Qualitatively described as:

Some liquids, such as water and

alcohol, can dissolve in each other in
any proportion. If sugar is dissolved
in water, however, new sugar added
to the solution above a certain
amount will not dissolve any more;
the solution is then called saturated.
The solubility of a compound in a
given solvent at a given temperature
and pressure thus is defined as the
maximum amount of that compound
that can be dissolved in the solution.
Solubility increases with the
increasing temperature of the solvent
for most substances. For some
substances, such as gases or the
organic salts of calcium, solubility in
a liquid increases with a lowering of
temperature. In general, solutions
with molecules that are structurally
similar to the molecules of the
solvent have the highest solubility.
For example, ethyl alcohol
(C2H5OH) and water (HOH) have
structurally similar molecules and
are highly soluble in one another.

a.)
Dilute a solution
contains a relatively small
amount of solute.
b.)
Concentrated a
solution containing a
relatively amount of solute.

Quantitative ways of expressing

solution concentration

Parts per Million (ppm) is

a unit for expressing very
dilute concentrations. It is
commonly used to express
the concentration of
pollutants in air or in water,

Formula:
1.)

Ppm of component =
volume of component
total colume of solution

Microsoft Encarta 2009.

1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation.
All rights reserved.

X 10

ppm
1ppm =

mgsolute
kgsolute

0.00 g
1000 g

x 1,000,000

1ppm

Concentration of Solutions

Mass of Volume Percent

- One of the simplest ways
to express concentrations
of solutions is by Mass or
Volume Percent.

Formula:
Mass % of component =
mass of component solutions
total mass of solution
x

number of moles in the solution

(Na + Nb)

Mole Fraction

moles of component
total moles of solution

100%

The volume by volume

percent (v/v%) is useful
when dealing with liquqid
solutions. To express the
alcohol content of wines
or liquors, the term PROOF
is used.
Proof = (v/v%) x2
Example 13.1
If 100L of a gas mixture
over a metropolitan area
containes 0.0060 L of CO,
how many ppm of CO is
percent?
Solution:
ppm =
volum e of pure gas
total volume of gas mixture

N
Na+ Nb

or

XB

NB
NA +NB

The sum of mole fractions of the

components of a solution is defined
as the number of moles of solute
per liter of solute.

Molarity

moles of solute
liter of solution

n solute
L soln

x 106 ppm
=

0.0060 L
100 L

x 106

ppm = 60 ppm
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction (x) is the ratio of
the number of moles of one
component (N) to the total

Molality (m)
-

The molality (m) of a

solution is the number of
moles solute dissolved per
kilogram if solvent.
Molality =
moles of solute
kilogram of solvent

M=

n solute
kg solvent

Colligative Properties of Solutions

-

Dilution of Solution
-

Stock solutions in the

laboratory are of known
molarity.
In your experiments, you
may need to prepare
dilute solutions from
concentrated solutions.
Bear in mind that the
number of moles of solute
does not change when a
solution is diluted.

A group of properties that

depend on the amount of
dissolve solute
(concentration) and not on
the kind of chemical
nature of the solute.
Vapor Pressure Reduction
Boiling Point Elevation
Freezing Point Depression
Osmotic Pressure

Vapor Pressure Reduction

-

No. of mole before dilution

= no. of mol after dilution
from the definition of
molarity.
M=

mol of solute
Lk of soln(v)

; m

solute = M x V

Since the total number of

miles of solute does not
change

The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the

vapor pressure is
proportional to its
concentration.
Increasing the
concentration of the
solute increases its effect.
Vapor pressure of the
liquid is the pressure
exerted by the vapor
particles on the liquid at
equilibrium.

M1 V1 = M2 V2
Where M1 and V1 are the
molarity and volume of
the initial solution and M2
and V2 are the molarity
and the volume of the
final dilution.

Roaults Law
-

States that the vapor

pressure of the solution,
P, is equal to the mole
fraction of the solvent X,
times the vapor pressure
of the pure solvent P.

Boiling Point Elevation

-

Tb= Kbm

The boiling point elevation

of the solution, Tb, is
directly proportional to the
number of solute particles.

Where Tb boiling point elevation

of the solution
Kb- molal boiling point elevation
constant

For dilute solutions For dilute

solutions, Tb is proportional to
molality, that is,

M molal concentration of the

solution

BOILING POINT ELEVATION (KB)

AND FREEZING POINT
DEPRESSION CONSTANTS (K1)
FOR SOME SOLVENTS:

Freezing Point Depression

-

Solvent

Water
(H2O)
Carbon
Tetrachlor
ide
Chlorofor
m
Benzene
Carbon
Disulfide
Ethyl
Ether
Camphor

Boili
ng
Poin
t
(c)
100.
0
76.5

61.2
46.2
46.2
34.5
208.
0

Freez
ing
Point

0.5 0
2
5.0 -22.99
3

1.8
6
30.
0

3.6
3
2.3
4
2.3
4
2.0
2
5.9
5

4.7
0
5.1
2
3.4
3

-6.5
5.5
-111.5
+16.2
179.8

The freezing point of a

solution is directly
proportional to the molal
concentration of the
solution, that is:
Tf = Kfm
Where
Tf freezing point
lowering
Kf- freezing point
depression constant
M molality of the
solution.

Osmotic Pressure
40.
4

Osmosis the passage of solvent

molecules but not of solute

particles through a semi permeable

membrane.
Osmotic Pressure the pressure
difference at equilibrium.
-

The pressure required to

prevent the net

movement of pure
solvent.
The osmotic pressure is
similar to the ideal gas law
since both relate the
pressure of the solution to
its concentration and
temperature.