1- Introduction

Although the properties of the metals used widely they all had one
thing in common. No matter what their composition, no matter
what changes they had gone through during extraction from the
ore, refinement and processing, they were all cristalline.

2- Atoms
Not so very long ago, in our early chemistry lessons, we used to
say that the atom was the smallest unit of which matter was
composed and was indivisible. Also the atom is considered as the
basic structural unit of matter Now, it is not quite so simple as
that, and the chemist no longer regards the atom as being in the
nature of an in destructible little billiard-ball which is held by some
mysterious force of attraction to its neighbors.
Each atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded
by a sufficient number of negatively charged electrons so that the
charges are balanced and neutrons which carry no charge. The
number of electrons identifies the atomic number and the element
of the atom.
When the atoms have gained or lost one or more electrons, it is
called

as

Ions.

Losing

of

an

electron

makes

the

atom

electropositive since there will be a positively charged proton

without its balancing electron. Such an ion is called a positive ion.
While gaining an electron makes the atom electronegative since
there is no spare positively charged proton in the nucleus to
balance the additional electron. Such an ion is called a negative ion.

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Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding Materials

Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding in Materilals

Chemical properties are related to the numbers of electrons and

protons present and in this respect there are altogether ninety-two
basically different types of atom which occur naturally. Of late the
scientists have succeeded in building up a series of new ones.
When two or more atoms, either of one type or of different types,
are joined together chemically, the unit which is produced is called
a molecule.
In a similar way the gases fluorine and chlorine, with seven
electrons in the outer shell in each case, have like chemical
properties. Both are gases
(at

normal temperatures and

pressures) with strongly non-

metallic properties.
Many of the similarities and differences among the elements can
be explained by their respective atomic structures as shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1

Simple model of atomic structure for several elements

(a) hydrogen , (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, (e) sodium.

3- Bonding in Materials
It depends on the bonding between atoms and molecules where the
atoms are held together in molecules by various types of bonds
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that depends on the valence electrons. By comparison , molecules

are attracted to each other by weaker bonds, which generally result
from the electron configuration in the individual molecules.
Thus , we have the following types of bonding .

3-1 Ionic Bond

In the ionic bond, the atoms of one element give up their outer
electron(s), which an in turn attracted to the atoms of some other
element to increase their electron count in the outermost shell to
eight, as shown in figure 2. This bond is naturally provides a very
Strong bond between atoms and as a properties of solid materials
with the ionic bonding include low electrical conductivity and poor
ductility.

Figure 2. Ionic bond

As an example of this bond is the Sodium chloride (table salt) is a
more common example. Because of the transfer of electrons
between the atoms, sodium and chlorine ions are formed as shown
in this reaction.
+

Na + Cl
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Na Cl
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Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding Materials

Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding in Materilals

3-2 Covalent Bond

In the covalent bond, electrons are shared (as opposed to
transferred) between atoms in their outermost shells to achieve a
stable set of eight.as shown in figure 3

Figure 3. Covalent bond

Solids with covalent bonding generally possess high hardness and

low electrical conductivity. As an example of covalent bond the
molecule of the gas methane (CH4), four hydrogen atoms are
combined with one carbon atom. The carbon atom has four
electrons in its outer shell, but these are joined by four more
electrons, contributed singly by each of the four hydrogen atoms as
shown in figure 4.

(b)
figure 4
(a) Covalent Bonding in a Molecule of Methane, CH4.
b) Chemists express the structural formula for the methane molecule
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3-3 Metallic Bond

It is the atomic bonding mechanism in pure metals and metal alloys.
The metallic bonding involves the sharing of outer shell electrons by
all atoms to form a general electron cloud that permeates the entire
block as shown in figure 5

ELECTRON

'CLOUD'

Figure 5 . Diagrammatic Representation of the "Metallic Bond".

This cloud provides the attractive forces to hold the atoms together
and form a strong, rigid structure in most cases. Because of the
general sharing of electrons and their freedom to move within the
metal, metallic bonding provides typical properties of materials
characterized such as good electrical conductivity , good conduction
of heat and good ductility

3-4 Van der Waals Force

They are very small forces of attraction acting between atoms in
cases where the formation of ionic or covalent bonds is not possible

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Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding Materials

Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding in Materilals

Basically similar forces also act between atoms which are already
bounded in neighboring molecules, giving rise to weak Van der
Waals forces between long-chain molecules in polymers

4- Cristallin structures
Many substances, including metals, have a crystalline structure in the
solid state. Metal crystals from when the molten metals cools and
solidifies, where as crystals of other substances, for example copper
sulphate, and sodium chloride (Salt ), form when a saturated
solution of compound evaporates causing the solid to crystallize out.

1-4 Types of cristallines structures

There are seven types of crystals based on the shape of the basic
lattice.

These

are

called

triclinic,

monoclinic,

orthorhombic,

tetragonal, cubic, rhombohedra and hexagonal. Here are some of the

structures found in crystalline metals. Sometimes the same material
may exist in

different crystalline forms and this is called

POLYMORPHISM. The different forms are called ALLOTROPES and

iron is one example with two allotropes callediron and iron.

2-4 Body Centre Cubic (B C C)

The atoms arrange themselves with one at each corner and one right
in the middle of the cubic space. This is the structure produced for
solid chromium, Iron and others

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3-4 Face centre cubec (f c c)

The atoms arrange themselves with one at each corner and one at
the centre of each face. This is the structure of iron, aluminium,
copper, gold and nickel.

4-4 Hexagonal closed pack (H C P)

Visualise the structure as an extruded hexagon with an atom at
every corner plus three packed into the middle as shown. This is the
structure of Magnesium and Zinc.

In these crystalline structures, each corner atom forms part of

another structure and so the pattern is repeated throughout the
crystal

5- carbon
Carbon deserves a special mention. It exhibits some metallic
properties (reasonable conductor) and in diamond form is the
hardest known material. In fibre form it makes a very strong
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Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding Materials

Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding in Materilals

material used in composites. Used with iron it has a dramatic affect

on the mechanical properties
Carbon can form 2 different types of crystals, diamond and graphite.
A third type called ball carbon has been found but does not appear to
form naturally. Carbon has an atomic number of 6 and a mass of 12.
There are 6 electrons so there must be four electrons missing from
the second shell. This means there are four bonds or valences to be
used up when it joins with other atoms.

In the diamond form each atom forms a covalent bond with four
other atoms to form a tetrahedral structure. The atom in the middle
is surrounded by four others. This pattern is also repeated for every
atom at the corner. The bonding is equally strong in all directions and
this makes the strongest hardest material known

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In the graphite form, only 3 bonds are formed with free electrons so
the graphite forms into slippery layers loosely held together by the
electrons. This makes it suitable for dry lubrication and also enables
it to conduct electricity.
EXERCISE

1- WRITE TRUE OR FALSE

- Number 12 carbon atom
- Carbon mass 6
- types of crystalline structures 3
- losing of an electron makes the atom electron positive
- while gaining electron make the atom electron negative

2- What are Bonding in Materials

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Structure and properties of materials

Structure and bounding Materials