THERMODYNAMICS, S.A. Klein and G.F.

Nellis, Cambridge University Press, 2011

7.6 Relation of Exergy Destruction to Entropy Generation

Relations for the exergy transfer to a system associated with heat, work, and mass flow have
been presented in this chapter. The exergy stored within the system itself has also been
determined. Exergy is not conserved; exergy destruction is associated with any real process that
occurs at a finite rate. The exergy balance presented in Section 7.5 can be applied in order to
determine the rate of exergy destruction occurring within a system.
Exergy destruction is defined as the useful work that could have been accomplished but was not
due to friction, unrestrained expansion, heat transfer across a finite temperature difference, or
other irreversible processes. The impact of irreversible processes is more understandable when
quantified in terms of exergy destruction than it is when quantified in terms of entropy
generation. However, the exergy balance is simply an algebraic rearrangement of the energy and
entropy balances that have been previously presented.
The relation between energy, entropy, and exergy can be seen by examining the balances for
these quantities. A general energy balance for an open system is provided in Eq. (4-22) and
reproduced in Eq. (7-35); note that all heat terms are assumed to be positive into the system and
all work terms are positive out of the system in Eq. (7-35).
# inlets

i 1

# outlets

i 1

m in ,i hin ,i Vin2,i g zin ,i

2

1 2

m out ,i hout ,i Vout

,i g zout ,i
2

# heat
terms

# work
terms

W
i

(7-35)

dU dKE dPE

dt
dt
dt

A general entropy balance for the same system is provided in Eq. (6-84)
# inlets

i 1

m in ,i sin ,i

# heat
terms

# outlets
Q i
dS
S gen m out ,i sout ,i
Tb ,i
dt
i 1

i 1

(7-36)

The general entropy balance, Eq. (7-36), can be multiplied by the dead state temperature, T0 (on
an absolute scale) without affecting its validity.
# inlets

T0

i 1

m in ,i sin ,i T0

# heat
terms

Q i

T
i 1

T0 Sgen T0

b ,i

Subtracting Eq. (7-37) from Eq. (7-35) results in

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# outlets

i 1

m out ,i sout ,i T0

dS
dt

(7-37)

THERMODYNAMICS, S.A. Klein and G.F. Nellis, Cambridge University Press, 2011
# heat

# inlets

i 1

# outlets

i 1

terms

T
1

m in ,i hin,i Vin2,i g zin ,i T0 sin,i Q i 1 0

i 1 Tb ,i

1 2

m out ,o hout ,i Vout

,i g zout ,i T0 sout ,i
2

# work
terms

W
i

T0 Sgen

(7-38)

dU
dS dKE dPE
T0

dt
dt
dt
dt

Equation (7-38) is identical to the general exergy balance in Eq. (7-34), rewritten below:
# inlets

i 1

m in ,i x f ,in ,i

# heat
terms

X
i 1

Qin ,i

# exits

m
i 1

out ,i

x f ,out ,i

# work
terms

i 1

dX
X Wout ,i X des s
dt

(7-39)

Some algebra is needed to demonstrate this result. The first two terms on the left side of Eq.
(7-38) are similar to, but not exactly the same, as the first two terms in Eq. (7-39). Note that the
specific flow exergy defined in Eq. (7-12) involves the specific enthalpy and specific entropy at
the dead state, h0 and s0, which do not appear in Eq. (7-38). These terms can be included by
multiplying the general mass balance on an open system:
# inlets

i 1

m in ,i

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i

dm
dt

(7-40)

by the constant h0 T0 s0 :
# inlets

h0 T0 s0
i 1

m in ,i h0 T0 s0

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i h0 T0 s0

dm
dt

(7-41)

Equation (7-41) is subtracted from Eq. (7-38), resulting in:

# heat

# inlets

i 1

terms

T
1

m in ,i hin ,i h0 Vin2,i g zin ,i T0 sin ,i s0 Q i 1 0 T0 Sgen

T
2

b ,i

i 1

x
X Qin ,i

f ,in ,i

# outlets

i 1

1 2

m out ,i hout ,i h0 Vout

,i g zout ,i T0 sout ,i s0
2

# work
terms

(7-42)

x f ,out ,o

dU
dS dKE dPE
dm
T0

h0 T0 s0
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Equation (7-42) can be written more compactly by applying the definition of specific flow
exergy, Eq. (7-12), and the definition of the exergy associated with heat transfer, Eq. (7-29):

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THERMODYNAMICS, S.A. Klein and G.F. Nellis, Cambridge University Press, 2011

# inlets

i 1

m in ,i x f ,in,i

# heat
terms

i 1

X Qin ,i T0 Sgen

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i x f ,out ,i

# work
terms

out ,i

i 1

(7-43)

dU
dS dKE dPE
dm
T0

h0 T0 s0
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Exergy is defined as the capability to do useful work. Any work done by the control volume as it
expands against the pressure of the surroundings, P0, is not considered useful. Therefore, the
exergy transfer associated with the work out of the control volume must be reduced by the work
done on the surroundings, as indicated by Eq. (7-31):
# work
terms

i 1

X Wout ,i

# work
terms

W
i 1

out ,i

P0

dV
dt

(7-44)

Substituting Eq. (7-44) into Eq. (7-43) leads to:

# inlets

i 1

m in ,i x f ,in ,i

# heat
terms

i 1

X Qin ,i T0 Sgen

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i x f ,out ,i

# work
terms

X Wout ,i

i 1

(7-45)

dU
dS
dV dKE dPE
dm
T0
P0

h0 T0 s0
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Equation (7-45) is rearranged by substituting the mass specific property associated with each of
the quantities U, S, V, KE, and PE:
# inlets

m
i 1

in ,i

x f ,in ,i

# heat
terms

i 1

X Qin ,i T0 Sgen

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i x f ,out ,i

# work
terms

i 1

X Wout ,i

V 2
d m
d mu
d m s
d m v
2 d m g z
dm
T0
P0

h0 T0 s0
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

(7-46)

Equation (7-46) is rearranged in order to group the terms that multiply the mass of the system;
note that the specific enthalpy of the dead state is written as u0 + P0 v0:
# inlets

i 1

m in ,i x f ,in ,i

# heat
terms

i 1

X Qin ,i T0 Sgen

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i x f ,out ,i

# work
terms

i 1

d
V
g z
m u u0 T0 s s0 P0 v v0
2
dt

xs

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X Wout ,i

(7-47)

THERMODYNAMICS, S.A. Klein and G.F. Nellis, Cambridge University Press, 2011

Substituting the definition of system availability, Eq. (7-25), into Eq. (7-47) leads to:
# inlets

i 1

m in ,i x f ,in ,i

# heat
terms

i 1

X Qin ,i T0 Sgen

X des

# outlets

i 1

m out ,i x f ,out ,i

# work
terms

i 1

dX
X Wout ,i s
dt

(7-48)

All that remains to show that Eq. (7-48) is identical to the general exergy balance, Eq. (7-39), is
the recognition that:
X des T0 Sgen

(7-49)

There are several important results of all of this algebra. The most important result is Eq. (7-49),
which provides the relation between the rates of exergy destruction and entropy generation.
Entropy generation is not an intuitive concept to most engineers. Equation (7-49) provides some
context to entropy generation. When multiplied by T0, the rate of entropy generation is equal to
the rate of exergy destruction, i.e., the rate at which the capability to produce useful power is
destroyed due to irreversible processes. It is often easier and more direct to determine the exergy
destruction rate by calculating Sgen using an entropy balance than it is to carry out an exergy
balance. Both methods provide exactly the same result. Note that Eq. (7-49) is also the rate of
lost work potential defined Section, 6.5.
Since the exergy balance is simply an algebraic rearrangement of the energy and entropy
balances, its utility as a thermodynamic concept requires explanation. Exergy provides in a
single metric, an indication of the quantity and quality of energy. The definition of exergy is
essentially the same as the common meaning of energy rather than its thermodynamic definition.
Exergy is therefore easier to understand than the equivalent concepts of energy and entropy.
Exergy is useful for these reasons alone. The exergy concept also leads naturally to the
definition of the Second Law efficiency, which is the true efficiency of a thermodynamic
process, which is defined in Eq. (7-3)
The Second Law efficiency will be unity in the absence of thermodynamic irreversibilities.
However, irreversibilities are always present in real processes and the Second Law efficiency
quantifies their combined effects.
Exergy is destroyed in all real processes and this fact may be disturbing. Perhaps we will face an
exergy crisis in the future. However, systems cannot be designed to completely eliminate exergy
destruction since the rate at which processes occur is directly related to the rate of exergy
destruction. If there were no exergy destruction, a process would proceed at an infinitely slow
rate, i.e., it would not occur at all. Exergy destruction can be viewed as the fuel that drives a
process at a finite rate and so exergy destruction is necessary to allow systems to operate at a
desired rate using reasonable equipment sizes. There is a natural competition between high
Second Law efficiency and high power output; this balance is investigated in Section 8.6.
Finally, exergy provides a rational method for assigning a cost to different flows of energy.
Energy should be priced in proportion to its exergy. For example, the system shown in Figure 2

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THERMODYNAMICS, S.A. Klein and G.F. Nellis, Cambridge University Press, 2011

in Example 7.5-1 uses a single energy input (fuel to the boiler) in order to produce both electrical
power and hot water for the laundry operation. It is useful to know the internal cost required to
produce each energy output. It is clear that the electrical power is worth more per unit of energy
than the hot water because work is a higher quality of energy than the relatively low temperature
energy that is carried by the hot water. The ratio of the costs of these energy flows should
ideally be equal to the ratio of their exergies:
Cost of electricity Exergy of electricity

Cost of hot water Exergy of hot water

(7-50)

Actual prices of energy forms will of course not be directly related to their exergies due to the
many other economic (and sometimes political) factors that come into play. However, there
should be, and generally is, a relation between cost and exergy of an energy source.

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