_spring_09/PDF/1
3-08-Divergence-thm.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence
https://www.quora.com/How-can-you-best-explaindivergence-and-curl
https://sites.google.com/site/butwhymath/calculus/diverge
nce

Date and time:

16th March 2016

from 6:00pm to 9:00pm

Gradient:
Links:
https://books.google.de/books?
id=CqbXHWWJiCEC&pg=PA201&lpg=PA201&dq=Gradient
+Electromagnetism&source=bl&ots=5Tx5Z3dkeO&sig=tZ
s1r0KwwNNNlpDUehQfHd6aPE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjn8pC688v

LAhUiCZoKHZEyBp0Q6AEISjAI#v=onepage&q=Gradient
%20Electromagnetism&f=false
http://ganotra.webs.com/2Lecture1.pdf
https://www.wiziq.com/tutorial/621980-EMT-Lect-3Gradient-Divergence-Curl-Laplacian
Date and time:
17th March 2016

from 6:00pm to 9:00pm

Curl:
Links:
http://info.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Teaching/Courses/EFT/dynamics/
html/curl.html
https://www.cis.rit.edu/class/simg71201/notes/basicprinciples-06.pdf
Date and time:
18th March 2016

from 6:00pm to 9:00pm

Laplacian:
Links:
https://www.cis.rit.edu/class/simg71201/notes/basicprinciples-06.pdf
https://books.google.de/books?
id=Rbqie5eQwwcC&pg=PA182&lpg=PA182&dq=lapl
acian+electromagnetics&source=bl&ots=BpqjyUh1y
4&sig=Ieduh7JxStFdm6PQydiXGiQQfr8&hl=en&sa=X
&ved=0ahUKEwjQtDn_cvLAhUoIJoKHZahArAQ6AEIRTAH#v=onepage&q=
laplacian%20electromagnetics&f=false
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Laplacian.html
Date and time:

19th March 2016

from 6:00pm to 9:00pm

Question IV:
Links:

http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-andcomputer-science/6-013-electromagnetics-andapplications-spring-2009/readings/MIT6_013S09_notes.pdf
http://wwweng.lbl.gov/~shuman/XENON/REFERENCES&OTHER_MISC/
paschen_report.pdf

Date and Time:

20th March 2016

from 6:00pm to 8:30pm

Question IV Solution:
If we consider the static case (i.e., constant with time) of
Maxwells Equations, we find that the time derivatives of the
electric field and magnetic flux density are zero:

Thus, Maxwells equations for static fields become:

For
the
static
case
(but
just
for
the static case!), Maxwells equations decouple into two
independent
pairs
of
equations.
The first set involves
electric field E( r ) and
charge
pv
( r )

density
only.

These

are

electrostatic
free-space:

These are
vacuum).

the

called

the

equations

electrostatic

equations

for

free

space

in

(i.e.,

Essentially, this is what the electrostatic equations tell us:

1. The static electric field is conservative.
2. The source of the static field is charge.
In other words, the static electric field E( r ) diverges from (or
converges to) charge.

Question II Solution:
Divergence:
The mathematical definition of divergence is:

where the surface S is a closed surface that completely surrounds a very

small volume v at point r , and where ds points outward from the closed
surface. From the definition of surface integral, we see that divergence
basically indicates the amount of vector field A( r ) that is converging to,
or diverging from, a given point.
For example, consider these vector fields in the region of a specific point:

The field on the left is converging to a point, and therefore the divergence
of the vector field at that point is negative. Conversely, the vector field on
the right is diverging from a point. As a result, the divergence of the
vector field at that point is greater than zero.
Consider some other vector fields in the region of a specific point:

Generally, the divergence of a vector field results in a scalar field

(divergence) that is positive in some regions in space, negative other
regions, and zero elsewhere. For most physical problems, the divergence
of a vector field provides a scalar field that represents the sources of the
vector field.

Gradient:
Consider the topography of the Earths surface.
We use contours of constant elevationcalled topographic contoursto
express on maps (a 2-dimensional graphic) the third dimension of
elevation (i.e., surface height). We can infer from these maps the slope of
the Earths surface, as topographic contours lie closer together where the

surface is very steep.

Moreover, we can likewise infer the direction of these slopesa hillside

might slope toward the south, or a cliff might drop-off toward the East.
Thus, the slope of the Earths surface has both a magnitude (e.g., flat or
steep) and a direction (e.g. toward the north). In other words, the slope of
the Earths surface is a vector quantity! Thus, the surface slope at every
point across some section of the Earth (e.g., Douglas County, Colorado, or
North America) must be described by a vector field.
Say the topography of some small section of the Earths surface can be
described as a scalar function h(x, y), where h represents the height
(elevation) of the Earth at some point denoted by coordinates x and y.

Now say we take the gradient of scalar field h(x, y). We denote this
operation as:
h ( r

The result of taking the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field, i.e.
h ( r ) = A ( r )

The gradient of a scalar field produces a vector field indicating the

direction of greatest change (i.e., largest derivative) as well as the
magnitude of that change, at every point in space.

We find that for spherical coordinates, the gradient is expressed as:

And for the cylindrical coordinate system we get:

Curl:
The mathematical definition of Curl is given as:

Bi

is the scalar component of vector B ( r ) in the direction

defined by unit vector

a^

of i.

The small surface s of i is centered at point r , and oriented such

that it is normal to unit vector a of i.

The contour C of i is the closed contour that surrounds surface s of
i.

Curl is a measurement of the circulation of vector field A ( r ) around

point r .
If a component of vector field A ( r ) is pointing in the direction dA at
every point on contour Ci (i.e., tangential to the contour). Then the line
integral, and thus the curl, will be positive. If, however, a component of
vector field A ( r ) points in the opposite direction (-dA) at every point on
the contour, the curl at point r will be negative.

Likewise, these vector fields will result in a curl with zero value at point
r :

Generally, the curl of a vector field result is in another vector field whose
magnitude is positive in some regions of space, negative in other regions,
and zero elsewhere.
The curl of vector fields expressed using our coordinate systems.
Cartesian:

Cylindrical:

Spherical:

Laplacian:

Another differential operator used in electromagnetics is the Laplacian

operator. There is both a scalar Laplacian operator, and a vector Laplacian
operator. Both operations, however, are expressed in terms of derivative
operations.
The Scalar Laplacian:
The scalar Laplacian is simply the divergence of the gradient of a scalar
field:
g ( r )

The scalar Laplacian therefore both operates on a scalar field and results
in a scalar field. Often, the Laplacian is denoted as
2 g( r )

, i.e.

= g ( r )

From the expressions of divergence and gradient, we find that the scalar
Laplacian is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as:

The Vector Laplacian:

2

The vector Laplacian, denoted as ( A( r )

and results in
and is defined as:

, both operates on a vector field

vector field,

If we evaluate the above expression for a vector expressed in the

Cartesian coordinate system, we find that the vector Laplacian is:

In other words, we evaluate the vector Laplacian by evaluating the scalar

Laplacian of each Cartesian scalar component.

While the Lorentz force law defines how electric and magnetic fields can
be observed, Maxwells four equations explain how these fields can be
created directly from charges and currents, or indirectly and equivalently
from other time varying fields. One of those four equations is Gausss Law
for charge, which states that the total charge Q [Coulombs] within volume
V equals the integral of the normal component of the electric
displacement vectorD over the surface area A of that volume:
w (D n)da = dv = Q
In vacuum:
D=

where the permittivity of vacuum = 8.85410-12 o Farads/m. Equation (1.3.1)

reveals the dimensions ofD: Coulombs/m2 , often abbreviated here as [C/m2 ].

Question I Solution:
Two closely spaced layers of charge, equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign, comprise a charge double layer. Such double layers occur in the
membranes of all living cells. An understanding of their electrical
properties is essential in studying the mechanism of nerve transmission
and cell metabolism. Here we consider the simplest type of double layer,
where the layers of charge are on parallel plane conductors. By supposing
that the areas of the two plane conductors are very large, on the scale of
their separation, the mathematical description becomes very simple, but
the physical ideas involved apply equally well to other shapes and areas
of double charge sheets. Consider two conductors having plane parallel
faces a small distance l apart and charged with surface charge density of
magnitude s. The material in the space between the conductors has
permittivity e.

The conductors are sufficiently close so that the effects on the nonuniform field at the edges may be neglected. Then the double layer has
the following properties.
Between the charge layers, the magnitude of the electric field is
uniform, directed from the positive towards the negative charges,
and
of
E
=
s/e E terminates on the charges according to Gauss's law.
Within the conductors, the electric field is necessarily zero. Each
conductor is an equipotential region.
There is a potential difference between the two conductors given by
V
=
El
=
sle.
Often the spacing l is very small, and we are not very concerned
with the region inside the double layer. In effect the charge double
layer represents a potential discontinuity between the two
conductors. In fact, whenever a potential difference exists between
two contiguous pieces of matter a charge double layer is involved.
Examples
include
living
cells,
batteries,
thermocouples,
semiconductor junctions, etc.