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StudyingtheNewMedia
Attheriskofcaricaturingsomeseriousresearch,wemightsaythatthereareafewstandard
waysforsocialscientiststoanalyzehowordinarypeople,nonprofessionals,thepublic,
arerelatedtoorinvolvedwiththearts.Iwanttospeakparticularlyoftwoofthese
approaches,whosemodelshavethoroughlydominatedscholarlywork.
Themostcommon,perhaps,isakindofbehavioralaccounting:howmanypeoplewentto
thismuseumorattendedthatsymphonyorchestrasconcerts?TheNEAhas,overtheyears,
paidforalotofresearchofthiskind.Itsneverquiteclearwhattomakeoftheresults.They
generallyshowthatnotmanypeoplegotohighartkindsofevents,thoughmorethanyou
mightthink.Butwedontknowwhetherwhatevernumberispresentedisalotoralittle,
whetherweshouldhopeforimprovementorbegladthatasmanyasthatareinvolvedat
all.Wecanmonitortrendsfromyeartoyear,butabsolutenumbersofparticipantsdont
haveanyobviousmeaningofthemselves.
Asecondkindofquestionseeksmoreintimateinformation,thatwillgiveussomeideaof
whatgoodallthisparticipation,inwhateveramount,is.Arepeoplewhoattendtheseevents
gettinganythingoutofthem?Istheircapacitytoenjoyartisticworksincreased?Dothey
haveamoresophisticatedoutlookonlife?Havethey,atleast,increasedtheircultural
capital?Thisisgenerallythoughtofundertheheadingofimpact.Whatistheimpactofan
artisticexperienceonthepersonwhohasit?(Generallyspeaking,anartisticexperience
consistsofwhatthefirstapproachmeasures:visitstomuseums,attendanceatmusicalor
theatricalordanceevents,orviewingsoffilms,televisionprogramsandthelike.)
Sometimestheexperiencewhoseeffectsweareinterestedinisexpectedtohaveabad
effectand,infact,alotmoreresearchisdevotedtothepotentiallydamagingeffectsof
certainkindsofartworksthantopotentialbenefits.Thesestudiestypicallydonotfind
muchinfluenceofanykind,almostalwaysfailtoshowthatthemediuminquestionisdoing
substantialharm,andarealmostalwaysinvolvedinsomesortofpoliticalmovementtodo
somethingabouttheevilsofthemediuminquestion.ThePayneFoundationstudiesdone
inthelate20sandearly30sprovideaparadigmaticcaseofthisapproachatitsworst.
Briefly(IrelyhereonJowettet.al.s(1996)investigation),awealthyOhioan,Mrs.Bolton,
whosehusbandwasaRepublicancongressman(shewaselectedtohisseatafterhisdeath
andhelditformanyyears),gotinterestedinwhethermoviesweregoodorbadforchildren
andyouth(bad,shethought)andwantedtodosomethingaboutit.Shegotinvolvedwitha
coupleof1920sstylegranthustlerswhohadbeenpropagandizingabouttheevileffectsof
themovies.Oneofthem,aMr.Seabury,believedinshoutingandexposing,thinkingthat
thiswashowyourousedtherightpeopletofighttheevil.Seaburywasntabovealittle
antiSemitism,hintingbroadlyabouttheforeignerswhoranthemoviebusinessandhow
theycouldntbetrustedtoespouseallAmericanProtestantvalues.(Theargumenthereis
similartoGusfields(1963)analysisoftheWCTUssupporters.)

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Thesecondhustler,Mr.Short,wasalittlesmarterandsaidthatshoutinganddecrying
convincednooneand,besides,rousedthemovieindustrytoeffectivecounteractionthe
industryhadalready,inthe20s,shownsomepoliticalmusclebydefeatingantimovie
legislationhereandthere,anditwascleartheyhadtheticketbuyingpublicbehindthem.He
thoughtyouneededsciencetoprovideundeniableproofoftheevileffectsandpersuaded
Mrs.Boltontofundsuchstudies.Andpersuadedherfurtherthatthesestudieshadtobe
objectiveandnotbetrayanyantiindustrybias,orelsenothingcouldbeaccomplished.
Aftertheyproducedtheirresults,whichwouldcertainlyshowhowterriblemovieswerefor
kids,theywouldprovidethebasisforeffectivepropaganda.
HefoundthepeopletodothestudiesmainlyattheUniversityofChicago(Park,Blumer,
Thurstone),butalsoatYale(MarkMay),OhioState(W.W.Charters),andotherwellknown
andwellregardedinstitutions.TheyalsorecruitedFrederickThrasher(astudentofPark
famousforhisbookongangs)fromNYUand,withhim,PaulG.Cressey(anotherPark
student,knownforhisbookontaxidancehalls).Variouspeopledroppedoutoverthefive
years(Parkfirst,hehadtripstotheFarEasttomake)butintheendtheyproducedeightor
ninevolumes(dependingonhowyoucount)collectivelyknownasthePayneFundStudies.
Jowettet.al.gotinterestedinpartbecausethevolumebyThrasherandCressey,which
promisedtobeinteresting,waslistedaspartoftheseriesbutneverappeared.Whathad
happenedtoit?Thatledthemtothevariouscachesofpapersthatcontainedthestory.
Ataplanningmeeting,theresearchersdecidedonresearchtopics,accordingtotheirown
interests.Noneofthemseemtohavethoughtthatmovieswerereallydangerous,although
mostofthemapparentlysharedShortsantimoviebias.Theywantedtopursuetheirown
researchagendasandthePayneFindlookedlikeawaytogetsomemoneytodoit.
Theresultswerenotwhatthesponsorswanted.Movieshadverylittleeffectonanything
attitudes,sleep,etc.psychologistscouldmeasure.TheautobiographiesBlumercollected
fromcollegestudentsshowedthatpeoplesometimesdaydreamedaboutwhattheysawin
themovies,especiallyaboutsex,butshowednothingatallabouthowmoviegoingaffected
behavior.Mr.Short,ofthefoundation,wasupset:notfindingabadeffectofmovieswasnot
aresult,youjusthadntfoundityet,keeplooking!Heinsistedthatresearchers,ratherthan
saytheyhadntfoundanything,justsaythatresultswerenotyetconclusive.Somegotangry,
somejustignoredhim.Blumerproducedsomesteamyexcerptsfromtheautobiographies,
butapparentlyheandShortthoughttheyweretoohottoputintoprint,thoughtame
enoughbyourstandards.Shortthreatenedtonotpublishsomeoftheunproductive
studiesintheseriesbutwastalkedoutofthat.
Wecanconstructageneralizedversionofthisstory:asponsorwantstoshowthatXisbad,
scientiststrytooblige,butcantfindanythingbad,withvariousoutcomes,fromnon
publicationtoopendisputesbetweensponsorsandscientists.Ibelievethatthishappenedin
thecaseofthepostWWIIpanicovertheeffectsofcomicbooks,inthelaterpornography
studiescommissionedbythefederalgovernment,andisprobably,inamodifiedway,the
resultofallthemountainsofworkonTVviewinganditsimpactonstudyhabits,on
sociability,onthepropensitytoengageinviolence,onsexualarousal,andotheruntoward
outcomes.Iexpectitwillbetheresultofwhateverworkisdoneontheevilsofcomputers
andvideogames.
Itis,ofcourse,guaranteedtobetheresult.Theideathatyoucouldisolateaunique
influenceofsuchathingasTVormoviesorvideogamesisabsurdonthefaceofit.Social
scientists,operatingunderthebestconditions,haveenoughtroubledemonstratingcausal
relationsbetweenanytwovariablestotellthetruth,Idontthinktheyeverdo,justmaybe
hintatit.Studyingtheeffectofacommunicationmediumwhichoperatesinthemiddleof
ordinarysociallife,withallitscomplications,isnotworkingunderthebestconditions,and
thedemonstrationofcauseandeffectis,practicallyspeaking,impossible.(Causeand
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effect,asthatideaisusuallyconceived,isjustthewrongwaytothinkaboutwhatsocial
scientistscanfindout,butthatsanotherstory.)
Bethatasitmay,researchisoftenfundedbypeoplewhothinktheyknowwhattheansweris
andjustwanttogetsomescientiststogivethemtheevidencetheyresureisthere.Whenthe
paidforresultisntdelivered,theygetirritatedanddosomething.Whattheydoaboutitis
variable,dependingonthesituation,whohasthemoney,howvenaltheresearchersinthe
areaare(drugresearchisanareawhereyoucanalwaysfindsomeonetoproducewhatever
findingisneeded),etc.Itshowsup,asitdidinthePaynecase,asaninsistencebythe
sponsorsthatthescientistsjustkeeponlookingfortherightanswer,andinaselective
criticismofresults(standardsappliedtowronganswersthatarenotappliedtoright
answers).Itshowsup,too,inwhatishintedatinthiscase,butnotconclusivelyshown,the
suppressionofworkthatcomestothewrongconclusions
Theimpactparadigm,inotherwords,hasneverproducedanysolidfindingsaboutthe
goodorbadeffectsofartsexperiences.Inthis,itmightbesaid,itreproducesthefindingsof
generationsofworkontheeffectsofeducation,whichhassimilarlyfailedtoproduceany
stablefindingsabouttheefficacyofanyparticularwayofimpartingknowledgetoyoung
people.
Theimpactapproachimproperlytreatsthepublicasaninertmasswhichdoesntdo
anythingonitsown,butratherjustreactstowhatispresentedtoitbypowerful(usually
commercial)organizationsandtherepresentativesofdominantsocialstrata.Insomeways,
thisisaveryoldtheoreticalposition.Thestudiesoftheeffectsofmoviestreated
moviegoersaspassivereceptacleswho,bombardedbythemoviesbadmessages,woulduse
themasmodelsfortheirownlivesandthuscometoabadend.Thepositiongota
theoreticalboostfromtheFrankfortSchool,whichdevelopedtheimageofthemasssociety,
whosepuppetmembersreactedtowhattherulersofthesocietygavethem,materialwhich
supportedandjustifiedtherulingsocialandpoliticalregime.

Theimageofaninert,passivemassaudienceisagrossempiricalerror.Dominique
Pasquiersstudy(Pasquier1999)oftheaudienceofapopularFrenchteenagetelevision
programcontainsasobering,empiricallybasedcritiqueofthiskindofresearch(pp.215
223).SheshowshowyoungpeoplewhowatchedapopularTVprogram,madeclear
distinctionsbetweentheprofessionalactorswhoportrayedthecharacters,thecharacters
theyportrayed,andtheindividualpeoplewhoseprofessionwasacting.Theyknewthatthe
actorswerenotthecharacterstheyportrayed(eventhoughtheysometimeswrotelettersto
themasthoughtheywere),andthatbeinganactorwasonlypartofthelifeofthepeople
whoseworkthatwas.Theseviewersusedwhattheysawonthescreentoexplore
imaginativelythepossibilitiesofadultrelationships,thewaysyoungpeoplecanexpressand
actonwhattheyfeel.Televisionhelpsthementeracultureofsentiment,butisonlypart
oftheirsentimentaleducation.
Ineedntbelaborthepointthatusersofthesematerialsarejustthat,usersratherthan
recipientsorvictims.Muchworkneedstobedoneonwhatviewersorusersactuallydowith
whattheyseeandhear,workthat(likePasquiers)issolidlybasedoncloseobservationof
theseprocessesratherthanspeculation.
Anotherareaofneededworkstartsfromtheobservationthatordinaryfolksdonotsimply
receivemessagesfromartsprofessionals.Theyalso,inlargenumbers,usethesame
technicalmeansprofessionalsusetomaketheirownartmaterials.Totakea
contemporaryexample,everyMacintoshcomputersoldtodaycontainseverythingyouneed
tomakeyourownmoviesandlotsofpeoplearedoingthat,digitally.Infact,peoplehave
madesuchhomemovieseversinceinexpensivecameraswereavailableinthe1930s(my
fathermadethousandsoffeetoffilmofuskids)andRichardChalfenhaswrittenextensively

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aboutthem.
Asimilarexampleisthemakingofphotographsbyordinarypeople,whohadbeenmaking
themevenbeforeGeorgeEastmancreatedtheKodaksystemwhichmadeiteasyenoughfor
anyonetodowithoutalotoftrouble.Weusuallyattendmainlytotheworkof
photojournalists,commercialphotographers,orfineartsphotographers.Butmost
photographsaremadebynonprofessionals(notevenhobbyists)fortheirownandtheir
famiiesconsumption.Asmallbutlivelyareaofscholarlyworkbyanthropologists,
psychologists,andothers,focussesontheanalysisoffamilyphotoalbums.
Morerecently,andmoredirectlyrelatedtodigital,ConstancePenleysbookNASA/TREK
(Penley1997)describestheactivitiesofalargegroup(largeenoughtoholdtheirown
conventions)oflargelyworkingclass(straight)womenwhowritehomosexualpastichesof
theStarTrekstories(CaptainKirkandDoctorSpockaretheusualpair)andputthemupon
Internetsitesfortheirownandanyoneelsesconsumption.Theyusedtoxeroxthem,but
foundthedigitalversioneasierandcheaper.
IrecentlyreceivedadirectmailpiecefromXLibris,astrategicpartnerofRandomHouse,
offeringtopublishmybookatnocosttome,bymakingitavailableforondemandsale.
Theysay(IdontknowwheretheygetthenumbersbutIveseensimilarestimatesbefore)
thatsome500,000booksarewritteneveryyear,90%ofthemneverbeingpublished.
Digitaltechnologywillsurelyseemoreofthempublished,justasxeroxtechnologyand
cornerstorebindingraisedtherateofpublicationintheirday
Thisbackground(examplescouldbemultipliedendlessly)isperhapsmorethanenoughto
showwhyIthinkthatamajortopicforresearchinthisareaoughttobetheextensiveuseof
digitalresourcesbyordinarypeopletomakeartofsomekind.Icanthinkofseveral
likelytopicsofsuchresearch.
One,mostimmediatelyrelatedtodigitaltechnology,isthewaypeoplehavetakento
creatingtheirownhomepagesandwebsites.Themajorinternetbrowserscontainallthe
materialsandsoftwareyouneedtoconcoctapagethatlooksatleastasgoodasalotofother
pages.Mostoftheseprobablydonotgobeyondafewcuteremarksandsomepicturesof
family,friends,andpets(thoughwedontknowthatandwontuntilsomeoneactually
looks),butsurelymanyofthemcontainsomesortofartisticexpression:writing,visualart
ofallkinds(includingdigitizedphotographyandvideo),music.Itisworthknowingwhat
kindsofworkarebeingdone,whoisdoingit,whoisaccessingit,whatstandardsthe
artistsusetocreateandjudgetheirownworkandtheworkofothers,whatkindsofart
communitiesorworldsaregrowinguparoundallthis,andalltheotherthingsthatare
relevanttothestudyofartofanykind.
Oneofthefirstusesofanynewcommunicationtechnologyhasalwaysbeentomake
pornography.Photographywasnosoonerinventedinthemid19thcenturythanpeople
wereusingittomakeanddistributedirtypictures.OneofthefirstusesofPolaroidself
developingphotographs,assoonastheybecameavailable,wastomakethedirtypictures
peoplehadbeenafraidtotaketoaprocessingcentertohavedevelopedandprinted.
Inexpensivevideoequipmenthassimilarlybeenusedforthatpurposeeversinceitbecame
available.Soweoughttothinkseriouslyaboutstudyingthedevelopmentofpornographyon
theInternet,andImnottalkingaboutthenumeroussitesfromwhichyoucangetaglimpse
ofnaughtypicturesandachancetovieworbuymore.Imtalkingabouttheamateursin
thisfield,ofwhomtherehavealwaysbeenalot.(Eventheprofessionalsofpornography
maybelittlemorethanamateurswithsomeobligingfriends.ChuckKleinhanssstill
unpublishedstudyoffootfetishphotographsshowsjusthowamateurishmostofthese
imageswere.FarfrombeingthekindoffancyandblatantlyeroticstufftheMapplethorpe
caseaccustomedusto,thepicturesheworkedwith(theKinseyInstitutescompletefileon
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thesubject)wereeitherordinarysnapshotsorbadlymadestudiophotographs,with(for
instance)ordinaryparlorfloorlamps,withtheircordstrailingthroughthebackground,for
lighting.)TheWebisfilledwithamateurpornosites,e.g.,thecameraspeopleputintheir
apartmentsandbedroomsandbathroomsandleaverunningalldayandnight.Inother
words,pornographyisamajorareaofuseofdigitaltechnologybyordinaryfolks.
WhileIthinkthereisalimittowhatcanbeaccomplishedbysittinginfrontofacomputer
andsurfingthenet,thatmightbetheappropriatemethodforatleastsomeresearchon
thesetopics.Thewebisfilledwithexamplesofprotoartformswhoseadeptshavefound
eachotherandcreatedsmallnetworksofuser/viewerswhicharethebasisofpotentialnew
artworlds.
Theresaverygeneralpointthere.Socialscientiststendtofocusonprofessionalsinthearts,
andespeciallyonthoseareasinwhicharthasbeen,inonewayoranother,commodified
(tousetheuptodatelanguage).Butenormousareasofimportantactivityarethenleftout.
Agoodsourceonthisisabookbyanethnomusicologist,RuthFinnegan(Finnegan1989),
calledTheHiddenMusicians,whichjustdescribesallthekindsofmusicthatweremadeina
Britishcityof200,00.Itsastoundinghowmuchthereis,mostofitconsistingofamateur
singinggroupsorethnicmusicgroupsorgaragebands,etc.,etc.Thissortofthinghasbeen
magnifiedbythedemocratizationofdistributionsystemsmadepossiblebydigital
technology(e.g.,easeofpublication).(Bourdieusearlybookonphotography(Bourdieu
1990)hasalittleonthistoo.)HermanoViannasstudyoftheworldoffunkmusicinRiode
Janeiro(Vianna1988)isanothergoodexampleofalargemusicalenterprisewhichremained
completelyhiddenfromprofessionalobservers.Onhisaccount,somethinglikeamillion
(almostentirelypoor)peopleattendedpubliceventswherefunkmusicwasplayedevery
weekendinthegreaterRioarea.Yetnoonenocritic,nojournalist,nosocialscientist
wasevenawareoftheexistenceofthephenomenonuntilhepublishedhisbook.
Onewayofstudyingthesephenomenamightbethroughtheuseofthenotionofaworld
ofactivity,consistingallthepeoplewhoseactionscontributeinanywaytotheresulting
outputofartorwhateveritmightbecalled.Illleaveasafinalexampletheworldof
hypertextfiction(Becker1995),whichbeganlongagointheliteraryexperimentsof
novelistslikeBorgesorCortazarorPerecanddevelopedrapidlywhencomputertechnology
madeimplementationofthebasicideaeasier.Thisexample,whichIhavedeveloped
elsewhereatlength,showshowtheactivitiesofavarietyofpeoplecomingfromavarietyof
professionalandamateurbackgroundscanproducewhatamountstoanewartform,
completewithalltheinstitutionalparaphernaliaweordinarilyassociatewiththat.
AnotherimportantapproachistofollowFinnegansexampleandmakeacompletecensusof
allthepeoplewhoareactuallyengagingintheactivityweareinterestedine.g.,creating
digitalimageryandseeinghowallthoseactivitiesinfluenceandaffectoneanother,
withoutsuccumbingtothehighbrow(andthorougholyunscientific)biaswhichleadsusto
ruleoutmuchoftherelevantactivityasunimportantorinconsequential.
References
Becker,HowardS.1995.Pp.6781inM.LourdesLimadosSantos,ed.Cultura&Economia.
Lisbon:EdicesdoInstitutodeCinciasSociais.
Bourdieu,Pierre.1990.Photography:AMiddlebrowArt.Stanford:StanfordUniversity
Press.
Finnegan,Ruth.1989.TheHiddenMusicians:MusicMakinginanEnglishTown.New
York:CambridgeUniversityPress.
GusfieldJ.oseph.(1963)SymbolicCrusade:StatusPoliticsandtheAmericanTemperance
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Movement.Urbana,UniversityofIllinoisPress.
Jowett,G.S.,I.C.Jarvie,et.al.(1996).ChildrenandtheMovies:MediaInfluenceandthe
PayneFundControversy.Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.
Pasquier,Dominqiue.1999.Laculturedessentiments:Lexpriencetlvisuelledes
adolescents.Paris:ditionsdelaMaisondessciencesdelhomme.
Penley,Constance.1997.NASA/TREK:PopularScienceandSexinAmerica.NewYorkand
London:Verso.
Vianna,Hermano.1988.OMundoFunkCarioca.RiodeJaneiro:JorgeZaharEditor.

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