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ArrangedmarriageWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Arrangedmarriage
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Arrangedmarriageisatypeofmaritalunionwherethebrideandgroomareselectedbytheirfamilies.

Contents
1 History
2 Comparison
2.1 Types
3 Causesandprevalence
3.1 Childmarriage
3.2 Poverty
3.3 Latemarriage
3.4 Limitedchoices
3.5 Physicaldisabilities
3.6 Tradition
3.7 Custom
3.8 Politics
3.9 Wealthandinheritanceissues
3.10 Bridewealth
3.11 Religion
4 Controversy
4.1 Shammarriages
4.2 Humanrights
4.3 Stability
4.4 Loveandrespectinarrangedversusautonomousmaritallife
5 Seealso
6 References
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7 Externallinks

History
Arrangedmarriageswereverycommonthroughouttheworlduntilthe18thcentury.[1]Typically,
marriageseverywherewerearrangedbyparents,grandparentsorotherrelatives.Somehistorical
exceptionsareknown,suchascourtshipandbetrothalritualsduringRenaissanceperiodofItaly[2]and
GandharvamarriagesinVedicperiodofIndia.[3]
InChina,arrangedmarriages(baobanhunyin,)sometimescalledblindmarriages(manghun,
)werethenormbeforethemid20thcentury.Amarriagewasanegotiationanddecisionbetween
parentsandotheroldermembersoftwofamilies.Theboyandgirl,weretypicallytoldtogetmarried,
withoutarighttoconsent,eveniftheyhadnevermeteachotheruntiltheweddingday.[4][5][6]
ArrangedmarriageswerethenorminRussiabeforetheearly20thcentury,mostofwhichwere
endogamous.[7]
Untilthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,arrangedmarriageswerecommoninmigrantfamiliesinthe
UnitedStates.[8]TheyweresometimescalledpicturebridemarriagesamongJapaneseAmerican
immigrantsbecausethebrideandgroomkneweachotheronlythroughtheexchangeofphotographs
beforethedayoftheirmarriage.Thesemarriagesamongimmigrantsweretypicallyarrangedbyparents,
orrelativesfromthecountryoftheirorigin.Asimmigrantssettledinandmeldedintoanewculture,
arrangedmarriagesshiftedfirsttoquasiarrangedmarriageswhereparentsorfriendsmadeintroductions
andthecouplemetbeforethemarriageovertime,themarriagesamongthedescendantsofthese
immigrantsshiftedtoautonomousmarriagesdrivenbyindividual'schoice,datingandcourtship
preferences,alongwithanincreaseininterracialmarriages.[8][9]Similarhistoricaldynamicsareclaimed
inotherpartsoftheworld.[10][11]
Arrangedmarriageshavedeclinedinprosperouscountrieswithsocialmobility,ascendancyof
individualismandthenuclearfamilynevertheless,arrangedmarriagesarestillseenincountriesof
EuropeandNorthAmerica,amongroyalfamilies,aristocratsandminorityreligiousgroupssuchasin
placementmarriageamongFundamentalistMormongroupsoftheUnitedStates.Inmostotherpartsof
theworld,arrangedmarriagescontinuetovaryingdegreesandincreasinglyinquasiarrangedform,
alongwithautonomousmarriages.[1]

Comparison
Marriageshavebeencategorizedintofourgroupsinscholarlystudies:[1][12]
parentsorguardiansselect,theindividualsareneitherconsultednorhaveanysaybeforethe
marriage(forcedarrangedmarriage)
parentsorguardiansselect,thentheindividualsareconsulted,whoconsiderandconsent,andeach
individualhasthepowertorefusesometimes,theindividualsmeetinfamilysettingorprivately
beforeengagementandmarriageasinshidduchcustomamongOrthodoxJews
individualsselect,thenparentsorguardiansareconsulted,whoconsiderandconsent,andparents
havethepowertorefuse
individualsselect,theparentsorguardiansareneitherconsultednorhaveanysaybeforethe
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marriage(autonomousmarriage)
GaryLeeandLoreneStonesuggestthatmostadultmarriagesin
recentmodernhistory,aresomegradationbetweenextreme
exampleofeitheridealarrangedoridealautonomousmarriage,
inpartbecausemarriageisasocialinstitution.[13]Similarly,
BroudeandGreene,afterstudying142culturesworldwide,have
reportedthat130cultureshaveelementsofarranged
marriage.[14]
Extremeexamplesofforcedarrangedmarriagehavebeen
observedinsomesocieties,particularlyinchildmarriagesof
girlsbelowage12.Illustrationsincludevaniwhichiscurrently
seeninsometribal/ruralpartsofPakistan,andShimpua
marriageinTaiwanbeforethe1970s(TongyangxiinChina).

Types
Therearemanykindsofarrangedmarriages,someofthese
are:[15][16][17][18]

TheAmbitiousMotherandthe
ObligingClergymanacartoonby
CharlesDanaGibsoncaricaturing
arrangedmarriagesinearly20th
centuryUnitedStates.Aparentinsists
theirdaughtermarryamanon
groundsofwealthoraristocratictitle,
withoutconsideringthegirl'swishes.
Theclergymaniscaricatured
officiatingthemarriagewitha
blindfold.

Arrangedexogamousmarriage:isonewhereathirdpartyfindsandselectsthebrideandgroom
irrespectiveoftheirsocial,economicandculturalgroup.
Arrangedendogamousmarriage:isonewhereathirdpartyfindsandselectsthebrideandgroom
fromaparticularsocial,economicandculturalgroup.
Consanguineousmarriage:isatypeofarrangedendogamousmarriage.[19]Itisonewherethe
brideandgroomshareagrandparentornearancestor.Examplesoftheseincludefirstcousin
marriages,uncleniecemarriages,secondcousinmarriages,andsoon.Themostcommon
consanguineousmarriagesarefirstcousinmarriages,followedbysecondcousinanduncleniece
marriages.ThesetypesofarrangedmarriagesaremostcommoninMuslimcommunitiesofthe
world.Between25to40%ofallmarriagesinpartsofSaudiArabiaandPakistanarefirstcousin
marriageswhileoverallconsanguineousarrangedmarriagesexceed65to80%invariousregions
oftheMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandIslamicCentralAsia.[20][21]
Thebrideandgroominalloftheabovetypesofarrangedmarriages,usuallydohavetherightto
consentifthebrideorthegroomorbothdonothavearighttoconsent,itiscalledaforcedmarriage.
Nonconsanguineousarrangedmarriageisonewherethebrideandgroomdonotshareagrandparentor
nearancestor.ThistypeofarrangedmarriagesiscommoninHinduandBuddhistSouthAsia,Southeast
Asia,EastAsiaandChristianLatinAmericaandsubSaharanAfrica.[22]
ConsanguineousmarriagesareagainstthelawinmanypartsofUnitedStatesandEurope.[23]While
consanguineousarrangedmarriagesarecommonandculturallypreferredinIslamiccountriesand
migrantsfromMuslimcountriestootherpartsoftheworld,theyareculturallyforbiddenorconsidered
undesirableinmostChristian,HinduandBuddhistsocieties.[24]Consanguineousarrangedmarriages
werecommoninJewishcommunitiesbeforethe20thcentury,buthavedeclinedtolessthan10%in
moderntimes.[25][26]

Causesandprevalence
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Overhumanhistorythroughmoderntimes,thepracticeofarrangedmarriageshavebeenencouragedby
acombinationoffactorssuchasthepracticeofchildmarriage,[27]latemarriage,tradition,[28][29]culture,
religion,povertyandlimitedchoice,disabilities,[30]wealthandinheritanceissues,politics,socialand
ethnicconflicts.[31][32][33]

Childmarriage
Childmarriage,particularlythosebelowtheageof12,doesnot
prepareorprovidetheindividualmuchopportunitytomakean
informed,freechoiceaboutmatrimony.Thesechildmarriages
areimplicitlyarrangedmarriages.[34]Inruralareasofsub
SaharanAfrica,SouthAsiaandLatinAmerica,povertyandlack
ofoptionssuchasbeingabletoattendschoolleavelittlechoice
tochildrenotherthanbeinearlyarrangedmarriages.[27]
AccordingtoWarner,innationswiththehighestratesofchild
marriages,themarriageofthegirlisalmostalwaysarrangedby
herparentsorguardians.[35]Thenationswiththehighestratesof
arrangedchildmarriagesare:Niger,Chad,Mali,Bangladesh,
Guinea,CentralAfricanRepublic,Afghanistan,Yemen,and
Pakistan.Arrangedchildmarriagesarealsoobservedinpartsof
theAmericas.[36][37]

"Marriagelamode"byWilliam
Hogarth:asatireonarranged
marriagesandpredictionofensuing
disaster

Poverty
Inimpoverishedcommunities,everyadultmouthtofeedbecomesacontinuingburden.Arranginga
marriageofadaughter,scholarssay,[38]isameanstoreducethisburden.Poverty,thus,isadriverof
arrangedmarriage.
Thistheory,[39][40]issupportedbytheobservedrapiddropinarrangedmarriagesinfastgrowing
economiesofAsia.Thebenefitparentsreceivedfromthecontributionsfromtheirearningsingle
daughtershasbeencited[41]asareasonfortheirgrowingreluctancetoseetheirdaughtersmarryattoo
earlyanage.

Latemarriage
Latemarriage,particularlypasttheageof30,reducesthepoolofavailablebachelorettesfor
autonomousmarriages.Introductionsandarrangedmarriagesbecomeaproductiveoption.[42]
Forexample,inpartduetoeconomicprosperity,about40%ofmodernJapanesewomenreachtheage
of29andhaveneverbeenmarried.Toassistlatemarriages,thetraditionalcustomofarrangedmarriages
calledMiaikekkonisreemerging.Itinvolvestheprospectivebrideandgroom,family,friendsanda
matchmaker(nakdo,)thepairisselectedbyaprocesswiththeindividualsandfamilyinvolved
(iegara,)andtypicallythecouplemeetthreetimes,inpublicorprivate,beforedecidingifthey
wanttogetengaged.[43][44][45]

Limitedchoices
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Migrantminorityethnicpopulationshavelimitedchoiceofpartners,particularlywhentheyare
stereotyped,segregatedoravoidedbythemajoritypopulation.Thisencourageshomogamyandarranged
marriageswithintheethnicgroup.ExamplesofthisdynamicincludeSikhmarriagesbetween1910to
1980inCanada,[46]homogamousquasiarrangedmarriagesbetweenEuropeandescentSouth
Africans,[47]arrangedmarriagesamongHasidicJews,[48][49]andarrangedmarriagesamongJapanese
Americanimmigrantsbeforethe1960s,whowouldtravelbacktoJapan,tomarrythespousearranged
bythefamily,andthenreturnmarried.Inothercases,agirlfromJapanwouldarriveintheUnitedStates
asapicturebride,prearrangedtomarrytheJapaneseAmericanmanonarrival,whomshehadnever
met.[50]

Physicaldisabilities
Certainphysicaldisabilitiesincreasethelikelihoodofarranged,evenforcedmarriagesinsomepartsof
theworld.[30][51]Okonjosaysthataphysicaldisabilityinabride,andevenmoreso,agroomisoneof
thereasonsforearlyarrangedmarriagesinNigeria.[52]

Tradition
Manyculturestraditionallyseekendogamousmarriages.Aprominentexampleofthispracticeisthe
Hinduculturewherethebrideandgroombelongtothesamecaste,butarenonconsanguineous,thatis
thebrideandgroomarenotbloodrelativesnorextendedfamilymembers.Otherexamplesofcultures
followingtheendogamousarrangedmarriagetraditionincludeAmishpeopleinUnitedStates,[53][54]
OrthodoxJewsinCanada,theUnitedStates,Israel,andWesternEurope,[55][56]ArabChristians[57]such
asCopticChristiansinEgypt.[58]ArrangedmarriageisalsothetraditionofmanyIslamicnationsof
WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,butwiththedifferencethatbetween17%tomajorityofallmarriagesin
thesecountriesarealsoconsanguineousmarriages.[59][60][61][62]
Endogamousnonconsanguineousmarriageslimitthenumberofpotentialpartnersavailable,
particularlywhenpopulationsizeforthereligionorcasteorgroupissmallalimitedmarriagablepool
makeslocatingpotentialpartnerschallenging,andencouragesarrangedorquasiarranged
marriages.[63][64]
Thepracticeofendogamousconsanguineousmarriage,dramaticallylimitsthemarriagablepoolit
inherentlyencouragesmarriagesarrangedaccordingtotraditionandbirth.Over1.3billionpeople,
predominantlyofIslamicfaithpracticeendogamousconsanguineousarrangedmarriages.[65][66]
Consanguineousarrangedmarriagesarepresentlyalsoobserved,thoughtoamuchlesserextent,insome
ethnicgroupsofAfrica,India,Indonesia,PolynesiaandSouthAmerica.[67]InPakistanandSaudi
Arabia,majority(65%+)ofallmarriagesareendogamousandconsanguineousarrangedmarriages.
Morethan40%ofallmarriagesareendogamousandconsanguineousinIraq,Iran,Jordan,Syria,
Yemen,Kuwait,UAE,Oman,Sudan,LibyaandMauritaniaandover1in5marriagesinTurkey,Egypt,
Algeria,regionsofNigeria,IndiaandMalaysiawithhighMuslimpopulationsareendogamousand
consanguineousarrangedmarriages.[65][68]AmongtheseIslamicpopulations,arrangedmarriages
includeendogamousandnonconsanguineousmarriages,andthereforeexceedtheaboveobservedrates
ofendogamousandconsanguineousmarriages.

Custom

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Theconsequenceofsomecustomsisarrangedmarriage.Forexample,inruralandtribalpartsof
PakistanandAfghanistan,disputes,unpaiddebtsindefaultandcrimessuchasmurderaresettledbya
councilofvillageelders,calledjirga.[69]Atypicalpunishmentforacrimecommittedbymalesinvolves
requiringtheguiltyfamilytomarrytheirvirgingirlbetween5to12yearoldtotheotherfamily.This
customrequiresnoconsentfromthegirl,orevenherparents.Sucharrangedchildmarriagesarecalled
vani(custom),swaraandsakindifferentregionallanguagesofPakistan.[70][71][72]
AnothercustomincertainIslamicnations,[73][74]suchasPakistan,iswattasatta,wherebrothersister
pairofonefamilyareswappedasspousesofbrothersisterpairofanotherfamily.Inotherwords,the
wifeisalsothesisterinlawforthemalesintwofamilies.Thiscustominherentlyleadstoarrangedform
ofmarriage.About30%ofallmarriagesinwesternruralregionsofPakistanarebycustomwattasatta
marriages,and75%oftheseMuslimmarriagesarebetweencousinsandotherbloodrelatives.[75][76][77]
Someimmigrantfamiliesprefercustomarypracticeofarrangedmarriage.[78]

Politics
Arrangedmarriagesacrossfeudallords,citystatesand
kingdoms,asameansofestablishingpoliticalalliances,trade
andpeacewerecommoninhumanhistory.[45][79][80]

Wealthandinheritanceissues
Throughoutmostofhumanhistory,marriagehasbeenasocial
institutionthatproducedchildrenandorganizedinheritanceof
propertyfromonegenerationtonext.Variouscultures,
particularlysomewealthyroyalsandaristocraticfamilies,
arrangedmarriagesinparttoconserveorstreamlinethe
inheritanceoftheirwealth.[81]

Thearrangedmarriagein1697,of
MarieAdladeofSavoy,age12to
Louis,DukeofBurgundy,heir
apparenttothethroneofFrance,asa
resultoftheTreatyofTurin(1696).
Themarriagecreatedanalliance
betweenLouisXIVofFranceandthe
DukeofSavoy.

Tongyangxi,alsoknownasShimpuamarriageinTaiwanese
literallychildorlittledaughterinlawwasatraditionof
arrangedmarriage,inwhichapoorfamilywouldarrangeand
marryapreadolescentdaughterintoaricherfamilyasa
servant.[82]Thelittlegirlprovidedslavelikefreelabour,andalsothedaughterinlawtotheadoptive
family'sson.Thissortofarrangedmarriage,intheory,enabledthegirltoescapepovertyandwealthy
familytogetfreelabourandadaughterinlaw.Zhaozhuiwasarelatedcustombywhichawealthy
familythatlackedanheirwouldarrangemarriageofaboychildfromanotherfamily.Theboywould
moveinwiththewealthyfamily,takeonthesurnameofthenewfamily,andmarrythefamily's
daughter.Sucharrangedmarriageshelpedmaintaininheritancebloodlines.[83]Similaruxorilocal
arrangedmarriagestopreservewealthinheritancewerecommoninKorea,Japanandotherpartsofthe
world.[84][85][86]

Bridewealth
Inmanycultures,particularlyinpartsofAfricaandtheMiddleEast,daughtersarevaluableonthe
marriagemarket,becausethegroomandhisfamilymustpaycashandpropertyfortherighttomarrythe
daughter.Thisistermedasbridewealthandlocally,byvariousnamessuchasLobolaandWine
Carrying.[87][88]Thebridewealthistypicallykeptbythebride'sfamily,afterthemarriage,andisa
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sourceofincometopoorfamilies.Thebrothers,fatherandmalerelativesofthebridetypicallytake
keeninterestinarranginghermarriagetoamanwhoiswillingtopaythemostwealthinexchangefor
therighttomarryher.[89][90]

Religion
Somereligiousdominationsrecognizemarriagesonlywithinthefaith.Ofthemajorreligionsofthe
world,Islamforbidsmarriageofgirlsborntoadevoutparenttoamanwhodoesnotbelongtothat
religion.Inotherwords,IslamforbidsmarriageofMuslimgirlstononMuslimmen,[91]andthe
religiouspunishmentforthosewhomarryoutsidemightbesevere.[92]Thisisoneofthemotivationsof
arrangedmarriagesinIslamicminoritypopulationsinEurope.[93][94]
SomeChristiandenominationsallowmarriagebetweenChristianandanonChristian.1Corinthians
7:14statesthat"theunbelievinghusbandhasbeensanctifiedbyhiswife,andtheunbelievingwifehas
beensanctifiedbyherbelievinghusband."

Controversy
Arrangedmarriagesareactivelydebatedbetweenscholars.Thequestionsdebatedincludewhether
arrangedmarriagesarebeingusedtoabuseinternationalimmigrationsystemwhetherarranged
marriagesinherentlyviolatehumanrights,particularlywomen'srights[95]whethertheyyieldmore
stablemarriagesforraisingchildren,thenextgeneration[96]andwhetherthereismoreorlessloving,
respectfulrelationshipforthemarriedcouple.[97]

Shammarriages
IntheUnitedKingdom,publicdiscussion[98]hasquestionedwhetherinternationalarrangedmarriages
areasham,aconvenientmeanstogetresidencyandEuropeancitizenshiptosomemaleorfemale
immigrants,whowouldotherwisebedeniedavisatoenterthecountry.Thesefearshavebeenstokedby
observeddivorcesoncetheminimummarriedresidenceperiodrequirementismet.MPAnnCryerhas
allegedexamplesofsuchabusebyWestAsianMuslimfamiliesinhermotiontotheUK'sHouseof
Commons.[99]TheUnitedStateshasseenasimilarcontroversywithshamarrangedmarriages.[100][101]

Humanrights
Variousinternationalorganizations,includingUNICEF,havecampaignedforlawstobanarranged
marriagesofchildren,aswellasforcedarrangedmarriages.[102]Article15and16ofTheConventionon
theEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW)specificallycovermarriage
andfamilylaw,whichsupportsuchasban.[103][104]
Arrangedmarriagesareamatterofdebateanddisagreements.ActivistssuchasCharlotteBunchsuggest
thatmarriagesarrangedbyparentsandotherfamilymembers,typicallyassumeheterosexualpreference
andinvolveemotionalpressurethisdrivessomeindividualsintomarriagesthattheyconsentunder
duress.[95]Bunchsuggeststhatmarriagesshouldbeautonomous.
Incontrast,preventingarrangedmarriagesmayharmmanyindividualswhowanttogetmarriedandcan
benefitfromparentalparticipationinfindingandselectingamate.Forexample,Willoughbysuggests[97]
thatarrangedmarriagesworkbecausetheyremoveanxietyinprocessoffindingMr.andMs.Right.
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Parents,familiesandfriendsprovideanindependentperspectivewhentheyparticipateinlearningand
evaluatingtheotherperson,pasthistory,behavior,aswellasthecouple'smutualcompatibility.
Willoughbyfurthersuggeststhatparentsandfamilyprovidemorethaninputinthescreeningand
selectionprocessoften,theyprovidefinancialsupportforthewedding,housing,emotionalsupportand
othervaluableresourcesforthecoupleastheynavigatepasttheweddingintomarriedlife,andhelpraise
theirchildren.
MichaelRosenfeldsays[97]thatthedifferencesbetweenautonomousmarriagesandarrangedmarriages
areempiricallysmallmanypeoplemeet,dateandchoosetomarryorcohabitwiththosewhoaresimilar
inbackground,age,interestsandsocialclasstheyfeelmostsimilarto,screeningfactorsmostparents
wouldhaveusedforthemanyway,accordingtoRosenfeld.Assumingthepoolfromwhichmatesare
screenedandselectedislarge,Rosenfeldsuggeststhatthedifferencesbetweenthetwoapproachesto
marriagesarenotasgreatassomeimaginethemtobe.[97]Others[105]haveexpressedsentimentssimilar
toRosenfeld.

Stability
DivorcerateshaveclimbedintheEuropeanUnionandtheUnitedStates,withincreaseinautonomous
marriagerates.Thelowestdivorceratesintheworldareincultureswithhighratesofarranged
marriagessuchasAmishcultureofUnitedStates(1%),[106]HindusofIndia(3%),[97]andUltra
OrthodoxJewsofIsrael(7%).[107]Incontrast,over50%ofselfarrangedmarriagesinmanypartsof
EuropeandUnitedStatesendupindivorce.[108][109]Thishasledscholarstoaskifarrangedmarriages
aremorestablethanautonomousmarriages,andwhetherthisstabilitymatters.Otherssuggestthatthe
lowdivorceratesmaynotreflectstability,ratheritmayreflectthedifficultyindivorceprocessand
socialostracismtotheindividuals,whochoosetoliveinadysfunctionalmarriageratherthanfacethe
consequencesofadivorce.[97]Also,theperceptionofhighdivorceratesattributedtoselfarranged
marriagesintheUnitedStatesisbeingcalledintoquestion[110]andnoauthoritativedataisavailableto
supportthetheorythatHindusofIndiacontinuetoenjoylowdivorcerates.
Thereisadifferenceinobserveddivorceratesbetweenvarioustypesofarrangedmarriages.Thedivorce
ratesinIslamiccountrieswithconsanguineousarrangedmarriagessuchasSaudiArabia,Turkey,Egypt,
Qatar,Jordanisbetween20%to35%,[111]incontrasttolessthan10%divorceratesinnon
consanguineousarrangedmarriagesamongAmishpeople,HindusandOrthodoxJews.

Loveandrespectinarrangedversusautonomousmaritallife
Varioussmallsamplesurveyshavebeendonetoascertainifarrangedmarriagesorautonomous
marriageshaveamoresatisfyingmarriedlife.Theresultsaremixedsomestatemarriagesatisfactionis
higherinautonomousmarriages,othersfindnosignificantdifferences.[112]JohnsonandBachanhave
questionedthesmallsamplesizeandconclusionsderivedfromthem.[113]
Scholars[97][114]askwhetherloveandrespectinmaritallifeisgreaterinarrangedmarriagesthan
autonomousmarriages.Epsteinsuggeststhatinmanyarrangedmarriages,loveemergesovertime.
Neitherautonomousnorarrangedmarriagesofferanyguarantees.Manyarrangedmarriagesalsoendup
beingcoldanddysfunctionalaswell,withreportsofabuse.[115][116][117]

Seealso
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ArrangedmarriageintheIndiansubcontinent
ArrangedmarriagesinJapan
Brideprice
Bridekidnapping
Childmarriage
Dowry
Lavendermarriage
Mailorderbride
Marriage
Marriageofconvenience
Marriageofstate
MarriageinPakistan
MarriageinSouthKorea
Marriagemarket
Marriageableage
MarriedatFirstSight
Matchmaking
Matrimonialwebsites
Redorersonblason
Royalintermarriage
Shidduch
Shimpuamarriage
Shotgunwedding
WeddingcelebrationsintheRadomregion
LogKyaKahenge

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